title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Under Collins' supervision, the Free State rapidly took control of the capital. In July 1922, anti-Treaty forces held the southern province of Munster and several other areas of the country. De Valera and the other anti-Treaty TDs supported the anti-Treaty IRA.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: By mid-1922, Collins no longer really worked as Chairman of the Provisional Government. He became the Commander-in-Chief of the National Army, a formal uniformed army that formed around the pro-Treaty IRA.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Collins, along with Richard Mulcahy and Eoin O'Duffy decided on a series of seaborne landings into republican held areas. They re-took Munster and the west in July–August 1922. As part of this offensive, Collins travelled to his native Cork. This was against the advice of his companions, and despite suffering from stomach ache and depression. Collins is said to have told his comrades that "They wouldn't shoot me in my own county".


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: He recorded his plan for peace in his diary: Republicans must "accept the People's Verdict" on the Treaty, but could then "go home without their arms ("guns"). We don't ask for any surrender of their principles". "We want to avoid any possible unnecessary destruction and loss of life." But if Republicans did not accept his terms, "further blood is on their shoulders".


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: On the road to Bandon, at the village of "Béal na mBláth" (Irish, "the Mouth of Flowers"), Collins stopped to ask directions. However the man whom they asked, Dinny Long, was also a member of the local Anti-Treaty IRA. An ambush was then prepared for the convoy when it made its journey back to Cork city. They knew Collins would return by the same road as the two other roads from Bandon to Cork were destroyed by Republicans. The ambush party, commanded by Liam Deasy, opened fire on Collins' convoy.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Collins was killed in the gun battle, which lasted about 20 minutes, from 8:00 p.m. to 8:20 p.m. He was the only fatality. He had ordered his convoy to stop and return fire, instead of choosing the safer option of driving on in his touring car or transferring to the safety of the accompanying armoured car, as his companion, Emmet Dalton, had wished. They do not know who fired the fatal shot.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Collins' men brought his body back to Cork where it was then shipped to Dublin because it was feared the body might be stolen in an ambush if it were transported by road. His body lay in state for three days in Dublin City Hall where tens of thousands of mourners walked past his coffin to pay their respects. His funeral mass took place at Dublin's Pro Cathedral where a number of foreign and Irish dignitaries were in attendance. Some 500,000 people attended his funeral, almost one fifth of the country's population.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: "I can't see my way to becoming Patron of the Michael Collins Foundation. It is my considered opinion that in the fullness of time history will record the greatness of Collins and it will be recorded at my expense"


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: An annual commemoration ceremony takes place each year in August at the ambush site at Béal na mBláth, Cork.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: The Collins 22 Society established in 2002 is an international organisation dedicated to keeping the name and legacy of Michael Collins in living memory. The patron of the society is Nora Owen, grand-niece of Michael Collins.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: The 1936 movie "Beloved Enemy", starring David Niven, is a fictionalised account of Collins' life. Unlike the real Michael Collins, the fictionalised "Dennis Riordan" (played by Brian Aherne) is shot, but recovers. "Hang Up Your Brightest Colours", a British documentary by Kenneth Griffith, was made for ITV in 1973, but refused transmission. It was eventually screened by the BBC in Wales in 1993 and across the United Kingdom the following year.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: An Irish documentary made by Colm Connolly for RTE Television in 1989 called "The Shadow of Béal na Bláth" covered Collins' death. A made for TV film, "The Treaty", was produced in 1991 and starred Brendan Gleeson as Collins and Ian Bannen as David Lloyd George. In 2007 RTE produced a documentary entitled "Get Collins", centered around the intelligence war which took place in Dublin.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Collins was the subject of director Neil Jordan's 1996 film "Michael Collins", with Liam Neeson in the title role.


title: Postmodernism

text: Postmodernism is a way of thinking about culture, philosophy, art and many other things. The term has been used in many different ways at different times, but there are some things in common.


title: Postmodernism

text: Postmodernism says that there is no real truth. It says that knowledge is always made or invented and not discovered. Because knowledge is made by people, a person cannot know something for sure - all ideas and facts are 'believed' instead of 'known'. People believe that they know what the truth is, but they will think that the truth is something different later. This is the opposite of 'objectivity', which says that the truth is always there and people have to discover it.


title: Postmodernism

text: Since postmodernism says that the truth is just a thing that people invent, people can believe different things and think it is the truth and all be right. Postmodernism says that one person should not try to make another person believe what he believes, because it means nothing to say that one belief is right and the other is wrong. Postmodernism says that if somebody has a belief and tries to make somebody else believe it also, it means that they are just trying to have power over them.


title: Postmodernism

text: Starting with the 18th century Enlightenment and into the early 20th century, many people believed that science and new knowledge would make the world better. When scientists or philosophers discovered something new, it would always make society a little bit better. They thought that social progress could not be stopped. Modernism especially believed this. But postmodernism says that there is no real social progress. It says that while some things about the world change, people only want to believe that the world is better than it was. It changes but does not get better, because there is no 'better.'


title: Postmodernism

text: Postmodernism says that since peoples' opinions change, and since one person's opinion cannot be more right than another, it means nothing to say that (for example) one work of art is better than any other. Postmodernism says that art, music, and literature, for example, can be anything that its maker says that it is. Postmodern art and literature commonly talk about themselves and make fun of themselves. They make fun of 'serious' art and even the idea of art. Postmodernism has influenced many cultural fields, including literary criticism, philosophy, sociology, linguistics, architecture, visual arts, and music.


title: Postmodernism

text: The term postmodernism was first commonly used in 1949 to talk about modern architecture. Many people did not like modern architecture because it had too many box-like shapes and people did not think it was pretty. Some of them started the postmodern architecture movement. Postmodern architecture uses surface ornament, historical reference, and less box-like shapes.


title: Postmodernism

text: Postmodernist ideas can be seen in philosophy, the study of culture and society, literature, architecture, design, as well as in history and law. Postmodernism also led people to think differently about love, marriage, popular culture, and the change in much of the Western world from an industrial to service economy.


title: Postmodernism

text: The term "postmodernity" usually means the period of time when postmodern ideas became common (the second half of the 20th century). Some experts think that postmodernism is now over, especially in literature.


title: Postmodernism

text: The term "Postmodernism" is often used to refer to different, sometimes contradictory (they cannot both be right) concepts. Common definitions are:


title: Postmodernism

text: Because the term postmodernism can be used to talk about so many different things and can mean many different things, some people say that it is only a buzzword that means nothing. Dick Hebdige, in his book ‘Hiding in the Light’, writes:


title: Postmodernism

text: "When it becomes possible for a people to describe as ‘postmodern’ the décor of a room, the design of a building, the diegesis of a film, the construction of a record, or a ‘scratch’ video, a television commercial, or an arts documentary, or the ‘intertextual’ relations between them, the layout of a page in a fashion magazine or critical journal, an anti-teleological tendency within epistemology, the attack on the ‘metaphysics of presence’, a general attenuation of feeling, the collective chagrin and morbid projections of a post-War generation of baby boomers confronting disillusioned middle-age, the ‘predicament’ of reflexivity, a group of rhetorical tropes, a proliferation of surfaces, a new phase in commodity fetishism, a fascination for images, codes and styles, a process of cultural, political or existential fragmentation and/or crisis, the ‘de-centring’ of the subject, an ‘incredulity towards metanarratives’, the replacement of unitary power axes by a plurality of power/discourse formations, the ‘implosion of meaning’, the collapse of cultural hierarchies, the dread engendered by the threat of nuclear self-destruction, the decline of the university, the functioning and effects of the new miniaturised technologies, broad societal and economic shifts into a ‘media’, ‘consumer’ or ‘multinational’ phase, a sense (depending on who you read) of ‘placelessness’ or the abandonment of placelessness (‘critical regionalism’) or (even) a generalised substitution of spatial for temporal coordinates - when it becomes possible to describe all these things as ‘Postmodern’ (or more simply using a current abbreviation as ‘post’ or ‘very post’) then it’s clear we are in the presence of a buzzword".


title: Postmodernism

text: British historian Perry Anderson says that postmodernism is an important concept and is important for the study of contemporary (current) culture.


title: Postmodernism

text: Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida are sometimes said to be the philosophers of Postmodernism even though neither of them used the word Postmodern to describe themselves. (Derrida used the word deconstruction instead).


title: Polysexuality

text: Polysexuality is a sexual orientation in which the person feels or experiences attraction to many, but not necessarily all genders. Polysexuality, not to be confused with pansexuality or omnisexuality, is under what some people would call the bisexuality umbrella, sometimes seen as non-monosexual spectrum.


title: Badshahi Mosque

text: The Badshahi Mosque (), or the 'Emperor's Mosque', is a mosque in Pakistan. It was built in 1673 by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in Lahore, Pakistan, near the Minar-e-Pakistan. It is one of the most famous historical places in Pakistan. It is one of the city's best known landmarks, and a major tourist attraction epitomising the beauty and grandeur of the Mughal It has four minarets. Two are minor and two are major.


title: Chemical reaction

text: A chemical reaction happens when one or more chemicals are changed into one or more other chemicals. Examples:


title: Chemical reaction

text: Some reactions are fast, and others are slow. Some happen at different speeds, depending on temperature or other things. For example, wood does not react with air when it is cold, but if it is made hot enough, it will start to burn. Some reactions give out energy. These are exothermic reactions. In other reactions, energy is taken in. These are endothermic reactions.


title: Chemical reaction

text: Nuclear reactions are "not" chemical reactions. Chemical reactions involve only the electrons of atoms; nuclear reactions involve the protons and neutrons in the atomic nuclei.


title: Chemical reaction

text: "Two or more reactants giving one product" is another way to identify a synthesis reaction. One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron(II) sulfide:


title: Chemical reaction

text: Another example is simple hydrogen gas combined with simple oxygen gas to produce a more complex substance, such as water.


