title: Shakira

text: Mebarak's first language is Spanish. She also speaks Portuguese and English. In addition she can speak some Italian, French, Catalan and Arabic/Japanese. Accordingly, she records songs in both English and Spanish, as well as having covered Francis Cabrel's song "Je l'aime à mourir" in French and Fairuz's "Aatini Al Nay" in Arabic as an homage to her home country of Lebanon. <br> On 22 January 2013 Mebarak gave birth to son Milan Piqué Mebarak. In July 2018, Mebarak came back to Lebanon with her family. She visited her grandmother's village of Tannourine where she was granted a square in her name. A statue of the pop-star is set to be built soon in the mentioned village. She also visited her father's hometown, Zahle.


title: Paganism

text: Paganism is a term that covers a great number of spiritual and religious beliefs, and someone who follows one of these beliefs is known as a Pagan. Some of those in ancient times, who are called "Pagans" today, believed there was not just one god but a number of gods and goddesses. The stories from Greek mythology are famous examples from a pagan religion. Pagans usually focus on spirituality and nature, rather than on doctrines and dogma. Not all pagans are polytheists (belief in more than one god). Some of them are monotheists (belief in only one god).


title: Paganism

text: The word "pagan" (without a capital P) is often used to describe anyone who holds religious beliefs that differ from the main world religions. A similar term is "heathen". Today Pagan, with a capital P, often refers to people who follow Neo-Pagan religions that honour the Earth. The best known Neo-Pagan religion is Wicca. Another well-known neo-pagan faith is Druidism, but there are many other Neo-Pagan religions with different beliefs.


title: Paganism

text: Enough has survived of the ancient religions of cultures from pre-modern Africa, South America, New Guinea and Japan to give us quite a clear picture. Since African slaves were taken to both South America and the United States, it is no surprise that their beliefs and practices still survive. Not, of course, as the main religion, but they do survive.


title: Paganism

text: In a similar way, but much less well documented, are the ancient religions of other groups such as the Ainu in Japan, the tribes in New Guinea, the many tribes in Amazonia, and the fractured remnants of traditional religions in African countries.


title: Paganism

text: All these groups have one thing in common: they are not part of farming revolution which happened in the Middle East, and which spread quickly to Eurasia. The religions which started there are called the "religions of the book" because their original beliefs were written down. Of course, writing was one of the original inventions of a settled people, one able to invest time and energy into activities which would be far more difficult for more traditional peoples.


title: Sachin Tendulkar

text: Sachin Ramesh Tendulkar (born 24 April 1973 in Mumbai) is a former Indian cricketer. He has the highest number of runs in both Test cricket and One Day Internationals. He also has the highest number of centuries in both formats of the game. His last Test match being played against the West Indies.He always honoured better players than him like Garfield Sobers or Don Bradman.


title: Sachin Tendulkar

text: Tendulkar scored his much awaited 100th international hundred on 16 March 2012 against Bangladesh in the Asia Cup. He became the first person in history to achieve this feat. Incidentally, it was Tendulkar's first ODI hundred against Bangladesh. He said "It's been a tough phase for me ... I was not thinking about the milestone, the media started all this, wherever I went, the restaurant, room service, everyone was talking about the 100th hundred. Nobody talked about my 99 hundreds. It became mentally tough for me because nobody talked about my 99 hundreds."


title: Eswatini

text: Eswatini is a country in Africa. It is officially the Kingdom of Eswatini ("Umbuso weSwatini"). It was called Swaziland until April 2018.


title: Eswatini

text: Its capital is Mbabane. The country is named after the 19th-century king Mswati II. Eswatini was colonized by the British and the Boers at the end of the 19th century.


title: Eswatini

text: Eswatini is a small country. It is no more than north to south and east to west. It is completely surrounded by land. Eswatini does not touch the sea. The two countries that touch it are Mozambique and South Africa. The country's two largest cities are the administrative capital Mbabane and the economic center Manzini. The seat of government is Lobamba.


title: Eswatini

text: On 19 April 2018, the King of Eswatini Mswati III announced that the Kingdom of Swaziland had renamed itself the Kingdom of Eswatini.


title: Eswatini

text: Eswatini is strongly affected by HIV and AIDS. The 2012 CIA World Factbook showed Swaziland with the highest HIV infection rate in the world. Life expectancy is 50 years.


title: Eswatini

text: Education in Eswatini is free at primary level, mainly 1st and 2nd grades. It is also free for orphaned and vulnerable children. Children are not required to attend. In 1996, the primary school enrollment rate was 90.8%. Girls and boys both attended at the primary level. In 1998, 80.5% of children reached grade five.


title: Eswatini

text: Most of Eswatini’s people are ethnically Swazi. There is also a small number of Zulu and white Africans, mostly people of British and Afrikaner descent. Eswatini also has some Portuguese settlers and African refugees from Mozambique.


title: Eswatini

text: 82.70% of the people are Christian. Christianity in Eswatini is sometimes mixed with traditional beliefs and practices. Some people think of the king as having a spiritual role. Eswatini also has a small Muslim minority.


title: Eswatini

text: Swazi have been subsistence farmers and herders. They now mix such activities with work in the growing urban economy and in government. Some Swazi work in the mines in South Africa.


title: Eswatini

text: "SiSwati" and English are the official languages. SiSwati has 2.5 million speakers and is taught in schools. It is also one of the official languages of South Africa.


title: Eswatini

text: About 76,000 people in the country speak Zulu. Tsonga is spoken by about 19,000 people in Swaziland. Afrikaans is also spoken by some residents of Afrikaner descent.


title: Canaan (son of Noah)

text: Yam is not in the Jewish holy book, the Torah, or the Christian holy book, the Bible. Those two books talk about Yam's older brothers, Shem, Ham, and Japheth, but Yam is only in the Muslim holy book, the Qur'an.


title: Canaan (son of Noah)

text: In the Muslim version of the story of the Great Flood, Yam did not believe in God the way his father, mother and brothers did. They followed God's instructions and Noah built a large boat, the arc, in time to survive the flood, but Yam drowned instead.


title: Canaan (son of Noah)

text: According to the Qur'an, Noah asked Yam to come with him on the boat, but Yam decided to climb a mountain insteadː "O my son, come aboard with us and be not with the disbelievers." Canaan said, "I will take refuge on a mountain to protect me from the water." Noah said, "There is no protector today from the decree of The Lord our God, except from whom He gives mercy." Then it is mentioned that Yam drowned.


title: Canaan (son of Noah)

text: Some versions ( Christian/Jews) say Noah's wife, Canaan's mother, went to the mountain with Canaan because she loved him so much. In this version, Canaan is still a boy small enough to be picked up. It says when the water came, Canaan's mother held him above her head so he would live longer before he drowned.


title: Canaan (son of Noah)

text: The holy books of the Jews, Christians and Muslims also talk about Canaan (son of Ham), Noah's grandson. This Canaan is still alive after the flood. One Jewish scholar thinks this Canaan might have been Noah's son and not grandson. So this could be the same Canaan or it could be another person with the same name.


title: Opera

text: Opera is a drama set to music. An opera is like a play in which everything is sung instead of spoken. Operas are usually performed in opera houses. The singers who sing and act out the story are on the stage, and the orchestra is in front of the stage but lower down, in the orchestra pit, so that the audience can see the stage.


title: Opera

text: An opera is normally divided into two, three, four or even five acts. In older operas the music was mostly recitative and arias. During the recitative things would happen in the story. The aria was a song for a solo singer, a setting of a lyric. As well as recitative and aria there would be choruses. The chorus were a group of singers who sing in the crowd scenes. The opera would start with an overture for the orchestra. The overture would usually include tunes that are going to be heard later in the opera.


title: Opera

text: In operas from the 19th century onwards there is often little or no difference between recitative and aria. Composers like Wagner wanted to get away from operas which had lots of separate arias in which the singers showed off, with the audience clapping loudly after each one. He wanted continuous music so that the mood would not be broken.


title: Opera

text: Sometimes operas have a lot of dancing in them. French opera especially would often have one act which was full of dances.


title: Opera

text: Opéra bouffe (French) or Opera buffa (Italian) is comic opera. The story is very light-hearted and funny.


title: Opera

text: Opéra comique is a French term for opera which has some spoken words. Surprisingly it does not mean a “comic” opera. An opera like "Carmen", which is a tragedy, is still an opéra comique due to the fact that it uses spoken dialogues instead of recitatives.


title: Opera

text: Singspiel is a German term for a type of opera with lots of magic and fantasy in the story. There were spoken words between the songs. Mozart’s "Magic Flute" is an example.


title: Opera

text: Opera singers have to have powerful voices as well as a good technique. Most opera houses are very big, and the singers need to be heard at the back. They also need to be good at acting. They need to be able to learn their music quickly and to sing from memory. It is a help to be good at languages because operas are often in Italian, German, French, English or Russian etc. Some opera companies, like the English National Opera, sing their operas in English. Others, like the Royal Opera House, sing operas in whatever language they were composed in. Translations are printed on a screen above the front of the stage ("surtitles") so that the audience can understand what is being sung.


title: Opera

text: Although singers train to get a wide range (good top and bottom notes) they cannot be expected to sing any role in their voice range. For example: some sopranos may have big, dramatic voices, suitable for parts like Tosca in Puccini’s opera "Tosca". Some may have a very light and high voice, called “coloratura”, suitable for parts like the Queen of the Night in Mozart’s "Magic Flute". Some may have a medium range, called mezzo-soprano, suitable for parts like Carmen in Bizet’s opera "Carmen".


title: Opera

text: Very often in opera the heroine is a soprano and the hero is a tenor. Basses may often have the part of a powerful king, or he may be the bad guy.


