title: Tin

text: Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn (for ) and atomic number 50. It is in Group 14 on the periodic table. It is not radioactive.


title: Tin

text: Tin is a silver, somewhat soft metal. It is a post-transition metal. Its melting point is 231.93°C and its boiling point is 2602 °C. It can melt easily in a flame. It is malleable. It makes a crackling sound called tin cry when a piece of it is bent. Tin has more non-radioactive isotopes than any other element.


title: Tin

text: Tin is found in two allotropes: alpha-tin and beta-tin. Alpha-tin is a brittle, dull, powdery, semimetallic form of tin. It is made when very pure tin is cooled. Beta-tin is the normal shiny, soft, conductive, metallic form. It is made at higher temperatures. The decay of tin by turning from beta-tin to alpha-tin is called "tin pest". Alpha-tin is not wanted in many places. When small amounts of other elements like antimony are added, the tin cannot change into alpha-tin. When alpha-tin is heated, it changes into beta-tin.


title: Tin

text: Tin can be hardened by adding antimony or copper, as well as some other elements. These also make it resistant to tin pest. Tin can also be made very shiny. Tin can make an alloy with copper called bronze.


title: Tin

text: Tin resists many corrosive substances and is often used to protect other metals. Salt water and fresh water do not affect tin. It dissolves in strong acids to make tin salts. It reacts with some strong bases.


title: Tin

text: Tin forms chemical compounds in two oxidation states: +2 and +4. +2 compounds are reducing agents. Some of them are colorless while others are colored. +4 compounds are more unreactive and act more covalent.


title: Tin

text: Tin burns in air to make tin(IV) oxide, which is white. Tin(IV) oxide dissolves in acids to make other tin(IV) compounds. Tin(IV) chloride is a colorless fuming liquid when anhydrous and a white solid when hydrated. It easily reacts with water to make tin(IV) oxide and an acid again.


title: Tin

text: Tin reacts with hydrohalic acids to make tin(II) halides. For example, tin(II) chloride is made when tin dissolves in hydrochloric acid. Tin(IV) halides are made when tin reacts with the halogens. Tin(IV) chloride is made when tin reacts with chlorine. Tin(II) sulfate is different as it does not oxidize to tin(IV) sulfate. Tin(II) oxide is a blue-black solid that burns in air to make tin(IV) oxide.


title: Tin

text: +2 compounds are reducing agents. They are about as common as +4 compounds. Some are colorless, while others are colored.


title: Tin

text: Tin is not found as a metal in the ground. It is normally in the form of cassiterite. Cassiterite is a mineral containg tin(IV) oxide. The cassiterite is normally found downstream of the cassiterite deposit when it is by a stream or river. Tin is also found in some complicated sulfide minerals.


title: Tin

text: People discovered tin long ago and used it with other metals. When copper and tin are mixed together, bronze is made. Bronze was important in the past, because it was one of the strongest metals available, which meant it was useful in weapons and tools. Bronze changed the world when it was first invented, starting the Bronze Age. People organized themselves more, because making tools from bronze was harder than making them from rock and wood like they did before.


title: Tin

text: Tin is used in solder. Solder used to contain a mixture of lead and tin. Now the lead is removed because of its toxicity.


title: Tin

text: Tin is also used to make pewter, which is mainly tin mixed with a small amount of copper and other metals. Babbitt metal also has tin in it. Tin is used to coat several metals, like lead and steel. Tin plated steel containers are used to store foods. The pipes on a pipe organ are made of tin. Tin foil was used before aluminium foil. Tin was one of the first superconductors to be found. Organotin compounds are more common than almost any other organometal compound. They are used in some PVC pipes to stop them from decaying. Organotin compounds are toxic, though.


title: Tin

text: Tin is not toxic, but tin compounds are very toxic to marine life. They are a little toxic to humans.


title: Grand unification theory

text: Grand unification theory or GUT is a model that tries to describe the universe. It says that three forces - electromagnetic, weak and strong forces - were once combined into a single force. These are three of the fundamental four forces of nature, which are responsible for all of the pushes and pulls in the universe. If gravity is also combined with these forces, then the GUT will become the proposed Theory of Everything.


title: Grand unification theory

text: Because GUT models have more dimensions than currently known, there has not been a single GUT. Particle accelerators, like the Large Hadron Collider have been built to test these GUTs indirectly, as it is too complex to observe effects on particles without them.


title: Grand unification theory

text: GUT was first proposed by researchers from CERN in the 1970s. The discovery of the Higgs Boson and other such recent discoveries will get scientists closer to knowing which GUT is correct, and ultimately know the Theory of Everything. This theory was given by Pakistani scientist Abdus Salam, who shared the Noble Prize with Weinberg and Glashow for it in 1979.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: Linda Lovelace (January 10, 1949 – April 22, 2002) was an American pornographic actress best known for her starring role in 1972 movie "Deep Throat". She was born Linda Susan Boreman in the Bronx, New York City.


title: Linda Lovelace

text: She was married to Chuck Traynor (1937-2002) from 1971 until 1973; he frequently used violence against her. In 1974 she married Larry Marchiano. She had two children with him. They divorced in 1996. In 1980 "Ordeal" was published. It was a book Lovelace wrote about being a porn actress. She moved to Colorado in 1990. She died in Denver on April 22, 2002 of injuries sustained in a road accident on April 3, 2002. The biopic "Lovelace" is about her.


title: Jerry Springer

text: Gerald Norman "Jerry" Springer (born February 13, 1944) is an British-American talk show host, movie, television, radio, and stage actor. He is host for "The Jerry Springer Show". He served as Mayor of Cincinnati from 1977 to 1978 as a Democrat.


title: Jerry Springer

text: Springer was born in February 13, 1944 in Highgate, London to Jewish parents from Germany. He was raised in London until he and his parents moved to New York City and in Chicago, Illinois. He was the Mayor of Cincinnati from 1977 through 1978. He has been married to Vicki Melton since 1973. He now lives in Cincinnati, Ohio and in Chicago, Illinois.


title: Jerry Springer

text: After announcing his candidacy, Springer was called to active duty and stationed at Fort Knox. He resumed his campaign after he was discharged.


title: Jerry Springer

text: In 1973 Springer got married to Micki Velton and had one daughter, Katie Springer (born 1976), and got divorced in 1994.


title: Nail art

text: Nail art is a creative activity that draws pictures or designs fingernails. It a type of art. These days fingernails and toenails are seen by some as important points of beauty.


title: Nail art

text: Also, it is a type of fashion activity, related to manicuring. There are commercial shops ('nail bars') where nails are worked on to make them attractive. The main product is acrylic nails with ready-made designs which can be stuck on top of natural nails.


title: Nail art

text: Nail polish is a lacquer applied to human fingernails or toenails to decorate the nail. Today’s nail polishes are usually nitrocellulose in a solvent such as butyl acetate or ethyl acetate. They may be clear or coloured with pigments. The coating has a plasticizers (e.g. camphor). This links polymer chains, spacing them to make the film flexible after drying. That way it resists cracking or flaking caused by the natural movement of the nail.


title: Nail art

text: Nail polish was used in the ancient world. In China it started off being made from a combination of beeswax and gelatin. The Chinese would dip their hands in this mixture until their finger nails turned red or pink. In Ancient Egypt henna was used. The henna stained their fingernails orange, which turned dark red or brown after the stain matured. In 1300 BC, the colour of the nail polish reflected social rank. The colours gold and silver were favoured; later, black and red were the favoured colours. Red is the colour Cleopatra wore.


title: Nail art

text: By the turn of the 9th century, nails were tinted with scented red oils, and polished or buffed with a chamois cloth, rather than simply polished. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, people pursued a polished rather than painted look by massaging tinted powders and creams into their nails, then buffing them shiny. After the creation of automobile paint, Cutex produced the first modern nail polish in 1917. Synthetic nail polish was introduced in the 1920s in Paris.


title: Nail art

text: The artificial nails are not a replacement, but an extension for natural nails. There are two main approaches to creating artificial nails–"tips" and "forms".


title: Nail art

text: This is a mixture of a powder and a liquid. The mixture starts to harden in 30–40 seconds after application and gets to its final hardness in fifteen minutes. Powder and liquid acrylics can be removed by using a variety of solvents (usually acetone is used). Usually it takes 15 to 20 minutes to remove the nail.


title: Nail art

text: Another material, commonly called "UV Top Coat" (in correct terms a polymer resin), hardens under ultraviolet light. These can show a wider range of properties (flexibility, strength, etc.) but may be more expensive. They cannot be removed by organic solvents, but only by filing (or left to grow out with the natural nail).


title: Nail art

text: Another popular alternative to acrylic or gel preparations are fiberglass or silk wraps. They are done by cutting pieces of actual fiberglass or silk fabric to fit on the surface of the nail or tip and then it is sealed down with a resin or glue. These are an alternative for those who are allergic to chemicals used in the acrylic or gel process. Other materials can be used, as well as combinations of them. There are also temporary, cheaper flexible tips that can be quickly glued at home without help from a professional.


title: Nail art

text: Acrylic nail powders are available in a variety of colours and can use "special effects" such as contours, sparkles and the very popular "French manicure" (pink and white appearance).


title: Nail art

text: Guitar players, if they don't use their fingertips, use their nails, or a 'pick' (piece of metal) to play. If they use their nails, the nails must be in perfect condition, and kept to the same length all the time. Alternatively, he/she may use acrylic stick-ons. Every guitarist has their own way.


title: Nail art

text: The players of many ancient Chinese instruments, like the guqin, pipa, and ruan, also commonly used artificial nails.


title: Guadeloupe

text: Guadeloupe is part of France in the Caribbean Sea. It is made up of five islands. The capital is Basse-Terre.