title: Chemical reaction

text: A decomposition reaction is when a more complex substance breaks down into its more simple parts. It is thus the opposite of a synthesis reaction, and can be written as:


title: Chemical reaction

text: One example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas:


title: Chemical reaction

text: Another example of a decomposition reaction is calcium carbonate breaking down into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide under high temperatures:


title: Chemical reaction

text: In a single replacement reaction, a single uncombined element replaces another in a compound; in other words, one element trades places with another element in a compound These reactions come in the general form of:


title: Chemical reaction

text: One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas:


title: Chemical reaction

text: In a double replacement reaction, the anions and cations of two compounds switch places and form two entirely different compounds. These reactions are in the general form:


title: Chemical reaction

text: For example, when barium chloride (BaCl) and magnesium sulfate (MgSO) react, the SO anion switches places with the 2Cl anion, giving the compounds BaSO and MgCl.


title: Chemical reaction

text: Another example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead(II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead(II) iodide and potassium nitrate:


title: Myanmar

text: Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia. Its full name is the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. It used to be called Burma. Myanmar is a country in Southeast Asia that is not an island. It is also part of South Asia.


title: Myanmar

text: It is bordered by China on the north, Laos on the east, Thailand on the southeast, Bangladesh on the west, and India on the northwest, with the Andaman Sea to the south, and the Bay of Bengal to the southwest. There are over of coastline.


title: Myanmar

text: The country was ruled by a military junta led by General Ne Win from 1962 to 1988. Its political system today stays under the tight control of its military government. In 1991, Senior General Than Shwe began ruling the country. In 2011 Thein Sein was elected as a first president of the civilian government. In 2016 Htin Kyaw became the second elected civilian leader. Aung San Suu Kyi, who is prevented from becoming president by the constitution of Myanmar, will act as an advisor to Kyaw.


title: Myanmar

text: In 1989, the military junta officially changed the English version of its name from "Burma" to "Myanmar". It also made a new name in English for places in the country, such as its former capital city, from "Rangoon" to Yangon. The official name of the country in the Burmese language, "Myanmar" did not change, however. The renaming was controversial, seen by some as linguistically bad. Accepting the name change in the English-speaking world has been slow, with many people still using the name "Burma" to refer to the country. Major news organizations like the BBC still call it Burma. Some question the military junta's authority to "officially" change the name in English in the first place. Aung San Suu Kyi, however, calls the country Myanmar now.


title: Myanmar

text: Myanmar had a strong kingdom in ancient times, but the nation was taken over by the British in the 1800s. It was occupied by the Empire of Japan in the 1940s. Myanmar became independent in 1948 as the Union of Burma, and had a democratic government at first. However, in 1962, a coup d'état brought the military into power, where it has been ever since. The founder of modern Myanmar, Aung San was assassinated months before independence. His daughter Aung San Suu Kyi was placed under house arrest many times for leading the democracy movement.


title: Myanmar

text: In 1991, the military junta agreed to democratic elections, which were won by the National League for Democracy, and should have made Aung San Suu Kyi the Prime Minister. However, the dictatorship ignored the results of the elections and continued ruling. In November 2005, the military government stated that the national capital would be moved from Yangon to a location near Pyinmana, which was renamed Naypyidaw in March 2006.


title: Myanmar

text: Since independence in 1948 and the assassination of Aung San, Burma has had civil wars between its governments and minority ethnic groups like the Kachin, Karen, Shan and others. These conflicts are known as the Internal conflict in Burma.


title: Cactus

text: A cactus is a kind of a plant adapted to hot, dry climates. Plants which live this kind of life-style are called xerophytes. Most are succulents, which store water.


title: Cactus

text: Cacti are members of the plant family Cactaceae, in the order Caryophyllales. There are about 127 genera, with over 1750 known species. "Almost all of them are native to the Americas", from Patagonia in the south to parts of western Canada in the north. The species "Rhipsalis baccifera" also grows in Africa and Sri Lanka.


title: Cactus

text: Theophrastus was the first to use the word "cactus": It comes from Ancient Greek . Theophrastus used it for a spiny plant whose identity is not known for sure. Cacti are part of an important food chain in dry, hot climates. Now cacti have spread to many other parts of the world, and many people like to grow them in pots or gardens.


title: Cactus

text: Many cacti live in dry places, such as deserts. Most cacti have sharp thorns (stickers) and thick skin. There are many shapes and sizes of cacti. Some are short and round; others are tall and thin. Many cactus flowers are big and beautiful. Some bloom at night and are pollinated by moths and bats. Some cactus fruits are brightly coloured and good to eat: many animals eat cactus fruits.


title: Cactus

text: An adaptation is anything that helps a living thing survive and make more of its own kind. Cacti have many adaptations for living in places that are sometimes dry for a long time. At other times these places can get lots of rain.


title: Cactus

text: Cacti can have many small, thin roots near the top of the soil. These roots take in water quickly after a rain. The same cactus may have one long, thick root called a taproot. The taproot grows deep in the soil. It can reach water when the soil on top is dry.


title: Cactus

text: Cacti store water in thick stems. The stems are covered with tough skin, and the skin is covered with wax. The thick waxy skin slows down loss of water. The leaves of cacti are sharp spines (thorns, stickers). Many animals want the water inside the cactus, but the sharp spines and thick skin protect the cactus.


title: Cactus

text: Cacti are commonly grown as houseplants. They are pretty and easy to grow. Some cacti are grown in gardens, especially in dry areas. Cactus can be used as a living fence. The wood of dead cactus is sometimes used for houses


title: Cactus

text: People eat the fruit of some kinds of cactus, such as dragonfruit and prickly pear. "Dactylopius coccus" is a scale insect from which cochineal dye is got. This insect lives on cacti from the genus "Opuntia", feeding on moisture and nutrients in the cactus sap. The insect produces carminic acid, which deters predation by other insects. The carminic acid can be extracted from the insect's body and eggs to make the red dye.


title: Cactus

text: The ancient Aztecs of North America held cactus to be very important. Cactus can be found in many of their sculptures and drawings. The national coat of arms of Mexico shows an eagle, a snake, and cactus.


title: Cactus

text: Christopher Columbus brought the first cactus to Europe. Scientists and gardeners became very interested in cactus.


title: Cactus

text: Prickly pear was taken to Australia in the 19th century for use as a natural fence and for use in the cochineal industry. The cactus spread out of control, but was controlled by the larva of a South American moth.


title: Cactus

text: From the start of the 20th century interest in cactus has grown. Every year, scientists discover new kinds of cactus. A bad effect of this has been the digging up of many cacti from the wild, making some kinds endangered.


title: Cactus

text: A cactus does not have leaves because it lives in dry places. Leaves transpire, and this can waste water. So, the cactus saves water by having no leaves. The green parts of the cactus are actually its stems. Because the stems are green, they do the photosynthesis for the cactus. They also grow prickly needles to protect the cactus from animals that want to eat it.


title: J-Hope

text: J-Hope released his first solo mixtape, "Hope World", March 1, 2018. A lot of people liked the album. His debut at number 63 (and subsequent peak at number 38) made him the highest charting solo Korean artist on the "Billboard" 200 at the time of the mixtape's release. In September 27, 2019, he released his song ”Chicken Noodle Soup” featuring Becky G.J-Hope released his first studio album, " Jack In The Box " , July 15, 2022, and the most biggest album on iTunes.


title: J-Hope

text: His stage name, "J-Hope (제이홉)" (transliteration: "Jeihop"), comes from his desire to represent hope for fans, as well as to be "the hope of BTS."


title: J-Hope

text: It is also a reference to the Greek myth of Pandora's box, as after the box was opened and all the evils inside were released to the world, the only thing left at the bottom was hope.


title: J-Hope

text: On February 18, 2019, J-Hope donated 100 million Korean won (US$89,000) to Child Fund Korea, in support of those attending his high school alma mater in Gwangju. He had previously donated 150 million won (about US$133,000) to the same organization in December 2018, but requested the donation be private at the time.


title: Frequency

text: In physics, the frequency of a wave is the number of wave crests that pass a point in one second (a wave crest is the peak of the wave).


title: Frequency

text: where v is speed and formula_2 (lambda) is wavelength. The formula for the frequency of light waves is formula_3 where the c is the speed of light.


title: Frequency

text: All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum but they travel at slower speeds when they travel through a medium that is not a vacuum. Other waves, such as sound waves, travel at much much lower speeds and can not travel through a vacuum.


title: Frequency

text: Examples of electromagnetic waves are: light waves, radio waves, infrared radiation, microwaves, and gamma waves.


title: Frequency

text: One way to visualize this is if there were two trains traveling at the same speed, but the size of the train cars was smaller on one train than the other. If someone picked something that was not moving, like a signpost, and then counted how many train cars passed the sign post in one second for each train, they would know the frequency of cars passing in each train. The number and frequency of train cars passing the sign post would be different, because the train with smaller train cars would have more train cars passing the sign post in a second than the train with larger train cars. Knowing how many cars passed the sign post in one second, and knowing the speed of the train, one could figure out mathematically the size of each train car for each train.


title: Frequency

text: For example, if the train was moving at 10 miles per second, and 10 train cars passed in one second, then each train car would be 1 mile long. If the other train was also moving at 10 miles per second and 20 train cars passed in one second, then one would know that each train car was 1/2 of a mile long for that train. This example shows that knowing the frequency of an electromagnetic wave gives you the wavelength, since all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light so that c = v (lambda) where v is frequency and lambda is wavelength, and c is the speed of light. Therefore, another way of expressing frequency is to say "frequency is c over lambda."


title: Artist

text: An artist is a person who creates art. This word is used most often for person and activities of 'high culture'. That is for example drawing, painting, sculpture, acting, dancing, writing, filmmaking, photography, and music. Sometimes a person who is very good at their job is called an artist, even if it is not considered as art. A scientist or mathematician can be called an artist.