title: Opera

text: The 18th century lexicographer and critic Dr Johnson described opera as an “exotic and irrational entertainment”. By “exotic” he meant that it came from a foreign country (which in those days was true: all opera at the time came from Italy). By “irrational” he meant that the things which happened in the stories were strange and not like real life. A play can be like real life, but an opera is being sung, so things are not going to happen like they normally do in real life. A singer might be singing “I must go, I must go!” and he may stand on the stage and sing this for several minutes before at last he goes! A singer may be pretending to die, and will sing a beautiful song before he or she finally dies. These things are “conventions”, which means that they are a kind of habit we have to accept when watching and listening to opera. Another convention of earlier operas was to have the part of young men sung by women. This is sometimes called a breeches role or trouser role. They are often small parts such as page boys, or teenagers who flirt with older women, such as the part of Cherubino in Mozart’s " The Marriage of Figaro" or Oktavian in Richard Strauss’s "Der Rosenkavalier". It should be remembered that in the 18th century it was usual for the main female part to be sung by a man who was a castrato.


title: Opera

text: There are lots of famous operas, and the best ones have some of the greatest music ever written. The music could not have been written like that if it had not been written for opera. For example: Mozart is very clever at writing music where maybe six people are all singing different things at once because they all have different ideas about the situation in the story.


title: Opera

text: One of the first operas ever written was by Hildegard of Bingen. Ordo Virtutum (Latin for "Order of the Virtues") is an allegorical , or , composed c. 1151, during the construction and relocation of Bingen's Abbey at Rupertsberg. It is the earliest morality play by more than a century, and the only Medieval musical drama to survive with an attribution for both the text and the music.


title: Opera

text: A short version of "Ordo Virtutum" without music appears at the end of "", Hildegard's most famous account of her visions. It is also included in some manuscripts of the "Symphonia armoniae celestium revelationum" ("Symphony of the Harmony of Celestial Revelations"), a cycle of more than 70 liturgical songs. It may have been performed by the convent nuns at the dedication of the St. church in 1152 or possibly before the at the convent .


title: Opera

text: The first Baroque opera ever written was performed in 1597 in Florence in Italy. It was called "Dafne" and the composer was Jacopo Peri. This opera is now lost, but three years later, in 1600, he worked together with another composer called Giulio Caccini to write an opera called "Euridice". The music for this still exists. It was nearly all recitative. This kind of writing was new, but if opera was to tell a story it was important to have a solo voice singing words that could be heard. They were trying to produce something like an ancient Greek tragedy. It was performed at a kind of club, called “camerata”, for intellectual (clever) people to a small audience. It was not great music, but the amazing thing was that there was a composer of genius around. His name was Claudio Monteverdi, and only seven years later, in 1607, he wrote the first really good opera: "Orfeo", which was produced in Mantua. Monteverdi must have realized that opera had the possibilities of putting poetry, music, scenery and acting all together. He took the kind of songs that were popular at the time and joined them with speaking or recitative. Later in life he joined these so that the music flowed more dramatically.


title: Opera

text: In 1637 the first public opera house was opened in Venice. Soon lots of theatres in Italy started to produce operas. The stories were usually about ancient times, like the Roman Empire or Greek myths. They started to put in comic (funny) bits to make people laugh. Soon there was opera in Paris, Vienna, Hamburg and in the small courts of Germany which in those days was lots of little countries, each with their own prince who ruled and who kept musicians at court. The composers who are best remembered today include Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687) who was an Italian who moved to France and wrote operas for the French king, and George Frideric Handel (1685-1759) who was a German who moved to England and wrote operas for the opera houses in London. In Italy there were composers like Francesco Cavalli (1602-1676) who had been a choirboy in Monteverdi’s church choir in Venice, and Alessandro Scarlatti 1660-1725 who lived in Naples.


title: Opera

text: During this period, known as the Baroque period, the opera was an entertainment for the upper classes who went to the opera to be seen in public. Opera was a social occasion where you could meet people and talk, even during the music. Both the singers and the audience behaved in ways that we would think were bad manners.


title: Opera

text: Christoph Willibald Gluck was a composer who tried to make people take opera more seriously. In 1762 he wrote an opera called "" which was performed in Vienna. It had lots of choruses and ballet numbers, like French opera, but the words were in Italian and the music really concentrated on the story rather than being just a display for clever singers to show off. Some of its music is very famous today, e.g. the "Dance of the Blessed Spirits" which is played on a flute, and Orfeo’s aria "Che faró senza Euridice?" ("What shall I do without Euridice?").


title: Opera

text: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart learned from Gluck’s ideas about opera. This can be seen in his opera "Idomeneo" which is about a Greek story. Other Italian operas by Mozart include: "Don Giovanni", "Le Nozze di Figaro" and "Cosi fan tutte". He also wrote operas in German: "The Abduction from the Serail" and "The Magic Flute". These are Singspiel: operas which tell magic and fantasy stories.


title: Opera

text: Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) only wrote one opera: "Fidelio". It is a story of a woman who rescues her lover from prison. Rescue operas were popular in France, but this one is in German. It is a serious opera about how a woman can save a man by being true and faithful.


title: Opera

text: In the 19th century Richard Wagner (1813-1883) continued Gluck’s ideas. Wagner had very personal ideas about how his operas should be performed, and he liked to train the singers himself. He wanted them to take the drama of his operas seriously instead of treating the music as a way of showing off their voices. He always wrote the libretti (words for the opera) himself, and they were always in German. They are mostly about serious subjects from German folklore and myths, although he did write one comic opera: "The Mastersingers of Nürnberg". Wagner used “leitmotifs” which means that there are tunes which are used for particular characters or ideas in the opera. This allows the music to develop with the story, and can be used in interesting ways. For example: when Sigmund (in the opera "Die Walküre") says that he does not know who his father is, we hear his father’s tune in the orchestra! The audience, of course, know (this is called: dramatic irony).


title: Opera

text: In Italy Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868) wrote lots of operas. There was no difference in style between his comic and his serious operas. Often the same overture was used for both. He wrote exactly all the notes that the singers were to sing, he did not want to leave it to them to improvise their own ornamental notes. Everything was carefully thought out. Musicians are not sure whether to call him a Classical or Romantic composer. Composers like Vincenzo Bellini (1801-1835) and Gaetano Donizetti (1797-1848) are definitely Romantic. They had the ability to write lovely lyrical tunes. The most famous Italian opera composer of the 19th century was Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901). His music is not always continuous like Wagner’s. Sometimes it stopped for the audience to applaud. Verdi had a wonderful sense of drama, and could write beautiful melodies which captured people’s hearts. He loved Shakespeare, and based several of his operas on Shakespeare plays: "Othello", "Macbeth" and "Falstaff".


title: Opera

text: The 19th century was the time when Nationalism was important. Composers were writing music typical of their own countries. Wagner, as we have seen, took German myths for his opera stories. In Spain they had their own kind of opera called “zarzuela”. In Russia Mikhail Glinka (1804-1857) wrote "Ruslan and Lyudmila" which was based on a Russian fairy tale. Other Russian composers include Alexander Borodin who wrote "Prince Igor", and Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881) who wrote "Boris Godunov". Both these operas are about stories from Russian history. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-1908) wrote a fairy tale opera "Sadko", and Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840-1893) used some very Russian tunes in "Eugene Onegin" and "The Queen of Spades".


title: Opera

text: Czech composers wrote national operas. The most famous Czech opera composers were Antonín Dvořák (1841-1904), Bedřich Smetana (1824-1884) and Leoš Janáček (1854-1928). In France the most famous composer was Charles Gounod (1818-1893) who wrote an opera called "Faust".


title: Opera

text: In the 20th century composers had many different styles of composing. This was true of all kinds of music, including opera. Richard Strauss (1864-1949) was really a Romantic, although almost all his operas were written in the 20th century. His harmonies show that he had studied Wagner’s operas. "Der Rosenkavalier" (1909) has lots of romantic tunes, although it is a story about Vienna in the Classical period. In Italy composers like Giacomo Puccini (1858-1924) wrote operas in the verismo style. This meant operas with stories that felt like real life. The characters in the stories were usually from the lower classes.


title: Opera

text: Alban Berg (1885-1935) also wrote operas about poor or simple people. He wrote an opera called "Wozzeck" which is the tragedy of a man who is too simple to understand that people are being unkind to him and using him. Berg’s music is often built on the twelve tone series which he had learned from Schoenberg. Stravinsky’s (1882-1971) "The Rake's Progress" is in yet another style called Neo-classical because the music is made to sound a bit like music of the Classical Period. In England Britten wrote many great operas like "Peter Grimes" and "Billy Budd". In Russia Dmitri Shostakovich wrote "Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District". Most of them are about unfortunate people who want to be part of society but are not accepted.


title: Opera

text: More recent composers who wrote operas include the Hungarian György Ligeti (1923-2006), the Polish Krzysztof Penderecki (b.1933), the English Sir Harrison Birtwistle and the Americans Philip Glass (b.1937) and John Adams (b.1947).


title: Lapu-Lapu City

text: Lapu-Lapu City is a first class highly-urbanized city in the Philippine province of Cebu. The city occupies most of Mactan Island, a few kilometers off the main island of Cebu and also covers the area of Olango Island further to the southeast region, plus a few other islands. According to the 2007 census, it has a population of about 292,530 people.


title: Lapu-Lapu City

text: The city is linked to Mandaue on mainland Cebu by the Mactan-Mandaue Bridge and Marcelo Fernan Bridge. Mactan-Cebu International Airport, the second busiest airport in the Philippines, is in Lapu-Lapu City. The only aquarium attraction in the Visayas is also in Lapu-lapu City. It is known as "Opon'.It is also home to the Mactan Shrine.


title: Lapu-Lapu City

text: Lapu-Lapu City borders Mandaue to the west, Cebu Strait to the east, Consolacion to the north, and Cordova to the south.