title: Guadeloupe

text: Arawak native Americans first lived on the islands. Most died when Europeans came. Guadeloupe was first governed by the French Company of the American Islands. It was then taken over by England, given to Sweden, and given back to France.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: The Mexican War of Independence (1810–1821) was a war between the people of Mexico and the Spanish colonial government. It started on 16 September 1810 since Mexican-born Spaniards ("criollo people"), Mestizos and Amerindians wanted their independence from Spain.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: The idea of Mexican independence went back to the years after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. Martín Cortés led a revolt against the Spanish government.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: After the failed in 1799, the War of Independence really started with the Grito de Dolores in 1810. Spain was busy fighting for its independence against the invading First French Empire during the Peninsular War and most of Latin America revolted.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, was a Mexican priest and a member of a group of educated "Criollos" in Querétaro. They met in "tertulias" (salons) and decided in 1810 that a revolt against the colonial government was needed because Napoleon I had replaced the King of Spain with a French foreigner. Hidalgo worked closely with Ignacio de Allende, a nobleman with military training, for a battle in December 1810.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: They were betrayed by a member of the group. Hidalgo turned to his parishioners in the town of Dolores. Around 6:00 a.m. on September 16, 1810, he declared independence from the Spanish crown and war against the government in what was known as the "Grito de Dolores". The revolutionary army decided to fight for independence and marched on to Guanajuato, which was a major colonial mining center that was governed by Spaniards and criollos.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: There, the leaders of the "Citizens' Army," which was poorly organized, locked themselves in the granary and killed most of the Spaniards and Criollos who were there. That included high-ranking nobles and supporters of the fight for independence, which caused Hidalgo and Allende to fight with each other.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: On October 30, Hidalgo's army fought the Spanish resistance at the Battle of Monte de las Cruces and won.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: In January 1811, Spanish forces fought the Battle of the Bridge of Calderón and won. That made the rebels flee towards the United States-Mexican border, where they hoped to escape, but they were caught by the Spanish Army.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: Hidalgo and what was left of his army were caught in the state of Coahuila at the Wells of Baján. He had a trial done by the Spanish Inquisition on 30 July 1811 and was executed.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: After Hidalgo's death of Father Hidalgo, the leadership of the revolutionary army was taken over by José María Morelos. Under his leadership, the cities of Oaxaca and Acapulco were taken. In 1813, the Congress of Chilpancingo had its first meeting. On 6 November, the Congress signed the first official document of independence, known as the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: A long war followed at the Siege of Cuautla. In 1815, Morelos was caught by Spanish colonial authorities. He was put on trial and executed for treason in San Cristóbal Ecatepec on 22 December.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: By the early 1820s, the independence movement was close to collapsing. Two of its main leaders had been executed, and the rebels could not easily fight the well-organized Spanish military. Also, many of the most influential criollos did not care any more. The violence of the unorganized army of Hidalgo and Morelos was not liked. The Mexicans wanted a better and less bloody way to get their independence.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: In December 1820, Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a force led by a royalist criollo officer, Colonel Agustín de Iturbide, to fight in Oaxaca. Iturbide was famous for the way in which he went after the rebels during the early independence struggle.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: The fight at Oaxaca came at the same time as successful military coup in Spain against the monarchy of Ferdinand VII. Ferdinand was forced to reinstate the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812. When that news reached Mexico, Iturbide saw it as an opportunity for the criollos to gain control of Mexico. After clashing with Guerrero's forces, Iturbide switched sides. He invited the rebel leader to meet to discuss a new independence struggle.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: In the town of Iguala, Iturbide created three rules, or "guarantees," for Mexican independence from Spain:


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: He made his troops accept these rules, which are known as the Plan of Iguala. Iturbide then persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of the new independence. A new army, the Army of the Three Guarantees, was placed under Iturbide's command to enforce the plan. It was so broad that it pleased both patriots and loyalists. The goal of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together all factions.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: Iturbide's army was joined by rebel forces from all over Mexico. When the rebels' victory became certain, the viceroy resigned. On August 24, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córdoba, which recognized Mexican independence under the terms of the plan of Iguala.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: On September 27, the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City. The next day, Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the Mexican Empire.


title: Mexican War of Independence

text: On the night of May 18, 1822, a mass of people marched through the streets. They demanded for Iturbide to accept the throne. The next day, the Congress declared Iturbide emperor of Mexico.


title: Boiling tube

text: A boiling tube is a large tube made of glass, which is used in laboratory to strongly heat substances. A boiling tube is a scaled-up test tube, but larger in size. This larger size allows substances to boil freely inside a boiling tube.


title: Boiling tube

text: Boiling tubes can also be used as a replacement for test tubes specially when a larger volume is desired.


title: Kingdom of Sussex

text: The Kingdom of Sussex, ("Suth Seaxe", i.e. the South Saxons), was one of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, its area was more or less that of the later county of Sussex. A large part of that district, however, was covered in early times by the forest called Andred. It was ruled by the kings of Sussex.


title: Kingdom of Sussex

text: According to the traditional account given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, it was in 477 that a certain Ælle led the invaders ashore at a place called "Cymenes ora" and defeated the inhabitants. A further battle at a place called "Mearcredes burne" is recorded under the year 485, and in the annal for 491 we read that Ælle and his son Cissa robbed Anderitum (Pevensey Castle) and killed all the inhabitants.


title: Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 movie)

text: Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs is a 1937 American-German animated musical fantasy movie. It was made by Walt Disney Productions and released by RKO Radio Pictures. It is based on the German fairy tale "Snow White" by the Brothers Grimm. It is the first full-length cel animated movie and the earliest in the Walt Disney Animated Classics series. The story was adapted by storyboard artists Dorothy Ann Blank, Richard Creedon, Merrill De Maris, Otto Englander, Earl Hurd, Dick Rickard, Ted Sears and Webb Smith. David Hand was the supervising director, while William Cottrell, Wilfred Jackson, Larry Morey, Perce Pearce, and Ben Sharpsteen directed the movie's different sequences.


text: "Snow White" was first shown at the Carthay Circle Theatre on December 21, 1937. It was released across the United States on February 4, 1938. With international earnings of $8 million during its initial release, the movie for a bit had the record of highest grossing sound movie at the time. The popularity of the movie has led to it being re-released theatrically many times, until its home video release in the 1990s. Adjusted for inflation, it is one of the top ten performers at the North American box office.


text: At the 11th Academy Awards, Walt Disney was awarded an honorary Oscar. The movie was nominated for Best Musical Score. It was added to the United States National Film Registry in 1989 and is ranked in the American Film Institute's list of the 100 greatest American films, who also named the movie as the greatest American animated movie of all time in 2008. Disney's take on the fairytale has had a huge cultural impact, resulting in popular theme park attractions, a video game, and a Broadway musical.


text: An evil queen has a mirror and asks "Magic mirror, on the wall, who's the fairest of them all?" The mirror answers "Snow White". Snow White is lost in the woods, and comes across the home of seven little men, or dwarves. She cleans their home, and they allow her to stay with them. The queen eventually finds out that the heart in the box is of a pig so she goes and changes herself onto an old hag. She goes to the dwarfs' cottage the next day while they're out and gets Snow White to bite into an apple with makes her fall dead. Suddenly, the dwarfs chase the old hag up a cliff and trap her. She tries to roll a boulder over them but lightning strikes and she dies. Snow White is awakened by the kiss of a handsome prince.


text: Development on "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" began in early 1934, and in June 1934, Walt Disney announced the production of his first feature to the "New York Times". Before "Snow White", the Disney studio had been mainly involved in the production of highly successful animated shorts in the "Mickey Mouse" and "Silly Symphonies" series. Disney hoped to enlarge his studio's reputation and money by moving into features, and estimated that "Snow White" could be produced for a budget of $250,000 - ten times the budget of an average "Silly Symphony".


text: Walt Disney had to fight to get the movie produced. Both his brother Roy Disney and his wife Lillian attempted to talk him out of it, and the Hollywood movie industry mockingly referred to the movie as "Disney's Folly" while it was in production. He even had to mortgage his house to help finance the movie's production, which eventually ran up a total cost of just over $1.5 million, a huge sum for a movie in 1937.


text: Unvoiced characters include Snow White's animal friends, the Queen's raven, and the vultures who follow the Witch. However, although the animals did not have human speaking voices, their natural calls were very lifelike, and were all voiced by champion whistler and animal mimic A. Purves Pullen, who would provide bird and animal calls for Disney movies (including numerous Pluto cartoons) for several decades. Pullen also produced the bird calls for the Enchanted Tiki Room attractions at Disney theme parks. During the 1940s and 1950s, he performed as "Dr. Horatio Q. Birdbath" with the


text: "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" was first shown in cinemas on December 21, 1937. It was released across the United States on February 4, 1938. It has been re-released many times since. The first time was in 1944, in order to raise money for the Disney studio during World War II. This set a tradition of re-releasing Disney animated features every seven to ten years. "Snow White" was re-released to theaters in 1952, 1958, 1967, 1975, 1983, 1987 and 1993.


text: Disney's wife, Lillian, told him that no one will go pay anything to see a dwarf picture. "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" premiered at the Carthay Circle Theater on December 21, 1937 to a very impressed audience, many of the same people who called the movie "Disney's Folly." The movie received a prasie from many child actors audience that included Charlie Chaplin and Paulette Goddard, Shirley Temple, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., Judy Garland, Ginger Rogers, Jack Benny, Fred MacMurray, Clark Gable and Carole Lombard, Burns and Allen, Ed Sullivan, Milton Berle, John Barrymore, and Marlene Dietrich. Six days later, Walt Disney and the seven dwarfs appeared on the cover of "Time" magazine. The "New York Times" said "Thank you very much, Mr. Disney." RKO Radio Pictures put the movie into general release on February 4, 1938, and it went on to become a huge box-office success, making more money than any other movie in 1938. In fact, for a short time, "Snow White" was the highest-grossing movie in American cinema history, until it was beat by "Gone with the Wind" in 1939. When taking inflation into account, and including rereleases, the movie still remains one of the top ten American movie moneymakers of all time.


text: "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" was the first full-length animated feature movie made in English and Technicolor (not counting the "Academy Award Review of Walt Disney Cartoons"), and won an Academy Award for Walt Disney as a huge movie which has charmed millions and started a great new form of entertainment. Disney won a full-size Oscar statuette and seven small ones, given to him by 10-year-old child actress Shirley Temple.


