title: Pakistani Shepherd Dog

text: Pakistani Shepherd Dogs are very strong and muscular dogs. They have a rounded forehead and dark, almond-shaped eyes. Their lips are black and their nose is mostly black. Their feet have very hard soles. Adult Pakistani Shepherd Dogs have erect ears. The coat of the Pakistani Shepherd Dog is usually black and tan, but can be gold, and some can come in white, which is rare but does occur. The colours vary from region to region. They are very keen and love to herd animals, sometimes even little kids and their owners. They are dedicated to their work, courageous, fearless and alert. Very protective of their property, owners and sheep, they can be trained easily because they love to learn new things. Pakistani Shepherd Dogs are very loyal toward their work and handler, loving their family. They obey their owner’s every command. The Pakistani Shepherd Dog has a loving nature and is very playful with children, enjoying playing games. This breed is bred to work, and can't sit idle all the time. Being able to work is their passion. The Pakistani Shepherd Dog loves strenuous activity, preferably combined with training of some kind, for these dogs are very intelligent and crave a good challenge. When not being worked they need to be taken on a daily, brisk, long walk, jog or run alongside you when you bicycle. While out on the walk the dog must be made to heel beside or behind the person holding the lead, as in a dog's mind the leader leads the way, and that leader needs to be the human. Most shepherds love to play ball or Frisbee. This breed does best with a job to do. Without enough exercise, mental and physical, it will become bored and destructive, which will affect its good temperament.


title: Kevin Richardson

text: Kevin Scott Richardson (born October 3, 1971) is an American singer. He is a member of the Backstreet Boys. In 2002, he played the role of "Billy Flynn" in the Broadway production of "Chicago". He also performed this role in London's West End and in Toronto from November 2006 – December 2006.


title: Kevin Richardson

text: In June 2006, Richardson left the Backstreet Boys. He wanted to "move on with the next chapter of [his] life."In the next chapter of his life he spent the summer drawing fodder beet. He also drew home a few loads of turf in a little car trailer to have for the winter. Kevin and wife Kristin (née Willits) had a son named Mason on July 3, 2007.


title: Watt

text: The watt (symbol: W) is the SI unit of power. It is named in honour of the physicist James Watt (1736–1819).


title: Watt

text: The watt is a method of measuring the rate of energy transfer of an appliance. A one watt lightbulb, for example, will change one joule of electrical energy into light energy (and some heat/sound) every second, thus "consuming" it. It is a measure of an appliance's power (appetite for joules).


title: Watt

text: The watt is the rate a source of energy uses or produces one joule during one second, so the same quantity may be referred to as a joule per second, with the symbol J/s. It can also be written as kg·m·s. The more watts, the more energy used per second. That is why a higher-watt electrical appliance works faster than a lower-watt appliance.


title: Watt

text: It is equivalent to one volt ampere (1 V·A) or 1/746 of a horsepower. The power of a light bulb is measured in watts. LEDs have much smaller consumption of power. Example small led can be used by what can be also written 15 milliwatts.


title: Watt

text: Watt is a unit of power, joule is a unit of work and energy, and time is a unit of time. An equation for solving Power, Work and Time is Power = Work ÷ Time, Work = Power × Time, or Time = Work ÷ Power.


title: Watt

text: 1000 watts is called a kilowatt, written as kW. It is also known as (10) watts. In many countries, electric bills are based on how many kilowatt-hours are being used.


title: Watt

text: 1000000 watts is called a megawatt, written as MW. It is also known as (10) watts. This is used to describe how much electricity is needed by a large town.


title: Watt

text: 1000000000 watts is called a gigawatt, written as GW. It is also known as (10) watts. This is used to describe how much electricity is needed for a power grid.


title: Watt

text: If 1000kJ of energy was used to power one lightbulb of 100W, how long will the lightbulb last for using that energy?


title: Watt

text: Because Time is unknown, but you know the other two, the correct equation would be "Time = Work ÷ Power", then 1,000,000J ÷ 100W = 10000 seconds. Then convert it into proper time and you'll get 2 hours, 46 minutes and 40 seconds.


title: Lumber

text: Dimensional lumber is a term used in North America for lumber that is finished/planed and cut to standardized width and depth specified in inches.


title: Lumber

text: Examples of common sizes are 2×4 (also two-by-four and other variants), 2×6, and 4×4. The length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth. It is thus possible to find 2×4s that are four, eight, or twelve feet in length. In the United States the standard lengths of lumber are 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24 feet.


title: Lumber

text: Outside North America sizes of timber vary slightly. Sizes are, in some cases, based on the imperial measurement and referred to as such; in other cases the sizes are too far removed from the imperial size to be referred to by imperial measurement. Lengths can be sold at every 300 mm (a metric approximation of 1'). Common sizes are similar to the North American equivalent; 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.6, 4.2, 4.8, 5.4, 6.0. But also in running lengths, where each plank in a given packet is different, from 2500mm to 5500mm, though shorter and longer may be present.


title: Lumber

text: In North America sizes for dimensional lumber made from hardwoods varies from the sizes for softwoods. Boards are usually supplied in random widths and lengths of a specified thickness, and sold by the board-foot (144 cubic inches).


title: Crown colony

text: A Crown colony, also known in the 17th century as royal colony, was a type of colonial administration of the English and later British Empire. Crown, or royal colonies were ruled by a governor which is decided by the Monarch. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the Sovereign appointed royal governors on the advice of the Secretary of State for the Colonies. Under the name of "royal colony", the first of what would later become known as Crown colonies was the English Colony of Virginia. This happened in 1624 after the Crown removed the Royal Charter it had given to the Virginia Company.


title: Crown colony

text: Until the mid-nineteenth century, the term "Crown Colony" was only used to refer to those colonies which had been obtain through wars. Examples were Trinidad and Tobago, British Guiana, and the colonies of settlement, such as The Canadas, Newfoundland, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, Western Australia, and New Zealand, later to become the Dominions. The term continued to be used up until 1981, when the British Nationality Act 1981 reclassified the remaining British colonies as "British Dependent Territories". From 2002 they have been known as British Overseas Territories.


title: Euphoria (American TV series)

text: Euphoria is an American teen drama television series created by Sam Levinson. It is based on the Israeli miniseries of the same name. "Euphoria" tells about a group of high school students about their experiences of sex, drugs, friendship, love, identity, and trauma. The series stars Zendaya. It was premiered on HBO on June 16, 2019. In July 2019, the series was continued for a second season.


title: Literal translation

text: Literal translation is the translation of text from one language to another "word-for-word", rather than giving the sense of the original. For this reason, literal translations usually mis-translate idioms. For example, a literal English translation of the German word "Kindergarten" would be "garden of children," but in English the expression refers to the school year between pre-school and first grade.


title: Geoffrey Chaucer

text: Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–25 October 1400) was an English writer, poet, and philosopher. He is most famous for writing Canterbury Tales which had 24 stories but was not completed. He was one of the first writers to write in English. He wrote in Middle English.


title: Geoffrey Chaucer

text: Chaucer was probably born in London. His father, John, and grandfather were prosperous wine merchants in London. The name "Chaucer" is French and means shoemaker. However, not many details are known of his early life and education.


title: Geoffrey Chaucer

text: By 1357, Chaucer was a page to Elizabeth, Countess of Ulster, wife of Lionel, 1st Duke of Clarence. In 1360, he was captured by the French near Reims during a battle in the Hundred Years' War. He was then ransomed and released. King Edward III gave £16 towards his release. Chaucer married Phillipa (de) Roet. She was a lady-in-waiting to the queen and had close family connections to John of Gaunt. He had about three or four children.


title: Geoffrey Chaucer

text: Chaucer may have studied law in the "Inner Temple". He joined the Royal court and travelled around Europe on business for the king. He became one of the king's esquires. One of his first known poems was written in 1369. It was called "The Book of The Duchess", and was written after the death of John of Gaunt's wife, Blanche. In 1374, he became "Comptroller" (in charge of the money) of the Customs for the Port of London. He did this job for 12 years. It was a well paid job and Chaucer was quite rich.


title: Geoffrey Chaucer

text: When Richard II became king, Chaucer continued to work in Customs. He was also sent to Europe on several more diplomatic jobs for the king.


title: Geoffrey Chaucer

text: Chaucer moved to Kent in 1385 where he had a new position as Justice of the Peace. He was also elected as one of two knights of the shire to be a member of parliament. At the end of the year he lost his customs jobs. His wife, Phillipa, died in 1387. But on 12 July 1389, he was made the "Clerk of the Kings Works", looking after repairs to the royal palaces. He was given other small positions, including looking after the river banks of the Thames, and as a deputy forester in the Royal Forest. Over the next few years, Chaucer became poorer and often was given small payments and pensions from the king.


title: Geoffrey Chaucer

text: He died at St.Mary's Chapel in Sevenoaks on 25 October 1400. Chaucer is buried in Westminster Abbey, in what is now called the Poets' Corner.


title: Geoffrey Chaucer

text: Chaucer did most of his writing between 1369 and 1393. He is famous for his collection of stories in verse called the "Canterbury Tales". He also wrote "The Book of the Duchess", "The House of Fame" and "Troilus and Criseyde". For these works he is called "the father of English poetry". He also wrote "A Treatise on the Astrolabe," an instruction manual.


title: Coit Tower

text: Coit Tower is a tower in the Telegraph Hill neighborhood of San Francisco, California. The tower, in the city's Pioneer Park, was built in 1933. Lillie Hitchcock Coit left one-third of her estate to the city "to be expended in an appropriate manner for the purpose of adding to the beauty of the city which I have always loved".


title: Coit Tower

text: The art deco tower is made of unpainted reinforced concrete. Architects Arthur Brown, Jr. and Henry Howard designed it. The tower has fresco murals by 27 different on-site artists and their assistants, plus two additional paintings installed after creation off-site.


title: Coit Tower

text: The tower was not designed to resemble a fire hose nozzle, despite Coit's affinity with the San Francisco firefighters of the day, in particular with Knickerbocker Engine Company Number 5.