title: Lapu-Lapu City

text: In the 16th century, Mactan Island was colonized by Spain. Augustinian friars founded the town of Opon in 1730. It became a city in 1961 and was renamed after Native Royalty the Datu Lapu-Lapu, the Island's chieftain who defeated Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. This battle is commemorated at the Lapu-Lapu shrine in Punta Engaño.


title: Lapu-Lapu City

text: Politician Manuel A. Zosa, the representative of the Sixth District of Cebu, sponsored the Bill converting the former municipality of Opon into the present day City of Lapu-Lapu. This was the Republic Act 3134, known as the City Charter of Lapu-Lapu which was signed on June 17, 1961 by former Philippine President Carlos P. Garcia.


title: Anus

text: The anus is the opening in the human body that is between the buttocks. It is at the end of the gastrointestinal system (including the organs that digest food), where feces or "stool" comes out of the body.


title: Abbie Hoffman

text: Abbot Howard "Abbie" Hoffman (November 30, 1936 – April 12, 1989) was an American social and political activist.


title: Abbie Hoffman

text: He was one of the "Chicago Eight" along with Luke stockdale, David Dellinger, Tom Hayden, Rennie Davis, John Froines, Lee Weiner, and Bobby Seale, who were arrested for demonstrating at the 1968 Democratic National Convention.


title: Abbie Hoffman

text: At Woodstock in 1969, Hoffman ran onstage to interrupt The Who's performance. He tried to speak against the jailing of John Sinclair of the White Panther Party. Pete Townshend was adjusting his amplifier between songs and turned around to see Hoffman. Townshend cursed at Hoffman and tried to knock him off the stage.


title: Abbie Hoffman

text: He was arrested after a conviction for selling cocaine. He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 1980. He committed suicide by an overdose of phenobarbital and alcohol.


title: Abbie Hoffman

text: Hoffman's life was dramatized in the 2000 movie "Steal This Movie". Vincent D'Onofrio acted his part.


title: Abbie Hoffman

text: In the 1987 HBO television movie "Conspiracy: The Trial of the Chicago 8", Michael Lembeck acted the part of Hoffman.


title: Abbie Hoffman

text: Richard D'Alessandro played the part of Hoffman in the 1994 movie "Forrest Gump". He is seen speaking against "the war in Vietnam" at a protest rally at the Lincoln Memorial.


title: Cameroon

text: Cameroon (officially called the Republic of Cameroon) is a country in Central Africa. Its capital is Yaoundé. The largest city in Cameroon is Douala. The population of Cameroon is about 20 million. Cameroon's president is Paul Biya. They speak nearly 250 languages in Cameroon. French and English are the official languages.


title: Cameroon

text: At , Cameroon is the world's 53rd-largest country. It is about the size of Papua New Guinea. The country is in Central and West Africa on the Bight of Bonny, part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. The country's neighbours are Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south.


title: Cameroon

text: The constitution divides Cameroon into 10 regions. On 12 November 2008, the President changed the divisions from provinces to regions. Each region is headed by a presidentially appointed governor.


title: Cameroon

text: The regions are divided into 58 divisions. These are headed by presidentially appointed divisional officers.


title: Cameroon

text: The official languages of Cameroon are French and English. It is part of both the British Commonwealth and La Francophonie. Most people speak French, English is only spoken in the Northwest and Southwest regions of the country, formely under British control.


title: Seychelles

text: Seychelles is an African country in the Indian Ocean. Its capital city is Victoria. The official languages are Creole, English, and French. It is a republic is made up of 115 islands.


title: Seychelles

text: Seychelles and the islands to the south, Madagascar and Mauritius, all had legal slavery and were part of the slave trade. Most of the people are descendants of freed slaves, who make up about 90% of the population. Many of them also are descended from slave owners who abused their ancestors. There are small minorities of immigrants from Europe, China and India. Most people are Roman Catholics, about 90% of them. About 8% are Protestants.


title: Seychelles

text: Other nearby island countries and territories include Zanzibar to the west, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Agalega and Réunion to the south, and Comoros and Mayotte to the southwest. Seychelles has an estimated population of 86,525. It is the smallest population of any African state.


title: Seychelles

text: It is thought that Arab sailors first saw the islands in the 7th century. Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama discovered the islands in 1502, and called them Three Brothers (), but he did not visit the islands. The British East India Company visited the islands, but they did not settle there.


title: Seychelles

text: Seychelles is to the northeast of Madagascar and about east of Kenya. The number of islands in the archipelago is often given as 115 but the Constitution of the Republic of Seychelles lists 155.


title: Seychelles

text: According to the president of Nauru, the Seychelles has been ranked the ninth most endangered nation due to flooding from climate change.


title: Seychelles

text: Seychelles is divided into twenty-five administrative regions. Eight of the districts make up the capital of Seychelles. They are called Greater Victoria. Another 14 districts are considered the rural part of the main island of Mahé. There are two districts on Praslin and one on La Digue which also include satellite islands. The rest of the Outer Islands are not considered part of any district.


title: Seychelles

text: During the plantation era, cinnamon, vanilla, and copra were the main exports. In the 1960s, about 33% of the working population worked at plantations, and 20% worked in the public or government sector. In 1971, with the opening of Seychelles International Airport, tourism became a serious industry.


title: Seychelles

text: Like many fragile island ecosystems, the Seychelles had loss of biodiversity during early human history. This included the disappearance of most of the giant tortoises from the granitic islands. There was also the extinction of species such as the chestnut flanked white eye, the Seychelles Parakeet, the Seychelles Black Terrapin and the saltwater crocodile. However, extinctions were far fewer than on islands such as Mauritius or Hawaii. This was partly due to a shorter period of human occupation being only since 1770. The Seychelles today is known for success stories in protecting its flora and fauna. The rare Seychelles Black Parrot, the national bird of the country, is now protected.


title: Seychelles

text: The granitic islands of Seychelles are home to about 75 endemic plant species. There are a further 25 or so species in the Aldabra group. Particularly well-known is the Coco de Mer, a species of palm that grows only on the islands of Praslin and neighbouring Curieuse. The jellyfish tree is to be found in only a few locations on Mahe. This strange and ancient plant is in a genus of its own (Medusagynaceae). Other unique plant species include the Wright's Gardenia "Rothmannia annae" found only on Aride Island Special Reserve.


title: Seychelles

text: The freshwater crab genus "Seychellum" is endemic to the granitic Seychelles. There are a further 26 species of crabs and 5 species of hermit crabs that live on the islands.


title: Seychelles

text: The Aldabra Giant Tortoise now lives on many of the islands of the Seychelles. The Aldabra population is the largest in the world. These unique reptiles can be found even in captive herds.


title: Seychelles

text: The marine life around the islands, especially the more remote coral islands, can be spectacular. More than 1,000 species of fish have been recorded. Since the use of spearguns and dynamite for fishing was banned in the 1960s, the wildlife is unafraid of snorkelers and divers. Coral bleaching in 1998 has damaged most reefs, but some reefs show healthy recovery.


title: Gibraltar

text: Gibraltar is an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom. This means it shares the British King or Queen and has the protection of the British Armed Forces. It is in southwest Europe on the Mediterranean Sea. About 32,000 people live there. They are called Gibraltarians.


title: Gibraltar

text: Gibraltar has always been important as a military base because this is where the Mediterranean Sea narrows to only 14 kilometres (9 miles) at the Strait of Gibraltar. This meant that whichever country controlled Gibraltar could see all ships that came into the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Gibraltar

text: Gibraltar is most famous for "The Rock of Gibraltar", a 426 meter high limestone rock rising out of the sea. The rock can be seen for many miles. It is home to the "Barbary Apes", a type of tail-less macaque which are the only wild monkeys in Europe.


title: Gibraltar

text: Gibraltar was named for a general who led the Umayyad conquest of Hispania. It belonged to Spain between the years 1501 and 1704, and it was captured by a group of Dutch and British marines during the War of the Spanish Succession (1704). In 1713, Spain signed the "Treaty of Utrecht". This treaty ended the war and said Gibraltar would be British permanently. However, according to this treaty, if the Crown of Great Britain ever wants to leave the territory, the Crown of Spain will have a prior position in order to claim the sovereignty.


title: Gibraltar

text: Ever since then, Spain has tried to get Gibraltar back. They attacked the Rock several times in the 18th century.


title: Gibraltar

text: However, since the 1950s, Spain has tried get Gibraltar by diplomacy (international relations) by putting different kinds of pressure and restrictions on the people of Gibraltar.


title: Gibraltar

text: Gibraltar was very important in World War II. Since it was in such a good position, it was the perfect place for the British army and navy to have its base. In World War II the people living in Gibraltar were taken to different parts of the world like Jamaica so they could be protected from the war and also leave the Rock for the soldiers. The Rock of Gibraltar was used by these soldiers, and long tunnels were made inside it. These tunnels even had a hospital and living areas for the soldiers.


title: Gibraltar

text: In 1969 Britain gave Gibraltar a new constitution. This meant that it gave the people of Gibraltar a large amount of self-government.


title: Gibraltar

text: In 2002 the people of Gibraltar were asked to vote whether they wanted Spain to share Gibraltar with the United Kingdom; almost everyone voted and 98.97% said they did not.


title: Gibraltar

text: In 2006 Gibraltar voted to approve a new constitution which gave full self-government to the people meaning they can independently create their own laws.


title: Gibraltar

text: In 2006, Spain signed a deal to stop interfering with Gibraltar telephone lines, and daily flights to Madrid started.


title: Clarinet

text: The clarinet body is made up of the mouthpiece, barrel, upper joint, pads, keys, ring key, rod, lower joint, and bell. The clarinet has one reed. The reed is made of cane, bamboo or plastic, which varies in thickness. The reed is attached to the mouthpiece with a clamp called a "ligature", which is usually made out of metal. Blowing through the mouthpiece makes the reed vibrate, and therefore makes the noise. The body of the clarinet is a cylindrical tube with holes. The holes are covered by the fingers to make musical notes. There are also buttons pressed by the fingers which allow pads over holes to open or close so all notes of the chromatic scale can be played. The buttons are usually played with the "pinkie" finger.


