title: Burton upon Trent

text: Burton upon Trent, also known as Burton-on-Trent, or simply Burton, is a town in the county of Staffordshire in England, near to the border with Derbyshire. It is located 11 miles southwest of Derby and 30 miles northeast of Birmingham.


title: Burton upon Trent

text: Burton is famous for its brewing industry. A lot of famous beers and lagers, such as Carling, are brewed in the town. It is currently home to eight independent breweries. The town's football club, Burton Albion FC, are nicknamed "The Brewers".


title: Burton upon Trent

text: The 2011 census revealed that the town had a population of 72,299 people, making it one of the biggest towns in Staffordshire.


title: Balearic Islands

text: The Balearic Islands (officially and in Catalan Illes Balears) are an autonomous community of Spain, formed by the "Balearic Islands province". The main Balearic islands are Mallorca (also called in English "Majorca"), Minorca, Eivissa or Ibiza, and Formentera. The capital is Palma de Mallorca, and other cities are Mahon, Ibiza, Inca, Ciutadella, and Calvia.


title: Hejaz

text: Hejaz is the western region of Saudi Arabia, stretching along the Red Sea (Sea of Hejaz). It extends from Taif in the south to Jordan in the north. There are four important cities in this region:


title: Water tank

text: A water tank is a container for storing water. The need for water tanks is as old as civilization. Tanks were used to provide storage of water for use in many applications, drinking water, irrigation agriculture, fire suppression, agricultural farming, both for plants and livestock, chemical manufacturing, food preparation as well as many other uses. Water tank parameters include the general design of the tank, and choice of construction materials, linings. Various materials are used for making a water tank: plastics (polyethylene, polypropylene), fiberglass, concrete, stone, steel (welded or bolted, carbon, or stainless). Earthen pots also function as water storages. Water tanks are an efficient way to help developing countries to store clean water. In the 1980s, high density polyethylene rotationally molded water tanks became popular for home water storage. Gardeners, for example, use various types of these tanks to store rain water. A Water tower, usually made of metal, is a type of elevated water tank.


title: Stereochemistry

text: Stereochemistry is the study of how molecules are affected by the way their atoms are arranged in space. It is also known as 3D chemistry as the word "stereo" means "three dimensional". Using stereochemistry, chemists can work out the relationships between different molecules that are made up from the same atoms. They can also study the effect on the physical or biological properties these relationships give molecules. When these relationships influence the reactivity of the molecules it is called dynamic stereochemistry.


title: Stereochemistry

text: In chemistry, some molecules have more than one isomer. This means that molecules can have different forms, even though all the forms are made of the same atoms. There are two kinds of isomers. Constitutional isomers have the same atoms, but they are joined differently. Stereoisomers have the same atoms, they are joined the same way, but the atoms are arranged differently in space. An important part of stereochemistry is the study of chiral molecules. These molecules look almost identical, except that one molecule is the mirror image of the other.


title: Stereochemistry

text: In most chemical bonds, the atoms of a molecule free to move around without breaking the bonds. When a molecule has a double bond or a ring structure, the molecule can be sorted into different isomers. These are molecules with the same chemical structure but different forms.


title: Stereochemistry

text: The study of stereochemical problems covers the entire range of organic, inorganic, biological, physical and supramolecular chemistries.


title: Stereochemistry

text: Louis Pasteur was the first person to study stereochemistry. He observed in 1849 that salts of tartaric acid collected from wine-making equipment could rotate plane polarized light, but that salts from other sources did not. This property was the only difference between the two types of salt. It is due to optical isomerism. In 1874, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and Joseph Le Bel discovered the difference was caused by the way that the atoms bonded to carbon in a tetrahedral (four faced) shape.


title: Stereochemistry

text: Stereochemistry was important in solving the thalidomide disaster in the 1960s. Thalidomide is a drug that was first produced in 1957 in Germany. Doctors used it to treat morning sickness in pregnant women. Later, the drug was shown to cause deformations in babies. One isomer of the drug was not dangerous, but the other caused serious genetic damage to the embryos. In the human body, thalidomide undergoes racemization: even if only one of the two stereoisomers enters a human body, the body changes some of it to other one. The thalidomide disaster caused governments to test drugs more carefully. Selected people take new drugs in an experiment (clinical trial) first before the drug is made available for public use. Thalidomide is now used as a therapy for leprosy. Women must use it with contraceptives to prevent pregnancy.


title: Stereochemistry

text: When an atom can have other atoms connect to it in more than one way, it is called a stereocenter. For example, if a carbon atom has four different groups attached to it, it becomes a stereocenter.


title: Stereochemistry

text: Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority rules are part of a system for describing a molecule's stereochemistry. They rank the atoms around a stereocenter in a standard way. This allows the relative position of these atoms in the molecule to be described very clearly. A Fischer projection is a simplified way to show the stereochemistry around a stereocenter.


title: Donald Sutherland

text: Donald McNichol Sutherland OC (born July 17, 1935) is a Canadian actor. He has appeared in more than 100 movie and television shows.


title: Donald Sutherland

text: Sutherland is known for his roles in "Fellini's Casanova", "Klute", "Don't Look Now", "Invasion of the Body Snatchers", "JFK", "Ordinary People", "Pride & Prejudice," and "The Hunger Games". He is the father of actor Kiefer Sutherland.


title: Donald Sutherland

text: Sutherland was born in Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada. His ancestry includes Scottish, as well as German and English. When Sutherland was a child, he had rheumatic fever, hepatitis and poliomyelitis. He studied at Victoria College and at University of Toronto. He studied acting London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art. Sutherland started off working as a radio DJ at the age of 14.


title: Donald Sutherland

text: Sutherland's acting career began in 1962 with a small role in the television series "The Avengers". He then starred in some major roles in movies such as "Dr. Terror's House of Horrors" with Christopher Lee. He had a recurring role in the 1970 television series "M*A*S*H".


title: Donald Sutherland

text: Sutherland soon gained fame in the Academy Award-winning movie "Klute" with Jane Fonda. He then starred in the movie "Don't Look Now". He then starred in the movie "Buffy the Vampire Slayer".


title: Donald Sutherland

text: Recently, Sutherland portrayed President Snow in the movie adaptation of "The Hunger Games", released in March 2012. He repeated the role in its sequel, "" (2013).


title: Donald Sutherland

text: Sutherland was married to Lois Hardwick from 1959 until they divorced in 1966. Then he was married to Shirley Douglas from 1966 until they divorced in 1970. Since 1972, Sutherland has been married to his current wife Francine Racette. He has five children, three of whom are actors.


title: Donald Sutherland

text: Sutherland became a blogger for the American news website "The Huffington Post" during the 2008 United States presidential election campaign. In his blogs, he openly stated his support for Barack Obama.