text: The movie was also nominated for Best Musical Score. "Some Day My Prince Will Come" has become a jazz standard that has been performed by numerous artists, including Buddy Rich, Lee Wiley, Oscar Peterson, and Miles Davis.


text: Noted moviemakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and Charlie Chaplin praised the movie as a huge achievement in cinema. The movie inspired Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to produce its own fantasy movie, "The Wizard of Oz" in 1939. The 1943 "Merrie Melodies" short "Coal Black and de Sebben Dwarfs", directed by Bob Clampett, parodies "Snow White" by presenting the story with an all-black cast singing a jazz score.


text: In June 2008, the American Film Institute revealed its "Ten top Ten"—the best ten movies in ten "classic" American movie genres. After polling over 1,500 people from the creative community, "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" was acknowledged as the best movie in the animation genre.


text: Snow White's Scary Adventures is a popular theme park ride at Disneyland (an opening day attraction dating from 1955), Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom, Tokyo Disneyland, and Disneyland Paris. Snow White, her Prince, and the Seven Dwarfs are also featured in parades and character appearances throughout the parks.


text: A video game was released for the Game Boy Color system. Snow White appears in the popular PlayStation 2 game "Kingdom Hearts" as one of the seven fabled Princesses of Heart.


title: Spaghetti

text: The word "spaghetti" was first used in 1849 as "sparghetti" in Eliza Acton's "Modern Cookery". It comes from Italian "spaghetto", which means "string".


title: Spaghetti

text: Spaghetti is made from wheat noodles, which are boiled in water for a short time. Spaghetti can either be served as a side dish, or as a main dish. As a main dish, a sauce is added. There are many different kinds of sauces. Simpler ones are made of butter, more complicated ones include tomatos, garlic, olive oil and various other herbs. Different varieties with mussels, fish or meat also exist. Ground Parmesan cheese is often added.


title: Spaghetti

text: In Italy the sauce is usually mixed with the spaghetti while they are being prepared. Usually, spaghetti are eaten only with a fork, or with a fork and a spoon. Sometimes, they are cut with a knife for small children. Many Italians see using a knife to eat spaghetti as bad manners, except to prepare them for small children.


title: Spaghetti

text: In the United States, there is a kind of spaghetti called "Alvaro's spaghetti" which is served with alfredo sauce. In some countries,like United States or Canada, meatballs are often in the spaghetti sauce.


title: Spaghetti

text: In China, spaghetti is often made by hand. In Italy, spaghetti is made with a machine so that large amounts can be made quickly. Italy is the biggest producer and consumer of spaghetti in the world.


title: Spaghetti

text: Spaghetti is called by other words when it has a different thickness: "spaghettini (n. 3)", "spaghetti (n. 5)", and "spaghettoni (n. 8)".


title: Spaghetti

text: Usually, spaghetti leftovers last in a fridge for around 3 to 5 days, while spaghetti in a freezer will last more than one month.


title: William Wallace

text: William Wallace (3 April 1270 - 23 August 1305) was a Scottish knight who fought the King of England (Edward I) in the Middle Ages. He was born in c. 1270, and executed by the English on 23 August 1305. Scotland had been claimed by Edward, and Wallace refused allegiance to Edward.


title: William Wallace

text: Wallace was probably born around 1270-1272. Little is known about his birth or childhood. Exactly where and when Wallace was born is not very clear. Some people say he was born about 1272, but a book printed in the 16th century called "History of William Wallace and Scottish Affairs" says he was born in 1276. Tradition says he was born in Elderslie, near Paisley in Renfrewshire. There are links with Ayrshire as well, and it is not clear whether Wallace first fought the English in Ayrshire or Lanark. Tradition sees Wallace as a being a 'commoner', or normal person. Robert the Bruce, who also fought the English, was seen as being more noble. But this is not strictly true because Wallace's family were minor nobles.


title: William Wallace

text: King Edward offered Scotland a deal which allowed them to have a Scottish king so long as King Edward was still in charge. This required the Scottish nobles to kneel, and swear allegiance to his sovereignty. Wallace refused, and led the resistance which followed. A series of battles were fought:


title: William Wallace

text: Wallace evaded capture by the English until 5 August 1305 when John de Menteith, a Scottish knight loyal to Edward, turned Wallace over to English soldiers at Robroyston near Glasgow. Wallace was taken to London at Westminster Hall, where he was tried for treason. He replied to the charge, "I could not be a traitor to Edward, for I was never his subject". Wallace was however found guilty.


title: William Wallace

text: After the trial, on 23 August 1305, Wallace was taken from the hall, stripped naked and dragged through the city at the heels of a horse to the Elms at Smithfield. He was hanged, drawn and quartered–the most terrible execution in English law. It meant he was strangled by hanging but released while he was still alive, his body cut open, and his bowels burnt before him. Then he was beheaded, and his body cut into four parts. His preserved head (dipped in tar) was placed on a pike atop London Bridge. It was later joined by the heads of the brothers John and Simon Fraser, who had been colleagues of Wallace. Wallace's limbs were displayed, separately, in Newcastle upon Tyne, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Stirling, and Aberdeen.


title: William Wallace

text: A book called "The Acts and Deeds of Sir William Wallace, Knight of Elderslie" was written by a minstrel named Blind Harry in the 15th century. The book is written more like a story than a true version of his life, and has led to much of the legends around William Wallace. The film Braveheart is based on the novel.


title: William Wallace

text: A plaque stands in a wall of St Bartholomew's Hospital near the site of Wallace's execution at Smithfield. In 2002 William Wallace was ranked as number 48 of the "100 Greatest Britons" in an extensive UK poll conducted by the BBC.


title: Ma'at

text: In Egyptian mythology, Ma'at, pronounced as 'Muh-aht', is goddess of law, morality, and justice. Ma'at was supposed the stars, seasons, and the actions of both people and gods. Her first role in Egyptian mythology was the weighing of words that took place in the underworld, Duat.


title: Ma'at

text: Ma’at's purpose was to keep truth, balance, order, harmony, righteousness, hotness, morality, and justice. Ma’at weighed the heart of the deceased against her feather of truth on a scale during the journey to the afterlife. She placed the dead man's heart on the other side while her husband Thoth wrote down the results of the scale to see if that person was good or bad and if they would have a happy afterlife or be eaten by the devourer. Without Ma’at, the universe would become chaos once again. If the dead person’s heart was heavier than the feather, then it had done evil deeds like lying when it was alive. When that happened, the heart was devoured by a monster and was not able to go to the afterlife. If it was lighter than the feather, then it was allowed to go onto the afterlife.


title: Ma'at

text: Ma’at had dark skin and hair. She was usually shown wearing a white linen dress. She, like Isis, was a winged goddess and she wore lots of armbands and necklaces made from gold and jewels. Her feather of truth was strapped to her head. Like the other gods and goddesses, she wore the black eye makeup around her eyes and on her eyebrows which is known as "kohl", which showed her high ranking status.


title: Ma'at

text: The chief judge in charge of the Egyptian law courts was known as “The priest of Ma’at.” He began court hearings wearing the feather of Ma’at. The person that won his case got to have the feather of Ma’at. The guilty party had violated Ma’at, and it was assumed that he or she would suffer failure, poverty, sickness, blindness and deafness, with the final judgment waiting in the court of the dead. Tomb robbery was considered one of the most heinous crimes, and might involve 100 strokes of a cane, five bleeding cuts added or brands as a sign of permanent dishonor. Often, the entire family of the guilty suffered as well. For example; when individuals were sentenced into exile, their children were automatically outlawed with them. Ma’at represented truth, order, balance and justice in the universe. This concept said that everyone, not including slaves, should be viewed as equals under the law. The king made sure that was carried out, and he/she would decide the case and the proper justice, maybe asking his viziers who often acted as judges. Even the lowliest fisherman was allowed to bring a legal case to the viziers.


title: Ma'at

text: All goddesses including Ma'at had power over the Egyptians, and different powers over the other gods. One of the powers Ma'at gave the gods was the ability to breath air. Like the water of life, Ma'at's potion brought an afterlife after death to the peaceful and law-abiding people, but death to violent and cruel people. Ma'at was very powerful, but she still had limits to her powers. She could not make the sun travel through the sky like Ra could, she could not control the netherworld like Osiris could, and she could not make the stars shine like Nut could but she still had her own unique powers like her potion.


title: Ma'at

text: The Pharaohs prime task in governing was to uphold Ma’at and they often held seated images of Ma’at in their hand to the gods, which indicated that the Pharaoh represented the divine order. The words “I have done Ma’at", were spoken by several Pharaohs and several others called themselves, “Beloved of Ma’at.” Even the gods were sometimes shown praising Ma’at. People were interested in how they could please her but they also were afraid of her. It was said that a small image of Ma’at was more pleasing to the gods than piles of rich offerings. It was also said that a little truth was more welcome than huge bribes.


title: Ma'at

text: There was only one temple for Ma'at in Karnak but she was still worshiped in all Egyptian temples. In every Egyptian temple one area was called the hall of two truths or the hall of Ma'at. In the hall of two truths Ma'at weighed a man's heart against the feather of truth to see if the man would have an afterlife or his heart would be eaten by, the devourer.


title: Ma'at

text: Ma'at as a principle was at least partially codified into a set of laws, and expressed a ubiquitous concept of right from wrong characterized by concepts of truth and a respect for and adherence to a divine order believed to be set forth at the time of the world's creation.


title: Ma'at

text: The doctrine of Ma'at is represented in the declarations to Rekhti-merti-f-ent-Ma'at and the 42 negative affirmations listed in the Papyrus of Ani:


title: Whale

text: Whales are a widely distributed and varied group of cetacean ungulates that live in the ocean. Like other mammals, they breathe oxygen from the air, have a small amount of hair, and are warm blooded.


title: Whale

text: People use the word "whale" in different ways. Some use it for all Cetaceans including dolphins and porpoises. These people say that dolphins and porpoises were also whales, because they are also Cetaceans. Others separate out the dolphins and porpoises: common English-speaking people have never called them or thought of them as whales unless they are very large. Actually, there is no clear line between whales and dolphins.