title: Monument

text: A monument is a statue, building, or something else made to remember a person or important event. They are often designed as artistic objects to improve the look of a city or place.


title: Tamarind

text: Tamarind ("Tamarindus indica") is a kind of tree in the Fabaceae family. It is found in Africa primarily the Sudan.


title: European Russia

text: Russia is a country that is both in Europe and in Asia. The border is the Ural Mountains and Ural River. By geography, about twenty-five percent of the surface is in Europe, and seventy-five percent is in Asia. By population, about 110 million of the 144 million people, or 77%, live in the European part. The European part makes up 35 % of the surface of Europe. In the European part of Russia, there are 27.5 people per square kilometer. The Asian part has 22 % of the population, which means there are 2.5 people per square kilometer.


title: Communications satellite

text: Communications satellites are satellites stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications. They relay radio waves between different places. Most are in synchronous orbit. Direct-broadcast satellites transmit many television channels.


title: Communications satellite

text: Satellite based communication systems can be used for voice and data transmission in remote and underserved locations such as ships at sea. Satellite internet access is internet access provided through satellites. Satellite based systems can be used for providing high quality broadband internet connection to businesses.


title: Communications satellite

text: Herman Potočnik (writing as 'Herman Noordung') was the first to propose that space stations use radio to communicate with Earth. In October 1945 Arthur C. Clarke published an article titled "Extraterrestrial relays" in the British magazine "Wireless World". The article described artificial satellites in geostationary orbits to relay radio signals. So, Clarke is often quoted as being the inventor of the communications satellite.


title: Communications satellite

text: Primitive communication satellites were tested in the early 1960s. Geosynchronous satellites became inpotant in the 1970s.


title: Communications satellite

text: The time taken by the satellite to visit the same point on earth again is called the revisit time. Revisit time can be reduced by combining data from multiple satellites.


title: Mud

text: Mud is a mixture of soil, silt, loam or clay, mixed with and water. It is a type of soil that is also called "clay soil". Others include the sandy soil, or sand, and garden soil. Wet mud has a soft wet texture.


title: Mud

text: Some animals including worms, frogs, snails, clams, and crayfish live in mud. Pigs and elephants use it to cool themselves in hot weather. Some people enjoy making mud pies out of mud.


title: Mud

text: Great river systems like the Amazon bring down to the delta immense amounts of mud which ends up in the sea outside the fan of the river mouth. Mudrock is what the mud may become millions of years later. Mudrocks make up fifty percent of the sedimentary rocks in the geologic record, and are easily "the most widespread deposits on Earth".


title: Drum kit

text: A drum kit (or drum set or trap set) is a collection of drums, cymbals, and other percussion instruments that is used by a drummer in a musical group.


title: Drum kit

text: Other cymbals and drums can be added to the setup for a wider range of sounds like the Splash, a small cymbal around 10"/25 cm giving a distinct crash sound with a quick decay, or a China cymbal, that gives an "oriental feel" to beats, rhythms, solos and fills. The latter is much like a crash cymbal popped inside out with the screw and sponge holding it to the stand inside it, so it has a shallow bowl shape.


title: Drum kit

text: The drummer can do other things to the kit, such as attach a tambourine to the spine of the hi-hat, so when he/she puts his/her foot down on the pedal or hits it with a drumstick, the drummer gets the tambourine sound at the same time. Cymbals can also have rivets inserted into them to give them a 'sizzling' sound, or a cowbell can be attached to the top of the bass drum between the snare and floor tom to use in fills, solos, grooves, etc.


title: Noida

text: Noida () also known as New Okhla Industrial Development Authority is newly emerged and one of the most important city of Uttar Pradesh. The name has been essentially derived from New Okhla Industrial Area (Noida). It is at the border of Uttar Pradesh and New Delhi. It comes under the Delhi-NCR region. With many IT Parks growing, it is one of the major contributor for Uttar Pradesh state revenue. The city is comparatively new, it started developing in early1980s. It now has all major facilities including hospitals, schools, shopping malls, markets, offices, active police force, well maintained roads and well built residential areas. Noida's connectivity to Delhi was improved by Delhi-Noida Direct Flyway or DND which was completed by 2001. By 2009, Noida was connected to New Delhi via metro lines which made the commute for locals much easier.


title: Noida

text: Mahesh Sharma is the present Lok Sabha MP of Gautam Buddha Nagar and Pankaj Singh is the present MLA of Noida.


title: Realism

text: Realism is a way of portraying or thinking about reality. The word "realism" is used in many liberal arts in many different ways (such as in music, painting, and philosophy). It usually means trying to be true to reality. This is where the word "realistic" comes from. Realism is usually seen as an opposite of romanticism and idealism. It is also sometimes seen as an opposite of liberalism and classicism. It is used mainly to describe the way that some artists treat making art. These artists try to focus on the world as it really is, without unrealistic or supernatural ideas.


title: Realism

text: Realism began as an art movement and in the 19th century. These realists wanted to give an accurate description of nature and of the way people lived. Realism can also apply to artists and artworks from before the 19th century though.


title: Realism

text: The word "realism" first appeared in 1794, as the opposite of idealism in art and philosophy. The French magazine () used the word in 1826. It said that realism was the art-style of being accurate to real life, rather than following art of the past. Around this same time, realism was thought to have been one of the styles of philosophy within scholasticism. Then in the 1840s, realism began as an art movement in France. It focused on realistic modern life without avoiding what was unpleasant. It also focused on the lower or middle classes.


title: Realism

text: In music there was a movement called Verismo which was the Italian word for "reality". Verismo was popular in Italian opera around the end of the 19th century and early 20th century. Puccini was an opera composer whose style is typical of Verismo.


title: Realism

text: Realism as a literary movement began in Germany. The poet and writer Heinrich Heine tried in his books to accept the world as it is instead of trying to escape from it. Realistic writers tried to find good things about society. The interest in realism led to a movement called naturalism. This meant describing scenes in nature accurately. The novelist Emile Zola was a naturalist.


title: Realism

text: In philosophy, realism is also a way of thinking about knowledge and reality. It is usually the view that a particular thing is real whether or not it is known about. In fact, one person can be a realist about some things and a non-realist about other things. For example, some realists say that the past really happened no matter what we think about it. Other realist philosophers say that there are morals that really exist as facts. This is different from philosophers who say that things only exist because of people who are aware of them. For example, a non-realist philosopher might say beauty only exists because someone sees something that they think is beautiful. A realist philosopher might instead say that beauty is there whether anyone sees it or not.


title: Realism

text: The term social realism describes an art form in America in the 1930s which expressed social protest in a naturalistic way. This is different from what is usually called socialist realism which was a term used by Soviet politicians from 1932 to the mid 1980s to describe art which showed the workers' struggle, glorifying the Soviet Union.


title: Skopje

text: Skopje (Macedonian: Скопје; transcribed "Skopje") is the capital and the largest city of North Macedonia. The city is the administrative, cultural, economic and academic centre of the country. In the past, the city has been known by various names such as: "Üsküp" (Turkish) or "Skoplje" (Serbo-Croatian). The city has been build upon the ancient city of Scupi. In 2002, the city had population of 506,926 citizens.


title: Skopje

text: Skopje is in the north of North Macedonia. Through the city flows the river Vardar, the biggest river in North Macedonia. Skopje is located on 255 metres above the sea level and it coves 1, 854 km² or 715.8 sq mi. Northern of the city is the mountain Skopska Crna Gora and on the south is the mountain Vodno.


title: Skopje

text: The city of Skopje is administratively divided into 10 municipalities, of which one is the whole city named Greater Skopje. The city is part of the Skopje statistical region in North Macedonia.


title: Malware

text: Malware, short for malicious software, is any software intentionally designed to cause damage to a computer. There are different kinds of malware that can hurt computers, such as viruses, Trojan horses, spyware and ransomware. These programs can steal passwords, delete files, collect personal information, or even stop a computer from working at all. Computer security or anti-malware software is usually good at stopping malware from installing itself. When security software is not installed, malware can get into the computer. Getting rid of malware can be difficult, even when using programs designed to remove it.


title: Malware

text: The term "malware" refers only to software that is made for malicious purposes and works against users' expectations — and so does not include applications that may do unintended harm due to software bugs.


title: Malware

text: People first started writing malware in the 1970s and early 1980s. Computers were very simple then. They did not have any interesting information for malware to take. Instead, people wrote malware for fun or just to show that they could. Even the most common piece of malware from this time did not do damage to people's computers. In fact, malware was so rare that the word "malware" was not coined until 1990.


title: Malware

text: More people started using the computers in the late 1990s and early 2000s. Computers were getting more complex and faster. People saw that they could use malware to get useful information now, like passwords and credit card information. So, more programmers started writing malware. The number of malware programs on the Internet has grown very quickly ever since then the late 1990s and is still growing today. Experts think that 31.5% of the world's computers have some type of malware installed.


title: Malware

text: The main reason people write malware is to hurt others and make money, usually by stealing or deleting important information. The Cryptolocker computer virus, for example, makes it so a person cannot use their own computer until they pay the malware writers for a software key to unlock it. Another virus, CIH, tries to make it so the victim can never use their files or turn on their computer again. Malicious keystroke logging software remembers everything a user types in and gives it to the malware author to read.


title: Malware

text: World governments have written malware to hurt their enemies. Experts think that the United States government made a virus named Stuxnet to stop an important place in Iran from working. The Chinese government probably used a virus to stop people from protesting its decisions.


title: Malware

text: There are a lot of ways malware can get onto someone's computer. One common way is through email attachments. These attachments are usually sent from other computers that already have malware on them. When someone downloads and opens the attachment, the virus installs and uses their computer to send itself to even more people.


title: Malware

text: Another way malware installs itself is when a victim gets malware just by going to a website with the malware hidden on it. This is called drive-by downloading. A user does not have to click anything for their computer to get infected from a drive-by download. This kind of malware attack is usually found on websites that are not used a lot or whose security methods are very old. However, even current websites that people use all the time can host drive-by downloads when someone hacks the site.