title: Donald Sutherland

text: During the Opening Ceremony of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver he narrated the events. He was also one of the Olympic flag bearers.


title: Actinium

text: Actinium is chemical element 89 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Ac. Actinium's mass is 227 g/mol.


title: Actinium

text: Actinium is a silver radioactive, solid metal in actinide group. It is so radioactive that it glows in the dark. Even a small amount of actinium is dangerous to people.


title: Actinium

text: Actinium was discovered in 1899 by André-Louis Debierne, a French chemist. In 1899, Debierne described the substance as similar to titanium and (in 1900) as similar to thorium.


title: Actinium

text: Actinium is a soft, silvery-white, radioactive metal. Its estimated shear modulus is similar to that of lead. Because its strong radioactivity, actinium glows in the dark with a pale blue light.


title: Actinium

text: Actinium reacts quickly with oxygen and moisture in air forming a white coating of actinium oxide that stops the actinium from oxidizing.


title: Actinium

text: Actinium that is found in nature is made up of two radionuclides Ac and Ac. Thirty-six radionuclides of actinium have been found. The most stable is Ac which has a half-life of 21.772 years. The shortest-lived known isotope of actinium is Ac which has a half-life of 69 nanoseconds.


title: Actinium

text: Actinium is only found in trace amounts in uranium ores. For example, one tonne of uranium ore contains about 0.2 milligrams of Ac. Thorium ores contain about 5 nanograms of Ac per one tonne of thorium.


title: Actinium

text: Ac is now being studied for use in cancer treatments. Ac is studied for use as an active element of radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Ac is used in medicine to make Bi in a reusable generator. It can be used in radiation therapy.


title: Lazio

text: Lazio (Latin: "Latium") is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in central Italy. The capital is Rome.


title: Lazio

text: The region is in Central Italy with an area of . It is bordered to the northwest by the Tuscany region, to the north by the Umbria region, to the northeast with the Marche region, to the east with the Abruzzo and Molise regions, to the southeast is the Campania region and to the west is the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Vatican City is within the region.


title: Lazio

text: The main river in the region is the Tiber. The highest mountain in the region is Monte Gorzano, on the border with the Abruzzo region, with an altitude of .


title: Lazio

text: The Pontine Islands () are an archipelago in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the west coast of Italy. They are part of Lazio.


title: Sophia Loren

text: Sophia Loren (born 20 September 1934) is an Italian actress, one of the best known and most popular of Italian actresses.


title: Sophia Loren

text: Born Sofia Scicolone in Rome, Italy, out of wedlock. She grew up in Puzzuoli, near Naples, raised by her single mother in poverty.


title: Sophia Loren

text: In 1950, she entered a beauty contest and was noticed by film producer Carlo Ponti (1912-2007) who took her under his wing. With his help and guidance, she began appearing in bit parts in film, and got her first major role in director Vittorio De Sica's "The Gold of Naples" in 1954.


title: Sophia Loren

text: Ponti made her learn English and took her to Hollywood. Her first film there was "The Pride and the Passion" in 1957, opposite Cary Grant and Frank Sinatra. This was followed by "Desire under the Elms" (1958) with Anthony Perkins, "Houseboat" (1958) with Cary Grant, "Black Orchid" (1958) with Anthony Quinn, "It Happened in Naples" (1960) with Clark Gable, "Heller in Pink Tights" (1960) with Anthony Quinn, "A Breath of Scandal" (1960) with John Gavin.


title: Sophia Loren

text: Back in Italy, she was reunited with Vittorio De Sica in "La Ciocara" ("Two Women") in 1961, which won her the Academy Award and the BAFTA for best actress.


title: Sophia Loren

text: Thereafter, she pursued her career both in Italy and the United States, appearing in films such as "El Cid" (1962), "The Fall of the Roman Empire" (1964), "Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow" (1964), "Marriage Italian Style" (1964), "Arabesque" (1966), "The Countess from Hong Kong" (1967), "The Man from La Mancha" (1972), "The Cassandra Crossing" (1976), etc.


title: Sophia Loren

text: Sophia Loren and Carlo Ponti were first married on 17 September 1957, but Ponti being Catholic his divorce from his first wife was not recognized in Italy and the marriage was declared invalid. Ponti took French citizenship and after being legally divorced, he and Loren were remarried on 9 April 1966, and had two sons; Carlo (b. 1968) and Eduardo (b. 1973). The Italian former model and politician Alessandra Mussolini is her niece.


title: Melody

text: A melody in music is a group of notes of various pitches (how high or low a note sounds) which are played one after another. Together they make a tune in the same way that a group of words make a sentence. Some people like to sing melodies. Melodies have rhythm (the length of the notes).


title: Melody

text: In music, 'melody' contrasts with 'harmony'. Harmony means notes which are played at the same time, like chords. Composers often think of a melody and then add harmony to it.


title: Melody

text: Some music has more than one melody happening at the same time. When this happens throughout the whole piece, it is called polyphonic music. Rounds and fugues are types of polyphonic music. If the other melody only happens sometimes, then the second melody is called a "countermelody".


title: Melody

text: The adjective of melody is "melodic". There is also the adjective "melodious" which means: 'a sweet-sounding melody'.


title: Melody

text: Music that does not have an obvious melody may be hard to understand (unless it is focused on rhythm, such as a drum solo).


title: Melody

text: Many melodies are easy to sing, while others are difficult to sing. Still other melodies are impossible to sing. Those melodies can still be played on musical instruments.


title: Hippocampus

text: The hippocampus is part of the mammalian brain, and belongs to the limbic system. Humans and other mammals have two, one in each side of the brain. The hippocampus is under the cerebral cortex.


title: Hippocampus

text: It is important in spatial memory and navigation, and helps turn short-term memory into long-term memory. The hippocampus is named after the "seahorse" because its shape is similar.


title: Hippocampus

text: In Alzheimer's disease, the hippocampus is one of the first regions of the brain to suffer damage; memory loss and disorientation are included among the early symptoms. People with extensive, bilateral hippocampal damage may experience anterograde amnesia the inability to form or retain new memories.


title: Hippocampus

text: The different neuronal cell types are neatly organized into layers in the hippocampus. It has often been used as a model system for studying neurophysiology. Long-term potentiation (LTP), a neural mechanism for storing memory, was first discovered to occur in the hippocampus.


title: Hippocampus

text: The connection of hippocampus with memory was made by a famous report. This gave the results of the destruction of the hippocampi by surgery (an attempt to relieve epileptic seizures). The unexpected outcome of the surgery was severe anterograde and partial retrograde amnesia. The patient could not form new memories of events after his surgery, and could not remember any events that occurred just before his surgery. However, he did remember events from many years earlier, right back to his childhood.