title: Clarinet

text: One kind of keyed clarinet is called the Albert . Another kind is called the system. The Boehm clarinet is much used by classical orchestras and by jazz musicians. In North America and other Western countries, the most popular clarinet is the clarinet pitched in B flat. This means that if a clarinet player plays a note that is written as a C, it sounds like a B flat on a piano. The B flat clarinet is used in concert, marching, and school bands. Musicians in orchestras also play the A-clarinet (a semitone lower), the sopranino E flat clarinet (a fourth higher) and the Bass_clarinet in B flat (sounding an octave lower).


title: Clarinet

text: A beginner clarinet player usually can play a note within the first minutes of a lesson. Making a sound with the clarinet is easier than making a sound with many other wind instruments. Most instrumental music teachers consider it to be a good instrument for young players as soon as the lower adult teeth have grown. The fingering system is very similar to the flute and the saxophone, so changing from playing the clarinet to one of these instruments is not too difficult after the student is comfortable playing the clarinet and has reached a certain level.


title: Clarinet

text: A famous piece that features a clarinet is Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Clarinet Concerto, which has the clarinet playing the melody with the rest of the orchestra playing along. Written in 1791, it is often considered the first great composition for the instrument.


title: Essay

text: An essay is a written text. It is usually about the personal point of view of the author who wrote it. The definition of an essay is vague. Articles and short stories can be quite similar. Almost all modern essays are written in prose, but works in verse have been called essays (e.g. Alexander Pope's "An Essay on Criticism" and "An Essay on Man"). People that write essays are called essayists.


title: Essay

text: Most essays are short. This does not have to be the case. John Locke's "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" and Thomas Malthus's "An Essay on the Principle of Population" are long essays.


title: Essay

text: Essays can have all sorts of purposes. For example, an essay can be very argumentative, it can talk about points for and against the essay question to give a balanced argument or opinion. Essay must be essential and give some new points about topics. Its must be useful to readers.


title: Essay

text: The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner. The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by coherence, logical arguments, evidential support, and a conclusion. Some examples of argument essay topics are 'Is polygamy evil or not?', 'Are US elections always fair?'


title: Essay

text: This is a genre of essay where a stance is presented in an essay using a thesis statement. A thesis statement is one or more sentence that expresses the main idea of a research paper or essay, such as an expository essay or argumentative essay. It makes a claim, directly answering a question. The thesis statement serves as a guide for the readers throughout the whole entire essay.


title: Composer

text: A composer is someone who writes (composes) music. Some composers work by writing music down on paper; this is called 'written notation'. Classical music writers work this way. Writers for TV and movie music also usually write this way, so that an orchestra or other players can read the music and play it.


title: Composer

text: Some musicians are very good at improvisation. This means that they think up (invent) the music as they play it. Some church organists are good at improvising. During a service they may need to play some organ music to fill in the gaps while people are collecting money or taking communion. Jazz musicians are usually excellent at improvising. Improvisation is not written down, so each time it is different.


title: Composer

text: Popular and rock or soul music writers are often not able to read and write music down. Many pop and rock composers compose their songs on a guitar or piano. Cole Porter and Irving Berlin usually composed at the piano.


title: Composer

text: Many songs are written by two or more people. It is common for two people to work together to write songs. Sometimes, one person writes the music and one writes the words (the lyrics). Some songs such as folk songs were composed many years ago and no one knows who wrote them.


title: Jay-Jay Okocha

text: Augustine Azuka Okocha ( ; born 14 August 1973), commonly known as Jay-Jay Okocha, is a Nigerian former professional footballer who played as an attacking midfielder. He played 73 times for the Nigeria national team between 1993 and 2006, scoring 14 times, and was a member of three FIFA World Cup squads. He is considered as one of the greatest football players from Africa. Okocha is gifted with remarkable technique and speed, he is regarded as one of the best dribblers in history. In addition, he was also an expert in long-range shots and set pieces.


title: Jay-Jay Okocha

text: In 1990 Okocha moved as a youth player from the Nigerian club Enugu Rangers to then third division club Borussia Neunkirchen. There he made his debut as a 17-year-old in the Oberliga team . Already in his first season in Neunkirchen he caused a sensation with his dribbles and goals, sometimes from more than 30 meters goal distance in the Oberliga Südwest. This did not go unnoticed by the then coach of league rivals Eintracht Trier, Dragoslav Stepanović, who steered him to Frankfurt in 1992, where he first played as a contract amateur for Eintracht Frankfurt and on September 26, 1992 against Werder Bremen for the first time in the. Bundesliga accrued. He became known for sensational dribbles and made the headlines. His goal to make it 3-1 against Karlsruher SC in the Bundesliga game on August 31, 1993 was spectacular: he played around the opposing defenders in the penalty area and made goalkeeper Oliver Kahn run back and forth several times with body tricks and sudden changes of direction before he finally got the ball shot in goal. The viewers of the sports show voted this goal goal of the year 1993.


title: Jay-Jay Okocha

text: At the beginning of December 1994, the Nigerian international made headlines when he showed his solidarity with his teammates Anthony Yeboah and Maurizio Gaudino and refused special training ordered by coach Jupp Heynckes and participation in the subsequent Bundesliga game, which resulted in the dismissal of Yeboah and Gaudino. After Eintracht was relegated to the 2nd Bundesliga, Okocha played for the Turkish first division club Fenerbahçe Istanbul from 1996 to 1998, during which time he accepted Turkish citizenship before moving to Paris Saint-Germain in 1998 for 22 million marks.


title: Jay-Jay Okocha

text: Jay-Jay Okocha made 90 appearances (18 goals) in the 1st Bundesliga for Eintracht Frankfurt from 1992 to 1996. In the Premier League he completed 124 games ( 14 goals) for Bolton Wanderers from 2002 and was voted BBC African Footballer of the Year in 2003 and 2004. At the end of the 2005/06 season, however, his contract was not extended by the "Trotters", although he was still one of the regulars. After a year in Qatar, the Nigerian finally signed a one-year contract with English second division side Hull City for the 2007/08 season. With the new club, he was promoted to the Premier League.


title: Jay-Jay Okocha

text: Okocha made his official debut for Nigeria in their 2–1 1994 FIFA World Cup Qualifier away loss against Ivory Coast in May 1993. It was not until his second cap and home debut that he became a favourite with the Nigerian supporters. With Nigeria trailing 1–0 against Algeria, in a match they needed to win, he scored from a direct free kick to equalise, before helping the team to a 4–1 win, eventually securing qualification to their first World Cup. In 1994, he was a member of both the victorious 1994 African Cup of Nations squad and the World Cup squad who made it to the second round before they lost in a dramatic match against eventual runners-up Italy.


title: Jay-Jay Okocha

text: In 1996, Okocha became a key member of an arguably more successful Nigerian side, their Olympic gold winning side at the Atlanta Games, later nicknamed the Dream Team by the Nigerian press after the USA 1992 Olympic gold winning basketball team. In the 1998 FIFA World Cup hosted by France, Okocha played for a disappointing Super Eagles side who failed to live up to expectations again reaching the round of 16, albeit with less impressive performances save for their 3–2 opening win against Spain. This did not destroy interest in Okocha, who had entertained fans with his trademark skills and dribbles and went on to be named in the squad of the tournament.


title: Jay-Jay Okocha

text: Okocha again joined the Super Eagles in the 2000 African Cup of Nations co-hosted with Ghana. He scored three goals in the tournament, two in the opening game against Tunisia, and then given a standing ovation by the nearly 60,000 attendance when he left the field.


title: Jay-Jay Okocha

text: He made a return to the Super Eagles in his testimonial against an African select side in Warri. The game featured former players Daniel Amokachi, Alloysius Agu, John Fashanu, Benjani and Sulley Muntari. Nigeria won the game 2–1 with Okocha scoring the winning goal after appearing for the side in the second half. In March 2004, he was named one of the top 125 living footballers by Pelé.


title: Pilot

text: A pilot is a person that drives a vehicle (form of transportation) such as an airplane, spacecraft, or boat. All types of pilots must pass a number of tests and obtain a license before they can operate the vehicle. The pilot of a flying machine is usually in charge for the whole trip. A ship pilot usually only guides the ship through an especially difficult place such as a harbor.


title: Electric charge

text: Electric charge is a basic property of electrons, protons and other subatomic particles. Electrons are negatively charged while protons are positively charged. Things that are negatively charged and things that are positively charged pull on (attract) each other. This makes electrons and protons stick together to form atoms. Things that have the same charge push each other away (they "repel" each other). This is called the "Law of Charges". It was discovered by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. The law that describes how strongly charges pull and push on each other is called Coulomb's Law.


title: Electric charge

text: Things that have equal numbers of electrons and protons are "neutral". Things that have more electrons than protons are negatively charged, while things with fewer electrons than protons are positively charged. Things with the same charge repel each other. Things that have different charges attract each other. If possible, the one with too many electrons will give enough electrons to match the number of protons in the one that has too many protons for its load of electrons. If there are just enough electrons to match the extra protons, then the two things will not attract each other anymore. When electrons move from a place where there are too many to a place where there are too few, that is called an electrical current.


title: Electric charge

text: When a person shuffles their feet on a carpet and then touches a brass doorknob, they may get an electrical shock. If there are enough extra electrons then the force with which those electrons push each other away may be enough to make some of the electrons jump across a gap between the person and the doorknob. The length of the spark is a measure of voltage or "electrical pressure." The number of electrons that move from one place to another per unit of time measured as amperage or "rate of electron flow."


title: Electric charge

text: If a person gets a positive or negative charge, it may make the person's hairs stand up because the charges in each hair push it away from the others.