title: Malware

text: People who write malware also get their programs onto computers by attaching them to real programs that people want. This is most common with pirated programs. This is because the downloader was doing something illegal and cannot complain to the authorities without getting in trouble themselves. However, some non-piracy websites also put malware (or other unwanted programs that are almost as bad as malware) in a download with real, legal software in a process known as bundling. Computer security experts complain about websites that bundle real software with malware. Their complaints do not always stop the websites from bundling.


title: Malware

text: There are a few reasons why computers get programs a user didn't mean to install. One common reason is because of regular programs that have software bugs. Malware can use bugs, such as a buffer overflow, to make a program do something it was not designed to do. Malware can also get onto a computer if it tricks a user into putting it there themselves. This can happen when a user plugs in a USB flash drive that has a virus on it already. Malware also commonly uses social engineering to get users to run it, like pretending to be an important email attachment for work. Some malware even pretends to be an anti-malware program to get people to run it.


title: Malware

text: Since malware is such a big problem, many companies make programs to try to stop it. These anti-malware programs have a lot of different ways to find malware. One is static analysis, which looks at the source code of a program before it is run. Then, if the program is similar to malware the static analysis program has seen before, the anti-malware program will stop the code from running. Another way of finding malware is dynamic analysis. Dynamic analysis runs only part of a program it is checking. If this part of the program tries to do anything that could be bad or harmful, the anti-malware program will not let the program run.


title: Malware

text: Malware can also be stopped without a program. This can be done by not letting a computer connect to the Internet or other computers, called creating an air gap. However, these computers can still get malware if someone puts it there another way. One example is when someone plugs in a Universal Serial Bus (USB) drive that was already plugged into a computer with a virus.


title: Polar moment of inertia

text: The polar second moment of area (also referred to as "polar moment of inertia") is a measure of an object's ability to resist torsion as a function of its shape. It is one aspect of the linked through the where the planar second moment of area uses a beam's cross-sectional shape to describe its resistance to deformation (bending) when subjected to a force applied in a plane parallel to its neutral axis, the polar second moment of area uses a beam's cross-sectional shape to describe its resistance to deformation (torsion) when a moment (torque) is applied in a plane perpendicular to the beam's neutral axis. While the planar second moment of area is most often denoted by the letter, formula_5, the polar second moment of area is most often denoted by either, formula_6, or the letter, formula_7, in engineering textbooks.


title: Polar moment of inertia

text: The calculated values for the polar second moment of area are most often used describe a solid or hollow cylindrical shaft's resistance to torsion, as in a vehicle's axle or drive shaft. When applied to non-cylindrical beams or shafts, the calculations for the polar second moment of area becomes erroneous due to warping of the shaft/beam. In these instances, a should be used, where a correctional constant is added to the value's calculation.


title: Polar moment of inertia

text: The polar second moment of area carries the units of length to the fourth power (formula_8); meters to the fourth power (formula_1) in the metric unit system, and inches to the fourth power (formula_2) in the imperial unit system. The mathematical formula for direct calculation is given as a multiple integral over a shape's area, formula_11, at a distance formula_12 from an arbitrary axis formula_13.


title: Polar moment of inertia

text: In the most simple form, the polar second moment of area is a summation of the two planar second moments of area, formula_15 and formula_16. Using the Pythagorean theorem, the distance from axis formula_13, formula_12, can be broken into its formula_19 and formula_20 components, and the change in area, formula_21, broken into its formula_19 and formula_20 components, formula_24 and formula_25.


title: Polar moment of inertia

text: In essence, as the magnitude of the polar second moment of area increases (i.e. large object cross-sectional shape), more torque will be required to cause a torsional deflection of the object. However, it must be noted that this does not have any bearing on the torsional rigidity provided to an object by its constituent materials; the polar second moment of area is simply rigidity provided to an object by its shape alone. Torsional rigidity provided by material characteristics is known as the , formula_32. Linking these two components of rigidity, one can calculate the angle of twist of a beam, formula_33, using:


title: Polar moment of inertia

text: Where formula_35 is the applied moment (torque) and formula_36 is the length of the beam. As shown, higher torques and beam lengths lead to higher angular deflections, where higher values for the polar second moment of area, formula_37, and material shear modulus, formula_32, reduces the potential for angular deflections.


title: Electric flux

text: Imagine an electric field E passing through a surface. Consider an infinitesimal area (dA) on that surface across which E remains constant. Also assume that the angle between E and dA is i. The electric flux is defined as EdAcos(i). E and dA are vectors. Flux is the dot product of E and dA. Using full vector notation, the electric flux formula_1 through a small area formula_2 is given by


title: Electric flux

text: where E is the electric field and dA is a differential area on the surface formula_5 with an outward facing surface normal defining its direction.


title: Electric flux

text: where Q is the net charge enclosed by the surface (including both free and bound charge), and ε is the electric constant. This relation is known as Gauss' law for electric field in its integral form and it is one of the four Maxwell's equations.


title: Electric flux

text: Electric flux is not affected by charges that are not within the closed surface. But the net electric field, E, in the Gauss' Law equation, can be affected by charges that lie outside the closed surface. Gauss' Law is true in all situations, but people can only use it to calculate when high degrees of symmetry exist in the electric field. Examples include spherical and cylindrical symmetry. Otherwise, the calculations are too hard to do by hand and must be worked out using a computer.


title: Electric flux

text: Electrical flux has SI units of volt metres (V m), or, equivalently, newton metres squared per coulomb . So, the SI base units of electric flux are kg•m•s•A.


title: Minute

text: A minute is a customary unit of time. It is equal to 60 seconds. There are 60 minutes in an hour. Unlike the second, the minute is not an SI unit.


title: Minute

text: A minute is also of a degree. In this context, a minute is also called an arcminute, and is written with the formula_1 symbol.


title: Minute

text: For example, the Sun and Moon both have angular diameters of about 30 arcminutes—when seen from Earth.


title: Jimin (singer, born 1995)

text: Jimin or Park Ji-min (born October 13, 1995) is a member of the South Korean boy band, BTS. He is from Busan, South Korea but moved to Seoul to pursue his passion. He is the main dancer and the lead vocalist in BTS. He has performed solo work with BTS such as "Lie", "Serendipity", "Filter” and outside of BTS "Promise" and "Christmas Love".


title: Jimin (singer, born 1995)

text: He’s the main dancer and lead vocalist of the group, and is well known for his unique voice and the way his dancing skills.


title: Citation

text: A citation or source citation is a reference to a published work (for example, a book, article, image, etc.,) that is used when creating a written work. It shows readers where specific pieces of information came from and where readers can locate it for themselves. It acknowledges or gives credit to the author who actually created the content being used in a paper. The opposite of a citation is plagiarism, or not giving credit to others for their ideas, concepts, or images. Plagiarism, especially in Academia, is considered taking the work of others and presenting it as one's own. The penalties for plagiarism can be severe. Source citations also give a work credibility. In other words, it shows the information is simply not made up.


title: Citation

text: In general, different academic situations will have different rules for what to cite and how to cite it. Some use footnotes while others may require in-text (also called inline) source citations.(←) Some may require a bibliography which lists all works that were used. In some cases, it may only be necessary to provide a list of "works cited." It is important to know in advance what protocols must be used and what citation style (see below) is preferred.


title: Citation

text: You do not need to cite anything that is common knowledge. These are things that would be known by nearly everyone. Examples of common knowledge are:


title: Algiers

text: Algiers is the capital city of Algeria, which is a country in northern Africa. It is on the northern coast of the country. The population of the city is 1,519,570. After Algeria beacme independent from France, Algiers became a very important city for anti-colonial activists and revolutionaries from around the world.


title: Algiers

text: The city's name is gotten from the Arabic name al-Jazāʾir (الجزائر), which means "The Islands". This name refers to the four former islands which were off the city's coast before becoming part of the mainland in 1525.


title: Unemployment

text: Unemployment or joblessness is when a person who is of normal working age (usually about 15-18 to about 60-65) does not have a paid job. They therefore do not get paid a salary. It is one of social issues and human rights violations. In some parts of the world, there are social networks to care for the unemployed.


title: Unemployment

text: The unemployment rate is the number of unemployed people divided by the total population of that age group of a country. The unemployment rate is influenced by many things, including the government of a country to the average age of a country's population. Unemployment is a bad thing for society.


title: Unemployment

text: A certain amount of unemployment is natural. 'Full employment' does not mean no-one is out of work. Governments now aim to increase the number of jobs (which can be done) rather than cut out all unemployment (which cannot be done).


title: Unemployment

text: People with Autism and other mental disabilities are mistreated in the workplace, leading to only around 15% of autistic people being employed at all.


title: Unemployment

text: Discouraged workers are the number of people who do not have work but who are not counted in government reports. For example, people who have stopped looking for a job. The underemployed are people who work less than they want to do, or people who are overqualified for their job.


title: Pomelo

text: The Pomelo ("Citrus maxima" or "Citrus grandis"), is a citrus fruit from South East Asia. It is pale green or yellow when ripe. Its flesh is sweet and white. The rind is very thick and spongy. It is the largest citrus fruit, usually in diameter. It weighs .


title: Johan Cruyff

text: Johan Cruyff (25 April 1947 - 24 March 2016) was a Dutch football player and manager. He played for Netherlands national team.


title: Johan Cruyff

text: Cruyff died of lung cancer. His son is football manager Jordi Cruyff. He is regarded as one of the greatest footballers of all time.


title: Yiddish

text: Yiddish is a language used by some Jews. At first, it was a dialect of German that Jews began to use in Europe about 1000 years ago. It was and still is used in the United States, especially in New York City, and other countries that now have Jews.


title: Yiddish

text: Most Yiddish words come from German, but many words are also from Hebrew and Slavic languages, especially Polish, and some from French, Hungarian and Latin. Yiddish is written usually by the Hebrew alphabet.


title: Yiddish

text: In the Netherlands and Sweden, Yiddish is protected by the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.


title: Commonwealth of Independent States

text: The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is the confederation of countries that used to form the Soviet Union.