title: Whale

text: Whales have been killed for meat and oil by whalers. However, many countries have laws saying not to kill whales anymore. Some countries, such as Iceland and Japan, do not have these laws. In other countries, such as the USA, only Eskimos and some American Indians may legally kill whales such as the blue whale and beluga whale.


title: Whale

text: Baleen whales eat plankton and krill. Plankton are clouds of very small fish floating in the water. The whales' mouths are very large. They open their mouths very wide and hold a big mouthful of sea water. Their throats stretch very wide to make the space inside their mouth even bigger. Then they close their mouth and squeeze out the seawater. The food does not escape because, instead of teeth, these whales have filters called "baleen". Baleen is long, hard strips that act like a strainer. The water goes through the baleen. Animals and plants in the water are trapped and swallowed, while the water goes back out. This is very different from the way that toothed whales eat.


title: Whale

text: Toothed whales eat larger fish or meat and are like big dolphins. They have sharp teeth and usually have a big forehead. Inside the big forehead is a chamber to make and direct sounds. They make all kinds of sounds, including sounds so loud they can shock fish. They can use echolocation to locate things that they can not see. Some toothed whales, such as the sperm whale, are almost never called dolphins. Some of them are always called dolphins. Others are like dolphins in some ways and like whales in others.


title: Whale

text: Both cetaceans and artiodactyl are now classified under the super-order Cetartiodactyla, which includes both whales and hippopotamuses. Whales are the hippopotamus's closest living relatives.


title: Whale

text: All cetaceans, including whales, dolphins and porpoises, are descendants of land-living mammals of the Artiodactyl order (even-toed ungulates). Both are related to "Indohyus" (an extinct semi-aquatic deer-like ungulate) from which they split around 54 million years ago.


title: Whale

text: Primitive whales probably first took to the sea about 50 million years ago and became fully aquatic about 5-10 million years later. Pakicetus is an important transitional species.


title: Whale

text: Scientists from the University of Plymouth studied many animals that dive and hold their breath, from insects to whales, and they found that larger animals can hold their breath longer than smaller animals because they can store more oxygen for their size, and this difference was much bigger for warm-blooded animals than for cold-blooded animals. They said this may be why modern whales and extinct diving animals like plesiosaurs became so large.


title: Whale

text: Because of where they live (and unlike many animals), whales are conscious breathers: they decide when to breathe. Whales breathe through blowholes. Baleen whales have two and toothed whales have one. These are on the top of the head: the animal breathes while most of their body is underwater. Breathing first shoots out extra water from the blowhole, making a jet into the air, followed by inhaling air into the lungs.


title: Whale

text: All mammals sleep, including whales, but they cannot stay in an unconscious state for too long, because they need to be conscious to breathe. It is thought that only one hemisphere (half) of their brains sleeps at a time, so that whales are never completely asleep, but still get the rest they need. Whales are thought to sleep around eight hours a day.


title: Whale

text: A baby whale is called a "calf". One calf is born every two or three years. Gestation takes up to a year. Nursing continues for more than a year in many species; there is a strong bond between mother and calf. Reproductive maturity occurs at seven to ten years. This mode of reproduction produces few offspring, but increases their chance of surviving. The effect of hunting is severe on these animals, who replace their numbers slowly.


title: Whale

text: "Breaching" is what happens when a whale jumps into the air and then purposefully flops down on the water with a great splash. Sometimes it twirls in the air when it does this. Scientists are not sure whether breaching is done to play, to clean the whale's skin of things that are stuck to it, or to tell other whales something.


title: Whale

text: There are a number of other behaviors on the surface which are not well understood. 'Logging' is when a whale swims slowly at the surface of the ocean with very little movement. When a whale does this, it looks like a log in the water. Some scientists think this is a kind of rest or sleep for whales. 'Spyhopping' is when a whale sits straight up in the water with its head straight up and out of the water. It will sometimes turn around in circles as it spyhops. Some scientists think this might be because whales are trying to see what is happening above water. 'Lobtailing' is done when a whale faces downward in the water. It then slaps the water with a thunderous sound. Scientists think this might be done to warn other whales of danger, or as a method of feeding.


title: With a Little Help from My Friends

text: "With a Little Help from My Friends" (originally titled "A Little Help from My Friends") is a song written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney. It was on the album "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" in 1967. The song was written for and sung by Beatles drummer Ringo Starr as the character "Billy Shears"; it is ranked #304 on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr performed this song for the first time together at the David Lynch Foundation Benefit Concert in the Radio City Music Hall, New York on 4 April 2009.


title: With a Little Help from My Friends

text: Lennon and McCartney finished writing this song in mid-March 1967, written as Starr's song for the album. It was briefly called "Bad Finger Boogie" (later the inspiration for the band name Badfinger), because Lennon composed the melody on a piano using his middle finger after having hurt his forefinger; but in his 1980 "Playboy" interview Lennon said: "This is Paul, with a little help from me. 'What do you see when you turn out the light/ I can't tell you, but I know it's mine...' is mine."


title: With a Little Help from My Friends

text: Lennon and McCartney wrote a tune with a limited range - except for the last note, which McCartney worked closely with Starr to achieve.


title: With a Little Help from My Friends

text: Speaking in the Anthology, Starr insisted on changing the first line which originally was ""What would you do if I sang out of tune? Would you stand up and throw tomatoes at me?"" He changed the lyric so that fans would not throw tomatoes at him should he perform it live. (In the early days, after George Harrison made a comment that he liked jelly babies, fans would throw them at the Beatles at all of their live shows.)


title: With a Little Help from My Friends

text: The song is in the form of a conversation. The other three Beatles sing a question and Starr answers, for example: "Would you believe in a love at first sight? / Yes, I'm certain that it happens all the time."


title: With a Little Help from My Friends

text: The band started recording the song the day before they posed for the Sgt. Pepper album cover (29 March 1967), ending the session at 5:45 in the morning.


title: Pop rock

text: Pop rock is a subgenre of pop music and rock music that uses catchy pop style, with light lyrics over top of guitar-based songs. Pop rock is very popular. Famous singers like Taylor Swift sing in the pop rock zone.


title: Midfielder

text: A midfielder in football is a player who usually plays in the centre of the field. There are usually a number of midfielders in each team of football, and are normally split into three: attacking; central; and defending.


title: Midfielder

text: An attacking midfielder is a midfielder who is often positioned between the central midfielders and the forwards. They often have a primarily offensive role. Playmakers are a type of attacking midfielders. Some famous Attacking Midfielders include Kaká, Diego Maradona, Zico, and Zinedine Zidane.


title: Midfielder

text: A winger is a type of midfielder. They often join the strikers when the team creates attacks. Wide midfielders are a variation of a winger. Some famous wingers include Neymar, Arjen Robben, Ronaldinho, and Lionel Messi


title: Common year starting on Sunday

text: This is the calendar for any common year starting on Sunday, January 1 (dominical letter A) or for any year in which “Doomsday” is Tuesday. Examples include years 1978, 1989, 1995, 2006, 2017, and 2023 in the Gregorian calendar,


title: Common year starting on Sunday

text: In this common year, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is on January 16, Valentine’s Day is on a Tuesday, Presidents Day is on February 20, St. Patrick’s Day is on a Friday, Mother’s Day is on its latest possible date, May 14, Memorial Day is on May 29, Father’s Day is on June 18, Independence Day is on a Tuesday, Labor Day is on September 4, Columbus Day is on October 9, Halloween is on a Tuesday, Veterans Day is on a Saturday, Thanksgiving is on November 23, and Christmas is on a Monday.


title: Common year starting on Sunday

text: This common year is one of three common years that have two Friday the 13ths, the other two being Common year starting on Monday and Common year starting on Tuesday. The Friday the 13ths in this common year are in January and October.


title: Petroleum product

text: A petroleum product is an organic compound made in oil refineries. They result from "refining" (changing) crude oil (also called "Petroleum") into more useful products.


title: Melanie Chisholm

text: Melanie Chisholm (born 1974) is an English singer-songwriter and television personality best known as one of the five members of English girl group the Spice Girls, who was nicknamed "Sporty Spice". As a solo artist she has released four albums and was nominated for a BRIT and ECHO Awards and charted at the top of the "Billboard" Dance Chart in the US in late 2000.


title: Exclave

text: An exclave is strip of land that belongs to an entity (like a country or a region) but that is not connected to it by land (islands are not counted). The strip of land is surrounded by other political entities. A good example is Kaliningrad Oblast (the region around the Russian city Kaliningrad). It belongs to the Russian Federation, but is separated from the rest of that country by territory belonging to Lithuania and Poland.


title: Exclave

text: Although both meanings are close, an exclave might not be an enclave. An enclave is completely surrounded by one other country. For example, Kaliningrad is surrounded not by one state, but by two: Lithuania and Poland. It also borders the Baltic Sea. It is not an enclave. On the other hand, the Spanish exclave of Llivia is an enclave in France.


title: Exclave

text: Many exclaves today have some of idea of becoming independent, especially if the exclave is far away from the mainland.


title: Exclave

text: A much more obscure use means, in medical discussion, a detached part of an organ, as of the pancreas, thyroid, or other gland.


title: Exclave

text: Some territories are not geographically detached from their motherland. Nevertheless, they are more easily reached by entering a foreign country. Very often, this is because of their location in a hilly area. It may also be because the only road enters that foreign place before coming back to the mother country. These territories may be called "practical exclaves," "pene-exclaves" or "quasi-exclaves" and can be found along many borders, particularly those that are not heavily defended. They will only be attached to the motherland via an extremely small or thin slice of land.


title: Alberta

text: Alberta is a province in western Canada. It is bounded by the provinces of British Columbia on the west, Saskatchewan on the east, the US state of Montana on the south and the Northwest Territories to the North.


title: Alberta

text: Alberta is the fourth largest Canadian province with an area of . Alberta has around 4,067,175 living there, making it the fourth most populous province in Canada.