title: Electric charge

text: Electric charge felt when one gets a shock from a doorknob or other object usually is between 25 thousand and 30 thousand volts. However, the electric current only flows briefly, so the flow of electrons through the person's body does not cause physical harm. On the other hand, when clouds gain electrical charges they have even higher voltages and the amperage (the number of electrons that will flow in the lightning strike) can be very high. That means that electrons can jump from a cloud to the earth (or from the earth to a cloud). If those electrons go through a person, then the electric shock can burn or kill.


title: Electric charge

text: The following experiment is described by James Clerk Maxwell in his work "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" (1873). Normally, glass and resin are both neutrally charged. However, if they are rubbed together and then separated, they will become able to attract each other.


title: Electric charge

text: If a second piece of glass is rubbed with a second piece of resin, the following things will be seen:


title: Electric charge

text: Bodies that are able to attract or repel things in this way are said to be 'electrified', or to be 'charged with electricity'. When two different substances are rubbed together, an electrical charge is produced because one of them will give electrons to the other. The reason is that the atoms in the two substances have unequal power to attract electrons. So the one that is more able to attract electrons will take electrons from the one that has a lower attractive force. If glass is rubbed against something else, it may either give or take electrons. What happens depends on what the other thing is.


title: Electric charge

text: Things that have taken electrons are called "negatively charged", and things that have given up electrons are called "positively charged". There is no special reason for these names. It is just an arbitrary (random choice) convention (agreement).


title: Gini coefficient

text: The Gini coefficient (also known as the Gini index or Gini ratio) is a measure of differences in income. It was developed by the Italian statistician Corrado Gini in 1912.


title: Gini coefficient

text: The Gini coefficient is usually a number between 0 and 1 (or 0 to 100). 0 means a country where the income is equally distributed. On the other hand, 1 means that one person owns everything but the rest owns nothing. In reality, all scores are between 0.25 and 0.6 (between 25 and 60 on the 0 to 100 scale).


title: Warsaw

text: Warsaw (In Polish: "Warszawa") is the capital of Poland in Masovian Voivodeship. It is also the biggest city in that country. There are about 2,000,000 people living there (1,726,581 as of 31 March 2014). People from Warsaw are called "Varsovians".


title: Warsaw

text: There are other names for Warsaw. For example, (Latin, Spanish) and "Varsóvia" (Portuguese), (French), (Italian), (German, Dutch), /"Varshe" (Yiddish), (Lithuanian), (Hungarian) and "Varšava" (Czech)


title: Warsaw

text: Warsaw is near the middle of Poland on both sides of the Vistula river, and about 350 km (225 miles) from the Baltic Sea. It is about 100 m (325 ft) above sea level. Warsaw has a humid continental climate ("Dfb" in the Koeppen climate classification).


title: Warsaw

text: People began living here in the 13th century. By the 15th century, Warsaw had grown enough to be called a city. It became the capital of Poland in 1596.


title: Warsaw

text: The city was destroyed several times in its history, but every time it was rebuilt. The most important of these times was during the Second World War. Poland had been occupied by Germany between 1939 and 1944. On 1 August 1944, the people of Warsaw started fighting to free their city.


title: Warsaw

text: There are lot of attractions in the capital of Poland. The most famous monument of Warsaw is Palace of Culture and Science. There is a palace in Wilanów. The king of Poland John III Sobieski lived there. Many people like going to the Museum of Warsaw Uprising. The uprising started in 1944 during World War II


title: Amsterdam

text: Amsterdam is the capital and largest city in the European country of the Netherlands. Amsterdam is famous for its canals and dikes. Unlike in capitals of most other countries, the national government, parliament, government ministries, supreme court, royal family and embassies are not in Amsterdam, but in The Hague. The only diplomatic offices present in Amsterdam are consulates.


title: Amsterdam

text: The city hosts two universities (the University of Amsterdam and the Free University Amsterdam) and an international airport "Schiphol Airport". About 2.2 million people live in the metropolitan area. The city of Amsterdam is the world's most multi-cultural city. It has people living there from 175 different countries. Like other big cities in the Netherlands and elsewhere in the world, Amsterdam is unfortunately subjected to many criminal activities.


title: Amsterdam

text: The former city of Weesp has been part of Amsterdam since 24 March 2022. Because of this Amsterdam has about 905,000 people.


title: Amsterdam

text: A dam was built in 13th century in the river Amstel (that's why the city is called Amsterdam). The old harbor of the city, "Damrak", is now one of the busiest streets in the city. The city was for the first time mentioned in 1275 by count Floris V, count of Holland and Zeeland who gave the people of Amsterdam some more freedom. The city got its city rights probably in 1306; at least soon after the year 1300. The city became a major trading port pretty soon, with a successful trading route to the Baltic Sea. The city grew fast in the 15th century. Because the city basically lies in swamp, the builders of the city had to dig canals to use the digging-ground for getting the living-ground higher. Homes were built on wooden poles, and the canals served as a pretty effective primitive sewer.


title: Amsterdam

text: The city was one of the first cities in Western Europe to be fairly democratic: Wealthy citizens chose the leaders of the city. Amsterdam declared war on the Spanish in 1578, during the Eighty Years' War. When the city of Antwerp fell to the Spanish in 1585, many people of Antwerp fled to Amsterdam. Antwerp was also a major trading city, and when its people moved to Amsterdam, they took their trading-networks with them. That's why Amsterdam became an even more important trading city after that. This launched the Dutch Golden Age. The number of people living in Amsterdam during the War rose from less than 30,000 in 1570 to over 100,000 in 1622. That number would even rise to 200,000 near the end of the 17th century, making the city a very large city for its time (only London and Paris also had that many people). In the 18th century, the number of people living in Amsterdam fell back to 140,000, ending the Golden Age.


title: Amsterdam

text: The 19th century was the time for the first trains and trams in Amsterdam. The first train ran from Amsterdam to Haarlem in 1839. The number of people was rising, with about 250,000 living in Amsterdam in 1850, and more than 500,000 in 1900. Amsterdam was a heavy industrialised city by then. Before the Second World War, there were about 140,000 Jews living in Amsterdam. Most of those people did not survive the war. After the war, Amsterdam became a centre of tolerance and culture; to be different is not abnormal in Amsterdam. It is expected that Amsterdam will grow 12.6% until 2025. It will then hold almost 900,000 people, and the metropolitan area will hold almost 2.5 million people by then.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: A tropical cyclone is a circular air movement that starts over the warm ocean waters in the warm part of Earth near the Equator. Most tropical cyclones create fast winds and great rains. While some tropical cyclones stay out in the sea, others pass over land. They can be dangerous because of flooding and because the winds pick up objects, including things as big as small boats. Tropical cyclones can throw these things at high speeds.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: Tropical cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons form when convection causes warm, moist air above the ocean to rise. They begin as a group of storms when the water gets as hot as 80 °F (27 °C) or hotter. The Coriolis effect made by the Earth's rotation causes the winds to rotate. Warm air rises quickly. Tropical cyclones usually move westward in the tropics, and can later move north or south into the temperate zone. The "eye of the storm" is the center. It has little rain or wind. The eye wall has the heaviest rain and the fastest winds. It is surrounded by rain bands which also have fast winds.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: Tropical cyclones are powered by warm, humid ocean air. When they go onto land, they weaken. They die when they spend a long time over land or cool ocean water.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: The term "tropical cyclone" is a summary term. In various places tropical cyclones have other local names such as "hurricane" and "typhoon". A tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean is called a hurricane. The word hurricane is also used for those that form in the eastern, central and northern Pacific. In the western Pacific a tropical cyclone is called a typhoon. In the Indian Ocean it is called a "cyclone".


title: Tropical cyclone

text: Tropical cyclones are usually given names because it helps in forecasting, locating, and reporting. They are named once they have steady winds of 62 km/h. Committees of the World Meteorological Organization pick names. Once named, a cyclone is usually not renamed.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: For several hundred years hurricanes were named after saints. In 1887, Australian meteorologist Clement Wragge began giving women's names to tropical cyclones. He thought of history and mythology for names. When he used men's names, they were usually of politicians he hated. By World War II cyclone names were based on the phonetic alphabet (Able, Baker, Charlie). In 1953 the United States stopped using phonetic names and began using female names for these storms. This ended in 1978 when both male and female names were used for Pacific storms. In 1979 this practice was added for hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: In the past these storms sank many ships. Better weather forecasting in the 20th century helped most ships avoid them. When tropical cyclones reach land, they may break things. Sometimes they kill people and destroy cities. In the last 200 years, about 1.5 million people have been killed by tropical cyclones.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: Wind can cause up to 83% of the total damages of a storm. Broken wreckage from destroyed objects can become deadly flying pieces. Flooding can also occur when a lot of rain falls and/or when storm surges push water onto the land.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: There is a possibility of "indirect" deaths "after" a tropical cyclone passes. For example, New Orleans, Louisiana suffered from poor health conditions after Hurricane Katrina hit in 2005.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: Tropical cyclones are classified into different categories by their strength and location. The National Hurricane Center, which observes hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean and Eastern and Central Pacific Ocean, classifies them using the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: Tropical cyclones in other places such as the Western Pacific Ocean or the Southern Hemisphere are classified on scales that are quite a bit like the Saffir-Simpson Scale. For example; if a tropical storm in the western Pacific reaches hurricane-strength winds, it is then officially called a "typhoon".


title: Tropical cyclone

text: A tropical depression is an organized group of clouds and thunderstorms with a clear circulation in air near the ocean and maximum continuing winds of less than 17 m/s (33 kt, 38 mph, or 62 km/h). It has no eye and does not usually have the spiral shape that more powerful storms have. Only the Philippines are known to name tropical depressions.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: A tropical storm is an organized system of strong thunderstorms with a very clear surface circulation and continuing winds between 17 and 32 m/s (34–63 kt, 39–73 mph, or 62–117 km/h). At this point, the cyclonic shape starts to form, although an eye does not usually appear in tropical storms. Most tropical cyclone agencies start naming cyclonic storms at this level, except for the Philippines which has its own way of naming cyclones.


title: Tropical cyclone

text: A hurricane or typhoon or a cyclone is a large cyclonic weather system with continuing winds of at least 33 m/s (64 kt, 74 mph, or 118 km/h). A tropical cyclone with this wind speed usually develops an eye, which is an area of calm conditions at the center of its circulation. The eye is often seen from space as a small, round, cloud-free spot. Around the eye is the eye wall, an area where the strongest thunderstorms and winds spin around the storm's center. The fastest possible continuing wind speed found in tropical cyclones is thought to be around 85 m/s (165 kt, 190 mph, 305 km/h).