title: Hippocampus

text: This case attracted widespread professional interest. Later, other patients with similar damage and amnesia (caused by accident or disease) have also been studied. Thousands of experiments have studied the physiology of changes in synaptic connections in the hippocampus after activity. The hippocampi do play an important role in memory. However, the precise nature of this role remains unclear.


title: Hippocampus

text: Recent reviews say how the hippocampus puts together our memories of past events, and helps us remember aspects of complex events.


title: Hippocampus

text: Neurons in the rat hippocampus show activity related to the rat's position in its environment. As with the memory theory, there is now almost universal agreement that spatial coding plays an important role in hippocampal function, but the details are widely debated.


title: Hippocampus

text: Studies conducted on freely moving rats and mice have shown that many hippocampal neurons have "place fields", that is, they fire bursts of action potentials when a rat passes through a particular part of the environment. In humans, cells with location-specific firing patterns have been reported in a study. Patients with drug-resistant epilepsy had diagnostic electrodes put in their hippocampus. Then a computer was used to move them around in a virtual reality town.


title: Hippocampus

text: The discovery of place cells in the 1970s led to a theory that the hippocampus might act as a cognitive map a neural representation of the layout of the environment. The "cognitive map hypothesis" has been further advanced by recent discoveries of direction cells in several parts of the rodent brain which are strongly connected to the hippocampus.


title: Hippocampus

text: The hippocampus has a generally similar appearance across the mammals from monotremes such as the echidna to primates such as humans. The hippocampal size to body-size ratio increases: it is about twice as large for primates as for the echidna. It does not, however, increase at anywhere close to the rate of the neocortex to body-size ratio. Therefore, the hippocampus takes up a larger fraction of the cortex in rodents than in primates.


title: Hippocampus

text: Other vertebrates have areas which may be homologous to the hippocampus of mammals. Some insects, and cephalopods such as the octopus, have strong spatial learning and navigation abilities. These appear to work differently from the mammalian spatial system, and have evolved independently of the mammalian system.


title: Amnesty International

text: Amnesty International (also called AI or Amnesty) is an international organization founded in London in 1961. They promote human rights in accordance with Universal Declaration of Human Rights and international human rights law. This organization was the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for its defense of human dignity against torture. It is one of the most widely-known human rights groups in the world. The six key areas that Amnesty International focuses on are refugee rights, the rights of women, children, and of minorities, ending torture, stopping the death penalty, the rights of people imprisoned because of what they believe, and protection of human dignity.


title: Boursorama

text: Boursorama is a French company which activities are mainly divided between the animation of the information portal Boursorama.com and the activity of internet banking with "Boursorama Banque". Société Générale is the owner.


title: Boursorama

text: Since its creation, the website Boursorama.com has been the French leader in online information about the stock market, aimed at both individual investors and professionals. Initially specialized in this activity, Boursorama.com diversified into political and general information with an economic focus.


title: Boursorama

text: After several acquisitions and mergers, including Fimatex in 2002, Boursorama also diversified into online banking, resulting in the creation of the current "Boursorama Banque".


title: Family tree

text: A family tree is a chart showing family relationships in a tree structure form. The more detailed family trees used in medicine, genealogy, and social work are known as genograms.


title: Family tree

text: As normally showed, a family tree "grows" down from the top, from the oldest generations at the top to the newer generations at the bottom. A tree showing the descendants of an individual (illustration right) will more closely look like a tree in shape; one showing the ancestors of an individual (illustration below in "The Family Tree of Sigmund") will be wider at the top than the bottom. When looking at the closer to the bottom of the tree, it will show more recent generations, and when looking farther up, there will be older generations.


title: Devi Lal

text: Chaudhary Devi Lal (born Devi Dayal; 25 September 1914 — 6 April 2001) was an Indian politician. He served as 6th Deputy Prime Minister of India from 1989 to 1991 in the management of V. P. Singh and Chandra Shekhar. He is popularly known as Tau (uncle). Devi Lal came out as farmer leader from the state of Haryana. He served as the Chief Minister of Haryana first in 1977-79 and then in 1987-89.


title: Devi Lal

text: Chaudhary Devi Lal was born in Teja Khera village of Sirsa district in present-day Haryana to Shunga Devi and Lekh Ram Sihag. Lekh Ram was a Jat of Chautala village. He owned 2750 bighas of land. Lal received education up to middle-school. His son, Om Prakash Chautala has also served as Haryana's chief minister four times.


title: Devi Lal

text: In 1928 at the age of 16, Devi Lal participated in independence struggle event by Lala Lajpat Rai. He was a student of ""Dev Samaj Public High School Moga"" in Moga during his 10th class. At that time, he was arrested at Congress office in 1930. He quit studies and joined freedom movement. He also took wrestling lesson at an Akhara in Badal village of Punjab. He was first elected MLA in 1952.


title: Devi Lal

text: Lal comes from a productive political period of time with his powerful family rulers of Haryana. His older brother Sahib Ram Sihag was the first politician from the family. Sahib Ram Sihag became Congress MLA from Hisar in 1938 and 1947. Lal had four sons - Partap Singh, Om Prakash Chautala, Ranjit Singh and Jagdish Chander. His eldest son, Partap Singh, was an MLA from Indian National Lok Dal in the 1960s.


title: Devi Lal

text: Lal was a follower of Mahatma Gandhi. He was involved in the struggle for India's independence from the British Raj. Both he and his elder brother, Sahib Ram, left their studies unfinished to take part in the freedom movement.


title: Devi Lal

text: For this, he was sentenced to one year rigorous imprisonment and sent to Hissar jail on 8 October 1930. He took part in the movement of 1932. He was then kept in Sadar Delhi Thana (Jail). In 1938 he was selected delegate of All-India Congress Committee. In March 1938, his elder brother was elected a Member of the Legislative Assembly in a by-election on the Congress party ticket. In January 1940, Sahib Ram courted arrest as a "satyagrahi" in the presence of Lal and over ten thousand people. He was fined Rs 100 and sentenced to 9 months imprisonment.


title: Devi Lal

text: Lal was arrested again on 5 October 1942. He then kept in jail for two years for taking part in the 1942 Quit India movement. He was released from prison in October 1943. He negotiated parole for his elder brother. In August 1944, Chhotu Ram, the then Revenue Minister, visited Chautala village. He, along with Lajpat Rai Alakhpura, made efforts to woo both Sahib Ram and Lal to desert Congress and join the Unionist Party. But both workers, being dedicated freedom fighters, refused to leave the Congress Party.


title: Devi Lal

text: After independence, Lal emerged as a popular farmer leader in the 1950s and started a farmers' movement, for which he was arrested along with his 500 workers. After some time, then chief minister, Gopi Chand Bhargava, made an agreement and the Muzzara Act was amended. He was elected a member of the Punjab Assembly in 1952 and President of the Punjab Congress in 1956. In 1958, he was elected from Sirsa.