title: Alberta

text: The capital of Alberta is Edmonton lying near the middle of Alberta. The city of Calgary, Alberta’s other major centre is located about 300 kilometres to the south of Edmonton.


title: Alberta

text: Canada became a country in 1867. It was much smaller than it is now, and did not include the parts of the country to the west. From 1670 to 1870, parts of Alberta were included in "Rupert's Land," land owned by the Hudson’s Bay Company in support of it’s trading monopoly over a vast area of Canada and parts of the United States. Northern part of Alberta was part of the what was then called "Northwestern Territories."


title: Alberta

text: The Aboriginal peoples of Canada are referred to as First Nations or by the Name of their Nation. Mixed (European/Aboriginal) People are called Metis.


title: Alberta

text: Alberta is very cold in the winter and has a lot of snow during the very cold season. There is a dry part of Alberta in the south.


title: Alberta

text: There are also a lot of farms in Alberta. Farmers grow several different types of crops Farmers mainly grow wheat. There are also a lot of cows on Alberta farms, and Alberta beef is exported.


title: Nestlé

text: Nestlé is the world's largest food producer, by revenue. It was formed in the 1950s, when two companies merged. At the start in the 1860s, the company produced soluble milk that could be given to infants and babies. From about the 1930s, Nestlé also produced soluble coffee. In 2010, Nestle's revenue was about 109 billion Swiss Francs, and its net profit was about 32 billion Swiss Francs.


title: Nestlé

text: Nestlé currently owns over 2000 brands. They own brands that manufacture coffee, bottled water, milkshakes and other beverages, breakfast cereals, infant foods, performance and healthcare nutrition, seasonings, soups and sauces, frozen and refrigerated foods, and pet food.


title: Nestlé

text: Bear Brand is a powdered milk. It was introduced in 1976. It was owned by Nestlé. It is a sterilized milk brand. The sterilized milk was introduced in 1906. The powdered milk was introduced in 1976. It is #6 among the top 50 "most popular fast-moving consumer goods" in the Philippines.


title: Nestlé

text: Bear Brand is sold in Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar, Malaysia, Brunei, India, Yemen, Nepal, Taiwan, Singapore, China, Iran, Bhutan, Hong Kong and Afghanistan.


title: Nestlé

text: Food that is made to be used instead of breast milk is known as infant formula. There are many laws that regulate how infant formula products should be marketed. Nestlé's soluble milk is a product that falls under this definition. In the 1970s, Nestlé marketed its soluble milk to mothers with infants. This was also done in developing countries. The marketing campaign led to a boycott known as Nestlé boycott, which is still ongoing. In 1981, the World Health Organisation published a guideline for advertising infant formula products. Nestlé is being critizised because supposedly it does not respect this code of conduct. Nestlé's policy states that breast-milk is the best food for infants, and that women who cannot or choose not to breast feed need an alternative to ensure that their babies are getting the nutrition they need. The problem is that mothers who stop breastfeeding will not be able to start again, after some time. They will become dependent on infant formula products to feed their babies.


title: Nestlé

text: The 2010 documentary "The Dark Side of Chocolate" found that Nestlé purchases cocoa beans from Ivory Coast plantations that use child slave labour. Most children are between twelve and fifteen years old. Some are trafficked from nearby countries. The first allegations that child slavery is used in cocoa production appeared in 1998. In late 2000, a BBC documentary reported the use of enslaved children in the production of cocoa in


title: Nestlé

text: West Africa. Other media also reported widespread child slavery and child trafficking in the production of cocoa. In September 2001, Bradley Alford, Chairman and CEO of Nestlé USA, signed the Harkin-Engel Protocol. The Harkin-Engel Protocol is an international agreement aimed at ending child labour in the production of cocoa. It is commonly called the Cocoa protocol.


title: Nestlé

text: In convention 182, the International Labor Organization defines what it calls the "worst forms of child labour". The Harkin-Engel protocol specified a deadline in 2005, to eliminate these from cocoa production. Because the cocoa industry did not meet this deadline, a lawsuit was filed against Nestlé and others on behalf of three Malian children. The suit alleged the children were trafficked to the Ivory Coast, forced into slavery, and were frequently beaten on a cocoa plantation.


title: Nestlé

text: In September 2010, the US District Court for the Central District of California found that corporations cannot be held liable for violations of international law and dismissed the suit. The case was appealed to the US Court of Appeals.


title: Nestlé

text: A 2009 joint police operation conducted by INTERPOL and Ivorian law enforcement officers resulted in the rescue of 54 children and the arrest of eight people involved in the illegal recruitment of children.


title: Miroslav Klose

text: Miroslav Klose (born June 9 1978 in Opole, Poland) is a Polish born German football player. From 1999 until 2004 he played for Kaiserslautern and from 2004 until 2007 for Werder Bremen. In 2007 changed to Bayern Munich. In 2011, he left Bayern Munich and joined the Italian team Lazio. On the Germany national team he has played in 137 matches since 2001 and scored 71 goals.


title: Miroslav Klose

text: Klose is a great player known for his heading skills and he is currently the all-time top scorer of the Germany national football team with 71 goals. He is also the all-time leading goal scorer of the FIFA World Cup after beating Ronaldo's record in the semi-final against Brazil.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: Phoenix is the capital and the largest city in the U.S. state of Arizona. The city is the county seat of Maricopa County. It is the largest capital city in the United States and the only capital with over more than million people. The city is along the normally dry Salt River. It became a city on February 25, 1881. People who live in Phoenix are known as Phoenicians.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: Phoenix had about 1,475,834 people in 2005. It is the fifth-largest city in the United States in the 2000 census. Phoenix is a very large city. It has an area of 515 square miles. This makes it the 10th largest city by area. As of 2006, the Phoenix Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) was the 13th-largest in the United States, with an estimated 4,039,182 people.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: As early as 700 AD, the Hohokam people lived in the land that would become Phoenix. The Hohokam created about 135 miles (217 km) of irrigation canals. This let them grow things on the land.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: It is believed that between AD 1300 and AD 1450 drought and floods caused the Hohokam to no longer live in the area. Spanish and Mexican explorers knew of the area but they did not go as far north as the Salt River Valley.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: In 1867, Jack Swilling of Wickenburg, Arizona came to the area. He saw that the land was good for farming. The only problems he saw were a lack of rain and good irrigation. Swilling corrected the problem by having a series of canals built. A small community was created about four miles (6 km) east of the where the city is today.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: The farming community was named Swilling's Mill. The name was later changed to Helling Mill, Mill City, and East Phoenix. Swilling was a Confederate soldier during the Civil War. He wanted to name the city "Stonewall," after Gen. Stonewall Jackson. Other people had other ideas for names. Finally, Lord Darrell Duppa suggested the name "Phoenix". The name is the same as the mythological fire bird which is born again from its own ash after it dies. It was a good name for a city born from a former civilization.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: On February 25 1881, Phoenix became an incorporated city. At that time it had about 2,500 people. Phoenix held its first city election on May 3 1881. Judge John T. Alsap defeated James D. Monihon, 127 to 107, to become the city's first mayor. In early 1888, the city offices were moved into the new City Hall.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: The coming of the railroad in the 1880s was the first of several important events changed the economy of Phoenix. Phoenix became a trade center. In response, the Phoenix Chamber of Commerce was created on November 4 1888.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: Phoenix is at 33°26'54" North, 112°4'26" West (33.448457°, -112.073844°) in the Salt River Valley, or "Valley of the Sun", in central Arizona. It is at a mean elevation of 1,117 feet (340 m), in the northern reaches of the Sonoran Desert.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: Other than the mountains in and around the city, the topography of Phoenix is mostly flat. This allows the city's main streets to run on a precise grid with wide, open-spaced roadways.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: The Salt River runs westward through the city of Phoenix. The riverbed is often dry or just a trickle due to large irrigation usage. The river is full after infrequent rainstorms or when more water is released from upstream dams. The city of Tempe has built two inflatable dams in the Salt River bed to create a year-round recreational lake, called Tempe Town Lake. The dams are deflated to allow the river to flow unimpeded during releases. Lake Pleasant Regional Park is in Northwest Phoenix in the suburb of Peoria, Arizona.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: As with most of Arizona, Phoenix does not observe daylight saving time. In 1973, Gov. Jack Williams argued to Congress that energy use would increase in the evening. Refrigeration units were not used as often in the morning on standard time. He went on to say that energy use would rise "because there would be more lights on in the early morning." He was also concerned about children going to school in the dark, which indeed they were. Navajo Nation lands in Northeastern Arizona observe daylight saving time in conjunction with the rest of their tribal lands in other states.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: Phoenix has an arid climate, with very hot summers and temperate winters. The average summer high temperature is among the hottest of any populated area in the United States and approaches those of cities such as Riyadh and Baghdad. The temperature reaches or exceeds 100°F (38°C) on an average of 110 days during the year, including most days from late May through early September, and highs top 110 °F (43 °C) an average of 21 days during the year. On June 26, 1990, the temperature reached an all-time recorded high of 122 °F (50 °C).