title: Artist

text: In ancient Greece there was the word "Techne" which is often translated as art. From this word comes "technical" and America is now the root of words such as technical, technology, etc. The seven muses were the gods of artists in the seven fields of human excellence: • Epic and lyric • History • Choral singing and poetry of love • Music • Tragedy • Religious Hymns • Gay poetry, poetry and rustic comedy • Dance • Astronomy and Geometry.


title: Artist

text: The word comes from Latin art "ars", that literally means skill method or technique, combined with the beauty of the objects produced. In the Middle Ages already existed the word artist, although its meaning is closer to what we now call the craftsman.


title: Artist

text: Concept art expresses a series of creations, called classical arts (painting, sculpture, literature, dance, music, architecture and cinema). However, considering someone as an artist is not limited to a series of works or concrete creations.


title: Artist

text: An artist is a person exercising the arts and produce artistic works. The artist is someone who has a special sensitivity to create a work or activity. There is no specific classification of what are an artist's own activities .In any case, the concept artist implies knowledge of art and at the same time, is a craft that can be professional but not necessarily. The artist seeks to create an object or activity that has a component of beauty. Very beautiful is one aspect cherished by the creators, but not only that. It also seeks to communicate feelings and ideas and form their own world.


title: Artist

text: An artist is a person able to put their point of view, their way of seeing the world and feel things on a canvas, a sheet or paper. An artist is a dreamer, is a poet, he is a speaker, is someone provided with sensibility sufficient or necessary to make us see things through their eyes.


title: Soldier

text: A soldier is a person who is a part of an army. A soldier can be forced to join the army or volunteer to join.


title: Soldier

text: There are many different types of soldiers: troopers, tankers, commandos, dragoons, infantrymen, guardians, artillerymen, paratroopers, grenadiers, rangers, snipers, engineers, sappers, craftsmen, signallers, medics, and gunners.


title: Soldier

text: In many countries there are soldiers that have special names for other reasons. For example, military police personnel in the British Army are called "red caps" because their caps are red.


title: Flowering plant

text: They differ from the gymnosperms in that angiosperms have flowers, and have enclosed ovules. Gymnosperms have naked seeds on cones or open structures.


title: Flowering plant

text: Angiosperms have a number of derived characters, which evolved as they split off from the gymnosperms.


title: Flowering plant

text: Flowers, the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature distinguishing them from other seed plants. Flowers, with their colour and their nectar, attract pollinators, which are mostly insects and birds. 95% of flowering plants in tropical lowlands rely on animals for pollination or dispersal of seeds.


title: Flowering plant

text: Gymnosperms are almost entirely wind-pollinated, but early flowers were probably all insect-pollinated. Some present-day flowering plants are wind-pollinated, but that is a secondary feature.


title: Flowering plant

text: The fertilized angiosperm ovule develops into a seed, and the ovary develops into the fruit. The fruit is often a way to use animals to spread the seeds far and wide. The fruit is made out of the carpel and some tissue round it. The carpel carries structures called ovules, inside which egg cells form.


title: Flowering plant

text: In general, endosperms form after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling when it first appears.


title: Flowering plant

text: Specialised sexual parts have led to co-evolution in fertilization and seed dispersal. The stamens, and the male and female gametophytes, have been adapted in many ways to suit particular pollinators. The smaller pollen grain shortens the time between pollination and fertilization, which can be up to a year in gymnosperms. The small female gametophyte also allows rapid seed production, which led to annual herbaceous life-cycles.


title: Flowering plant

text: Adaptations in these novelties allowed angiosperms to invade many habitats. They now dominate everywhere except the boreal forest or taiga, which is still composed almost entirely of gymnosperms, usually pines.


title: Flowering plant

text: Molecular evidence indicates that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms during the late Devonian, about 365 million years ago. They did not appear in the fossil record until the Mesozoic, almost two hundred million years later.


title: Flowering plant

text: A whole genome duplication (doubling) at 160 million years ago (mya) may have started the ancestral line that led to all modern flowering plants. That event was studied by sequencing the genome of an ancient flowering plant, "Amborella trichopoda". "Amborella", found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants. Studies suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants.


title: Flowering plant

text: The earliest known fossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, "Archaefructus liaoningensis", is dated to about 125 mya in the Lower Cretaceous. Pollen probably of angiosperm origin takes the fossil record back to about 130 mya.


title: Flowering plant

text: The territory is pretty much covered by three groups: the Magnoliids, the Monocots and the Eudicots. The Eudicots outnumber all other groups put together. However, grasses are the food of most herbivores today. Their spread in the later Miocene was the cause of the extinction of most browsers and their replacement by grazers.


title: Paracetamol

text: Paracetamol (or acetaminophen) is a common analgesic, a drug that is used to relieve pain. It can also be used to reduce fever, and some kinds of headache. This makes it an antipyretic, something that reduces fevers. It is used in many drugs that treat the flu and colds.


title: Paracetamol

text: The words "acetaminophen" and "paracetamol" both come from the names of the chemicals used in the compound: N-acetyl-para-aminophenol and para-acetyl-amino-phenol. Sometimes, it is shortened to APAP, for N-acetyl-para-aminophenol.


title: Paracetamol

text: Harmon Northrop Morse was the first to make Paracetamol, in the year 1878. Drugs made with Paracetamol became common in the 1950s. Today, these drugs are some of the most used, together with those containing salicylic acid or Ibuprofen. In the year 1977, Paracetamol was put on the List of Essential Medicines of the WHO.


title: Paracetamol

text: Paracetamol is considered safe for use. The drug is easily available without a prescription. People often take too much Paracetamol. Sometimes this is because people do not know how much they should take. The recommended dose may not work for some individuals. Other times it is because they are trying to commit suicide. Very often, a person's liver can be hurt when they take too much Paracetamol. A dose of 150 milligrams for every kilogram of the person's weight (about 10 grams for most adults) will lead to permanent liver damage, and may cause the liver to fail. For people whose livers have already been damaged, such as alcoholics, and for those with a limited secretion of Paracetamol, this amount can be much smaller.==


title: Paracetamol

text: In England and Wales, about 30.000 people per year go to the hospital after taking too much paracetamol (called paracetamol poisoning), and about 150 die of the poisoning. Since a law was passed saying that Paracetamol packets cannot be too large, fewer people have been committing suicide with Paracetamol. In Great Britain and the United States Paracetamol is the main reason for acute liver failure. About half of the cases are because of an 'unintentional overdose'.


title: Markhor

text: The markhor ("Capra falconeri") is a large goat. It is found in woodland in Central Asia, Karakoram and the Western Himalayas, this is the National Animal of Pakistan.


title: Markhor

text: Markhor are 65 to 115 centimetres tall at the shoulder. They usually weigh from 40 to 110 kilograms. Females are a tan colour with a white underbelly and a pattern of black and white on the legs. Males are a lighter tan colour with the same white underbelly and pattern on the legs. Males also have a black face and lots of long white fur on their neck and chest which can grow down to their knees. Both males and females have corkscrew-shaped horns which can grow up to 160 cm / 64 inches long in males, and up to 25 cm / 10 inches in females.


title: Markhor

text: Markhor live in places 500 to 3500 metres (1,500 to 11,000 feet) high, where they eat grass, leaves. Markhor often stand on their back legs to reach the top leaves of trees. Markhor are active (move around more) in the early morning and late afternoon. Females gather in herds (groups) of up to nine animals. Males usually live alone.


title: Markhor

text: The markhor is the National animal of Pakistan. The word "Markhor" is Persian for "Snake Eater". They live in Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Indian occupied Kashmir's Kashmir Valley. In Pakistan, they live in the Chitral, Ghizar and Hunza regions. There are fewer markhor left because human beings take livestock to eat grass in the places where the markhor lives. Other people have killed the markhor for its horns. As of 2012, the IUCN said there were probably 2,500 markhor left in the wild.


title: Plebiscite

text: A plebiscite or referendum is a type of voting, or of proposing laws. Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country. Others define it as the opposite. Australia defines 'referendum' as a vote to change the constitution and 'plebiscite' as a vote that does not affect the constitution.


title: Plebiscite

text: It usually depends on the country's history and constitution what sort of referendum/plebiscite is used. In Switzerland a referendum is usually mandatory, because the people are seen as the source of the government's mandate (power) to govern. For example, during Switzerland's basic income campaign the country utilized a national referendum for the polling.


title: Plebiscite

text: In the United Kingdom referendums have only been advisory, because the government says that the people elected to Parliament make the decisions. The referendum on the independence of Scotland was an exception. It "was" legally binding, but it was not a referendum of the UK electorate. It was restricted to present residents of Scotland.


title: Plebiscite

text: An example of a proposed plebiscite was the 2011 decision by Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou to let the Greek people vote on whether the heavily indebted nation would accept a €130 billion bailout package from the European Union. The idea shocked eurozone nations, as a "no" vote could mean Greece defaulting on its national debt, and leaving the European Union and the eurozone. However, the vote was cancelled.


title: Plebiscite

text: Another example was the voting on the European Constitution in 2005. The vote took place in some countries. France and The Netherlands had a "referendum" on the subject. In both states, the voters said no to the proposal and no constitution was made.


title: Plebiscite

text: The separate simultaneous referendums held on 24 April 2004 in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus on the comprehensive settlement plan of the UN Secretary-General provides yet another example of such a vote. The Plan was approved in the Turkish Cypriot referendum by 65%, while it was rejected in the Greek Cypriot referendum by 75%.


title: Plebiscite

text: Many political problems can be solved by asking the people their opinion because the supporters of the argument will be forced to accept the decision of the people. However:


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan (officially called Kingdom of Bhutan) is a small landlocked country in the Himalaya mountains of South Asia. It is ruled by King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, who has been king since 2006. Bhutan was founded in 1644 by Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyel. The Bhutanese people are proud that they have always been an independent country. Bhutan's capital city is Thimphu. The official language is Dzongkha.