title: Devi Lal

text: He played an active and clear role in the (creation and construction/ group of objects) of Haryana as a separate state. In 1971, he left Congress. In 1972 Vidhan Sabha elections, he argued over unsuccessfully against the two Congress heavyweights. One was Bansi Lal in Tosham (Vidhan Sabha seat) and another was Bhajan Lal in Adampur seat. In 1974, he successfully contested in the Rori constituency. In 1975, Indira Gandhi declared the Emergency. Lal along with all opposition leaders were jailed for 19 months. In 1977, the emergency ended and general elections were held. He was elected on the Janata Party ticket from Bhattu Kalan. He then became the Chief Minister of Haryana. As the chief minister of Haryana he made several decisions benefiting farmers and rural people.


title: Devi Lal

text: He remained a Member of Parliament from 1980 to 1982. He was a member of State assembly between 1982 and 1987. He formed Lok Dal. He started Nyaya Yuddh (en. battle for justice), under the banner of Haryana Sangharsh Samiti. In the 1987 state elections, the alliance led by Lal won a record victory winning 85 seats in the 90 member house. Congress won the other five seats. Lal became the chief minister of Haryana for the second time. In the 1989 parliamentary election, he was simultaneously elected, both from Sikar, Rajasthan and Rohtak, Haryana.


title: Devi Lal

text: He was elected to Rajya Sabha in August 1998. Later, his son Om Prakash Chautala also became the chief minister of Haryana.


title: Devi Lal

text: His popularity among farmers and rural people earned him the title of 'Tau' (Elder Uncle). Lal died on 6 April 2001 at the age of 85. He was cremated at Sangarsh Sthal on the banks of the river Yamuna in New Delhi. "Kisan Ghat" is the samadhi of another popular leader of the farmers, Charan Singh, the fifth Prime Minister of India.


title: Attempted Italian colonization of America

text: An attempted Italian colonization in America was done in 1608 by the Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando I. Although Italy did not exist yet, and this cannot be defined as an 'Italian' effort, it was carried out by a small state in the territory of what we now call Italy.


text: The Italian colonization of the Americas was limited to an aborted attempt by the Grand Duke of Tuscany to create a colony in South America in the early 1600s.


text: In 1608, Ferdinando the First of Tuscany organized an expedition under captain Robert Thornton, in order to explore northern Brazil and the Amazon river and prepare for the establishment of a settlement in northern coastal South America, which would serve as a base to export Brazilian wood to Renaissance Italy.


text: Ferdinando the First, Grand Duke of Tuscany, oversaw the only Italian attempt to create a colony in the Americas.


text: When Thornton returned to Tuscany a year later, he found Ferdinando I dead, and his successor Cosimo II uninterested in the establishment of a colony. Thornton was ready to sail back to the area between the rivers Orinoco and Amazon in the summer of 1609 with Italian settlers from Livorno and Lucca, but the project was scrapped.


text: Thornton's galleon 'Santa Lucia' returned to Italy in 1609 with plenty of information (after exploring the area between Trinidad island and the delta of the Amazon river), some indigenous natives of the Americas and a few tropical parrots.


text: He brought back with him to Tuscany five Arawak natives, most of whom died of smallpox. Only one lived on at the Medici court for several years, and learned to speak Italian. These natives often talked about the richness and fertility of their native land, speaking of a country rich in silver and gold. Thornton himself corroborated these reports, and asserted that the country was rich in rosewood, wild sugar canes, white pepper, balsam, cotton and many other kinds of merchandise which would form an abundant commerce for the Tuscans.


text: The area that Thornton considered as a possible site of an Italian colony now lies in modern French Guyana, near Cayenne, which would be colonised by France in 1630.


text: The Italians never created real colonies in the Americas, and only made territorial 'colonies' in other areas of the world as migrants mainly after their political unification in the 19th century.


text: Many Italians migrated to America to live under other flags and created diasporic settlements of migrants, sometimes called "colonies". These communities were often living in poor conditions and subject to exploitative and violent attitudes. Those settlements were made by groups of Italian emigrants who settled together in the same place and around the same time, founding a settlement that still exists today in many cases.


text: The first Italian settlement of this kind was made in Venezuela by Luigi Castelli, who wanted to settle, in the late 1830s, Italian migrants from Tuscany in the same area where a few years later German emigrants settled and created the "Colonia Tovar" (unluckily their ship sank in the Mediterranean).


text: Many of these Italian settlements were created in the second half of the 19th century, mainly in Uruguay, Argentina, Chile, Mexico and the Southern and Southeastern regions of Brazil (Sao Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul).


text: In most of those settlements the Italian language (and dialects) is still spoken today: like in "Capitán Pastene" of Chile, in "Chipilo" of Mexico or in "Nova Veneza" of Santa Catarina (where it is spoken the "Talian" of Brasil).


text: None of these settlements are related to the 20th century colonial campaigns of the Kingdom of Italy and Fascist Italy.


title: Shrimp

text: Shrimp refers to small, decapod crustacea. Shrimp are mainly found in three groups: Caridea, Procarididea, and Dendrobranchiata. There are thousands of species, and usually there is a species adapted to any particular habitat. Any small crustacean which resembles a shrimp tends to be called one.


title: Shrimp

text: Adult shrimp are filter feeding benthic animals that live close to the bottom. They can live in schools and can swim rapidly backwards. They have a high tolerance to toxins in polluted areas, and may contribute to high toxin levels in their predators. They play important roles in the food chain and are important food sources for larger animals from fish to whales.


title: Shrimp

text: Shrimp are related to prawns. In cooking, the criterion is often only the size of the animal (prawns are bigger). Biologically, prawns and shrimp can be told apart by the structure of their gills. In prawns, the gills are branching; in shrimp they are not.


title: Shrimp

text: Many shrimp species are caught to be eaten. Usually, the head and the digestive tract are removed before the shrimp is eaten. The muscular tails of shrimp can be eaten, and they are widely caught and farmed for human consumption.


title: Shrimp

text: Commercial shrimp species support an industry worth 50 billion dollars a year. In 2010 the total commercial production of shrimp was nearly 7 million tonnes. Shrimp farming took off during the 1980s, particularly in China, and by 2007 the harvest from shrimp farms exceeded the capture of wild shrimp. There is often pollution damage done to estuaries when they are used for shrimp farming.


title: Swedish House Mafia

text: Swedish House Mafia is a Swedish electronic dance music trio. It was made up of three people: Axwell, Steve Angello and Sebastian Ingrosso. They are all DJs and producers. The band was formed in 2008.


title: Swedish House Mafia

text: Over the years, Swedish House Mafia published two albums and six singles. All of these have been very successful worldwide. Five of their singles reached the top ten in the UK music charts. They have worked with many other artists, like Tinie Tempah.