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The 2021 UEFA Champions League Final was the final match of the 2020–21 UEFA Champions League, the 66th season of Europe's premier club football tournament organised by UEFA, and the 29th season since it was renamed from the European Cup to the UEFA Champions League. It was played at the Estádio do Dragão in Porto, Portugal on 29 May 2021, between English clubs Manchester City, in their first European Cup final, and 2012 winners Chelsea. This was the third all-English final in the competition, after the 2008 and 2019 finals.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The final was originally scheduled to be played at the Krestovsky Stadium in Saint Petersburg, Russia. However, due to the postponement and relocation of the 2020 final to Lisbon as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe, the final hosts were moved back a year, with the Atatürk Olympic Stadium in Istanbul, Turkey instead planning to host the 2021 final. Two weeks before the final, UEFA announced that it would be relocated to Porto to allow a limited number of fans to attend the match. A capacity limit of 33% was agreed for the 50,000-seater Estádio do Dragão, resulting in an attendance of 14,110.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Chelsea won the final 1–0 for their second UEFA Champions League title, with Kai Havertz scoring the only goal of the game late in the first half. As winners, they earned the right to play against the winners of the 2020–21 UEFA Europa League, Villarreal, in the 2021 UEFA Super Cup, and also qualified for the 2021 FIFA Club World Cup, both of which they won.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: "In the following table, finals until 1992 were in the European Cup era, since 1993 were in the UEFA Champions League era."


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The match was the fourth European Cup/Champions League final to take place in Portugal, and the first to take place outside Lisbon, which previously hosted finals in 1967 at the Estádio Nacional and in 2014 and 2020 at the Estádio da Luz. This was the first time the European Cup/Champions League final took place in the same country in successive seasons. The Estádio do Dragão previously hosted matches at UEFA Euro 2004 and the 2019 UEFA Nations League Finals. Additionally, this final was the first since 2004 to be held in a stadium with capacity lower than 60,000.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: An open bidding process was launched on 22 September 2017 by UEFA to select the venues of the finals of the UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa League, and UEFA Women's Champions League in 2020. Associations had until 31 October 2017 to express interest, and bid information must be submitted by 1 March 2018. Associations hosting matches at UEFA Euro 2020 were not allowed to bid for the 2020 UEFA Champions League final.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: UEFA announced on 3 November 2017 that two associations had expressed interest in hosting the 2020 UEFA Champions League final.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The Atatürk Olympic Stadium was selected by the UEFA Executive Committee during their meeting in Kyiv on 24 May 2018.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: On 17 June 2020, the UEFA Executive Committee announced that due to the postponement and relocation of the 2020 final to the Estádio da Luz, Istanbul would instead host the 2021 final.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Turkey, Premier League side Aston Villa offered to have Villa Park in Birmingham as the venue for the Champions League Final instead of Istanbul to hold 8,000 English fans, which could be affected by travel limitations. Villa Park has previously hosted the 1999 Cup Winners' Cup Final, the last final of that UEFA competition. It also hosted the 2012 FA Community Shield, also contested between Manchester City and Chelsea, due to Wembley Stadium – England's national stadium – hosting the Olympic football tournament finals in the previous days, being picked in part because of its equal distances between Manchester and London. On 7 May 2021, Secretary of State for Transport Grant Shapps advised against any fans traveling to Turkey for the game.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: In negotiations with the Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport, UEFA would only consider Wembley as a potential venue within the United Kingdom, and required guarantees that their officials, sponsors and journalists would be exempt from the UK COVID-19 travel restrictions. The British Government was unable to agree to this, and on 13 May 2021, UEFA announced the final was relocated to the Estádio do Dragão in Porto, Portugal, a country that was on the British "green list" for unrestricted travel during the pandemic.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Manchester City were playing in their first European Cup/UEFA Champions League final. They had previously played in one European final, the 1970 European Cup Winners' Cup Final, and won. They became the ninth English side to play in a European Cup/UEFA Champions League final. This was the third UEFA Champions League final for manager Pep Guardiola, and his first since the two wins with Barcelona in 2009 and 2011, both against Manchester United. City were seeking to become the first club to win its first European Cup/UEFA Champions League final since Borussia Dortmund in 1997, which seven clubs had failed to do in between.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: Chelsea were playing in their third European Cup/UEFA Champions League final, and the first since their win in 2012 away against Bayern Munich. In addition, they had previously played in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and UEFA Europa League finals twice each – winning all. In addition, Chelsea became the first club ever to see its men's and women's teams reach the Champions League final in the same season, having qualified for the 2021 UEFA Women's Champions League Final as well. Head coach Thomas Tuchel became the first manager to reach the European Cup/UEFA Champions League final in successive seasons with different clubs, having lost the 2020 final to Bayern Munich while coaching Paris Saint-Germain.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: This was the third all-English final in the history of the competition, after 2008 in Moscow between Chelsea and Manchester United and 2019 in Madrid between Liverpool and Tottenham Hotspur. This was also the third consecutive Champions League final to feature a first-time finalist, after Tottenham in 2019 and Paris Saint-Germain in 2020.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: This was the third meeting between the teams in Europe, having previously met in the semi-finals of the 1970–71 European Cup Winners' Cup, where Chelsea won both legs 1–0 en route to their first European trophy. It was also the second major cup final between them, after the 2019 EFL Cup Final, which City won on penalties following a goalless draw after extra time. The teams met twice during the season's Premier League, with each side winning away: City won the first match 3–1 at Stamford Bridge, while Chelsea won the second 2–1 at Etihad Stadium three weeks before the final. Three weeks before the second league encounter, Chelsea also beat City 1–0 in the FA Cup semi-finals, denying City the chance of winning an unrivaled quadruple.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: On 12 May 2021, UEFA named Spaniard Antonio Mateu Lahoz as the referee for the final. He was joined by six of his fellow countrymen, including assistant referees Pau Cebrián Devís and Roberto Díaz Pérez del Palomar. Carlos del Cerro Grande served as the fourth official, while Alejandro Hernández Hernández acted as the video assistant referee. Juan Martínez Munuera and Íñigo Prieto López de Cerain were appointed as assistant VAR officials, along with Polish referee Paweł Gil.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: American DJ and electronic music producer Marshmello performed a virtual show for the opening ceremony before the match, along with Selena Gomez and Khalid.


title: 2021 UEFA Champions League Final

text: A "home" team was determined, for "administrative purposes," through a special draw held on 19 March 2021, after the quarter-final and semi-final draws.


title: Kola Superdeep Borehole

text: The Kola Superdeep Borehole (, "Kolskaya sverkhglubokaya skvazhina") was a very deep hole dug on the Kola Peninsula in Russia during 1970-1992 and closed by 2008. It was dug in order to learn more about the inside of the Earth. Digging started on May 24, 1970. The work continued until 1992, or 1994. The borehole was kept open until 2005. SG-3, the deepest part of the hole, reached below the surface in 1989. That is the deepest hole ever made and is still the deepest man-made point on Earth.


title: Kola Superdeep Borehole

text: For a long time, SG-3 was also the longest hole by distance from its opening. In 2008, the Al Shaheen BD-04A oil well in Qatar reached + farther and, in 2011, the Odoptu OP-11 oil well off Sakhalin got + farther.


title: Kola Superdeep Borehole

text: The hole was made with different machines at different times. The Soviets started making the hole with the Uralmash-4E. Later, they used the Uralmash-15000. At first, they wanted to get to below the surface. The machines broke the earlier record for the deepest hole on June 6, 1979. The prior record had been held by the Bertha Rogers hole in Washita County, Oklahoma, in the United States. The machines got to below the surface in 1983. Then the Soviet Union celebrated (took special note of) this for about a year without going any deeper. On September 27, 1984, the machine broke at a depth of ; its drill string twisted off and was left in the hole. When the Soviets started to make the hole again, they had to start from .


title: Kola Superdeep Borehole

text: The greatest depth was reached in 1989. The people making the hole thought that they would get to by the end of 1990 and, at last, get to 15,000 m by 1993. They were not able to go any deeper, though, because they had made an error, and the end of the hole was in place of the they had hoped for. Their machines stopped making any holes at all in 1992. The last studies were stopped in 2005 and the place was completely closed and left alone in 2008.


title: Kola Superdeep Borehole

text: The Kola hole got about ⅓ of the way through the Baltic Shield, the part of the Earth's crust (its outer level of rock) below the Kola Peninsula. (People who study the Earth think it's about deep at the place where the hole was made.) The rocks at the bottom of the deepest hole were more than 2½ billion years old.


title: Kola Superdeep Borehole

text: The people who made the hole said they wanted to learn about the different levels of the Baltic Shield, how sound and heat move under the ground, or what kinds of rocks make up the deep crust, and to create new skills and tools for going deep into the Earth. One of the most important things they found was they had made an error about the kinds of rocks underground. When they looked at how sound waves moved through the Earth, they thought there should be a change from granite to basalt rocks at about below the surface. In fact, the sound waves had changed because the heat and pressure made the granite act differently. Also, this special kind of granite was broken into pieces and full of water. The water did not come from above but had been trapped in the deep crust by solid rock. Another important discovery was that the mud from the deep hole was "boiling" with hydrogen gas.