title: Commonwealth of Independent States

text: On December 8, 1991, leaders of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine met at the nature reserve called Belovezhskaya Pushcha in Belarus. They discussed the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in place of the Soviet Union. They reached an agreement about many points and signed a document creating the CIS. One of these points stated that the alliance would be open to all the republics of the Soviet Union. Other nations with similar goals could also join the CIS.


title: Commonwealth of Independent States

text: The Soviet Union had 15 republics: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Georgia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. On 6th September 1991, the Soviet Union had recognized the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Out of the remaining 12 republics, all (except Georgia) joined the CIS. Before joining the CIS, on 21st December 1991, leaders of these 11 countries had met in Kazakhstan to accept the original CIS agreement of 8th December 1991. Because Ukraine did not ratify the CIS agreement in the national parliament, it never became an official member of the CIS, but nevertheless participated as a de facto member. In December 1993, Georgia also joined the CIS. On 26th August 2006 Turkmenistan left the permanent membership, and became an associate member. On 15th August 2008 Georgia left the CIS membership, and Georgia's CIS membership officially ended on 17th August 2009. On 19 May 2018, Ukraine, which stopped participating in CIS in 2014 because of its conflict with Russia over Crimea and the Donbas, formally ended all participation in CIS.


title: Commonwealth of Independent States

text: With the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), the Soviet Union ceased to exist. It was the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Many consider that with CIS, Russia continues to have some control over the former republics of the Soviet Union.


title: Commonwealth of Independent States

text: The CIS has its headquarters at Minsk, Belarus. An executive director heads the CIS. The CIS is not a successor country to the Soviet Union. The CIS is an organization or alliance of independent countries. It is more like the European Community. The member countries of the CIS had also signed many agreements for economic cooperation and defense cooperation. They have signed other agreements for cooperation in foreign policy and other matters.


title: One Unit Scheme

text: One-Unit was the title of a scheme launched by the federal government of Pakistan to merge the four provinces of West Pakistan into one homogenous unit, as a counterbalance against the numerical domination of the ethnic Bengalis of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). The One Unit scheme was announced by Prime Minister Muhammad Ali Bogra on 22 November 1954. On 5 October 1955 Iskander Mirza (Acting Governor General of Pakistan) passed an order unifying all of West Pakistan in what became known as the 'One Unit Scheme'.


title: One Unit Scheme

text: The province of West Pakistan was created on 30 October 1955 by the merger of the provinces, states and Tribal Areas of the western wing. The province was composed of twelve divisions and the provincial capital was established at Lahore. The province of East Bengal, (now Bangladesh) was renamed East Pakistan with the provincial capital at Dacca. The federal government moved the country's capital in 1959 from Karachi to Rawalpindi (serving as provisional capital until Islamabad was finished), whilst the federal legislature moved to Dacca.


title: One Unit Scheme

text: West Pakistan formed a single and united political entity but with marked linguistic and ethnic distinctions. The One Unit policy was regarded as an administrative reform that would reduce expenditure and help eliminate ethnic and parochial prejudices. However, with the military coup of 1958, trouble loomed for the province when the office of Chief Minister was abolished on July 1, 1970 by President General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan


title: Single person

text: A person is called single if he or she is not married, not in a civil union, and not in a sexual or romantic relationship. In a more general sense, the word also means that person currently has no exclusive partner, like a boyfriend or girlfriend. Such people can be classified into different types:


title: Single person

text: In English, male singles used to be called "bachelors", female singles used to be called "spinsters" (or "bachelorettes", more recently). In general, the word "single" is used more often now, because it also does not make a difference between the two sexes.


title: Buenos Aires

text: Buenos Aires is the capital and largest city in the South American country of Argentina. It has its own executive, legislative and judicial powers. It is in the central-eastern region of the country, on the southern shore of the Río de la Plata, in the Pampas region. The city was ceded in 1880 by the Province of Buenos Aires to be the federal capital of the country. It is the "main capital", along with 24 alternate capitals, because of the constitutional reform of 1994. Buenos Aires city is also known as "Capital Federal" to differentiate the city from the Buenos Aires Province. Until 1994 Buenos Aires city was under the presidential government, but after a constitutional reform in that year, the city became self-governed, allowing citizens to elect their city authorities.


title: Buenos Aires

text: 3,040,000 people live in Buenos Aires. Spanish is the main language, but English is widely spoken and understood well. Italian is also widespread.


title: Buenos Aires

text: Buenos Aires has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: "Cfa"). The average temperature is 17 °C. During the 20th century the temperature went up because of the urbanization. Rainfall is 1222.6 mm. per year. Summers are hot and humid. Winters are mild, the highest medium temperature is 13.7 °C during this season. Temperature rarely reaches 0 °C or below. Fog is frequent. Snow is extremely rare, and falls once or twice in a century.


title: Buenos Aires

text: Buenos Aires is the most visited city in South America. The most touristic areas are the historical center, Palermo, Recoleta and San Telmo.


title: Stephen

text: Stephen or Steven (generally pronounced ) is an English masculine first name, comes the Latin form "Stephanus" and that from the Greek "Στέφανος" ("Stephanos"), which means "crown" or "wreath."


title: Stephen

text: Other spellings are Stephan, Stefan, Stephaen, Stevie, and Stevon. Steve is the common short form and various diminutives such as Stevie are also found. Many family names come from Stephen: the most common are Stephens/Stevens and Stephenson/Stevenson (others include Stephen, Stephan, Stefan, Stevin, and Stever).


title: Outlaws (band)

text: The Outlaws is an American country rock band formed in 1972. They are a Southern rock/country rock band. Some of their best known hits were "There Goes Another Love Song" (1975), "Green Grass and High Tides" (1975) and "Ghost Riders In The Sky".


title: Outlaws (band)

text: Like other southern rock bands, the Outlaws used two lead guitars. However, the Outlaws’ used three and four part vocal harmonies which made them different to other southern rock bands who usually had a single lead singer.


title: Outlaws (band)

text: Over the years there has been many changes in the band's members. The current line up includes Henry Paul and Monte Yoho who were original band members. The other three original members, Hughie Thomasson, Billy Jones and Frank O'Keefe have all died.


title: Mike Pence

text: Michael Richard Pence (born June 7, 1959) is an American politician and attorney. He was the 48th vice president of the United States from 2017 and 2021. A attorney by occupation, he served as the 50th Governor of Indiana from 2013 to 2017 and as a member of the United States House of Representatives from 2001 to 2013. A Republican, he chaired the House Republican Conference from 2009 to 2011. Pence is a longtime supporter of the Tea Party movement.


title: Mike Pence

text: On July 14, 2016, Donald Trump's campaign said that Pence would be Trump's choice for running mate in the 2016 presidential election. The Trump-Pence campaign went on to defeat the Clinton-Kaine campaign in the general election on November 8, 2016. Pence was inaugurated as Vice President of the United States on January 20, 2017.


title: Mike Pence

text: On November 7, 2020 the Trump-Pence campaign lost their re-election bid to former Vice President Joe Biden and U.S. Senator Kamala Harris following the 2020 election. After the election Trump falsely claimed the election was corrupt and wanted Pence to overturn the election results. Pence did not do this and voted to certify Biden as the winner on January 6, 2021 in the aftermath of the United States Capitol attack.


title: Mike Pence

text: Pence was born at Columbus Regional Hospital in Columbus, Indiana, He was one of six children of Nancy Jane (née Cawley) and Edward J. Pence, Jr. His family were Irish Catholic Democrats.


title: Mike Pence

text: Pence graduated from Columbus North High School in 1977. He earned a B.A. in History from Hanover College in 1981 and a J.D. from the Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law in 1986.


title: Mike Pence

text: After graduating from law school in 1986, Pence worked as an attorney in private practice. He continued to practice law following his second unsuccessful run for Congress.


title: Mike Pence

text: In November 2000, Pence was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in Indiana's 2nd Congressional District after six-year incumbent David M. McIntosh (1995–2001) opted to run for governor of Indiana.


title: Mike Pence

text: On November 8, 2006, Pence announced his candidacy for leader of the Republican Party (minority leader) in the United States House of Representatives. Pence's release announcing his run for minority leader focused on a "return to the values" of the 1994 Republican Revolution. On November 17, Pence lost to Representative John Boehner of Ohio by a vote of 168–27–1 (the one vote went to Representative Joe Barton of Texas).


title: Mike Pence

text: Pence served for a time as the chairman of the Republican Study Committee. His Committee assignments in the U.S. House included: Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Middle East and South Asia (Vice Chair); Judiciary, Subcommittee on the Constitution (Vice Chair), and Subcommittee on Intellectual Property, Competition, and the Internet.


title: Mike Pence

text: While in Congress, Pence belonged to the Tea Party Caucus. Pence also belonged to the Congressional Internet Caucus, International Conservation Caucus, and Sportsmen's Caucus.


title: Mike Pence

text: After the November 2010 election, Pence announced that he would not run for re-election as the Republican Conference Chairman. On May 5, 2011, Pence announced that he would seek the Republican nomination for Governor of Indiana in 2012.


title: Mike Pence

text: On November 6, 2012, Pence won the gubernatorial election, defeating Democratic nominee John R. Gregg and Libertarian nominee Rupert Boneham.


title: Mike Pence

text: On March 26, 2015, Pence signed Indiana Senate Bill 101, also known as the Indiana "religious objections" bill (RFRA), into law. The law's signing was met with widespread criticism by people and groups who felt the law was carefully worded in a way that would permit discrimination against LGBT persons.


title: Mike Pence

text: As of March 2016, Pence has attempted unsuccessfully to prevent Syrian refugees from being resettled in Indiana.


title: Mike Pence

text: Pence is running for a second term as governor. He was unopposed in the May 3, 2016, Republican primary for governor. He faces Democrat John Gregg, former Speaker of the Indiana House of Representatives, in a rematch of the 2012 race. Early reports on July 14 suggest Pence is likely to be announced as the VP candidate on July 15.