title: Swedish House Mafia

text: In 2012 the band said on their website that they would split up at the end of their 2012-2013 tour. The tour, named "One Last Tour," ended at the Ultra Music Festival in Miami, Florida. Their opening and closing sets were on March 15 and March 24, 2013.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The Memoirs of a Woman for Pleasure, better known under the title Fanny Hill, is an erotic novel. The book is from the English novelist John Cleland. It was first published in London in 1748. The book was written while the writer was under debtors' prison in London. "Fanny Hill" is the first pornography that uses the form of the novel. The novel was one of the most prosecuted and banned books in history.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The novel was published under two installments, the first being 21 November 1748 and again in February 1749 by Fenton Griffiths and his brother Ralph.


title: Fanny Hill

text: At first there was no governmental reaction to the novel. But in November 1749, just over a year after the first installment for the book was published, John Cleland and Ralph Griffiths were arrested and charged for "corrupting the King's subjects". Cleland then abandoned the novel in the courts. The book was withdrawn.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The book later began coming into the United States. In 1821, a Massachusetts court outlawed "Fanny Hill". Its publisher, Peter Holmes, was found guilty for printing a "lewd or obscene" novel. Holmes appealed to the Massachusetts Supreme Court. He then said the judge, relying only on the prosecutor's description, hadn't even seen the book. The state Supreme Court, however, wasn't having it.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The novel is associated under two letters. They appear as volumes I and II under the original edition. They are written by Frances "Fanny" Hill. She is a rich English woman in middle age. She leads the life of contentment with her husband Charles and their children under an unnamed acquaintance who is known only as "Madam". Fanny has been talked into recounting 'scandalous stages' of her earlier life. Fanny proceeds to do that, having the 'stark naked truth' for her governing principle.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The first letter begins with the short account of Fanny living under poverty during her childhood in a Lancashire village. At age 14, she loses her parents to smallpox. She arrives in London to look for domestic work. She gets lured into a brothel. Fanny sees two sexual acts: one with an ugly older couple, the other between a young attractive couple. She then participates in a lesbian romance with Phoebe, a bisexual prostitution. A customer, Charles, convinces her to escape. Fanny loses her virginity with Charles. She becomes his lover. Charles is sent away under deception to the South Seas. Fanny is driven under desperation and poverty to become the kept woman for a rich merchant named Mr H―. Mr H― later abandons her. She then becomes a prostitute for the wealthy clients of a pleasure house. This is the end of the first letter.


title: Fanny Hill

text: The second letter begins with the reflection on the tedium with writing about sex. Fanny then tells of her adventures in the house of Mrs Cole. They include a public orgy, a bogus sale of her "virginity" to a rich dupe named Mr. Norbert and a sadomasochistic session.


title: Fanny Hill

text: Fanny later retires from prostitution. She becomes the lover for a rich and worldly-wise man around age 60. She becomes wealthy after her lover dies from a sudden cold. Shortly after, she meets Charles again. He has returned to England a poor man. Fanny offer her fortune to him.


title: Fanny Hill

text: Because of the book's notoriety (and public domain status), numerous adaptations have been produced. Some of them are:


title: Paya (food)

text: popular at various festivals and treated to special guests and get togethers. Paya means feet in Urdu and Hindi.


title: Paya (food)

text: The main ingredients of the dish are the trotters or hooves of a cow, goat, water buffalo or lamb; cooked with various spices. It is cooked to a thick, soup-like form and eaten with special "naan" bread dipped into it.


title: Space Race

text: The Space Race was a 20th-century competition between two Cold War enemies, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US), to achieve better spaceflight capability than the other. It had its origins in the intercontinental ballistic missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations following World War II. Both governments saw having better spaceflight technology as necessary for national security. The Space Race enabled the first launches of artificial satellites, uncrewed space probes to the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and ultimately to the Moon.


title: Space Race

text: The competition began on August 2, 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement four days earlier of intent to launch artificial satellites during the "International Geophysical Year" (July 1, 1957 to December 31, 1958), by declaring they would also launch a satellite "in the near future". The Soviet Union achieved the first successful artificial satellite launch on October 4, 1957 of Sputnik 1, and sent the first human to space with the orbital flight of Yuri Gagarin on April 12, 1961. The USSR demonstrated an early lead in the race with these and other early firsts over the next few years, including flight durations measured in days instead of hours, the first multi-person crewed spaceflight, and the first spacewalk.


title: Space Race

text: But the USSR lost its early lead after US president John F. Kennedy raised the stakes by setting a goal of "landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth". American spaceflight capability overtook that of the Soviets with flights up to two weeks long; two craft meeting in space (rendezvous) and joining (docking); astronauts working outside spacecraft; and using high-energy liquid hydrogen as rocket fuel in the Saturn family of rockets. Kennedy's Moon landing goal was acheived in July 1969, with the flight of Apollo 11, which sent and returned three men and landed two of them, a singular achievement far outweighing any combination of Soviet achievements. The USSR pursued two crewed lunar programs, but failed to develop a launch vehicle powerful enough to land one human on the Moon before the US, and eventually canceled them to concentrate on Earth orbital space stations, while the US landed five more Apollo crews on the Moon.


title: Space Race

text: A period of détente followed with the April 1972 agreement on a co-operative Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), resulting in the July 1975 rendezvous in Earth orbit of a US astronaut crew with a Soviet cosmonaut crew and joint development of an international docking standard APAS-75. Apollo–Soyuz began a period of transition from the Space Race to an age of US / Russian space cooperation by December 1991, when the dissolution of the Soviet Union brought the end of the Cold War and enabled the Shuttle-Mir and International Space Station programs between the US and the newly founded Russian Federation.


title: Milwaukee Deep

text: The Milwaukee Deep (also called the Milwaukee Depth), near Puerto Rico, is the deepest area in the Atlantic Ocean. It is also the eighth deepest area in the ocean. The depth of Milwaukee Deep is the 27,493 ft (8,380 m). Milwaukee Deep is in the Puerto Rico Trench, where the Caribbean plate and the Atlantic Ocean plate meet together. Milwaukee Deep is a part of the larger Brownson Deep which creates a very long depression.


title: Milwaukee Deep

text: The Milwaukee Deep is named after the ship USS "Milwaukee", which was named after the city Milwaukee, Wisconsin. This ship was the first to discover the Milwaukee Deep on February 14, 1939. At the time it was read to be 28,680 feet. This was found to be wrong in 2018 when Victor Vescovo dived down and found that it could not have been deeper than 27,493 ft.


title: Sawmill

text: Sawmills today work like sawmills from hundreds of years ago; a log enters on one end, and pieces of wood of a specific shape and size exit from the other end.