title: Bhutan

text: About 700,000 people live in Bhutan. The people and government of Bhutan are proud of their culture which is based on Tibetan Buddhism. 97% of Bhutan's people are Buddhist.


title: Bhutan

text: Until 1974, Bhutan was closed to the outside world. Now people can visit the country, but only in small numbers. The only airport is in Paro District. The country is bordered on the south by the Republic of India and on the north by China. The Indian state of Sikkim separates Bhutan and Nepal. The main export of Bhutan is hydroelectricity which is sold to India. The economy of Bhutan is very small but is growing quickly. The currency is the Ngultrum, which is pegged at par with the Indian rupee.


title: Bhutan

text: The Royal Bhutan Army is Bhutan's military service. It includes the Royal Bodyguard and the Royal Bhutan Police. Membership is voluntary, and the minimum age for recruitment is 18. The standing army numbers about 16,000 and is trained by the Indian Army. Being a landlocked country, Bhutan has no navy. It also has no air force or army aviation corps. The Army relies on Eastern Air Command of the Indian Air Force for air assistance.


title: Bhutan

text: More than 770 species of bird and 5,400 species of plants are known to occur throughout the kingdom. Bhutan has a rich primate life with rare species such as the golden langur.


title: Bhutan

text: Bhutan's national sport is archery. Competitions are held regularly in most villages. Cricket has gained popularity in Bhutan, particularly since the introduction of television channels from India. The Bhutan national cricket team is one of the more successful affiliate nations in the region. Football is also an increasingly popular sport.


title: Skiing

text: Skiing is either sportive or recreational activity using "skis" for sliding over snow. Skis are used with special boots connected to them with a "binding". There are two different types of skiing: downhill skiing and cross country skiing.


title: Skiing

text: Downhill skiing is a sport. Skiers ski down a trail (also called a "run") on the side of a mountain or hill. Each trail is marked with a sign that shows how difficult that particular run will be. Three different colors are used to rate the difficulty of the trail. They are: green, blue, and black. Green trails are easiest, blue trails are more difficult, and black trails are rated most difficult. The colors which represent a trail will also be seen in a shape.


title: Skiing

text: Trail ratings are often relative to the rest of the terrain at the ski resort- for example, the difficulty of a black diamond trail at a small ski area may be a rated as a blue square at a bigger resort with harder trails.


title: Skiing

text: Cross country skiing is a sport of endurance. Skiers ski anywhere where there is snow. This is usually through a scenic forest or town.


title: Skiing

text: Alpine skiing is a contest of speed. Racers go through the course with red and blue gates and go down to the goal as fast as they can. There are four disciplines in alpine skiing: downhill, super giant slalom, giant slalom and slalom.


title: Skiing

text: A ski gate is two sticks on a skiing race course that a skier needs to pass between. Ski gates are used in alpine skiing in downhill, Slalom, Giant Slalom and Super-G races. Downhill races have not many ski gates so skiers can be safe when they are going very fast. If a skier does not go between a ski gate, the judges say they are removed from the race. First in the 1980s and now a lot of the time, ski gates have hinges near the snow. Some ski gates have flags at the top of the stick.


title: Liechtenstein

text: Liechtenstein is a country in Western Europe. It is the sixth smallest country in the world and, with Uzbekistan, one of only two doubly landlocked countries. This means that it is landlocked by landlocked countries. Liechtenstein is between Austria and Switzerland.


title: Liechtenstein

text: Liechtenstein was linked with Austria until the end of World War I, after which it became linked with Switzerland in a customs union.


title: Liechtenstein

text: The capital of Liechtenstein is Vaduz, a very small town of 5,000 people. Liechtenstein is famous for its many private banks.


title: Magenta

text: Magenta is a color that is usually pinkish-purplish-red. The technical answer is that magenta is the concentrated form of pink or purple. Sometimes it is confused with pink or purple. In terms of the HSV (RGB) color wheel, the hue is the same for both pink and magenta; only the saturation and value differ. Another name for "magenta" is fuchsia, named after the fuchsia flower.


title: Magenta

text: This colour is one of the three colours of ink used by an inkjet printer, along with cyan and yellow. The tone of magenta used in printing is called "printer's magenta" (Magenta (CMYK)) and it is shown in the colour chart below.


title: Magenta

text: Although magenta and fuchsia are the same colour, the chart below (the colors displayed on which are also shown in the magenta colour chart above) shows those tones of magenta which are specifically named fuchsia.


title: Magenta

text: If the visible spectrum is wrapped to form a color wheel, magenta (additive secondary) appears midway between red and violet:


title: Ecosystem

text: An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a large community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in a particular area. The living and physical components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. Ecosystems are of any size, but usually they are in particular places.


title: Ecosystem

text: Each ecosystem has its own community. An aquarium community, for example, can have small fish and other organisms. A desert community may have cacti, small snakes, and scorpions. A pond community can have frogs, insects, snakes, and plants, and a forest community may have rabbits, foxes and pine trees. The species in a community are divided into populations according to the particular habitats and ecological niches in the ecosystem.


title: Ecosystem

text: Ecosystems are stable, but changeable. They react to major changes in the environment, especially climate changes. For example, the major rainforests have lasted for a long time (perhaps 50 million years or more in some cases). As the rainfall and temperature changes, they change. We know that the Amazon rainforest shrank in size during ice ages, and expanded in the warmer periods.


title: Ecosystem

text: What drives all ecosystems is the primary production. Primary production is the production of organic matter from inorganic carbon sources. This happens through photosynthesis. It drives the carbon cycle, which influences global climate via the greenhouse effect.


title: Ecosystem

text: Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture energy from sunlight and use it to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. The photosynthesis carried out by all the plants in an ecosystem is called the gross primary production (GPP). About 48–60% of the GPP is consumed in plant respiration. The rest is known as the net primary production (NPP). Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These include the amount of light available, the amount of leaf area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants limits photosynthesis), the supply of carbon dioxide and water, and suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis.


title: Populism

text: Populism is a name for a kind of political movement. Populists usually try to make a difference between common people and "elites" (meaning usually, top classes of people) . Populists may think of wealthy people or well-educated people as belonging to the class of elites. Populists may also call those who have been working in government for a long time "establishment" and count them as elites too. A theme of populism is that the common people lack certain privileges that the elites have, or that commoners cannot do certain things the elites can do. The populists see themselves on the side of the common people. They want to help the common people get some of the rights and privileges of the elites.


title: Kiwifruit

text: Kiwifruit ("Actinidia deliciosa") is a fruit. It has an oval shape. It is green on the inside with small black seeds that can be eaten. The kiwi has thin, fuzzy brown skin that is edible, but is usually removed. It natively grows in South China.


title: Kiwifruit

text: The fruit was named in 1959 after the kiwi, a bird and the symbol of New Zealand. Before that, its English name was Chinese gooseberry.


title: Kiwifruit

text: The kiwifruit is healthy and contains many vitamins and minerals. Kiwis are rich in vitamin C, vitamin K, potassium, and fiber. Kiwis have more vitamin C than an equivalent amount of orange.


title: Kiwifruit

text: There are different types of kiwifruit. The main types are Hayward (the most common green kiwifruit), chico, Saanichton 12, and golden kiwifruit. Golden kiwifruit are sweeter than normal green kiwifruit. Golden kiwifruit was invented by grafting and cross-pollinating different types of kiwifruit.


title: Kiwifruit

text: Kiwi fruit is the edible berry of a woody vine which can reach 18 to 24 feet in length. Kiwi Fruit can grow 3.1 inches in length and 2.2 inches in diameter, they have a soft texture, sweet Flavor, and their skin is covered in short stiff brown hairs.


title: Kiwifruit

text: The top 3 producers of kiwi fruit are Italy, New Zealand, and Chile. One medium-sized Kiwi without the skin provides 46 calories, 0.4 grams of fat, 11 grams of carbohydrate, 0.9 grams of protein, 2.3 grams of fiber, and 6.8 Grams of sugar.


title: Kiwifruit

text: Kiwi fruit are high in vitamin C and contain a good amount of vitamin K. Since Kiwi is so high in vitamin C it's an excellent source of antioxidants, which fight free radicals in the Body, it also provides nutrients that protect DNA in the nucleus of cells from oxygen damage.


title: Kiwifruit

text: Kiwi can also help fight against blood clots since it contains vitamin K. It can also help maintain beautiful skin, improve digestion, and help the body's immune system. Kiwi is also a Cheap and healthy snack, one medium fruit usually costs around 89 cents. Consuming 2 kiwi fruit daily would meet and surpass the minimum daily vitamin C recommendation. Some Kiwi facts,


title: Kiwifruit

text: Kiwi was named after its resemblance to the fuzzy brown Kiwi, New Zealand's national bird. Kiwi is often used in DIY face masks because of its contents that fight the aging process.


title: Jainism

text: Jainism is a religion originally from India that teaches that "all the events in the universe are self-caused, random, fixed and are independent of previous events or external causes or god": Jain philosophy is the oldest philosophy of India that distinguishes body (matter) from the soul (awareness) completely. It teaches that the universe is eternal and that every living being has a soul which has the power to become all-knowing (observer of all the random events). A soul which has won over its inner enemies like attachment, greed, pride, etc. is called "jina" which means conqueror or victor (over ignorance). The holy book of Jainism is Pravachansara.


title: Country music

text: Country music (sometimes called Country & Western) is a form of music that has been enjoyed by people all over the United States for decades. Famous singers from this genre include Johnny Cash, Patsy Cline, The Judds, Dolly Parton, Glen Campbell, George Jones and Tammy Wynette, George Strait, Kenny Rogers, Loretta Lynn, Randy Travis, Tanya Tucker, Willie Nelson, Reba McEntire, Garth Brooks, Toby Keith and Hank 3.