title: Mike Pence

text: In July 2016, Trump said that there was three people on his running mate shortlist: Chris Christie, Newt Gingrich and Pence himself. On July 14, 2016, it was reported that Trump selected Pence as his running mate. On July 15, 2016, Trump announced on his Twitter that Pence would be his running mate. He made a formal announcement in New York City on July 16, 2016.


title: Mike Pence

text: Trump would go on to defeat Clinton in the general election making Pence the vice president-elect of the United States.


title: Mike Pence

text: Pence was inaugurated as the 48th vice president of the United States after being sworn in by Associate Justice Clarence Thomas on January 20, 2017.


title: Mike Pence

text: On January 27, 2017, Pence spoke at the March for Life in Washington D.C., becoming the first vice president and the highest ranking United States official to ever speak at the annual event.


title: Mike Pence

text: Following the Trump-supporter storming of the United States Capitol on January 6, 2021 many politicians and lawyers wanted Pence to use the 25th amendment of the United States Constitution to remove Trump from office.


title: Mike Pence

text: Despite Trump's wanting to overturn the election results, Pence, as President of the Senate certified the Biden–Harris ticket as the winner of the election. He was criticized by Trump and threatened with violence by some of Trump's supporters, especially during the U.S. Capitol attack, for not trying to overturn the election results.


title: Mike Pence

text: Pence's term as vice president ended on January 20, 2021. He was replaced by Kamala Harris as vice president.


title: Mike Pence

text: Pence and his wife Karen Pence have been married since 1985. They have three children: Michael, Charlotte, and Audrey. Pence is a born-again Christian. His brother, Greg, is the member of the United States House of Representatives.


title: Mike Pence

text: In April 2021, Pence had heart surgery to have a pacemaker implanted to help stop his slow heart rate.


title: 7 Up

text: 7 Up is a product of a lemon-lime flavored caffeinate-free soft drink. The rights to the brand are held by Dr Pepper Snapple Group in the United States, and PepsiCo (or its licensees) in the rest of the world, including Puerto Rico. The origin of the name is unclear. It has been reformulated several times since its launch in 1929. 7-Up Soft Drink contains no caffeine and now has no artificial ingredients or preservatives, and only half the sodium as before. It is distributed by the 7-Up/Dr. Pepper company. The company promotes the product as having a crisper, more refreshing lemon-lime taste than before.


title: 7 Up

text: 7 up is type of goods from the Dr Pepper company, it started produce at 1987. At other country, 7 up is goods from Pepsi Co. It first produced in Missouri, St.Louis.


title: Battle of Britain

text: The Battle of Britain was a continued attack by the "Luftwaffe" on Great Britain during the summer and the autumn of 1940.


title: Battle of Britain

text: Its first objective was to get control of the air space above Britain from the Royal Air Force (RAF), especially the Fighter Command.


title: Battle of Britain

text: The name comes from a famous speech, which was delivered by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in the House of Commons: "The Battle of France is over. I expect the Battle of Britain is about to begin..."


title: Battle of Britain

text: The Battle of Britain was the first major campaign to be fought only by air forces, and it was also the largest and longest aerial bombing campaign until then.


title: Battle of Britain

text: In July 1940, coastal shipping convoys and shipping centres, such as Portsmouth, began to be the main targets. A month later, the "Luftwaffe" shifted its attacks to RAF airfields and infrastructure, which were other useful war targets. As the battle progressed the "Luftwaffe" also targeted aircraft factories and ground infrastructure.


title: Battle of Britain

text: Coastal radar stations were bombed and so for a time, only one radar mast was standing. The British used a backup system of human observers to get information to the headquarters of Fighter Command. Most historians agree that part of the campaign went into Germany's favour.


title: Battle of Britain

text: Eventually the Germans switched to attacking population centres, such as towns and cities, as well as factories. After the RAF bombed Berlin, and German air force bases in France, Hitler cancelled his orders not to bomb population centres and ordered attacks on British cities. The attacks on civilians were terror bombing tactics designed to cause panic and damage morale.


title: Battle of Britain

text: On 7 September 1940, a massive series of raids with nearly 400 bombers and more than 600 fighters targeted docks on the Thames in London day and night. This was called the "London blitz".


title: Battle of Britain

text: The RAF 11 Group rose to meet them in greater numbers than the "Luftwaffe" expected; 12 Group's Big Wing took 20 min to gain formation and missed its intended target, but it came across another formation of bombers while it was still climbing. The delay was blamed on being requested too late.


title: Battle of Britain

text: The "Luftwaffe" began to abandon its morning raids, with attacks on London starting late in the afternoon for 57 nights of attacks in a row.


title: Battle of Britain

text: Fighter Command had been suffering low morale since it was short of men and machines, and the break from airfield attacks allowed it to recover and so week by week, the defenders were getting stronger, and the losses suffered by the "Luftwaffe" were growing.


title: Battle of Britain

text: On 15 September, two massive waves of German attacks were prevented by the RAF, with every aircraft of 11 Group being used that day. The total casualties on that important day were 60 German and 26 RAF aircraft shot down. The German defeat caused Hitler to order two days later a delay of the preparations for the invasion of Britain. In the face of increasing losses in men, aircraft and the lack of good replacements, the "Luftwaffe" later switched from daylight to night-time bombing.


title: Battle of Britain

text: On 27 September, a Junkers Ju 88 returning from a raid on London was shot down in Kent. The German airmen survived to fight a battle against British troops stationed locally. That was said to be the first time in nearly 300 years that armed invaders had fought with British soldiers on British soil.


title: Battle of Britain

text: The keystone of the British defence was the detection, command, and control, which ran the battle. It was called the 'Dowding System', after its chief architect, Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding, the leader of RAF Fighter Command.


title: Battle of Britain

text: The core of the system was the use of Radio Direction Finding (RDF, later called radar, for radio detection and ranging). Its use, as we as by information by the Royal Observer Corps, was crucial and allowed the RAF to intercept the incoming German aircraft.


title: Battle of Britain

text: Radar operators were linked via telephone, whose wires were laid deep underground with concrete anti-bomb protection, to an operational centre. The centre was Fighter Command Control at Bentley Priory. During the battle, several Coastal Command and Fleet Air Arm units came under Fighter Command control.


title: Battle of Britain

text: The Germans' Messerschmitt Bf 109E and 110C fought against the British air superiority fighters: the workhorse Hawker Hurricane Mk I and the less numerous Supermarine Spitfire Mk I. The Bf 109E had a better climb rate and was 10 to 30 mph faster than the Hurricane, depending on the altitude. In September 1940, the more powerful Mk IIa series 1 Hurricane started entering service but only in small numbers. That version was capable of a maximum speed of 342  mph, 25 to 30  mph faster than the Mk I.


title: Battle of Britain

text: The performance of the Spitfire during the Dunkirk evacuation came as a surprise although the German pilots retained a strong belief that their 109 was the superior fighter. However, the Bf 109E had a much larger turning circle than either the Hurricane or the Spitfire. The two British fighters had eight Browning 303 machine guns, but most Bf 109Es had two machine guns and two wing cannons. The Bf 109E and the Spitfire were superior to each other in key areas. For instance, at some altitudes, the Bf 109 could outclimb the British fighter.


title: Battle of Britain

text: The failure of Germany to achieve its objectives of destroying Britain's air defences or forcing Britain to negotiate an armistice or an outright surrender is considered to be its first major defeat and one of the crucial turning points in the war.


title: Battle of Britain

text: If Germany had gained air superiority, Adolf Hitler might have launched Operation Sea Lion, his planned invasion of Britain.


title: Missile

text: In general, missile may refer to anything thrown or launched object at a target like a javelin or darts. Nowadays, it means, mostly, a self-propelled guided weapon system. Missiles are used in war to destroy military targets. Missiles can carry explosives or other destructive loads. The loads a missile may carry are called a "payload". This payload is not always harmful to people. For example, cruise missiles have carried "graphite bombs" to destroy electrical power systems without much collateral damage.


title: Missile

text: The two main kinds of missiles are simple "rockets" and "guided missiles". A rocket is no longer controlled once it has been launched. Most guided missile are also propelled by a rocket engine but can be controlled after it has been launched. Some missiles used in anti-aircraft warfare, such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder, guide themselves with temperature. Others guide themselves by radar or are under radio control.


title: Missile

text: Cruise missiles are big missiles that carry large payloads to hit ground targets or to badly damage or sink ships. Ballistic missiles look similar, but they don't keep the engine off and stay at a lower height to be more accurate. Instead, they go high up and turn off the engine and crash into the target with the engine off. The Topol M is the missile in the picture and is a ballistic missile.


title: Missile

text: The V-1 flying bomb was an early cruise missile, a little airplane with a bomb, propelled by a jet engine instead of a rocket.


title: Váli (son of Odin)

text: In Norse mythology, Váli is a son of the god Odin and giantess Rindr. Váli's brothers are Thor, Baldr and Víðarr. When Baldr was killed, Váli killed the person who killed him. He grew to full adulthood in one day.


title: Váli (son of Odin)

text: We don't know whether Norse people worshipped Váli as a god or whether he was only a character in the Poetic Edda.


title: Váli (son of Odin)

text: He is also the god of flight. Anything that passes through the sky, whether man made or of nature is under his control. To symbolize this his cloak is made of raven feathers that when he spreads his arms looks like wings. Váli is fated to survive Ragnarök.


title: Channel Tunnel

text: The Channel Tunnel (or Chunnel) (French: le tunnel sous la Manche) is a long underwater tunnel between England and France that runs under the English Channel at the Strait of Dover. It is only for trains. Some of the trains in the Channel Tunnel carry freight, including automobiles. Others, like the Eurostar, carry only passengers.


title: Channel Tunnel

text: The tunnel, which was once called the Eurotunnel, opened in 1994. It is 50 kilometres (31 miles) long and its deepest point is 75 metres (250 feet) beneath the surface. It connects Folkestone, Kent in the United Kingdom to Calais in northern France. This has reduced travel time between London and Paris to a little over two hours with high-speed trains.