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: On average, Phoenix has only 2 days per year where the temperature drops to or below freezing. Frequently, outlying areas of Phoenix see frost, but the airport does not. The earliest frost on record occurred on November 3, 1946, and the latest occurred on April 4, 1945. The all-time lowest recorded temperature in Phoenix was 16 °F (-8.8 °C) on January 7, 1913.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: Since 1986, the city of Phoenix has been divided into urban villages, many of which are based upon historically significant neighborhoods and communities. Each village has a planning committee. This committee is appointed directly by the city council. According to the village planning handbook issued by the city, the purpose of the village planning committees is to work with the city's planning commission to ensure a balance of housing and employment in each village. The committees also concentrate on development at identified village cores, and to promote the unique character and identity of the villages.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: There are 15 urban villages in the city at this time: Ahwatukee Foothills, Alhambra, Camelback East, Central City, Deer Valley, Desert View, Encanto, Estrella, Laveen, Maryvale, North Gateway, North Mountain, Paradise Valley (not to be confused with the town of Paradise Valley), South Mountain and Rio Vista. Rio Vista was created as New Village in 2004 and is currently very sparsely populated, with no large amount of development expected in the near future.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: Commonly referred-to Phoenix regions and districts include Downtown, Midtown, West Phoenix, North Phoenix, South Phoenix, Biltmore Area, Arcadia, Sunnyslope, Ahwatukee.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: The early economy of Phoenix was mostly agricultural. It was mostly dependent on cotton and citrus farming. In the last twenty years, the economy has changed as quickly as the number of people has grown. As the state capital of Arizona, many residents in the area are employed by the government. Arizona State University is there. Many high-tech and telecommunications companies have also recently moved to the area. Due to the warm climate in winter, Phoenix benefits greatly from seasonal tourism and recreation, and the golf industry.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: Phoenix is currently home to several Fortune 1000 companies. Companies in Phoenix include waste management company Allied Waste, electronics corporation Avnet, Apollo Group (which operates the University of Phoenix), mining company Freeport-McMoRan (recently merged with Phoenix-based Phelps Dodge), retailer PetSmart, development company Tempo Creative, energy supplier Pinnacle West and retailer CSK Auto. Honeywell's Aerospace division is headquartered in Phoenix, and the valley hosts many of their avionics and mechanical facilities. Intel has one of their largest sites here, employing about 10,000 employees and 3 chip manufacturing fabs, including the $3 billion state-of-the-art 300 mm and 45 nm Fab 32. American Express hosts their financial transactions, customer information, and their entire website in Phoenix. The city is also home to the headquarters of U-HAUL International, a rental company and moving supply store, as well Best Western, a hotel chain. Mesa Air Group, a regional airline group, is headquartered in Phoenix.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: The military has a significant presence in Phoenix with Luke Air Force Base in the western suburbs. At its height, in the 1940s, the Phoenix area had three military bases: Luke Field (still in use), Falcon Field, and Williams Air Force Base (now Phoenix-Mesa Gateway Airport), with many other air fields throughout the region.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: As the capital of Arizona, Phoenix houses the state legislature. In 1913, the commission form of government was adopted. The city of Phoenix is served by a city council. The city council is made up of a mayor and eight city council members. The mayor is elected in a citywide vote to a four-year term. Phoenix City Council members are elected to four-year terms by voters in each of the eight districts.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: The current mayor of Phoenix is Phil Gordon, who was elected to a four-year term in 2003. He was again re-elected to another four-year term in 2007. The mayor and city council members have equal voting power to govern the city.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: Phoenix operates under a council-manager form of government, with a strong city manager. The city manage supervises all city departments and executing policies adopted by the council.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: The United States Postal Service operates post offices throughout Phoenix. The main Phoenix Post Office is at 4949 East Van Buren Street.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: As of February 9, 2009, Phoenix offers a domestic partnership registry open to opposite- and same-sex couples with no resident requirements for registrants.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: By the 1970s there was rising crime and a decline in business within the downtown core. The city's crime rates in many categories have improved since that time, but still are higher than state and national averages. The crime rate in Phoenix has gone down through the years. However, recent kidnappings and human trafficking due to the Mexican drug trade have brought negative attention to the city.


title: Phoenix, Arizona

text: Car theft has been a problem in Phoenix. In 2001, Phoenix was number one for theft rate with 35,161 total thefts, giving a rate of 1,081.25 per 100,000. However, in 2003, Phoenix dropped to second for with 1,253.71 per 100,000, although it was first for total car thefts with 40,769.


title: Glacier

text: A glacier is a large body of ice and snow. It forms because the snow in an area does not all melt in summer. Each winter, more snow is added. The weight of all the snow creates pressure. This pressure turns the lower parts of the snow into ice. After this happens for many years, the glacier will start growing large. It becomes so heavy that gravity causes the ice to move. It flows downwards like water but very slowly. A glacier only moves about per year. New snowfalls replace the parts that flow away.


title: Glacier

text: Glaciers are the largest sources of fresh water on Earth. The largest bodies of salt water are the oceans.


title: Glacier

text: Glaciers will only form in places that are cold enough and get enough snow over time. This can take a long time. It often takes tens or hundreds of years for a glacier to form. There are two kinds of glaciers: "continental glaciers" and "alpine glaciers". Alpine glaciers are also called "mountain glaciers".


title: Glacier

text: Glaciers are very important. They have a large effect on the environment. They do this because they are very large and heavy. When they move, they erode mountains and land. Also, since they froze long ago, snow crystals and air bubbles inside are kept in good condition. These can provide a large amount of information for scientists. Recently glaciers have been melting more than they did in the past. Many scientists think this is happening because global warming is changing the climate.


title: Glacier

text: Glaciers are blue in color. This is because water is very good at absorbing light. Only the strongest light, with the most energy, is able to escape. Blue is the color of light that has the most energy. Because of this, blue is the only color of light that can escape without being absorbed. The thicker the glacier is, the more blue it appears.


title: College

text: College is an educational school where people go to learn and earn an academic degree upon graduation. The requirement to enter college varies by country, but in most countries, the student must have a high school diploma or equivalent (in the United States and Canada, a GED).


title: College

text: Most college students begin their academic careers at 18 years old, the same age when most people graduate from high school. Though, colleges and universities have no maximum age so anyone can study or finish their studies at any time they decide they want.


title: College

text: In some countries, for example the United Kingdom, "college" also means a house belonging to a university, where students and teachers live together.


title: College

text: In the United States and Canada, college students begin as undergraduate students in which they will declare a major in which students specialize in an academic discipline (for example, Psychology, Biology, English, Mathematics, and Economics) and they will take classes that will expose them to the skills they need to do their careers. They also take general education classes which includes courses in reading, research, literature, a math course (for example, College Algebra, Pre-Calculus, or Statistics), a science course, and others (though this will vary by the college).


title: College

text: Upon successful completion of all required courses, students will earn a Bachelor's degree which they may either go to work with the degree or continue studying for a higher-level degree. Students who have a bachelor's degree and choose to continue college are considered graduate students, where they take more classes that are more in-depth to the student's academic discipline and qualify them for higher paying careers, earn a promotion, or become college professors. Students may also attend medical school to become physicians or law school to become lawyers.


title: Plasma (physics)

text: Plasma is created by adding energy to a gas so that some of its electrons leave their atoms. This is ionization. It results in negatively charged electrons, and positively charged ions. Unlike the other states of matter, the charged particles in a plasma react strongly to electric and magnetic fields (i.e. electromagnetic fields). If a plasma loses heat, the ions will re-form into a gas, emitting the energy which had caused them to ionize.


title: Plasma (physics)

text: Over 99% of the matter in the visible universe is believed to be plasma. When the atoms in a gas are broken up, the pieces are called electrons and ions. Because they have an electric charge, they are pulled together or pushed apart by electric fields and magnetic fields. This makes a plasma act differently from a gas. For example, magnetic fields can be used to hold a plasma, but not to hold a gas. Plasma is a better conductor of electricity than copper.


title: Plasma (physics)

text: Plasma is usually very hot, because it takes very high temperatures to break the bonds between electrons and the nuclei of the atoms. Sometimes plasmas can have very high pressure, as in stars. Stars (including the Sun) are mostly made of plasma. Plasmas can also have very low pressure, as in outer space.


title: Plasma (physics)

text: On Earth, lightning makes plasma. Artificial (man-made) uses of plasma include fluorescent light bulbs, neon signs, and plasma displays used for television or computer screens. Plasma lamps and globes which are popular children's toys and room decorations.


title: Plasma (physics)

text: Scientists are experimenting with plasma to make a new kind of nuclear power, called fusion, which would be much better and safer than ordinary nuclear power, and would produce much less radioactive waste.


title: Jutland

text: Jutland (Danish: "Jylland"; German: "Jütland") is a peninsula in northern Europe. It forms the mainland part of Denmark and a northern part of Germany. It separates the North Sea from the Baltic Sea. Its terrain is relatively flat, with low hills and peat bogs. It has an area of 29,775 km² (11,496 square miles), and a population of 2,491,852 (2004).


title: Jutland

text: The northern two thirds of the peninsula are occupied by the westernmost portion of the Kingdom of Denmark. There is no separate name for the Danish portion of the peninsula, so it is simply called the same name.


title: Jutland

text: The northernmost part of Jutland became an island following a flood in 1825; the Limfjord now separates it from the mainland. This island is called "Vendsyssel-Thy or Nørrejyske Ø" ("North Jutlandic Island") and is still commonly reckoned as part of the peninsula; it is also partly coterminous with the county and future region called North Jutland.


title: Jutland

text: The southern third is made up of the German Bundesland of Schleswig-Holstein, with the duchies of Schleswig (also Sønderjylland/Southern Jutland) and Holstein. Both duchies have passed back and forth between the Danes and various German rulers. In the last border movement, Denmark regained North Schleswig ("Nordslesvig" in Danish) by plebiscite in 1920. Southern Schleswig remained German.


title: Jutland

text: The River Elbe forms the southern border of Jutland with the city of Hamburg on its shore. The Danish Wadden Sea Islands and the North Frisian Islands stretch along the southwest coast of Jutland in the German Bight.


title: Jutland

text: There are two bridges which link the central part ofJutland to the island of Funen to the east. They are the Little Belt Bridge and the New Little Belt Bridge. The roads which use these bridges are part of the European road network.


title: Sustainable Development Goals

text: The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are created by the [United Nations] and promoted as the Global Goals for Sustainable Development. They replaced the [Millennium Development Goals] that expired at the end of 2015. The SDGs run from 2015 to 2030. There are 17 goals and 169 specific targets for those goals.


title: Dynasty

text: Dynasty means rulers who belong to the same royal family for generations. The term is also used to describe the era during which that family ruled.


title: Hospitality

text: Hospitality is about people welcoming other people into their homes or other places where they work or spend their time. People who welcome visitors are called hosts. The people they welcome are called guests.


title: Hospitality

text: The word "hospitality" comes from the Latin "hospes", which came from the word "hostis", which originally meant "to have power."