title: Country music

text: Country music's strongest appeal is with American rural and small-town populations, but many American cities have a large audience. The music also has listeners in Canada, in England, and worldwide. The popularity of Country comes and goes with each decade. Sometimes a new movie (like "Midnight Cowboy" or "Urban Cowboy"), hit record (like "She Believes In Me" by Kenny Rogers), or new performer (like Randy Travis in the 1980s) raises new interest.


title: Country music

text: Country music has its roots and beginnings in folk music. The old cowboy and pioneer songs of the American frontier were popular in the early twentieth century, and so were arrangements of pop music songs by rural (or rural-sounding) performers. Country musicians also adapted new musical instruments, like the Hawaiian steel guitar.


title: Country music

text: Modern-day Country music started in the years after World War II. The Sons of the Pioneers and The Carter Family performed old and new songs, in a way that reminded people of singalongs and jamborees of the past. Hank Williams is often called the first songwriter of country music. His songs were easy to learn and remember, and their lyrics said things felt by many people. His music is still performed today. Some of the early rock and roll musicians, like Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Elvis Presley, began their career as country performers.


title: Country music

text: Nashville, Tennessee became the center of Country music, much like New Orleans became the center of Jazz. The Grand Ole Opry broadcast performances by The Carter Family and others, and became an important breaking ground in Country music. A television series, "Hee-Haw", was a long-running showcase for Country performers, and was hosted by musicians Buck Owens and Roy Clark. When cable television became popular in the United States, The Nashville Network (TNN) and Country Music Television (CMT) brought Country music videos and related programming to nationwide audiences. (In later years, as interests changed, TNN changed its programming. It also changed names, first to "The National Network", then to Spike TV, which is its name today.) Country music began in the Southern United States at 1920. And Bob Wills had developed the Western Swing.


title: Country music

text: Country-styled comedy is also popular, with writers and performers like Jeff Foxworthy, Bill Engvall, Larry the Cable Guy, and others. Many comedians have appeared with Country acts, including Andy Griffith, Ray Stevens, and George Lindsey. Lindsey, Lulu Roman and Junior Samples were cast members of "Hee-Haw", and so were Grandpa Jones and Minnie Pearl. Homer and Jethro and Pinkard & Bowden were duos of musicians who made parodies of Country and pop songs.


title: Country music

text: "The Beverly Hillbillies", a CBS television series, included music by Flatt and Scruggs. Members of the cast appeared in character at Country concerts, and on other television shows, to entertain audiences.


title: Malaria

text: Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a parasite: it is spread by the bite of an infected mosquito. People catch malaria when the parasite enters the blood. The parasite causes a deadly infection which kills many people each year (from 75 million cases in 1950s to 0.1 million cases in 1960s). However, due to the development of insecticide resistance among mosquitoes and other factors, it staged a comeback in the mid-1970s (6.47 million cases in 1976), and continues to prevail in endemic/subendemic proportions, so that 80% Indian population lives in malaria risk areas.


title: Malaria

text: Malaria is produced by 4 species of the protozoal parasite Plasmodium, is endemic in many tropical countries. It is one of the most common health problems. As per latest WHO estimates (2011)* between 149 and 274 (median 216) million clinical cases and ~ 0.655 million deaths occur globally due to malaria each year, 90% of which are in Africa. This amounts to one malaria death every minute. In India, the National Malaria Eradication Programme (NMEP), started in 1958, achieved near complete disappearance of the disease in 1960s (from 75 million cases in 1950s to 0.1 million cases in 1960s).


title: Malaria

text: The parasite that causes malaria is a protozoan called 'Plasmodium'. Protozoa are organisms with only one cell, but they are not bacteria. Bacteria are smaller and simpler than protozoans.


title: Malaria

text: People usually get malaria from the "Anopheles" or "Culex" mosquitoes : they are the vectors of the disease. The "Plasmodium" gets into people by the bites of mosquitoes. The "Plasmodium" is in the mosquito's special saliva. The mosquito's saliva injects an anticoagulant into the person to prevent their blood from clotting. The person is then infected with "Plasmodium" as a by-product. This makes the person have the disease we call malaria.


title: Malaria

text: Only the female mosquito gives people malaria, because only the female mosquito consumes blood. The male mosquito lives on the nectar of flowers. The female uses blood as a source of protein for its eggs.


title: Malaria

text: Some people do not get malaria from mosquitoes. A baby can get it while inside its mother. This is called "maternal-foetal transmission". People can also get malaria from a blood transfusion. This is when someone gives blood to another person. Another way people can catch malaria is by using a needle that someone with the disease used before them.


title: Malaria

text: "P. vivax" and "P. falciparum" cause the most malaria in people. "Falciparum" malaria is the worst kind, and kills the most people.


title: Malaria

text: When "Plasmodium" enters the blood, they are then called "sporozoites". Sporozoites go to the liver, where they make many more sporozoites. Then they change into a different form of "Plasmodium". This form is the "merozoite". The merozoites go into the red blood cells, then they make many more merozoites.


title: Malaria

text: The merozoites break out of the red blood cells again and again. When they do this, the person gets very sick, and shows symptoms of malaria. This happens every few days, and is called a paroxysm.


title: Malaria

text: "P. vivax" and "P. ovale" can live in the liver for a long time. A person can look well, but still have the "Plasmodium" in the liver. This is called a "dormant phase". Weeks or months later, the "Plasmodium" can leave the liver to the blood, and the person will get sick again.


title: Malaria

text: "P. falciparum" is the most dangerous type of malaria. It makes people sicker than those with other types of malaria, because there are more of them in the blood. Also, with "falciparum" malaria, the red blood cells are sticky. This makes the red blood cells block blood vessels. If blood vessels are blocked, this can hurt what the blood vessel brings blood to, and can hurt people's organs.


title: Malaria

text: Every year, 300 to 700 million people get malaria. It kills 1 million to 2 million people every year. 90% of the deaths occur in Africa. Most of the people who die from malaria are children. Even if children do not die, many have brain damage.


title: Malaria

text: Many of these deaths might be stopped with medicine or mosquito control. But many of the places malaria may be found are in poor countries. These countries do not have enough money to stop the mosquitoes, or to give people medicine. Money, however, is not the only problem. A country must have an organised medical system to provide services. Many countries in central Africa have been disrupted by warfare and conflict between groups, and general unrest. Also, easy solutions to kill the parasites do not exist as they did 50 years ago. This is because the insects are resistant to many insecticides, and the "Plasmodium" parasite is highly resistant to quinine and most other common drugs. This is a normal evolutionary process: the chemicals weed out the non-resistant organisms, and the offspring of the few resistant organisms multiply.


title: Malaria

text: Symptoms are changes in someone's body that are signs for a disease. Most people who get malaria get symptoms 10–30 days after they get infected (the "Plasmodium" gets in their blood.) But some people can get symptoms after only a week, and some may be infected with malaria and not have symptoms for a year.


title: Malaria

text: The most common symptom of malaria is fever, when the body temperature is high. The fever from malaria usually comes very suddenly. The people who have malaria often feel like they had influenza.


title: Malaria

text: Pregnant women and young children have more complications. People who get malaria for the first time have more complications. "Falciparum" malaria has the most complications.


title: Malaria

text: A clinical diagnosis is based on the signs and symptoms of a disease, it is a diagnosis made without medical testing. In the case of malaria one of the main symptoms which may lead to a clinical diagnosis of malaria is a fever.


title: Malaria

text: Any clinical diagnosis of malaria should be confirmed by a trained professional based upon laboratory results as soon as it is possible.


title: Malaria

text: A Malaria rapid diagnostic test is a blood test which can confirm a diagnosis of malaria in about twenty minutes. RDTs are not foolproof and have a number of drawbacks, and as such a negative rapid diagnostic test should not be accepted at face-value and follow-up with malaria microscopy is necessary.


title: Malaria

text: To see if patients have malaria, doctors may do a blood test. This test is called a "Giemsa blood smear". Blood is put on a slide which is a thin piece of glass. The "Giemsa" stain is put on the slide. This stain helps doctors see the malaria. Then they look at the slide under a microscope. The "Plasmodium" is seen in the red blood cells.


title: Malaria

text: People with different kinds of malaria need different medicines. The medicine that works for one kind of malaria may not for another kind. So it is very important to know which species of "Plasmodium" the person has.


title: Malaria

text: If the species is not known, the person should be given medicine and care like they have "falciparum" malaria the worst kind.


title: Malaria

text: It is also important to know "where" the person got malaria. "Plasmodium" in some places is resistant to some medicines. So the medicines to treat malaria in Africa are different from the medicines to treat malaria from South America.


title: Malaria

text: Everywhere except New Guinea, the treatment is the same. In New Guinea most "P. vivax" is resistant to "chloroquine". It can be treated with quinine, but this medicine can make people sick. Everywhere else, non-"falciparum" malaria is treated with chloroquine.


title: Malaria

text: Chloroquine kills the "Plasmodium" in the blood. But the "Plasmodium" in the liver is not killed by chloroquine. "P. vivax" and "P. ovale" both stay in the liver a "long" time. This is the "dormant phase". Another medicine must be given with chloroquine for "P. vivax" and "P. ovale". This is to kill the "Plasmodium" in the liver. The medicine used to kill malaria in the liver is "primaquine". In southeast Asia, some "P. vivax" is resistant to primaquine. Most other places, "primaquine" works very well.


title: Malaria

text: Some people get very sick from "primaquine". So people have to be tested to see if they have G6PD-deficiency before they take "primaquine".


title: Malaria

text: Falciparum is the worst kind of malaria. People with "falciparum" malaria should be treated in a hospital if they are:


title: Malaria

text: Even people who are treated with medicines at home should stay with the doctor for 8 hours. This is to make sure they do not get sicker.It also makes sure they can take the medicines by mouth. Malaria does not start to become a life-threatening disease until it has been a couple of weeks after the bite without being treated.