title: Jo-Jo the Dog-Faced Boy

text: Fedor Jeftichew, better known as Jo-Jo the Dog-Faced Boy (1868 - January 31, 1904) was a Russian sideshow performer. Like his father, Adrien, with whom he performed, Jo-Jo was afflicted with hypertrichosis, an abnormal growth of hair over the face and body. Jo-Jo was covered with long, silky hair and was said to resemble a Skye terrier.


title: Jo-Jo the Dog-Faced Boy

text: Jo-Jo was born in St Petersburg, Russia in 1868. He began touring Europe in 1873. He was five feet eight inches tall, had only four or five teeth, and spoke Russian, German, and a little English. He dressed like a Russian cavalryman. He would bark at an audience, and would perform as often as 23 times a day. In 1886, he was making US$500 a week.


title: Jo-Jo the Dog-Faced Boy

text: Jo-Jo toured Europe and Russia, playing in fairgrounds. He was discovered by Charles Reynolds in London, England. Jo-Jo was performing with his father, Adrien, who resembled a poodle. Reynolds realized the Dog-Faced Boy could be presented in a more professional manner. He took the boy to the United States on the "City of Chicago" on 12 October 1884.


title: Jo-Jo the Dog-Faced Boy

text: A press conference was called. Journalists were allowed to pull Jeftichew's hair to be assured it was real and not pasted on. The "New York Herald" described Jeftichew as "the most extraordinary and absorbingly interesting curiosity that has ever reached these shores."


title: Jo-Jo the Dog-Faced Boy

text: In 1884, Jeftichew signed with P. T. Barnum. Barnum stated (falsely) that Jo-Jo was captured by a hunter in the wilds of central Russia. Barnum advertised him as "the most prodigious paragon of all prodigies secured by P. T. Barnum in fifty years. The Human Skye Terrier, the crowning mystery of nature's contradictions."


title: Jo-Jo the Dog-Faced Boy

text: He toured Europe with Barnum and Bailey's Greatest Show on Earth in 1901 and 1902. He died in Greece in 1904 while on tour of pneumonia. He was the subject of a song recorded by Annette Funicello in the 1960s and was referenced in an episode of the television series, "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".


title: Nativity scene

text: A nativity scene is a three-dimensional depiction of the Nativity of Jesus. It is also called a crib, manger or crèche. Typically, a large scale scene includes: the Holy Family, the angels, the Magi, the ox and the donkey, and an assortment of shepherds, villagers, servants and others.


title: Nativity scene

text: There are two types of scenes: static representations of figures made of clay or other material and living scenes. Static scenes are often displayed on a table top in the home. In living scenes, humans and animals portray the characters in the scene.


title: Nativity scene

text: St. Francis of Assisi is said to have created the first nativity scene in 1223 (a "living" one) near Greccio, Italy. It was a "hit". The scene's popularity inspired communities throughout Catholic countries to stage similar scenes.


title: Nativity scene

text: In the modern world, nativity scenes have provoked controversy. Animals are said to be abused in living scenes and objections have been placed against static scenes displayed on public lands. In addition, outdoor scenes are often the target of vandals. Theft or destruction of outdoor figures is not uncommon.


title: Painful sexual act

text: Painful sexual act is a medical problem where a person feels pain in their genitals before, during, or after a sexual act. Doctors call this problem dyspareunia. It can have physical or emotional causes. Both men and women can have dyspareunia. Up to one-fifth of women (one in every five) may have dyspareunia at some point in their lives.


title: Painful sexual act

text: When a woman experiences a painful sexual act, the pain may distract her from feeling pleasure and excitement. Her vagina will be less lubricated (wet) and will not expand (dilate) as much as usual. When the vagina is dry and undilated, thrusting of the penis is painful. Even after the original cause of her pain has disappeared, a woman may feel pain simply because she expects pain.


title: Painful sexual act

text: In most cases, painful sexual acts have a physical cause at first. There are many physical problems that can cause or worsen painful sexual act. A doctor may be able to identify the cause by doing a careful physical examination and medical history. Some of the most common physical causes are infections of the vagina, urinary tract, cervix, or fallopian tubes; endometriosis; scar tissue left by surgery (like an episiotomy); and ovarian cysts and tumors. Common infections are mycoses (infections caused by a fungus), candidiasis, chlamydia, trichomoniasis, urinary tract infections, coliform bacteria, monilial organisms and herpes). Painful sexual act can also be caused by problems with a woman's anatomy, like hymenal remnants (pieces of the hymen that stay in the vagina) or female genital mutilation, or when the entrance to the vagina has become too small for normal penetration (Sarrell and Sarrell 1989).


title: Painful sexual act

text: In women who are past menopause, a common cause of painful sexual act is having too little estrogen. In women who are breastfeeding, a common cause is dryness of the vagina. Women who are getting radiation therapy for cancer in the pelvic area may have pain during sex because the walls of the vagina have atrophied (wasted away) and are more sensitive to injury. Dryness in the vagina can also be a cause of painful sexual act for women with Sjögren's syndrome, which attacks the glands that create saliva and tears.


title: Painful sexual act

text: Painful sexual act may be one of the first symptoms of cystitis (a bladder infection). People with cystitis may have bladder pain during or after sex. Women with cystitis usually have pain the day after sex, because the muscles around her bladder are spasming (tightening up painfully). Women with cystitis usually also have urinary frequency (needing to urinate a lot) and/or urinary urgency (needing to urinate suddenly).


title: Painful sexual act

text: There are a number of physical factors as well. Pain is sometimes experienced in the testicular or glans area of the penis immediately after ejaculation. Infections of the prostate, bladder, or seminal vesicles can lead to burning or itching sensations following ejaculation. Men suffering from cystitis may experience intense pain at the moment of ejaculation and is focused at the tip of the penis. Gonorrheal infections are associated with burning or sharp penis pains during ejaculation. Urethritis or prostatitis can make genital stimulation painful or uncomfortable. Anatomic deformities of the penis (retraction of a too-tight foreskin) may also result in pain during sexual act.


title: Painful sexual act

text: In men pain in the genital organs during ejaculation or immediately thereafter is experienced as sharp, stabbing, and/or burning, it may be persistent and returning. The duration of pain is usually brief. The immediate cause of psychogenic post ejaculatory pain is the involuntary painful spasm or cramping of certain pain-sensitive muscles in the male genital and reproductive organs, the painful muscle cramps may be attributable to a man’s conflict about ejaculating.


title: Painful sexual act

text: Sufferers will see several doctors before a correct diagnosis is made. Sufferers are also often hesitant to seek treatment for chronic vulvar pain, especially since many women begin experiencing symptoms around the same time they become sexually active. Before being successfully diagnosed patients sometimes are told that the pain is "in their head". For the diagnosis doctor carefully takes a history and carefully examines the pelvis to duplicate the discomfort and to identify a site or source of the pelvic pain. The diagnosis of painful sexual act has to be differentiated from conditions known as ‘’’chronic vulvar pain’’’ and vaginismus. It is worth to be sure whether the painful sexual act is acquired or lifelong and whether it is generalized (complete) or situational. During the first two weeks, painful sexual act caused by penis insertion or movement of the penis in the vagina or by deep penetration is often due to disease or injury deep within the pelvis. Inquiry should determine whether the pain is superficial or deep - whether it occurs primarily at the vaginal outlet or vaginal barrel or upon deep thrusting against the cervix. The possible role of psychological factors in either causing or maintaining the pain must be acknowledged.


title: Painful sexual act

text: Atrophy of vagina as a source of painful sexual act is most frequently seen in women after menopause and is generally associated with estrogen deficiency. The latter is associated with inadequacy of lubrication of vagina, which can lead to painful friction during sexual act.


title: Fire station

text: A fire station (also known as a firehouse or fire hall) is a building for storing fire engines and other firefighting equipment.


title: Fire station

text: Some fire stations are staffed by full-time firefighters. These fire stations have offices and living areas for them. There will also be beds, for when they are on duty at night. They wait at the fire station to be called out to an emergency. The firefighters often slide down a pole to get downstairs to the fire engine, as this is quicker than walking down stairs.


title: Fire station

text: In small towns and villages, a fire station may not have full-time firefighters. Instead, these stations have part-time or volunteer firefighters. When there is an emergency, they will drive to the fire station and bring out the fire engine.


title: Mother

text: A mother (also called mom, mum and mommy) is a female parent. A mother gives birth to babies after pregnancy. Pregnancy is usually nine months. If a woman over the stage of puberty raises an adopted or biological child, then she is a mother as well. Adopted children are also part of that person's family. Also see Maternal insult.


title: Mother

text: "Madre" is Mother in Spanish. "Mamma" or "Mor" is Mother in Norwegian. "Mater" is Mother in Latin. "Mutter" is Mother in German. "Mat" is Mother in Russian. "Mama" is mother in Swahili


title: Mother

text: The word "maternal" is an adjective used to describe thing that are related to a mother. Common uses include:


title: ISO basic Latin alphabet

text: The ISO basic Latin alphabet is a version of the Latin alphabet and is made of two sets of 26 letters, which is the same as the English alphabet, codified in many different national and international standards and used widely in international communication.


title: Trey Gowdy

text: Trey Gowdy (born August 22, 1964) is an American politician. In 2011, he became the U.S. Representative for South Carolina's 4th congressional district. He chaired the House Benghazi Committee. Gowdy is a member of the Republican Party.


title: Trey Gowdy

text: Gowdy was born on August 22, 1964 in Greenville, South Carolina. In 1982 he graduated from Spartanburg High School, Spartanburg, South Carolina. In 1986 he graduated from Baylor University with a Bachelor of Arts degree. Gowdy graduated from University of South Carolina School of Law. He was an assistant U.S. attorney from 1994 to 2000. Gowdy was then elected state district attorney in South Carolina. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 2010. On May 4, 2015 he was named to head the special House panel to investigate the 2012 Benghazi attack. He is married to Terri Gowdy. They have two children.


title: Trey Gowdy

text: On January 31, 2018, Gowdy announced he would not seek re-election in 2018 and that he intends to pursue a legal career instead of politics.