title: Hospitality

text: Hospitality is all about the art of entertaining or receiving guests. We talk about "offering hospitality". There are many different ideas about how to offer hospitality according to the various cultures in the world. In the past, many societies taught that it was always right to offer hospitality to strangers who came to their door in need of food or shelter. This may seem a strange idea to many of us today, but it was an important way to survive in many societies, especially in lands where people travelled long distances, often far away from large towns.


title: Hospitality

text: The words hospital, hospice, and hostel also come from the word "hospitality". They are all about giving personal care to people who are away from their homes.


title: Organic chemistry

text: Organic chemistry is the study of chemical compounds that contain carbon. Carbon has the ability to form a chemical bond with a wide variety of chemical elements and other carbon atoms. This allows a nearly unlimited number of combinations, called organic compounds. The subject of carbon compounds is called organic chemistry because all known organisms, or living things, are made up of water and carbon compounds. Organic chemistry largely involves the synthesis, or formation, of organic products by chemical reaction using different reactants and reagents, the substances used up during a reaction. Several different areas of chemistry expand on the concepts and principles of organic chemistry, including biochemistry, microbiology, and medicine.


title: Organic chemistry

text: The term organic originates from Jons Jacob Berzelius, a 19th century Swedish scientist, who used the term to refer to substances present in living things. During Berzelius’ time, the vital force theory was popular. This theory stated that a "life force" was needed to produce the organic compounds found only in living things. The vital force theory began losing support after an 1828 experiment conducted by Friedrich Wöhler. His work showed that urea, an organic compound, could be created from ammonium cyanate, an inorganic compound.


title: Organic chemistry

text: The study of hydrocarbons is a very large part of organic chemistry. Hydrocarbons are molecules containing only the elements carbon and hydrogen in the form of chains. Hydrocarbons can be classified into two categories based on the presence of a benzene ring, a circular type of hydrocarbon. Aliphatic hydrocarbons do not contain a benzene ring and aromatic hydrocarbons do.


title: Organic chemistry

text: Organic chemistry reactions happen because electrons are not shared evenly in a chemical bond. Some atoms or molecules, like oxygen, nitrogen, and negatively charged anions, are nucleophilic because they have extra electrons and want to be around positive charges. Others, such as H+ and other positively charged cations, are electrophilic and want to be around negative charges. When an organic molecule has a positive charge, it is called a carbocation. It is also an electrophile. When nucleophiles and electrophiles mix, a reaction can occur.


title: Organic chemistry

text: A reaction mechanism is a series of smaller reactions that form an overall reaction. Two basic mechanism types are substitution and elimination reactions. They are very important in the study of organic chemistry mechanisms because many more complicated mechanisms use them.


title: Organic chemistry

text: Nucleophilic substitution occurs when an atom or group of atoms detaches from an organic molecule and is replaced by another. If the leaving and adding happens at the same time, it is called a S2 reaction. If the leaving group breaks away from the organic molecule and forms a carbocation before substitution occurs, it is called an S1 reaction.


title: Organic chemistry

text: Elimination occurs when two groups are broken off of an organic molecule by a strong acid and the resulting charges form a double bond. Usually one of the groups is a nucleophile and the other is a hydrogen atom. If both groups are pulled off at the same time, it is called an E2 reaction. If one group is pulled off first and forms a carbocation before the second group is removed, it is called an E1 reaction.


title: Organic chemistry

text: Stereochemistry is the study of molecules in space. It looks into the arrangement of atoms inside of molecules in space relative to one another and how they will interact. Molecules that have the same chemical make up but are arranged differently are called isomers. Famous chemist Louis Pasteur was an early researcher of stereochemistry.


title: Organic chemistry

text: A central part of the study of sterochemistry is chirality. Put simply, chirality looks at the symmetry in chemical molecules. If an object cannot be superimposed onto its mirror image, then it is a chiral object. If it can, it is called achiral.


title: Organic chemistry

text: Spectroscopy is the study of the interactions between light energy and matter. We are able to see colors because of energy absorption by organic and inorganic compounds. When a plant undergoes photosynthesis, it traps energy from the sun, and this is an example of an interaction between energy and organic compounds.


title: Organic chemistry

text: Spectroscopy is used to identify organic molecules in unknown compounds. There are many types of spectroscopy, but most important to organic chemistry are infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy.


title: Principle of relativity

text: In physics, the principle of relativity is the requirement that the equations describing the laws of physics is as same as the all frames of reference.


title: Principle of relativity

text: In 300 BCE, Greek philosopher Aristotle thought that heavy objects fall faster than objects that are not heavy. The natural science of Aristotle was most popular in Western thought for 2,000 years.


title: Principle of relativity

text: In 1600, Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei proved that all objects fall with the same acceleration. Therefore, the longer an object moves with constant acceleration the faster its final velocity is. Also, if different objects each having a different mass are dropped from rest (initial velocity is zero) at the same height in a vacuum, they will all hit the ground at the same velocity regardless of their mass. The experimental discoveries of Galileo and the Laws of Motion developed mathematically by Newton gave birth to modern science.


title: Principle of relativity

text: Galileo's principle of relativity states "It is impossible by mechanical means to say whether we are moving or staying at rest". If two trains are moving at the same speed in the same direction, then a passenger in either train will not be able to notice that either train is moving. However, if the passenger takes a fixed frame of reference, a fixed point, like the earth, he will then be able to notice the motion of either train. Another thing, if one stands on the earth one will not be able to see that it is moving.


title: Principle of relativity

text: This principle is just taken from observation. For example, if we are travelling by airplane at a constant speed, we can walk through the inside of the airplane without noticing anything special.


title: Principle of relativity

text: From a practical point of view, this means that Newton's laws of motion are valid in all inertial systems, which means those at rest or those moving with constant speed relative to one considered at rest. This is the law of inertia: a body at rest continues at rest and a body in motion continues in motion in a straight line unless influenced by an external force. A Galilean coordinate system is one where the law of inertia is valid. The laws of mechanics of Galileo and Newton are valid in a Galilean coordinate system. If K is a Galilean coordinate system, then every other system K' is a Galilean coordinate system if it lies at rest or moves according to the law of inertia relative to K. Relative to K', the mechanical laws of Galileo and Newton are as valid as they are relative to K.


title: Principle of relativity

text: In other words, if a mass m is at rest or is moving with constant acceleration (the constant acceleration could be equal to zero in which case the velocity would remain constant) in a straight line relative to a Galilean coordinate system K, then it will also be at rest or moving with constant acceleration in a straight line relative to a second coordinate system K' provided the law of inertia is valid in system K' (in other words, provided it is a Galilean coordinate system).


title: Principle of relativity

text: Therefore, if we want to observe an effect in a moving system at constant speed, we can apply the Newton laws directly. If the moving system speeds up (or we speed up relative to it, like looking at the stars from the earth) then we will have to introduce imaginary forces to compensate this effect.


title: Principle of relativity

text: Newton's Laws of Motion are mechanically accurate for speeds that are slow compared with the velocity of light. For speeds that approach the speed of light, it is necessary to apply the discoveries of Einstein's Special Theory of Relativity.


title: Principle of relativity

text: In order to describe what happens mechanically in the universe, physicists use mass, length and time. In the physics of Galileo and Newton, these quantities remain the same throughout the universe.


title: Mediterranean Sea

text: The Mediterranean Sea is connected to the Atlantic Ocean by a narrow passage called the Strait of Gibraltar. The sea is almost completely surrounded by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by North Africa, and on the east by the Middle East. It covers around . Its name was invented in the early Middle Ages from Latin words for "in the middle of land".


title: Mediterranean Sea

text: To the east it connects to the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, by the Dardanelles and the Bosporus. The Sea of Marmara, which is an inner sea like the Black Sea, is rarely considered as a part of the Mediterranean Sea. The much bigger Black Sea is generally not considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea. The Ancient Greeks called the Mediterranean simply ἡ θάλασσα (hē thálassa; "the Sea") or sometimes ἡ μεγάλη θάλασσα (hē megálē thálassa; "the Great Sea"), ἡ ἡμετέρα θάλασσα (hē hēmetérā thálassa; "Our Sea"), or ἡ θάλασσα ἡ καθ'ἡμᾶς (hē thálassa hē kath’hēmâs; "the sea around us").


title: Mediterranean Sea

text: The 163 km (101 mi) long man-made Suez Canal in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea. The canal is between Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula, and was built by the French "Compagnie Universelle du Canal Maritime de Suez" from 1859 to 1869.


title: Mediterranean Sea

text: Some of the most ancient human civilizations were made around the Mediterranean Sea, so it has had a large influence on the history and ways of life of these cultures. It provided a way of trade, colonization and war, and was the basis of life (like fishing and catching other seafood) for many communities throughout the ages. The combination of similarly shared climate, geology and access to a common sea has led to lots of historical and cultural connections between the ancient and modern societies around the Mediterranean.


title: Mediterranean Sea

text: Above all, it was the superhighway of transport in ancient times. It allowed for trade and cultural exchange between peoples of the region – Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, Hebrews, Minoans and Hittites on the eastern side of the mediterranean and the Carthaginians, Romans, Etruscans, Celtiberians, Gauls and Berbers on the western side.


title: Mediterranean Sea

text: The history of the Mediterranean is important in understanding the origin and development of Western civilization.


title: Mediterranean Sea

text: The ancient Punic Wars and the Battle of the Mediterranean during World War II gave the winners control over it so they could destroy the losers. Today the Mediterranean Sea still connects the economies of Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East as it did in ancient times. The European migrant crisis resulted in many refugees drowning in the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Mediterranean Sea

text: Almost 6 million years ago, continental drift closed the Strait of Gibraltar. With no water coming in from the Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean partly dried up. The remaining part became extremely salty. After half a million years the straits opened again, making the Mediterranean as it is now.


title: Mediterranean Sea

text: Being nearly landlocked affects the Mediterranean Sea's properties. Tides are limited by the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The water is saltier, partly because of evaporation. The Mediterranean has a deep blue color.