title: Sawmill

text: Sawmills seem to have existed in the medieval period, as one was sketched by "Villard de Honnecourt" in c.1250. On the other hand, people think they were introduced to Madeira following its discovery in c.1420 and spread widely in Europe in the 16th century.


title: Sawmill

text: The Dutchman "Cornelis Corneliszoon" (1550-1607) invented his type of sawmill by applying a pitman arm onto a wind mill, which converted a turning motion into an up-an-down motion. Corneliszoon patented the sawmill on December 15, 1593 and the pitman on December 6, 1597. He built the first sawmill there in 1594.


title: Sawmill

text: Before to the invention of the sawmill, boards were sawn by two men with a whipsaw, using saddleblocks to hold the log, and a pit for the pitman who worked below. Sawing was slow, and required strong and enduring men. The topsawer had to be the stronger of the two because the saw was pulled in turn by each man, and the lower had the advantage of gravity. The topsawyer also had to guide the saw so that the board was of even thickness. This was often done by following a chalkline.


title: Sawmill

text: Early sawmills simply adapted the whipsaw to mechanical power, generally driven by a water wheel to speed up the process. The circular motion of the wheel was changed to back-and-forth motion of the saw blade by a Connecting rod known as a "pitman" (thus introducing a term used in many mechanical applications). A pitman is similar to a crankshaft, but in reverse; a crankshaft converts back-and-forth motion to circular motion.


title: Sawmill

text: Generally, only the saw was powered, and the logs had to be loaded and moved by hand. An early improvement was the development of a movable carriage, also water powered, to steadily move the log through the saw blade.


title: Sawmill

text: A small mill such as this would be the center of many rural communities in wood-exporting regions such as the Baltic countries and Canada. The output of such mills would be quite low, perhaps only 500 boards per day. They would also generally only operate during the winter, the peak logging season.


title: Sawmill

text: In the United States, the sawmills was introduced soon after the colonisation of Virginia by recruiting skilled men from Hamburgh. Later the metal parts were obtained from the Netherlands, where the technology was far ahead of that in England, where the sawmill reamiend largely unknown until the late 18th century. The arrival of a sawmill was a large and stimulative step in the growth of a frontier community.


title: Sawmill

text: Early mills were taken to the forest, where a temporary shelter was built, and the logs were skidded to the nearby mill by horse or ox teams, often when there was some snow to provide lubrication. As mills grew larger, they were usually established in more permanent facilities on a river, and the logs were floated down to them by log drivers.


title: Sawmill

text: Technology has changed sawmill operations significantly in recent years, emphasizing increasing profits through waste minimization and increased energy efficiency as well as improving operator safety.


title: Edward III of England

text: Edward was born on 13 November 1312 to Edward II & Isabella of France. He was the oldest out of 5 children of them. He has 2 younger brothers, Adam FitzRoy & John of Eltham, Earl of Cornwall & 2 younger sisters, Joan of the Tower & Eleanor of Woodstock.


title: Edward III of England

text: Edward was crowned when he was fourteen years old, after his father was forced to abdicate. After his victory against the Scots, he declared himself heir to the French throne in 1337, and so started the Hundred Years' War. The war went very well for England; the victories of Crécy and Poitiers led up to the Treaty of Brétigny, by which he gained a lot of territory. When he became older, he was much less active, mostly a result of his bad health. He died of a stroke in 1377, aged 64.


title: Edward III of England

text: Edward also established the Order of the Garter, and developed legislature and government. However, during his reign there was the Black Death.


title: Edward III of England

text: Edward and his wife, Philippa of Hainault, had many children and, as they traveled, the children were generally known by where they were born (though the oldest son, Edward "of Woodstock," became known to later generations as Edward, the Black Prince). Prince Edward died before his father Edward III, and his older son, Edward "of Angouleme," had died a child, so younger son Richard "of Bordeaux" succeeded Edward III as Richard II of England before being deposed by his cousin Henry IV of England, whose father, John "of Gaunt", had married the heiress of Lancaster. His family, the House of Lancaster, fought the Wars of the Roses with the House of York descended from the daughter of Edward III's son Lionel "of Antwerp" (who was older than John) over who was the rightful king.


title: Edward III of England

text: In his own time and for centuries after Edward III was praised a lot, but by Whig historians he was seen as an irresponsible adventurer. This view has turned, and modern historians see what a good king he was.


title: Kit Carson

text: Christopher Houston "Kit" Carson, (December 24, 1809 – May 23, 1868) was an American frontiersman, a career that involved four chief occupations: mountain man, guide, Indian agent, and officer in the US Army. He helped to open the American West to settlement. In his day, he was a celebrity known far and wide in the United States. In modern America, he is still remembered as a folk hero, but he has been criticized for killing Native Americans.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson began his adult life in 1829 as a mountain man, who trapped beaver about ten years for the fur trade. During those years, Carson became an "Injun killer" he was forced to kill many Native Americans to protect himself from attack, theft, and murder. Carson became known as one of the greatest of "Injun killers" through novels, newspaper accounts, and other media. When the fur trade died out in the 1840s, Carson looked for other work.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1842, US Army Officer John Charles Frémont hired Carson to guide him on three separate expeditions into the West. All three expeditions involved mapping and describing remote and uncharted areas of the West. The expeditions were hugely successful. Frémont's reports to the government made Carson a frontier hero and were read by many Americans. Carson became a celebrity throughout the country. His adventures were turned into stories that were published in paper-covered books, called dime novels. The cheap popular books made him more famous than ever.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1853, Carson became an Indian agent in northern New Mexico. His job was to keep the Utes and the Apaches at peace. He saw to it that they were treated with honesty and fairness and that they got the food and clothing that they needed. In 1861, the American Civil War broke out. Carson resigned his position as Indian agent, and joined the Union Army. As a lieutenant, he led the New Mexico Volunteer Infantry. His forces fought Confederates at Valverde, New Mexico. The Confederates won the battle, but were later defeated. Most of Carson's time in the army was passed training recruits.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson served in several wars and battles with the tribes In the Southwest. He rounded up and moved Apaches and Navajos from their homelands to government lands called reservations. Carson was promoted to the rank of colonel. Late in life, he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of Fort Garland in Colorado. After about two years. Carson left the military because of illness. He died in 1868 at Fort Lyon, Colorado. He is buried in Taos, New Mexico, next to his third and last wife, Josefa Jaramillo.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson was described by his contemporaries as a "small, stooped-shoulder" man with brown to red hair, blue eyes, and a strong but spare frame. He was said to be about 5 foot 7 inches. He was a modest gentleman. Most of his contemporaries were astonished that such a slight inconspicuous man had accomplished so much among the Native Americans and wild animals on the western frontier.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1847, General William Tecumseh Sherman met Kit Carson in Monterey, California. Sherman wrote: "His fame was then at its height... and I was very anxious to see a man who had achieved such feats of daring among the wild animals of the Rocky Mountains, and still wilder Indians of the plains... I cannot express my surprise at beholding such a small, stoop-shouldered man, with reddish hair, freckled face, soft blue eyes, and nothing to indicate extraordinary courage of daring. He spoke but little and answered questions in monosyllables."