title: Voyager 1

text: Voyager 1 is a space probe used by NASA to explore Jupiter and Saturn. It's identical in form to its sister spacecraft, "Voyager 2".


title: Voyager 1

text: "Voyager 1" was launched on September 5, 1977, to study the outer planets of the Solar System. It is now in an extended mission. Its encounter with Saturn and Titan sent it on a hyperbolic trajectory out of the solar system, traveling at which is much faster than escape velocity.


title: Voyager 1

text: "Voyager 1" research team announced on August 25, 2012 that it had left the solar system. It passed out of the heliosphere and into interstellar space. It's the most distant man-made object. On February 17, 1998, Voyager 1 became the Earth's farthest spacecraft from the Earth, when it overtook Pioneer 10 at a total distance of 70 AU, which is 6.5 billion miles from the Sun. It's also the first man-made object to leave the solar system. As of September 20, 2021 it was from Earth.


title: Voyager 1

text: Both "Voyager 1" and "Voyager 2" include the Voyager Golden Record, which is a recording of sounds and images of life on Earth. It was designed by a team headed by Carl Sagan to communicate with extraterrestrial life.


title: Maria Sharapova

text: Maria Sharapova (born 19 April 1987) is a retired Russian tennis player. She was born in Nyagan, Western Siberia, RSFSR.


title: Maria Sharapova

text: Her parents had moved from Belarus to protect themselves from the Chernobyl nuclear accident. The Sharapov family moved again in 1989, when Maria became interested in tennis, when watching her father play, and played tennis with a second-hand racquet. She would practice tennis by hitting the tennis ball against the wall every day, and her dad soon noticed that she was very good at the sport.


title: Maria Sharapova

text: Maria's tennis coaches told the Sharapovs that they should move to Moscow, Russia, to get better training. The Sharapova moved again, from Moscow, to follow Maria's coach, Martina Navratilova's advice, to move to the United States.


title: Maria Sharapova

text: There was a problem, though. Sharapova's mother, Yelena, could not get a visa to go to the United States. Meanwhile, Maria and her father tried to get Maria to go to a famous sports school, and they also had to learn English. Maria had already learned a lesson in her life that tennis excellence would only come at a price.


title: Maria Sharapova

text: “I used to be so lonely,” Maria Sharapova recalls. “I missed my mother terribly. My father was working as mush as he could to keep my tennis-training going. So, he couldn't see me either “Because I was so young, I used to go to bed at 8 p.m. The other tennis pupils would come in 11 p.m. and wake me up and order me to tidy up the room and clean it.


title: Maria Sharapova

text: “Instead of letting that depress me, I became more quietly determined and mentally tough. I learnt how to take care of myself. I never thought of quitting because I knew what I wanted. When you come from nothing and you have nothing, then it makes you very hungry and determine... I would have put up with much more humiliation and insults that to steadfastly purse my dream." That toughness runs through Maria even today.


title: Maria Sharapova

text: She began to win tournaments and many people started to notice her. Her games improved, and Maria gained more fans.


title: Maria Sharapova

text: She has won 35 singles titles in her career, including five Grand Slam championships: Wimbledon in 2004, the US Open in 2006, the Australian Open in 2008 and the French Open in 2012 and 2014. She won an Olympic silver medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. She is the world number 3 women's tennis player as of September 2015. In 2005, she was ranked world number 1 for the first time, and in 2012 for the last time.


title: Maria Sharapova

text: In March 2016, Sharapova revealed she had failed a drug test at the 2016 Australian Open, admitting to testing positive for meldonium, a substance banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) at the start of 2016. On June 8, 2016, she was suspended from playing tennis for two years by the International Tennis Federation (ITF).


title: Maria Sharapova

text: In Russia, female surnames are changed so that their gender can be identified, so Sharapov becomes Sharapova.


title: Mandir

text: Hindu temple or Mandir is referred to a place where Hindus go to worship gods in the form of various deities. Many Hindu temples are filled with wooden and stone arts like pashupatinath temple. A mandir is a spiritual place for Hindus. It is the landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and economy were developed, as well as this the mandir has been recognised for.


title: Mandir

text: It is believed that the Murtis are stone or wooden images of idols ceremonially infused with the divine presence of God. They worship with arts and other ceremonies.


title: Mandir

text: Hindus believe that gods and goddesses will answer the prayers of the faithful and inspire spiritually. For them, the temple also acts as a contact between the gods and goddesses and the worshipers. They also believe that the gods and goddesses will grant their wishes and protect them from danger.


title: Mandir

text: In Hinduism gods are represented in various forms. Sometimes gods or goddesses are represented in a human form like Shiva, Vishnu, Saraswati or Kali. Sometimes there are gods goddesses in human and animal fused form like Ganesh. Sometimes they are also represented in plants and non-living form like Tulsi and Shaligrams. Murtis are made according to the prescriptios of the ilpasastra, and then installed by priests through the prana pratishtha ceremony. Afterward the divine personality is believed to be present in the Murtis.


title: Mandir

text: To show respect, Hindus give gifts and food to the murtis. They are treated with respect and worshipped everyday. If a temple is a family temple it is treated as part of the family. Some Hindus also offer a part of their daily food to the god or goddess. They are given clothes and are changed at certain times.


title: Propaganda

text: Propaganda is a form of communication to distribute information. It is always biased. The information is designed to make people feel a certain way or to believe a certain thing. The information is often political.


title: Propaganda

text: It is hard to tell whether the information is true or false. Very often, the information is confusing and unfair. Propaganda does tend to make disputes last longer, and be more difficult to resolve. It can take the form of posters, TV advertisements, and radio announcements.


title: Propaganda

text: The word 'propaganda' comes from Latin. At first, it meant 'ideas to be spread around'. But in the First World War, it came to mean political ideas that are supposed to be misleading.


title: Propaganda

text: Propaganda is like advertising in some ways. For example, it uses the mass media to spread its ideas. But advertising is usually trying to sell something, whereas propaganda is about ideas. It is often political, and used by states or political parties, not private companies.


title: Propaganda

text: Propaganda is often used during wars. There it can be very useful. Sometimes it keeps the people of a country happy telling them that their country is fighting well and telling them how important it is that the enemy is defeated. Sometimes it tries to make people hate the enemy. The information could tell people that the enemy is evil or make them seem not human. Sometimes a government gives propaganda to the enemy telling them that the war is going badly for them and that they should stop fighting.


title: Propaganda

text: When a country is not at war, propaganda can still be used. The government may use propaganda to change what people think about a political situation. A group may try to change the way people act towards an issue.


title: Propaganda

text: Propaganda under some countries, like dictatorships, is used along with censorship. While propaganda tries to give people false ideas, censorship forces the ones who disagree with propaganda to keep quiet. Then the propaganda can say everything, because nobody can question it in public.


title: Propaganda

text: Propaganda is also used to win people by tricking them. Some people say that cults use propaganda to get people to join them.


title: Propaganda

text: Propaganda has been used in every known civilisation. It was used by Rameses II on his monuments in Ancient Egypt; it was used by Ancient Greek orators; it was used by Julius Caesar, and all Roman Emperors. The word itself is formed from "propagate", meaning to multiply.


title: Propaganda

text: Propaganda was carried much further by the "Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide" of the Catholic Church. This committee, founded in 1622 by Pope Gregory XV, had action branches in most European countries. These were the local branches of the Inquisition, which sought out heretics. With torture and the threat of death by burning at the stake, they forced heretics to recant (to publicly withdraw their previous beliefs). The objective was to remove all challenges to the supremacy of the Church in matters of belief. The 1578 handbook for inquisitors noted "Punishment does not take place primarily and for the correction and good of the person punished, but for the public good in order that others may become terrified and weaned away from the evils they would commit".


title: Kahoot!

text: Kahoot! is an online quiz game that is commonly used by teachers and some companies. Its learning games, also known as "kahoots", are user-made multiple-choice quizzes that can be played via a web browser or the Kahoot! app. Kahoot! was founded in 2012 by Johan Brand, Jamie Brooker, and Morten Versvik as a project with the . The user enters a Game PIN on the bottom of the app’s screen, and the next screen lets you type the nickname of your choice or you can choose to press the spinner button when the Nickname generator option is enabled. Kahoot! can also be used to review students' knowledge or as a break from any traditional classroom activities. Kahoot! also includes trivia quizzes anytime, anywhere. Kahoot! is known for its multiplayer quizzes for any subject, and in any language. During the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak, Kahoot! can also be played during online learning using video conferencing tools such as Zoom, Skype, Microsoft Teams, and Google Meet by sharing your screen with the video call by tapping the Share screen icon on the conferencing tool.


title: Brothel

text: A brothel is a bar, nightclub or hotel where sex workers are found. People go there to buy sex for money. Different countries have different regulations as to sex work.


title: Brothel

text: Some countries where prostitution is legal allow it to happen in a brothel, others allow it to happen "on the street", still others allow both forms. Generally, sex work in a brothel is seen as safer for the worker than sex work on the street.


title: Brothel

text: In some countries operating brothels is legal, in other countries it is illegal. Examples of countries where brothels are illegal are Canada and most of the United States. Brothels are legal in some countries from Europe, for example. A country which has permissive laws regarding sex work is the Netherlands. Laws can be unclear on whether brothels with sexbots are legal or not.


title: Brothel

text: Most of the time, where legal, brothels need to be registered like other businesses. However even if it is legal to run a brothel, there may still be conflicts with the law. Examples of problem cases are:


title: Brothel

text: Brothels have been known for most of recorded history. At first there was temple prostitution in many Mediterranean and Middle Eastern countries.


title: Brothel

text: In Ancient Greece and Roman civilizations, brothels were established. Sometimes they were licensed institutions. This was first recorded in Athens in 594 BC. Public sources of the time said it was good that Solon installed the brothel. People said this would reduce the problems caused by sexually unfulfilled sailors and workers. It would also fill money into the public purse. This first official brothel was soon followed by many others, and also influenced the creation of special schools in which various classes of prostitutes (from slavegirls to future courtesans) were trained for their profession. In 2017, a brothel was opened with sexbots instead of human workers.