title: Malaria

text: "Falciparum" malaria also has more resistance to medicines. This makes it much harder to treat. "Falciparum" malaria is always treated with two or more medicines. Doctors choose the medicines by where in the world the person got malaria. Different places have "P. falciparum" that is resistant to different medicines.


title: Malaria

text: The most important resistance is chloroquine-resistance. In some places in the world, "P. falciparum" is killed by chloroquine. In some places it is chloroquine-resistant. This means chloroquine does not kill it. In these places quinine can be used. Quinine is taken by mouth.


title: Malaria

text: "Vector control" is one way to stop malaria. Vector means an organism that carries an infectious disease to another organism. For malaria, the vector is the "Anopheles" mosquito.


title: Malaria

text: The most used method of vector control is pesticides. These are chemicals that kill the mosquito. The first pesticide used for vector control was DDT. DDT worked very well for vector control. It killed mosquitoes. It did not make people very sick at the time it was used. It did not cost very much money. Other chemicals for vector control had not been invented yet.


title: Malaria

text: In many places mosquitoes became resistant to DDT. This meant that DDT did not work anymore in these areas. Scientists worried that DDT was making people and animals sick. It killed a lot of wildlife too. DDT also stays in the environment for a long time. For these reasons, people mostly use other chemicals for vector control. "Organophosphate" or "carbonate" pesticides are used, like "malathion" or "bendiocarb".


title: Malaria

text: Vector control is not the only way to stop malaria. And DDT is not the only chemical that can be used for vector control. The best way to stop malaria is to use a combination of methods. In some places, DDT may be a useful part of a program to stop malaria. This is why DDT is still allowed to be used for controlling malaria.


title: Malaria

text: The mosquito that carries malaria comes more at dawn (when the sun comes up) and dusk (when the sun goes down.) Be most careful at these times. Wear long trousers and shirts with long sleeves. Wear mosquito repellent (this is a chemical that mosquitoes do not like, so they do not bite.) Mosquitoes will bite through thin cloth. So repellent should be used on skin "and clothes".


title: Malaria

text: Pesticides can be used in rooms to kill mosquitoes. When sleeping outside, people use a mosquito net. This is made from cloth that air can go through but keeps mosquitoes out. It is put over a bed where people sleep to keep mosquitoes out. Sometimes people also use it when they are not sleeping. It is best to use mosquito nets that have been treated with Permethrin, which repels and kills mosquitoes.


title: Malaria

text: People can take medicine when they are in a place where there is malaria. This reduces the chances that they contract malaria. This is called "prophylaxis".


title: Malaria

text: Some people take prophylactic medicines for years. Many people in areas where there is malaria do not have the money to buy this medicine.


title: Malaria

text: People who live where there is no malaria usually have "not" had malaria. The first case malaria is usually much worse. So people from places where there is no malaria may take prophylactic medicines when they go to places where there is malaria. The kind of prophylactic medicines people take depends on where they are. This is because not all medicines work on the malaria in every place.


title: Malaria

text: To make them work best, prophylactic medicines have to be taken the right way. The medicine should start "before" going to an area with malaria. Most medicines should be taken for 4 weeks after coming home. One medicine (Malarone) only needs to be used for "one" week after coming home.


title: Malaria

text: There are some children in Tanzania who are naturally immune to malaria. Researchers are using this to develop a new vaccine. U.S. researchers have found the children produce an antibody which attacks the malaria-causing parasite. Injecting a form of this antibody into mice protected the animals from the disease. The researchers plan to do tests on primates, including humans.


title: Malaria

text: It was Britain's Sir Ronald Ross, working in the Presidency General Hospital in the Kolkata, who finally proved in 1898 that malaria is transmitted by "anopheles" mosquitoes. He did this by showing that certain mosquito species transmit malaria to birds. He isolated malaria parasites from the salivary glands of mosquitoes that had fed on infected birds. For this work, Ross received the 1902 Nobel Prize in Medicine. After resigning from the Indian Medical Service, Ross worked at the newly established Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and directed malaria-control efforts in Egypt, Panama, Greece and Mauritius. The findings of Finlay and Ross were later confirmed by a medical board headed by Walter Reed in 1900. Its recommendations were used during construction of the Panama Canal. This public-health work saved the lives of thousands of workers and helped develop the methods used in future public-health campaigns against the disease.


title: Malaria

text: The first effective treatment for malaria came from the bark of cinchona tree, which contains quinine. This tree grows on the slopes of the Andes, mainly in Peru. The indigenous peoples of Peru made a tincture of cinchona to control malaria. The Jesuits noted the efficacy of the practice and introduced the treatment to Europe during the 1640s, where it was rapidly accepted. It was not until 1820 that the active ingredient, quinine, was extracted from the bark, isolated and named by French chemists.


title: Malaria

text: In the early 20th century, before antibiotics became available, Julius Wagner-Jauregg discovered that patients with syphilis could be treated by intentionally infecting them with malaria. The resulting fever would kill the syphilis spirochaetes, and quinine could be administered to control the malaria. Although some patients died from malaria, this was preferable to the almost-certain death from syphilis.


title: Malaria

text: Malaria was the largest hazard encountered by U.S. troops in the South Pacific during World War II, where about 500,000 men were infected. Sixty thousand American soldiers died of malaria during the North African and South Pacific campaigns.


title: PH

text: More acidic solutions have lower pH. More alkaline solutions have higher pH. Substances that aren't acidic or alkaline (that is, neutral solutions) usually have a pH of 7.


title: PH

text: pH is a measure of the of protons (H) in a solution. introduced this concept in the year 1909. The p stands for the German "potenz", meaning power or concentration, and the H for the hydrogen ion (H).


title: PH

text: [H] indicates the concentration of H ions (also written [HO], the equal concentration of ions), measured in moles per litre (also known as molarity).


title: PH

text: where formula_3 indicates the activity of H ions. But, this equation in most cases provides the same value as the more common formula, so in introductory chemistry the previous equation is given as the definition of pH.


title: PH

text: Most substances have a pH in the range of 0 to 14, although "extremely" acidic or alkaline substances may have pH < 0, or pH > 14.


title: PH

text: Certain dyes change colour depending on whether they are in an acid solution or an alkaline solution . pH indicator is a chemical compound added in small amounts to a solution so the pH (acidity or basicity) of the solution can be seen. The pH indicator is a chemical detector for hydronium ions (HO) or hydrogen ions (H). Normally, the indicator causes the colour of the solution to change depending on the pH.


title: PH

text: Typical indicators are , , , , and . They each change colour at different points on the pH scale, and can be used together as a universal indicator.


title: PH

text: Another way is to use litmus paper, which is based on a natural pH indicators. The paper can tell you how strong the chemical is, whether it is a stronger acid or a stronger base.


title: Irish War of Independence

text: (IRA) against the British soldiers (known as the Black and Tans because of the colour of their uniform) who were trying to keep Ireland under British control


title: Irish War of Independence

text: The war was fought between 1919 and June 1921. The fighting stopped while a peace treaty was worked out.


title: Irish War of Independence

text: It began because of the 1916 Easter Rising. The Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) men fought the British soldiers because they wanted Ireland to be its own country and wanted Britain to move its army out of Ireland.


title: Irish War of Independence

text: 6 IRB members were killed including 3 who were executed. These executions angered the Irish people and caused many people to become "Republicans". Republicans lived mostly in the south of Ireland. Ulster was considered to be the most unionist part of Ireland. This was caused by the Ulster Plantations. The Unionists wanted to stay under control of the British Government.


title: Irish War of Independence

text: In 1917 the IRB was renamed the IRA and in 1919, the fighting started. By the end of 1919, the IRA had beaten the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) and Ireland had no police forces. In London, the British government began to debate about Ireland's rule. The war waged on until 1921 when Irish Sinn Féin leaders and British MPs made a peace treaty (called the Anglo-Irish Treaty). This treaty created the Irish Free State this meant that Ireland was given Dominion Status. The treaty gave all the same rights to the Irish government as that of the Canadian or Australian government.


title: Irish War of Independence

text: It handed power of 26 of the 32 counties to the Irish Government. The 6 counties that were kept by the British Government were all in Ulster and formed Northern Ireland.


title: Nigeria

text: Nigeria is a country in West Africa. It has a population of 216.7 million, more than any other country in Africa. Its capital is Abuja. Nigeria is a large country, with the largest population in Africa and is the most powerful in Africa.


title: Nigeria

text: From the 1500s to the 1800s, many people from the land now called Nigeria (and other parts of West Africa) were taken away and turned into slaves by Europeans, and they were sent to work in the Americas. These slaves were bought and sold in the Americas by Europeans who lived there. Today, many people related to those slaves still live in America, though they are no longer slaves. They are called African Americans.


title: Nigeria

text: From 1901 to 1960, the United Kingdom ruled Nigeria. However, by 1960 the people wanted independence, and Britain finally let them have it. For some time after this, Nigeria was a dictatorship, where the leaders stayed in control even if the majority of people disliked them. At this time, the Nigerian Civil War was by separatist Christian Igbo people in the Southeast against the Nigerian government. They did not want to be a part of Nigeria, which was ruled by The Muslim north and mixed west. The war ended with a reunification of Nigeria.


title: Nigeria

text: In 1999, Nigeria became a democracy, where people choose their leaders. After that, Olusegun Obasanjo, a Yoruba Christian from the south, became President. In 2007, Umaru Yar'Adua, a Hausa Muslim, was elected to be the next President. Yar'Adua died in May, 2009. Goodluck Jonathan, the vice president, then became president.


title: Nigeria

text: Goodluck Jonathan was re-elected as the president after wining the 2011 general elections under the political party, PDP.


title: Nigeria

text: In the early 21st century, there are several low-intensity armed conflicts. These include the insurgency by the Islamist group Boko Haram. The Boko Haram insurgency happens mostly in the northeast. This group wants Sharia law for the country. Another is the Nigerian bandit conflict, in which bandit gangs carry out attacks, mostly in the northwest. There is a separatist insurgency in the southeast.