title: Kit Carson

text: Colonel Edward W. Wynkoop wrote: "Kit Carson was five feet five and one half-inches tall, weighed about 140 pounds, of nervy, iron temperament, squarely built, slightly bow-legged, and those members apparently too short for his body. But, his head and face made up for all the imperfections of the rest of his person. His head was large and well-shaped with yellow straight hair, worn long, falling on his shoulders. His face was fair and smooth as a woman's with high cheekbones, straight nose, a mouth with a firm, but somewhat sad expression, a keen, deep-set but beautiful, mild blue eye, which could become terrible under some circumstances, and like the warning of the rattlesnake, gave notice of attack. Though quick-sighted, he was slow and soft of speech, and posed great natural modesty."


title: Kit Carson

text: Lieutenant George Douglas Brewerton made a coast-to-coast dispatch-carrying trip to Washington, DC, with Carson. Brewerton wrote: "The Kit Carson of my "imagination" was over six feet high a sort of modern Hercules in his build with an enormous beard, and a voice like a roused lion... The real Kit Carson I found to be a plain, simple... man; rather below the medium height, with brown, curling hair, little or no beard, and a voice as soft and gentle as a woman's. In fact, the hero of a hundred desperate encounters, whose life had been mostly spent amid wilderness, where the white man is almost unknown, was one of Dame Nature's gentleman..."


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson was illiterate. He was embarrassed by not being able to read and write and so tried to hide it. He was impressed by gentlemen who could read and write, however. In 1856, he told his life story to an army officer, who wrote it down. Carson told the officer that he had left school at an early age: "I was a young boy in the school house when the cry came, Injuns! I jumped to my rifle and threw down my spelling book, and thar it lies."


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson enjoyed having other people read to him. He liked the poetry of Lord Byron. Carson thought Sir Walter Scott's long poem "The Lady of the Lake" was "the finest expression of outdoor life." He also liked a book about William the Conqueror, whose favorite oath was "By the splendor of God." Carson used that ath as his own and was known to have Nevers used anything stronger.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson learned to write "C. Carson" late in life, but it was very difficult for him. He made his mark on official papers, and the mark was then witnessed by a clerk. Carson easily spoke English, Spanish, and French. He could speak many Native American languages, including Navajo, Apache, and Comanche. He also knew the sign language that was used by mountain men. Very late in life, he learned to read to a certain extent and to recognize his name when it appeared in print.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson was born in Kentucky, but his family moved to Missouri when he was a baby. In Missouri, the family was in danger from Native American attacks and had to find ways to protect themselves. After his father's death in 1818, Kit's mother remarried. The boy became a wild teenager. His stepfather put him to work in a saddle-making shop in Franklin, Missouri.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson was born in a log cabin at Tate's Creek, Madison County, Kentucky on Christmas Eve 1809. His parents were Lindsay (or Lindsey) Carson and his second wife, Rebecca Robinson. Lindsay had had five children by his first wife, Lucy Bradley, and ten more children by Rebecca. Kit was their sixth.


title: Kit Carson

text: Lindsay Carson had a Scots-Irish Presbyterian background. He was a farmer, a cabin builder, and a veteran of the American Revolutionary War and the War of 1812. He also fought Native Americans on the frontier. Two fingers on his left hand were shot away in a battle with the Sauk and Fox tribes.


title: Kit Carson

text: The Carsons moved to Boone's Lick, Howard County, Missouri, when Kit was about one year old. They knew Daniel Boone's family. Lindsay's oldest son, William, married Boone's grandniece, Millie Boone, in 1810. Their daughter, Adaline, became Kit's favorite playmate.


title: Kit Carson

text: The Carson family was always in danger of Native American attacks in Missouri and so had to be alert. Cabins were "forted:" they had tall fences built around them, called stockades, to make the people inside Them safe from attack. During the day, men worked in the fields near the cabins. Some men had weapons to protect the workers and were ready to kill any Native American who attacked. Carson wrote in his "Memoirs": "For two or three years after our arrival, we had to remain forted and it was necessary to have men stationed at the extremities of the fields for the protection of those that were laboring."


title: Kit Carson

text: One day in 1818, Lindsay Carson was clearing a field when a tree limb fell on him. He was killed instantly when Kit was about eight years old. His mother took care of her children alone for four years. They lived in great poverty. She then married Joseph Martin, a widower with several children.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson did not get along with his stepfather and became a wild and uncontrollable teenager. His stepfather apprenticed him to David Workman, a saddle maker in Franklin, Missouri. Kit was a boy in his mid-teens and wrote in his "Memoirs" that Workman was "a good man, and I often recall the kind treatment I received."


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson did not like making saddles and ran away from home in 1826. He traveled over the Santa Fe Trail with mountain men. In 1829, he joined with trapper Ewing Young on a trek to the Rocky Mountains. He learned much from Young about trapping.


title: Kit Carson

text: Franklin, Missouri, was at the eastern end of the Santa Fe Trail and was a starting point for many settlers heading west. Carson heard wonderful stories about the West from the mountain men returning to the East. In August 1826, he ran away from home, and went West with the mountain men. They traveled over the Santa Fe Trail to Santa Fe, New Mexico, and reached their destination in November 1826. Kit passed the winter in Taos, New Mexico, with Mathew Kinkead, a mountain man and a neighbor from Missouri. Taos would become Carson's home.


title: Kit Carson

text: Workman put an advertisement in a local newspaper back in Missouri. He wrote that he would give a one cent reward to anyone who brought the boy back to Franklin. No one claimed the reward. It was a bit of a joke, but Carson was free. The advertisement featured the first printed description of Carson: "Christopher Carson, a boy about 16 years old, small of his age, but thick set; light hair, ran away from the subscriber, living in Franklin, Howard county, Missouri, to whom he had been bound to learn the saddler's trade."


title: Kit Carson

text: Between 1827 and 1829, Carson worked as cook, translator, and wagon driver in the Southwest. He also worked at a copper mining|mine near the Gila River, in southwestern New Mexico. In later life, Carson never mentioned any women from his youth. There are only three specific women mentioned in his writing: Josefa Jaramillo, his third and last wife; a comrade's mother in Washington, DC; and Mrs. Ann White, a victim of Native American atrocities.