title: Tennessee

text: Tennessee is a state in the United States. Its capital is Nashville, which is also the country music center of America. It is the home of the Smoky Mountains which are a famous tourist attraction. Other well known cities and towns are Memphis, Knoxville, Chattanooga, Oak Ridge, Lynchburg, Carthage, Lawrenceburg, Clarksville, Lebanon, Pigeon Forge, Murfreesboro, and Gatlinburg. Tennessee touches eight states: Kentucky and Virginia to the north; North Carolina to the east; Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi on the south; Arkansas and Missouri (by the Mississippi River) to the west. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states.


title: Tennessee

text: Several professional sports teams play there, including the Tennessee Titans of the NFL, the Memphis Grizzlies of the NBA, and the Nashville Predators of the NHL.


title: Tennessee

text: Cherokee and other Native American tribes lived in Tennessee before the arrival of Europeans. African American slaves worked on plantations in the state.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The Gettysburg Address is a speech by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. It was delivered on the afternoon of Thursday, November 19, 1863. This speech was made during the American Civil War, at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. This was four-and-a-half months after the Union Army had a victory over the Confederate States Army at the Battle of Gettysburg.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The address is one of the greatest speeches in the history of the United States. Lincoln spoke of how humans were equal as it has been said in the Declaration of Independence. He also said the Civil War was a fight not simply for the Union, but "a new birth of freedom" that would make everyone truly equal in one united nation.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The speech famously begins with "Four score and seven years ago", referring to the American Revolution in 1776. "Score" in this case is an old word meaning "twenty." Lincoln used the ceremony at Gettysburg to encourage the people to help America's democracy, so that the "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The speech is very important in the popular culture of the United States. However, people are not sure about the exact words of the speech. The five known manuscripts of the Gettysburg Address are different from one another in some details. They are also different from the words of the Gettysburg Address that have been printed in modern newspapers.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: About 172,000 American soldiers fought in the Battle of Gettysburg from July 1–3, 1863. The Battle of Gettysburg was an important influence on the American Civil War and on the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, where only 2,400 people lived. The battlefield had more than 7,500 bodies of dead soldiers and 5,000 horses. Sarah Broadhead, a wife and mother living in the town, feared that they would "be visited with pestilence". Eliza Farnham, a nurse, called the place "one vast hospital". An army medical officer spoke similarly: " days following the battle of Gettysburg greatest amount of human suffering known in this nation since its birth".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The people of Gettysburg wanted to bury the dead properly. At first, they planned to buy land for a cemetery and ask the families of the dead to pay for the burial. However, David Willis, a rich 32-year-old lawyer, did not like this idea. He wrote to the Governor of Pennsylvania, Andrew Gregg Curtin, asking that a National Cemetery be supported by the states. Wills was allowed to buy 17 acres (69,000 m²) for a cemetery to honor the people who died in the battle. He paid $2,475.87 for the land.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: At first, Wills wanted to dedicate this new cemetery on Wednesday, October 23. He asked Edward Everett to be the main speaker. Everett was a very famous orator at that time. He had also served as Secretary of State, U.S. Senator, U.S. Representative, Governor of Massachusetts, president of Harvard University, and Vice Presidential candidate. However, Everett replied that he would not be able to prepare a good speech so quickly, and wanted to move the date of the dedication. The organizing committee agreed, and the dedication was moved to Thursday, November 19.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Wills and the event committee then asked President Lincoln to join in the ceremony. Wills' letter said, "It is the desire , as Chief Executive of the nation, formally (officially) set apart these a few appropriate (proper) remarks". Lincoln was officially asked to join only 17 days before the ceremony, while Everett had received his invitation 40 days earlier. "Although there is some evidence Lincoln expected Wills's letter, its late date makes the author (writer) appear days was extraordinarily (remarkably) short notice for presidential participation even by nineteenth-century standards". Also, Wills's letter "made it equally clear to the president that he would have only a small part in the ceremonies".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Lincoln came by train to Gettysburg on November 18. He spent the night in Wills's house on the Gettysburg town square. There, he finished the speech he had written in Washington, D.C. There is a popular story that Lincoln completed his address on the train on the back of an envelope, but it is not true. There are several early copies on Executive Mansion paper, and reports of Lincoln finishing his speech while he was a guest of David Wills at Gettysburg. On the morning of November 19 at 9:30 a.m., Lincoln, riding a brown horse, joined the townspeople, and widows marching out to the grounds to be dedicated.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: About 15,000 people went to the ceremony. This included the governors of six of the 24 Union states. They were Andrew Gregg Curtin of Pennsylvania, Augustus Bradford of Maryland, Oliver P. Morton of Indiana, Horatio Seymour of New York, Joel Parker of New Jersey, and David Tod of Ohio. Canadian politician William McDougall came as Lincoln's guest. Historians do not agree about the exact place where the dedication ceremony was held inside the cemetery. Moving all the bodies to the graves in the cemetery was less than half complete on the day of the ceremony.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: By August 1863, tens of thousands of people had been killed or injured because of Civil War battles. This made people in the North begin to dislike Lincoln and the war. Lincoln's 1863 drafts were not popular, and people became angriest with them around the time of the New York Draft Riots. This was just ten days after the Battle of Gettysburg. In September 1863, Pennsylvania's Governor Curtin told Lincoln that people were turning against the war effort:


title: Gettysburg Address

text: If the election were to occur now, the result would be extremely doubtful (not sure), and although most of our discreet friends are sanguine of the result, my impression is, the chances would be against us. The draft is very odious in the State... the Democratic leaders have succeeded in exciting prejudice and passion, and have infused their poison into the minds of the people to a very large extent, and the changes are against us.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: In the summer of 1864, Lincoln was worried that the people's bad feelings would make him lose the Presidential election. In the fall of 1863, he grew very concerned about keeping up the Union's spirits toward the war effort. That was the greatest purpose of Lincoln's Address at Gettysburg.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Lincoln's short speech became known in history as one of the best examples of English public speeches. Everett's two-hour oration was called the "Gettysburg address" that day, but his oration is not well-known today. It began:


title: Gettysburg Address

text: After Everett finished his speech, Lincoln spoke for two or three minutes. Lincoln's "few appropriate remarks" summarized the war in ten sentences.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Lincoln's speech is very important in history, but modern scholars do not agree about the words of the speech. There are many different modern versions printed in newspaper accounts of the event. Among these, the Bliss version, written some time after the speech for a friend, is seen by lots of people as the most reliable text. Its text is different, however, from the written versions prepared by Lincoln before and after his speech. It is the only version Lincoln put his signature on. It is also the last he is known to have written.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: In "Lincoln at Gettysburg", Garry Wills notes the similarity between Lincoln's speech and Pericles's Funeral Oration during the Peloponnesian War (James McPherson and Gore Vidal also note this). Pericles' speech begins with remembering honored people: "I shall begin with our ancestors: it is both just and proper that they should have the honour of the first mention on an occasion like the present". This is very much like the Gettysburg Address's famous beginning. In the Gettysburg Address, Lincoln had begun by speaking of how "our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation". He then praises their State's firm democracy: "If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all". He honors the dead's sacrifice: "Thus choosing to die resisting, rather than to live submitting, they fled only from dishonour, but met danger face to face". He also warmly encourages the living to continue to fight for true democracy: "You, their survivors, must determine to have as unfaltering a resolution in the field, though you may pray that it may have a happier issue".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: But writer Adam Gopnik felt differently. In "The New Yorker", he said that Everett's Oration was openly neoclassical. For example, Everett spoke directly about Marathon and Pericles. But he said that "Lincoln’s rhetoric is, instead, deliberately Biblical". He added that it is hard to find any obviously classical references in all of his speeches. Gopnik felt that "Lincoln had mastered the sound of the King James Bible so completely that he could recast (make again) abstract issues of constitutional law in Biblical terms (words from the Bible), making the proposition (suggestion) that Texas and New Hampshire should be forever bound by a single post office sound like something right out of Genesis".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: There are many theories about where Lincoln's expression of "government of the people, by the people, for the people" came from. In "The American Monthly Review of Reviews", it is suggested that the writings of William Herndon, Lincoln's law partner, much influenced Lincoln. William Herndon wrote in "Abraham Lincoln: The True Story of A Great Life" that he had brought some of the sermons of abolitionist minister Theodore Parker to Lincoln, who had been moved by them.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Craig R. Smith, In "Criticism of Political Rhetoric and Disciplinary Integrity", suggested that the Gettysburg Address was influenced by the speech of Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster. In his "Second Reply to Hayne", Webster had famously cried out, "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable"! In this 1830 speech, Webster had also described the Federal Government as "made for the people, made by the people, and answerable to the people". This expression was very similar to Lincoln's "government of the people, by the people, for the people." Webster also said, "This the independent offspring of the popular will. It is not the creature of State the whole truth must be told, the people brought it into existence, established it, and have hitherto (until now) supported it, for the very purpose, amongst others, of imposing certain salutary restraints on State sovereignties".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Wills was interested in how Lincoln used the ideas of birth, life, and death. Lincoln had described the nation as "brought forth", "conceived", and that shall not "perish". Others, such as Allen C. Guelzo, suggested that Lincoln's expression "four score and seven" was about the King James Version of the Bible's . There, man's life is described as "threescore years and ten; and if by reason of strength they be fourscore years".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Each of the five manuscript copies of the Gettysburg Address are named for the person who received it from Lincoln. Lincoln gave a copy to each of his private secretaries, John Nicolay and John Hay. Both were written around the time of his November 19 address. The other three copies of the address (the Everett, Bancroft, and Bliss copies) were written a long time after November 19. They were written by Lincoln for charitable purposes. The Bliss copy has become the most widely accepted text of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. This is partly because Lincoln gave it a title and signed and dated it.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: There has been some controversy about the two earliest drafts of the Address. Lincoln's son, Robert Todd Lincoln, made Nicolay and Hay the legal guardians of Lincoln's papers in 1874. The Nicolay Copy appeared as a copy in an article written by Nicolay in 1894. After that, it was thought to be among the papers passed to Hay by Nicolay's daughter Helen when Nicolay died in 1901. Robert Lincoln began a search for the first copy in 1908. He discovered a handwritten copy of the Gettysburg Address among the papers of John Hay—a copy now known as the "Hay Draft".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The Hay Draft was different from the Gettysburg Address printed by Nicolay in 1894 in many important ways. For example, it was written on a different kind of paper, had a different number of words on every line, had a different number of lines, and had corrections in Lincoln's handwriting.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Both the Hay and Nicolay copies of the Address are inside the Library of Congress. They are inside specially designed, temperature-controlled, sealed containers with argon gas. This is to protect the documents from oxidation.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The Nicolay Copy is often called the "first draft". This is because it is thought to be the earliest copy that exists. Scholars are not sure if the Nicolay Copy was actually the copy Lincoln read from at Gettysburg on November 19. In an 1894 article, Nicolay wrote that Lincoln had brought to Gettysburg the first part of the speech written in ink. Nicolay also said that Lincoln had written the second page in pencil on lined paper before November 19. Matching folds can still be seen on the two pages, suggesting it could be the copy that eyewitnesses say Lincoln took from his coat pocket and read at the ceremony. But some of the words and expressions in the Nicolay Copy do not match modern transcriptions of Lincoln's speech. Because of this, some people believe that the text used at Gettysburg has been lost. The words "under God", for example, are missing in this copy from the phrase "that this nation (under God) shall have a new birth of freedom..." If the Nicolay draft was the copy Lincoln read from, either the modern transcriptions are not correct, or Lincoln spoke differently from his written text several times. John Nicolay kept this copy of the Gettysburg Address until he died in 1901. When he died, it was passed on to his friend John Hay. It is on permanent display as part of the American Treasures exhibition of the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: In 1906, it was first announced that the Hay Copy had been discovered. It had been found among the papers of John Hay when people were searching for the "original manuscript" of the Address. There are some important differences from the copy of the Address described by John Hay in his article. There are many important words taken out and added by Lincoln's own handwriting, which often changed the basic meaning of the sentence. In this copy, like in the Nicolay Copy, the words "under God" are not there.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: This version has been described as "the most inexplicable" of the drafts. It is sometimes referred to as the "second draft". The "Hay Copy" was probably made on the morning of the delivery of the Address. It could also have been made shortly after Lincoln came back to Washington. The people who believe it was completed on the morning of his address note that it has some expressions that are not in the first draft but are in the reports of the address and in later copies by Lincoln. It is likely, they say, that Lincoln used this copy when he delivered the address. Lincoln later gave this copy to his other secretary, John Hay. Hay's descendants gave it and the Nicolay Copy to the Library of Congress in 1916.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The Everett Copy is also known as the "Everett-Keyes Copy". It was sent by President Lincoln to Edward Everett in early 1864. Everett, who was collecting the speeches at the Gettysburg dedication into one book to sell for hurt soldiers at New York's Sanitary Commission Fair, had asked for it. The Illinois State Historical Library in Springfield, Illinois has it on display. It is in the Treasures Gallery of the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The Bancroft Copy of the Gettysburg Address was written by President Lincoln in February 1864. The famous historian George Bancroft, the "father of American History", who wrote "History of the United States", had asked him to write it for him. Bancroft wanted to put this copy in "Autograph Leaves of Our Country's Authors" and sell it at a Soldiers' and Sailors' Sanitary Fair in Baltimore. But Lincoln wrote on both sides of the paper, so he could not use it for this purpose. Therefore, Bancroft was allowed to keep it. This copy was kept by the Bancroft family for many years. Then, it was sold to different dealers and bought by Nicholas and Marguerite Lilly Notes. They donated it to Cornell in 1949. It is now kept by the Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections in the Carl A. Kroch Library at Cornell University. Among the five copies, it is the only one to be privately owned.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: When Lincoln found that his fourth written copy could not be used, he wrote a fifth copy. The Bliss Copy was named for Colonel Alexander Bliss, Bancroft's stepson. It is not known if Lincoln made any more copies. Lincoln wrote this copy with much care. He gave it a title—"Address delivered at the dedication of the cemetery at Gettysburg"—and signed and dated this copy. In fact, it was the only copy of the Gettysburg Address he signed. Partly because of this, it has become the most well-known version of the Gettysburg Address. It is the source of most modern copies of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Today, this copy hangs in the Lincoln Room of the White House. It is a present from Oscar B. Cintas, who used to be a Cuban Ambassador to the United States. Cintas liked to collect art and manuscripts. He had bought the Bliss Copy for $54,000 at a public auction in 1949. It "set a new high record for the sale of a document at public auction". The Castro government claimed Cintas' properties after it became powerful in 1959. But Cintas, who died in 1957, had willed the Gettysburg Address to the American people, if it would be kept at the White House. It was moved there in 1959, and is still there today.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Another source of the Gettysburg Address is the copy from the Associated Press. It was copied from the notes taken by reporter Joseph L. Gilbert. It is different from the drafted words in a few ways.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Eyewitnesses reports about Lincoln's performance are various. In 1931, 87-year-old Mrs. Sarah A. Cooke Myers suggested that there was a dignified silence after Lincoln finished his speech. She had been there when she was 19 years old. "I was close to the President and heard all of the Address, but it seemed short. Then there was an impressive silence like our Menallen Friends Meeting. There was no applause when he stopped speaking". Historian Shelby Foote said that the applause, which came after a long time, was "barely polite". But the governor of Pennsylvania, Curtin, said, "He pronounced (said) that speech in a voice that all the multitude (people) heard. The crowd was hushed into silence because the President stood before was so Impressive! It was the common remark of everybody. Such a speech, as they said it was!"


title: Gettysburg Address

text: There is a story that Lincoln turned to his bodyguard Ward Hill Lamon and said that his speech "won't scour (wouldn't be successful)". Garry Wills argued that this story was not true. He said that Lamon was the only person who remembered this remark, and that it was not reliable. Garry Wills felt that Lincoln had done what he wanted to do at Gettysburg.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The following day, Everett wrote a letter to Lincoln. In the letter, he praised the President for his speech, saying, "I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central (main) idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes". Lincoln replied that he was glad the speech was not a "total complete failure".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: Other public reaction to the speech was different according to each party. The Democratic "Chicago Times" said, "The cheek of every American must tingle with shame as he reads the silly, flat and dishwatery utterances (remarks) of the man who has to be pointed out to intelligent foreigners as the President of the United States". However, the Republican "New York Times" praised the speech. The Springfield, MA. Republican newspaper printed the entire speech, calling it "a perfect gem" that was "deep in feeling, compact (simple) in thought and expression, and tasteful and elegant in every word and comma". The Republican said that Lincoln's short remarks would "repay further study as the model speech".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: William R. Rathvon is the only known eyewitness of the Gettysburg Address to have left an audio recording of what he remembered. One year before he died in 1939, Rathvon's remarks were recorded on February 12, 1938. It included his reading the address itself. The title of the record was "I Heard Lincoln That Day - William R. Rathvon, TR Productions". The National Public Radio (NPR) discovered a copy during a "Quest for Sound" project in 1999. NPR allows people to hear the record around Lincoln's birthday.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The only known and confirmed photograph of Lincoln at Gettysburg was taken by David Bachrach. It was identified in the Mathew Brady collection of photographic plates in 1952. Lincoln's speech was short, but he and others sat for hours during the rest of the program. Because Everett's speech was very long, and because it took a long time for 19th century photographers to prepare for taking a picture, it is likely that photographers were not prepared for how short Lincoln's speech was. In 2006, John Richter identified two more photographs in the Library of Congress collection.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The Nicolay and Hay copies do not have the words "under God", but they appear in the three later copies (Everett, Bancroft, and Bliss). So, some skeptics suggest that Lincoln did not say "under God" at Gettysburg. Yet at least three reporters telegraphed the words of the Gettysburg Address with the words "under God" included. Historian William E. Barton says:


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The reporters who were there at that time included Joseph Gilbert, Charles Hale, John R. Young. There were also reporters from the "Cincinnati Commercial", "New York Tribune", and "New York Times". Charles Hale "had notebook and pencil in hand, [and] took down the slow-spoken words of the President". "He took down what he declared was the exact language of Lincoln's associates confirmed his testimony, which was received, as it deserved to be at its face value". Lincoln probably spoke differently from what he had prepared and added the expression when he was speaking.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The Gettysburg Address's importance in the history of the United States can be seen by the long time it has been a part of American culture. Popular works often refer to the Gettysburg Address as if expecting that the audience will know Lincoln's words. Many years have passed after the Address was delivered, but it is still one of the most famous speeches in American history. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s famous speech of "I Have a Dream" spoke of the Gettysburg Address. In August 1963, King spoke of President Lincoln and his well-known words: "Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. came as a of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames ".


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The Constitution of France spoke of France as a ""gouvernement du peuple, par le peuple et pour le peuple"" ("government of the people, by the people, and for the people"). This was a direct translation of Lincoln's words.


title: Gettysburg Address

text: The address has become a part of American tradition. It is studied in schools and warmly praised by writers. The Gettysburg Address shows an important interpretation of the Declaration of Independence that is still remembered and used. It is widely accepted as one of the most important documents in U.S. history, together with the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. To this day, it is one of the most famous, beloved, and most quoted of modern speeches.


title: Food chain

text: A food chain shows the feeding relationship between different organisms in a particular environment and/or habitat.


title: Food chain

text: Plants are at the bottom of a food chain because they are producers that make their food from photosynthesis. Consumers are animals that eat the products of producers or other animals. The direction of arrows between the organisms shows who eats what and what gets eaten by what.