title: Nigeria

text: Nigeria has a total area of . It is the world's 32nd-largest country. It shares a border with Benin (773 km), Niger (1497 km), Chad (87 km) and Cameroon (1690 km). It has a coastline of at least 853 km.


title: Nigeria

text: The highest point in Nigeria is Chappal Waddi at . The main rivers are the Niger and the Benue River. They come together and empty into the Niger Delta, one of the world's largest river deltas. It is the location of a large area of Central African mangroves.


title: Nigeria

text: In Nigeria, there are two national anthems. The first one is called "Nigeria We Hail Thee". The second and current national anthem is called "Arise O' Compatriots. The first one was written by Lilian Jean William and composed by Frances Berda. The second one was written by 5 people and was composed by the Police band. Arise O' Compatriots was first heard during Nigeria's independence.


title: Nigeria

text: In Nigeria, there are almost equal numbers of Muslims and Christians. Most of the Christians live in the south, and most of the Muslims live in the north. Contrary to some beliefs, the Nigerian civil war was not only attributed to religious intolerance. The war which took place between 6 July 1967 – 15 January 1970, was a political conflict caused by the attempted secession of the southeastern provinces of Nigeria as the self-proclaimed Republic of Biafra. The conflict was the result of economic, ethnic, cultural and religious tensions among the various peoples of Nigeria.


title: Nigeria

text: Nigeria produces a large amount of oil, and some fighting has been going on because many people want a share of the oil profits. This fighting has been happening in the area called the Niger Delta, where the Niger River flows into the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Nigeria

text: The largest city in Nigeria is Lagos. Nigeria has both grasslands and rainforests, and can get very hot, because it is close to the Equator. Petroleum and agriculture make up the Nigerian economy.


title: Nigeria

text: Nigerian cuisine, like West African cuisine in general, is known for its richness and variety. Many different spices, herbs and flavourings are used along with palm oil or groundnut oil. These make deeply flavoured sauces and soups often made very hot with chili peppers. Nigerian feasts are colourful and lavish. Good smelling market and roadside snacks cooked on barbecues or fried in oil are plentiful and varied.


title: Nigeria

text: Association football is Nigeria's national sport. The country has its own Premier League of football. Nigeria's Men's national football team, known as the Super Eagles, has made the World Cup five times. These were in 1994, 1998, 2002, 2010, 2014, and most recently in 2018. They won the African Cup of Nations in 1980, 1994 and 2013. They also hosted the Junior World Cup. They won the gold medal for football in the 1996 Summer Olympics.


title: Nigeria

text: Nigeria is also involved in other sports such as basketball, cricket, sprints and track and field. Boxing is also an important sport in Nigeria; Dick Tiger and Samuel Peter are both former World Champions.


title: 9 (number)

text: Nine is the Arabic number which comes after 8 and before 10. It is an odd number, and is the highest single-digit number. It is also a square number. In Roman numerals, nine can be written as IX.


title: 9 (number)

text: The number nine (9) takes the shape of an upside-down six (6), is a multiple of 3, and the third square number after 4.


title: Capitalism

text: Capitalism is an economic system where means of production is privately owned and operated for profit.


title: Capitalism

text: Most property is owned by people or companies, often called "firms", not by the government. It is often called private property. Capitalist economies are often close to free market economies, which means that prices move up or down according to the availability of products and how many people want them. People buy and sell things according to their own judgment. In most countries there is some regulation (trade laws) and some planning done by the government. They are sometimes called "mixed economies" to indicate this. Some people disagree on whether capitalism is a good idea, or how much of capitalism is a good idea.


title: Capitalism

text: The word comes from "capital", meaning something of value that is used to make things. This can be money (""financial capital"") or any other goods that can be traded. The word "capital" originally comes from the Latin word "caput", meaning "head." It was used to mean how many "head" of cattle a rich person owned, in days long ago when cattle were used as money. In fact, the words "capital" and "cattle" both come from "caput".


title: Capitalism

text: The philosopher Adam Smith's book, "The Wealth of Nations", was an important book that developed the ideas of capitalism and the free market. The word "capitalism" was not used until the 19th century. The greatest invention of capitalism is often said to be the joint stock company. A joint-stock company is a business where different stocks can be bought and owned by shareholders. Each shareholder owns company stock in proportion to the number of their shares.


title: Capitalism

text: In capitalism, people may sell or lend their property, and other people may buy or borrow it. If one person wants to buy, and another person wants to sell to them, they do not need to get permission from higher power. People can have a market (buying and selling with each other) without anyone else telling them to. People who own capital are sometimes called "capitalists" (people who support capitalism are called capitalists, too). They can hire anyone who wants to work in their factories, shops or lands for them for the pay they offer.


title: Capitalism

text: The word "capital" can be used to mean things that produce more things or money. For example, lands, factories, shops, tools and machines are capital. If someone has money that can be "invested", that money is capital too.


title: Capitalism

text: In capitalist systems, many people are workers (or "proletarians"). They are employed to earn money for living. People can choose to work for anyone who will hire them in a free market.


title: Capitalism

text: This is different from many older economic systems. In "feudalism", most people were "serfs" and had to work for the people who owned the land they lived on. In "mercantilism", the government makes it hard to buy things from other countries. In many countries with "mixed economies" (part capitalism and part socialism) there are laws about what you can buy or sell, or what prices you can charge, or whom you can hire or fire.


title: Capitalism

text: An "investment" is when people invest (put) their money in things. People can put their money together to buy or build things, even if they are too big for one person to make alone. The people who invest get to be the owners of what they buy or build together. The stock market lets people buy and sell investments.


title: Capitalism

text: Investing is important to capitalism. The word "capitalist" can mean two things: it can mean someone who likes capitalism; but it can also mean someone who invests. For example, a "venture capitalist" invests in new businesses.


title: Capitalism

text: People who start businesses, or invest in businesses, can make a lot of money. A business sells things that people want. The investors make extra money, which is called "profit". Investors can take their profit and invest it in more businesses, or in making the business bigger. The investors can get more and more profit if the businesses are successful.


title: Capitalism

text: "Socialists" and "communists" are people who do not support capitalism. They say it hurts workers, because businesses make more money by selling things than they pay the workers who make the things. Business owners become rich while workers remain poor and exploited (taken advantage of). They also argue society would be more efficient if people thought less about competing against one another for their own interests and thought more of working together for the overall good of society. Another argument is that each person has a right to basic needs (such as food and shelter). Within capitalism, sometimes people might not get everything they need to live. Capitalism is also said to be the main culprit of economic inequality.


title: Capitalism

text: Karl Marx was a famous communist philosopher from Germany. He wrote a famous book called "The Capital" (or "Das Kapital" in German). He said that capitalism would go away after workers decided to take over the government in a revolution because of the exploitation. There were violent communist revolutions in many countries. Many people were killed because of this. But capitalism did not go away, and most of these communist systems have collapsed and do not exist today, or else they have become more capitalist. Some people think that communism in those countries did not work because Marx's ideas, though nice in thought, did not really work. Others think that communist countries collapsed because of the attacks (military, political and economic) from capitalist countries.


title: Capitalism

text: Anarchists (that are not anarcho-capitalists) do not support capitalism either. They do not think there should be any bosses because it is a hierarchy. They think that Marxist–Leninist governments were unsuccessful because they were dictatorships that said that they would rule in the name of workers, but ruled in the name of their leaders. They think that these governments were state capitalist and not socialist.


title: Capitalism

text: There are different words for people who support capitalism. In many parts of the world, these people are called either "conservatives" or "liberals". In the United States, the word liberal means someone who supports capitalism but wants some rules on what the market can do and cannot do. "Libertarian" is a word that in America and some other countries means someone who wants the government to have little or no power to tell people what to buy or sell.


title: Capitalism

text: The reasons for capitalism are not just economic. They are political. People who like capitalism believe that capitalism provides liberty by the citizen by allowing them to be independent. Friedrich Hayek agreed with this and connected the open society with respect for the individual, and tolerance for the differences between people.


title: Capitalism

text: Another argument for the endorsement of capitalism is that it is arguably better than other economic models, like communism, for example. While most communist nations (such as the Soviet Union and Democratic Kampuchea) collapsed deep in poverty, hunger, dictatorships and/or genocides, capitalist countries (such as the United States and the UK) prospered economically.


title: Capitalism

text: People who support capitalism also have disagreements. Most people agree that capitalism works better if the government keeps people from stealing other people's things. If people could steal anything, then nobody would want to buy anything. However, if people shared everything, then no one would need to buy anything.


title: Capitalism

text: In most countries, the government does more than that. It tries to make sure that people buy and sell fairly and that employment is fair. But most of the time, the government making sure that employment is fair is also on the benefitting side of capitalism. The government takes money in taxes and spends it according to what the governing body wants, often not what the citizens who elected the governing body want their taxes to be spent on. People in power spend money on guns and ships for the military. When the government is in charge of part of the economy, this is called a "social democracy." However, when the government spends money it causes arguments about what the money should be spent on, because often times we don't vote on policies, we vote on people we depend on making the policies.


title: Capitalism

text: A few people think that people can protect themselves without any government. Instead of having laws against stealing, people could protect their own things, or agree to pay other people such as arbitrators, insurers, and private defenders to protect them. This belief is called "anarcho-capitalism." These people think that the government is trying to take away their earnings, because it takes taxes away from people against their will and keeps them from making agreements between themselves.


title: Kannada

text: Kannada () is a language, and it is a script used for writing the language. Most people in the southern Indian state of Karnataka speak Kannada, and there are speakers in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Kerala and Goa. There are some differences in the way Kannada is spoken in these places.There are about 44 million people who speak the language.It had been since 2nd Century.