title: Mediterranean Sea

text: Evaporation greatly exceeds precipitation and surface runoff in the Mediterranean, a fact that is central to the water circulation within the basin. Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and salinity to increase eastward. This pressure gradient pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the Levant and circulates westward, to spill over the Strait of Gibraltar. Thus, seawater flow is eastward at the Strait's surface, and westward near the bottom. In the Atlantic, this chemically distinct deep "Mediterranean Intermediate Water" can persist thousands of kilometers away from its source.


title: Arctic Ocean

text: The Arctic Ocean is the ocean around the North Pole. The most northern parts of Eurasia and North America are around the Arctic Ocean. Thick pack ice and snow cover almost all of this ocean in winter, and most of it in summer. An icebreaker or a nuclear-powered submarine can use the Northwest Passage through the Arctic Ocean to go between the Pacific and Atlantic oceans.


title: Arctic Ocean

text: The ocean's area is about 14.056 million km, which is the smallest of the world's 5 oceans, and it has of coastline. The central surface covered by ice about thick. The biology there is quite special. Endangered species there include walruses, whales and polar bears. Year by year the Arctic Ocean is becoming less icy, as a result of global warming.


title: Arctic Ocean

text: The Arctic Ocean covers an area of about 14,056,000 km. The coastline is 45,390 km (28,200 mi) long It is surrounded by Eurasia, North America, Greenland, and by several islands.


title: Arctic Ocean

text: It is generally taken to include Baffin Bay, Barents Sea, Beaufort Sea, Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea, Greenland Sea, Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, White Sea and other bodies of water. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the Bering Strait and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea and Labrador Sea.


title: Arctic Ocean

text: Countries bordering the Arctic Ocean are: Russia, Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Canada and the United States.


title: Arctic Ocean

text: The Arctic Ocean is in a polar climate. Winters are characterized by the polar night, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies.


title: Arctic Ocean

text: The temperature of the surface of the Arctic Ocean is fairly constant, near the freezing point of seawater. Arctic Ocean consists of saltwater but its salinity is less than other oceans. The temperature must reach −1.8 °C (28.8 °F) before freezing occurs.


title: Arctic Ocean

text: Ice covers most of the Arctic Ocean. It covers almost the whole ocean in late winter and the majority of the ocean in late summer. Much of the Arctic ice pack is covered in snow for about 10 months of the year. The maximum snow cover is in March or April — about 20 to 50 cm (7.9 to 19.7 in).


title: Arctic Ocean

text: The climate of the Arctic region has varied significantly in the past. As recently as 55 million years ago, during the eocene epoch, the region reached an average annual temperature of 10–20 °C (50–68 °F). The surface waters of the Arctic Ocean warmed enough to support tropical lifeforms.


title: Arctic Ocean

text: Endangered marine species in the Arctic Ocean include walruses and whales. The area has a fragile ecosystem. The Arctic Ocean has relatively little plant life except for phytoplankton. Phytoplankton are a crucial part of the ocean. They feed on nutrients from rivers and the currents of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.


title: 1920s

text: The 1920s was the decade that started on January 1, 1920 and ended on December 31, 1929. This decade was known as the Roaring Twenties or the Jazz Age.


title: Raphael (archangel)

text: Raphael is an archangel (arch means "highest" or "chief"). He is known in various religions as an angel who does acts of healing. The name "Raphael" means "It is God who heals", "God Heals", "God, Please Heal". Raphael is an angel in the Bible. His feast days (celebration days) are on September 29 and October 24.


title: Raphael (archangel)

text: Raphael is an archangel in Judaism and Christianity. In Islam, Raphael is the fourth major angel; in Muslim tradition, he is known as Israfil. Raphael is also an angel in Mormonism, as he is briefly mentioned in the Doctrine and Covenants.


title: Raphael (archangel)

text: Raphael is generally associated with the angel mentioned in the Gospel of John as stirring the water at the healing pool of Bethesda. Raphael is spoken about in the Book of Tobit. Raphael was sent by the Lord to heal Tobit of his blindness. He also takes care of Tobit son, Tobias. He walks with Tobias to the village where he meets his future wife, Sarah. Sarah needs to be rescued from a demon who kills everybody who goes near her. This evil demon kills every man she marries on their wedding night. While they walk, Tobias and the Angel catch a fish together. Raphael told Tobias to catch a fish use the gallbladder to heal Tobit's eyes. Raphael also told Tobias how to protect himself from the demon. Tobias made a little fire and was burning the heart and liver of the fish. Tobias was driving away the evil demon with smoke.


title: Raphael (archangel)

text: Raphael is the angel who can heal. He is the patron saint (taking care of) the young people, shepherds; sick people and travelers. He can cure eye problems and nightmares.


title: Raphael (archangel)

text: He is a special angel of the apothecaries; meaning nurses, pharmacists, physicians and jobs like those. He can also be the guardian angel of happy meetings. Raphael is said to guard pilgrims on their journeys, and is often shown holding a staff. He is also often shown holding or standing on a fish. The fish is a symbol of his healing of Tobias's father Tobit with the fish's gall.


title: Karl von Habsburg

text: Karl von Habsburg (Karl Thomas Robert Maria Franziskus Georg Bahnam; born 11 January 1961), also known as Karl of Austria and referred to by his ancestral titles as Archduke of Austria, Royal Prince of Hungary, Bohemia and Croatia, is an Austrian politician, the current head of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. He was a Member of the European Parliament for the Austrian People's Party 1996–1999.


title: RB Leipzig

text: The club was founded on 19 May 2009 by the Red Bull Company. It was formed out of the SSV Markranstädt. Due to the regulations of the DFB the name Red Bull Leipzig for marketing reasons was forbidden so they were called RB (short for RasenBallsport). Also the logo was forbidden.


title: RB Leipzig

text: The company was sure that there is a great chance to form a new club, because with the Zentralstadion (now Red Bull Arena) there was a good stadium and there is no club in professional football in the area. The club is now in the Bundesliga. Like in Salzburg many fans protested against this deal because they had the fear that the fanculture will vanish and football will be only a business. So they wanted a "normal" football club.


title: RB Leipzig

text: They started in the Oberliga Nordost-Süd(5th level) and became 1st in the 2009/10 season. But the next season they failed to gain promotion to the 3. Bundesliga. So the coach was changed, the new one is the Austrian Peter Pacult. The first match under the new coach was a 3:2 win in the German Cup (1st round) versus VfL Wolfsburg from the Bundesliga.


title: Chechnya

text: Chechnya (; ), officially the Chechen Republic (; ), is a federal subject in Russia. It is located in the Caucasus region of Western Asia. The capital is Grozny.


title: Chechnya

text: Most people in Chechnya are Muslims and are of ancient Hurrian roots who spoke a Caucasian language. Most Chechens belong to the Shafi`i school of Sunni Islam.


title: Chechnya

text: Chechens speak their own language, not related to the Russian language. The Chechen language is part of the Northeast Caucasian, or "Vainakh", family, while Russian is a Slavic language.


title: Chechnya

text: During Soviet control, Chechnya was unified with Ingushetia. After the fall of the Soviet Union, Chechnya broke away from Ingushetia to form its own republic. The Chechens wanted independence. After the First Chechen War, Chechnya was de facto independent as the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. After the Second Chechen War, Russia regained control of Chechnya.


title: Chechnya

text: Russia has claimed Chechnya as part of its country since the Russians invaded the Caucasus in the 18th century.


title: Chechnya

text: The current leader of the Chechen Republic is Ramzan Kadyrov. He is also the son of the 1st Chechen President, Akhmad Kadyrov.


title: Direct democracy

text: Direct democracy, which is also called pure democracy is a democracy in which the decisions are not taken by representatives. All decisions are voted on by the people.


title: Direct democracy

text: When a budget or law needs to be passed, then the idea goes to the people. Governments of modern countries rarely make laws this way.


title: Direct democracy

text: Interest groups would have to change the minds of all people, not just a few representatives. Taxes could not be raised without the permission of the people. The few would not rule the many and the government would not pay representatives salaries. In indirect, or representative democracy, citizens elect representatives to make laws on their behalf. This is what most modern countries have today.


title: Direct democracy

text: Direct democracy makes decisions by majority rule. Representative democracy was made with the idea that representatives would be responsible for the majority's interests while protecting minority rights. People like James Madison believed that direct democracy was bad for minority groups.


title: Direct democracy

text: Classical Athens was a direct democracy. All citizens voted on major decisions of government. But, to be a citizen, you had to be a free, land-owning, native-born man.


title: Direct democracy

text: Switzerland has aspects of direct democracy. "Evidence suggests that attendance at assemblies... has always been limited to roughly twenty per cent of the citizenry". The practice is only used in two cantons, Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus.


title: Direct democracy

text: The Federal government of the United States does not use direct democracy but the individual states sometimes make laws by referendum. Some New England towns govern themselves by a town meeting.


title: June Brown

text: June Muriel Brown, MBE (born 16 February 1927 – 3 April 2022) was an English actress. She was known for her role as Dot Cotton in the long-running BBC soap opera "EastEnders", a part she played from 1985 to 1993, and again from 1997 to 2020.


title: Electronic component

text: An electronic component is a basic electronic element. These components can be connected together to make circuits. Components can be single items (resistor, transistor) or in more or less complex groups as integrated circuits (logic gate, resistor array).


title: Karen Gillan

text: Karen Sheila Gillan (born 28 November 1987) is a Scottish actress, director, screenwriter and model. She is best known for playing the part of Amy Pond in the British science fiction series, "Doctor Who".


title: Karen Gillan

text: Gillan was born on 28 November 1987 in Inverness, Scotland. She learned to play the piano when she was seven. She started acting when she was very young. She joined several local youth theatre groups. She also acted at her school, Charleston Academy. When she was sixteen, Gillan went to Edinburgh's Telford College to study acting. Later, she studied at the Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts drama school in London. Gillan moved to London when she was 18 to study at drama school.


title: Karen Gillan

text: Her cousin, Caitlin Blackwood, played the part of the young Amy Pond in at least three episodes of "Doctor Who".