title: Brothel

text: The third option (the brothel owner renting space and facilities to sex workers) gives some way for the brothel owner to say they did not know what is going on. This is especially the case where sex work is forbidden or restricted. Brothel owners often disguise their actions as running a massage parlor, a bar or a similar venue.


title: Brothel

text: Allowing such places (while forbidding se work) can also give politicians a way to save face when they do not want to put laws against sex work into practice.


title: Jordan Peterson

text: Jordan Bernt Peterson (born June 12, 1962) is a Canadian clinical psychologist and a retired professor of psychology at the University of Toronto. He studies abnormal, social, and personality psychology. He is interested in the psychology of religious and ideological belief. Peterson’s views are generally described as conservative.


title: Jordan Peterson

text: Peterson has criticised political correctness, Marxism, and postmodernism. Peterson has said "the climate change thing for me is a contentious issue, because you can’t trust the players." However, he does believe climate change to be an issue.


title: Roundheads

text: The Roundheads were a group of people who supported Parliament & Oliver Cromwell during the English Civil War. They were also called 'Parliamentarians'. They fought against Charles I and the Cavaliers otherwise known as 'Royalists'. The Parliamentary army put their soldiers in red coats. The British army continued using red in later centuries.


title: Roundheads

text: Some Puritans, but by no means all, wore their hair closely cropped round the head or flat and there was an obvious contrast between them and the men of fashion, who wore long ringlets. "Roundheads" appears to have been first used as a term of derision toward the end of 1641, when the debates in Parliament in the Clergy Act 1640 were causing riots at Westminster. According to John Rushworth the word was first used on 27 December 1641 by a disbanded officer named David Hide, who during a riot is reported to have drawn his sword and said he would "cut the throat of those round-headed dogs that bawled against bishops". A few decades later “Whigs” was the word for men of similar opinions.


title: Extra time

text: Extra time is more time added to a game if the score is tied at the end of normal time. Some sports do not allow some of all of their games to end in a tie. In score notation (notes about the score of the game), it is often written by the letters ET or a.e.t. a.e.t stands for "after extra time".


title: Extra time

text: In tournament play, where only the winner continues to the next round, professional association football add 30 minutes of extra time to the game. The extra time is made up of two 15-minute periods. If a game is still tied after extra time, it is usually decided by kicks from the penalty mark, commonly called a penalty shootout.


title: Extra time

text: Extra time is also used in other sports. Some of these sports are rugby union and rugby league, where extra time is usually 20 minutes long. In Australian rules football, two five-minute extra time periods are played in knockout finals matches when scores are tied at the end of the final quarter. In Gaelic football (and hurling), two halves of ten minutes are played after a draw. In major Gaelic football tournaments, extra time is only used if a replay finishes in a tie. In field hockey matches, extra time of 7½ minutes each way is played.


title: Extra time

text: In North American sports, extra time is usually referred to as "overtime"; for ice hockey, it is usually "sudden death", which means that the overtime period ends with the first score made. In college football, a system of alternating possessions beginning at the opponent's 25-yard line is used which plays out similarly to extra innings in baseball in that each team receives a chance to score, and if the game is still tied, another iteration occurs.


title: Hardcore punk

text: Hardcore punk (or hardcore) is a style of punk music that usually sounds louder, faster and more angry than earlier punk rock music from the 1970s. Hardcore began in the late 1970s. Some of the important bands of the genre are Bad Brains, Black Flag, D.O.A, Minor Threat and Cro-Mags. Hardcore songs often have more political lyrics (words) than songs from 1970s punk.


title: Hardcore punk

text: No one is quite sure where the term "hardcore punk" came from. The band D.O.A. may have helped to make the term more popular with the title of their album "Hardcore '81" in 1981.


title: Hardcore punk

text: The first hardcore punk song was "Out of Vogue" by the Santa Ana band The Middle Class. This band started to play a loud type of punk with shouted words. At the same time, the Stimulators, a NYC thrash band, performed their song M.A.C.H.I.N.E. which contains all the elements of hardcore punk. The Stimulators played shows with the Bad Brains, who soon created the song Pay to Cum, which was the fastest punk song ever played at the time.


title: Hardcore punk

text: People in hardcore punk bands and people who listened to hardcore punk wore clothes that were of two types. Some people wore clothes and hairstyles that were strange and a bit scary, like Mohawk hairstyles and leather jackets with metal studs. Other people wore regular clothes like black pants and T-shirts.


title: Hardcore punk

text: At hardcore punk concerts, people did a type of dancing called moshing. This type of dance involves people pushing each other and jumping off the stage.


title: Hardcore punk

text: In the early 1980s, hardcore bands from England began to get noticed, such as Discharge, The Exploited, and The Varukers. Discharge played with a sound that included heavy metal guitar styles.


title: Hardcore punk

text: Hardcore led to the creation of the straight edge movement. People who are straight edge do not use alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. Straight edge led to two new groups, called hardline and youth crew. Hardcore musicians also created independent record labels in the 1980s.


title: Hardcore punk

text: Many bands had a "Do it Yourself" (DIY) attitude. Bands would record their own albums using simple four-track recorders, and the sell the records themselves at shows or through the mail. Hardcore influenced the creation of new styles of music, including alternative rock, grunge, alternative metal, metalcore, thrash metal and post-hardcore.


title: Hardcore punk

text: Many early hardcore punk bands had songs about liberal politics such as anarchism and socialism. They spoke against political leaders, such as American president Ronald Reagan and British prime minister Margaret Thatcher. While George W. Bush was President of the United States, a number of hardcore bands criticized him.


title: Hardcore punk

text: A small number of hardcore musicians have expressed right wing views, including the band Antiseen, whose guitarist Joe Young ran for office as a Libertarian in North Carolina. Former Misfits singer Michale Graves supported George W. Bush.


title: Hardcore punk

text: Hardcore band singers often sing by shouting the words of the song. Hardcore songs often sound like the singer is angry.


title: Hardcore punk

text: Hardcore bands use electric guitars, electric bass guitar, drums, and a singer. The electric guitars in hardcore bands are distorted, noisy, and fuzzy because the guitarists are using electronic boxes called distortion pedals. Some hardcore guitarists have changed the tuning of their guitar strings so they play notes that are lower than those a normal guitar can play.


title: Hardcore punk

text: The drums in hardcore music play loud and fast, often characterized by use of the double-bass pedal, particularly notable in the breakdowns.


title: History of racial segregation in the United States

text: Racial segregation means separating people because of their races. In the United States, racial segregation has existed since before the United States was its own country. Slavery, racist laws, racist attitudes, and many other things caused the United States to segregate white and non-white people for centuries. Although segregation is now against the law, racist attitudes still remain, and new forms of segregation have formed over time.


text: The first African slaves were brought to America in 1619. This was just nine years after British settlers created the first permanent settlement in America, at Jamestown, Virginia.


text: People in all thirteen American colonies used slaves. Many of the Founding Fathers of the United States owned slaves, including George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock, James Madison, Patrick Henry, and John Jay.


text: Abolitionists started trying to make slavery illegal in the mid-1700s. By 1804, all of the northern states had ended slavery. However, none of the Southern states had. The Southern states believed that slavery was their right, and they did not want to give it up. Cotton had become a very important crop in the South. Owners of large cotton plantations were used to having slaves to do work for free, which made the plantation owners richer because they did not have to pay anybody to work.


text: Eventually, the South tried to leave the United States. This caused the American Civil War. The North won, and in 1865, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution made slavery illegal everywhere in the country. In 1868 and 1870, the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments gave African-Americans citizenship, and gave them the right to vote.


text: Losing the Civil War did not change people's ideas about African-American people. During slavery, slave owners had not seen slaves as humans. They saw them as property, things to buy and sell, like animals you would use on a farm. After the War, many white people still did not see African-Americans as equal to whites.


text: Starting in 1890, the all-white legislatures in the Southern states began to pass state laws that required segregation. These racist laws became known as Jim Crow laws. For example, blacks could not:


text: In 1896, in a case called "Plessy v. Ferguson", the Supreme Court ruled that these laws were legal. They said that segregation was fine, as long as things were "separate but equal." In the South, everything was separate. However, places like black schools and libraries got much less money and were not as good as places for whites. Things were separate, but not equal.


text: Segregation kept African-Americans from having the basic rights that the Founding Fathers had written into the Constitution of the United States. Law-makers, government officials, voting officials, and police officers were all white. This prevented African-Americans from having any say in their government; being able to get the same voting rights as white people; having police officers protect them; or being able to get justice for crimes against them. Because they could not count on all-white police forces to protect them, violence against African-Americans, especially lynchings, increased. Because African-Americans could not vote, they also could not serve on juries. This meant that if a black person was ever on trial for a crime, the jury would be all-white.


text: Problems were worst in the South. However, African-Americans went through different kinds of segregation in other places.


text: Across the United States, segregation in housing was a problem. Many African-Americans could not get mortgages to buy houses. Realtors would not sell black people houses in the suburbs, where white people lived. They also would not rent apartments in white areas. Until the 1950s, the federal government did nothing about this.


text: When he was elected in 1913, President Woodrow Wilson made government offices segregated. He believed that segregation was best for everyone.


text: Black people fought in both World War I and World War II. However, the military was segregated; black officers even had to enter some military bases through separate entrances from white officers. Black soldiers also were not given the same opportunities as white soldiers. Finally, in 1948, President Harry Truman de-segregated the military.


text: African Americans tried to fight back against discrimination in many ways. Mostly, they tried to use the courts to get justice. For example, in 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was created. Its goal was to end race discrimination through lawsuits, education, and lobbying.


text: However, eventually, many African Americans became frustrated and began to dislike the idea of using slow, legal strategies to achieve desegregation. Instead, African American activists decided to use a combination of protests, nonviolence, and civil disobedience. This is how the Civil Rights Movement of 1954-1968 began.