title: Kannada

text: Kannada is a Dravidian language, which is a different language family from the Indo-European or Aryan languages of the north, such as Hindi but close to the other southern languages like Telugu. It has about 3000 years of written history. The first version is known as the Old Kannada script. By about 3000 it had morphed into the Kannada and Telugu scripts. Printing presses introduced by Christian missionaries at the beginning of the 19th century standardized the Kannada and Telugu scripts.


title: Kannada

text: The Kannada script is a type of writing system called an alphasyllabary. All consonants have a built-in vowel. Other vowels are indicated with diacritics, which appear next to the consonants. When they appear at the beginning of a syllable, vowels are written as separate letters. When consonants appear together without intervening vowels, the second consonant is written as a special joint symbol, usually below the first. The direction of writing: left to right in horizontal lines.


title: Kannada

text: It has highest number of Janapeeta literary awards compared to any Indian language. Kannada had a huge boost during the Vijayanagar period. Shri Vinoba Bhave called "Kannada" script the "Queen of Kannada Scripts" not for all Language. "Vishwa Lipigala Raani".


title: Ethnic group

text: An ethnic group is a group of people who are considered to be the same in some or multiple ways. They may all have the same ancestors, speak the same language, or have the same culture, which could sometimes include religion. They often live in the same or surrounding area.


title: Ethnic group

text: Sometimes almost all of the people in one country are of the same ethnic group, but not always. Often one country may have several different ethnic groups, or the people of one ethnic group may live in several different countries.


title: Ethnic group

text: The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ensures the rights of ethnic groups in Article 27 and also gives them the right to use their own language.


title: Coldplay

text: Coldplay is an English rock band formed in London in 1996. The band's members are vocalist/pianist Chris Martin, guitarist Jonny Buckland, bass player Guy Berryman and drummer Will Champion. Coldplay became famous around the world with their 2000 song "Yellow". Their first album, "Parachutes", was very successful and was nominated for the Mercury Prize. Coldplay were nominated for this award again in 2003 and 2005. Coldplay is one of the most successful bands of the 21st century, selling over 90 million records worldwide. The band is also known for hit singles, including "Speed of Sound" and the 2 Grammy Award-winning songs, "Clocks" and their 2008 single "Viva la Vida" (Song of the Year for 2008).


title: Coldplay

text: Coldplay, is an English alternative rock band, formed in London in 1996-1997. Chris Martin, and Jonny Buckland, were looking forward to form a band while at University College London. After forming Pectoralz, Guy Berryman joined the group as the bass guitarist and they changed their name to Starfish. Will Champion joined as a drummer and backing vocalist who plays various instruments, making the band's lineup complete. Phil Harvey was the group's manager from 1998 to 2001. The band finally changed their name to "Coldplay" in 1998. Tim Rice-Oxley was to be added to the lineup, but he refused as he was already a member of Keane. The band later recorded. It was released on three EPs; "Safety" in 1998, "Brothers & Sisters" as a single in 1999 and "The Blue Room" in the same year. The Blue Room was their first release on a major record label, after signing to Parlophone.


title: Coldplay

text: Coldplay's early material was compared to acts such as Radiohead, Jeff Buckley, U2, and Travis. They had achieved worldwide fame with the release of the single "Yellow" in 2000, followed by their debut album <nowiki>"</nowiki>Parachutes<nowiki>"</nowiki> released in the same year, which was nominated for the Mercury Prize. The band's second album, "A Rush of Blood to the Head" (2002), won multiple awards, including "NME"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Album of the Year. Their next release, "X&Y", received a slightly less enthusiastic yet still generally positive reception upon its release in 2005. The band's fourth studio album, "Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends" (2008), was produced by Brian Eno. It was released on again to largely favourable reviews, earning several Grammy nominations and wins.


title: Coldplay

text: Since the release of "Parachutes", Coldplay have drawn influence from other sources, including Echo & the Bunnymen, Kate Bush, George Harrison and Muse on "A Rush of Blood to the Head", Johnny Cash and Kraftwerk for "X&Y" and Blur, Arcade Fire and My Bloody Valentine on "Viva la Vida". Coldplay have been an active supporter of various social and political causes, such as Oxfam's Make Trade Fair campaign and Amnesty International. The group have also performed at various charity projects, such as Band Aid 20, Live 8, Sound Relief, , and the Teenage Cancer Trust.


title: Coldplay

text: Chris Martin and Jonny Buckland first met during their orientation week at University College London (UCL) in September 1996. The pair spent the rest of the college year planning a band, ultimately forming a group called Pectoralz.Guy Berryman, a classmate of Martin and Buckland, later joined the group. By 1997, the group, who had renamed themselves Starfish, performed gigs for local Camden promoters at small clubs. Martin also had recruited his longtime school friend Phil Harvey, who was studying classics at Oxford, to be the band's manager. Coldplay have since accepted Harvey as the fifth member of the group. The band's lineup was completed when Will Champion joined to take up percussion duties. Champion had grown up playing piano, guitar, bass, and tin whistle; he quickly learned the drums, despite having no previous experience. The band finally settled on the name "Coldplay" which was suggested by Tim Crompton, a local student who had been using the name for his group. By 1997, Martin had also met then Classics student Tim Rice-Oxley. During a weekend on Virginia Water, they asked each other to play off their own songs on the piano. Martin, finding Rice-Oxley to be talented, asked him to be Coldplay's keyboard player but Rice-Oxley refused as his own band, Keane, was already operational. Days after, this event would shape the second line-up of Keane and keep Coldplay's unaltered, thus leaving both bands as quartets.


title: Coldplay

text: In 1998, the band released 500 copies of the "Safety EP." Most of the discs were given to record companies and friends; only 50 copies remained for sale to the public. In December of that year, Coldplay signed to the independent label Fierce Panda. Their first release was the three-track "Brothers & Sisters EP", which they had quickly recorded over four days in February 1999.


title: Coldplay

text: After completing their final examinations, Coldplay signed to Parlophone for a five-album contract in the spring of 1999. After making their first appearance at Glastonbury, the band went into studio to record a third EP titled "The Blue Room". Five thousand copies were made available to the public in October, and the single "Bigger Stronger", received BBC Radio 1 airplay. The recording sessions for "The Blue Room" were tumultuous. Martin kicked Champion out of the band but later pleaded with him to return, and because of his guilt, went on a drinking binge. Eventually, the band worked out their differences and put in place a new set of rules to keep the group intact. Inspired by bands such as U2 and R.E.M., Coldplay decided that they would operate as democracy, and that profits would be shared equally. Additionally, the band determined they would fire anyone who used hard drugs.


title: Coldplay

text: At first, the band planned to record their debut album in the space of two weeks. However, tours and other live performances caused the recording to spread out between September 1999 and April–May 2000. In March 1999, Coldplay began work on their debut album, recorded at Rockfield Studios, Matrix Studios, and Wessex Sound Studios with producer Ken Nelson, although the majority of Parachutes' tracks were recorded at Liverpool's Parr Street Studios. The band worked in three studio rooms at Parr Street, and tracked much of the album in one of these rooms—the project studio which Nelson describes as "basically a demo room". The album was mixed by American engineer Michael Brauer in New York. Coldplay's record label had originally intended to use a mixing engineer for the tracks they picked as singles, but eventually hired Brauer to work on all songs for the album. During that period, they played on the Carling Tour, which showcased up-and-coming acts.


title: Coldplay

text: After releasing three EPs without a hit song, Coldplay charted into the Top 40 with the lead single from "Parachutes", "Shiver". Released in March 2000, it reached number 35 on the UK Singles Chart. June 2000 was a pivotal moment in Coldplay's history: the band embarked on their first headlining tour, including a showing at the Glastonbury Festival. The band also released the breakthrough single "Yellow". The song shot to number four on the UK Singles Chart and placed Coldplay in public consciousness. "Yellow" and "Shiver" were initially released as EPs in the spring of 2000. The former was later released as a single in UK on 26 June 2000. In the United States, the song was released as the lead single off the then-untitled debut album. In October 2000, the track was sent to US college and alternative radio outlets.


title: Coldplay

text: Coldplay released their first studio album, "Parachutes", on 10 July 2000 in the United Kingdom by their record label, Parlophone. The album debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart. It was released on 7 November 2000 by record label Nettwerk in North America. The album has been made available on various formats since its initial release; both Parlophone and Nettwerk released it as a CD in 2000, and it was also released as a cassette by newfound US label Capitol in 2001. In the following year, Parlophone issued the album as an LP. The band released a limited-edition CD of "Trouble", the third single off the album, which features a remix of "Yellow". It was pressed to 1,000 copies, and was issued only to fans and journalists. Both "Yellow" and "Trouble" earned regular radio airplay in the UK and US.


title: Coldplay

text: "Parachutes" was nominated for the Mercury Music Prize in September 2000. Having found success in Europe, the band set their sights on North America, released the album there in November 2000, and started the "U.S. Club Tour" in February 2001. Although "Parachutes" was a slow-burning success in the United States, it eventually reached double-platinum status. The album was critically well-received and earned a Best Alternative Music Album honours at the 2002 Grammy Awards. Chris Martin claimed after the release of "Parachutes" the album's success was intended to achieve the band's status as the "biggest, best band in the f...ing world."


title: Coldplay

text: After the success of "Parachutes", Coldplay returned to the studio in September 2001 to begin work on their second album "A Rush of Blood to the Head", once again with Ken Nelson producing. The band started recording the album in London a week after the September 11 attacks in the United States. Since the band had never stayed in London before, they had trouble focusing. They decided to relocate in Liverpool, where they recorded some of the songs on Parachutes. Once there, vocalist Chris Martin said that they became obsessed with recording. "In My Place" was the first song recorded for the album. The band released it as the album's lead single because it was the track that made them want to record a second album following a "strange period of not really knowing what we were doing" three months after the success of Parachutes. According to Martin "one thing kept us going: recording 'In My Place'. Then other songs started coming."