title: Kit Carson

text: In August 1829, the 19-year-old Carson joined trapper Ewing Young and his mountain men on a fur- hunting expedition to Arizona and California. That was Carson's first professional job as a mountain man. Carson received much experience as a trapper on the expedition. Young is credited with shaping Carson's early life in the mountains.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson returned to Taos in 1829 and joined a wagon train rescue party. Although the perpetrators had fled the scene of atrocities, Young had the opportunity to witness Carson's horsemanship and courage. Kit passed the winter of 1827-1828 as Young's cook in Taos. Carson joined another expedition led by Thomas Fitzpatrick in 1831. Fitzpatrick and his trappers went north to the central Rocky Mountains. Carson would hunt and trap in the West for about ten years. He was known as a reliable man and a good fighter.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson traveled through many parts of the American West to gather furs. Men at the time wore hats made of beaver fur. He trapped beaver for the fur trade and sometimes worked with famous mountain men like Jim Bridger and Old Bill Williams.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson's career as a mountain man began in 1829, when he joined Ewing Young's trapping expedition to the Rocky Mountains. Mountain men worked mostly in the Rocky Mountains for themselves, sometimes with a partner or two, or for a large trading organization like the Hudson's Bay Company.


title: Kit Carson

text: A mountain man's life was not easy. He sometimes had to walk into deep cold water to get a trapped beaver. He then had to remove the hide with the fur, yhe pelt. The mountain man kept the beaver pelts for many months and then sold them in St. Louis, Missouri, or at a mountain man "rendezvous". With the money that he collected, he bought fish hooks, flour, tobacco, and the other things that he needed for life in the mountains.


title: Kit Carson

text: The mountain man faced many hazards including biting insects, bad weather, and diseases of all kinds. There were no doctors in the lands on which mountain men worked. The man had to set his own broken bones, tend his wounds, and nurse himself. Native Americans were an ever-present danger since even friendly ones could turn at once into an enemy. A mountain man usually had a Native American wife or mistress. His main food was buffalo. Je was dressed in deer skins that had stiffened by being left outdoors for a time. The suit of stiffened deer skin gave him some protection from the weapons of his enemies.


title: Kit Carson

text: Grizzly bears were one of the mountain man's greatest enemies. Carson stated in his "Memoirs" that he was hunting an elk alone in 1834. Two grizzly bears chased him up a tree. One bear tried to make him fall by shaking the tree. The bear was not successful and finally went away. Carson returned to his camp as fast as he could. He stated that the incident had been the scariest moment of his life: "[The bear] finally concluded to leave, of which I was heartily pleased, never having been so scared in my life."


title: Kit Carson

text: Mountain men met every year in the second quarter of the 19th century for an event called a "rendezvous". The first "rendezvous" was held in 1825. Those events were held in remote areas of the West like the banks of the Green River in Wyoming. A mountain man had a good time at those lively events. Native Americans often joined the gathering. Everyone played card games, danced, sang, told stories, made jokes, and had much to eat and drink. Sometimes, mountain men married Native American women at a "rendezvous". The last rendezvous was held in 1840.


title: Kit Carson

text: About 1840, the fur trade began to drop off. Well-dressed men in London, Paris, and New York City wanted silk hats instead of beaver hats. In addition, the mountain men had very nearly killed almost every beaver in North America. Trappers were no longer wanted or needed. The mountain man Robert Newell told Jim Bridger: "[W]e are done with this life in the mountains done with wading in beaver dams, and freezing or starving alternately done with Indian trading and Indian fighting. The fur trade is dead in the Rocky Mountains, and it is no place for us now, if ever it was."


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson knew that it was time to find other work. He stated in his "Memoirs", "Beaver was getting scarce, it became necessary to try our hand at something else." In 1841, he was hired at Bent's Fort in Colorado. The fort was one of the greatest buildings in the West. Hundreds of people worked or lived there. Carson hunted buffalo, antelope, deer, and other animals to feed the hundreds of people. He was paid one dollar a day. He returned to Bent's Fort several times during his life to again provide meat for the fort's residents. In April 1842, Carson went back to his childhood home in Missouri. He made the trip to put his daughter, Adaline, in the care of relatives.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson found much pleasure in killing Native Americans. He did not respect them and thought that those who committed outrages like murder, theft, and rape deserved the worst punishment possible. Carson's thoughts about Native Americans softened over the years, as he found himself more and more in their company. He became an Indian agent and a spokesman for the Utes.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson was 19 when he set off with Ewing Young's expedition to the Rocky Mountains. In addition to furs and the company of free-spirited rugged mountain men, he sought action and adventure. He found what he was looking for in killing and scalping Native Americans. Carson probably killed and took the scalp of his first Native American when he was 19 years old, during Ewing Young's expedition. Carson was known to most 19th+century Americans as an "Injun killer," chiefly through newspaper accounts and dime novels. Many of the works gave Carson's deeds and life a romantic cast. Excitement and thrills were heightened through exaggeration.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson hated Native Americans, especially those who had committed crimes such as rape, theft, and murder. He believed that Native Americans could not be trusted, and should be punished. Mountain men often had to kill Native Americans to save their own lives. The young Carson's brutal and vicious notions about Native Americans is sometimes considered his greatest moral failing. Carson never killed Native American women and children, however. He believed that a brave man would never do so, and he scorned the men who did.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson's "Memoirs" are replete with stories about Native American encounters with the memoir writer. In January 1833, for example, warriors of the Crow tribe stole nine horse from Carson's camp. Carson and 11 other men found the Crow camp after dark and quietly led the horses away. The men who owned the horses wanted to return to their own camp at once. Although Carson and two other men had not lost any horses, the three wanted to punish the Crows. Carson and his men fired their guns into the Crow camp and killied almost every Crow. Carson wrote in his "Memoirs": "During our pursuit for the lost animals, we suffered considerably but, the success of having recovered our horses and sending many a redskin to his long home, our sufferings were soon forgotten."


title: Kit Carson

text: The Blackfoot nation was a hostile tribe and posed an ever-present threat to Carson's safety. A Blackfoot warrior once injured Carson in the shoulder. That was the worst injury he received in his life. He hated the Blackfeet and killed them at every opportunity. The historian David Roberts wrote: "It was taken for granted that the Blackfeet were bad Indians; to shoot them whenever he could was a mountain man's instinct and duty." The Blackfeet did not like whites, Who, they were convinced were trying to take over their hunting grounds. In addition, the Blackfeet wanted the valuable horses that were owned by the whites.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson had several encounters with the Blackfeet, but his last battle with them took place in spring 1838. He was traveling with about 100 mountain men, led by Jim Bridger. In Montana Territory, the group found a teepee with three Native American corpses inside. The three had died of smallpox. Bridger wanted to move on, but Carson and the other young men wanted to kill the Blackfeet.


title: Kit Carson

text: They found the Blackfoot village, and killed ten Blackfeet warriors. The Blackfeet found some safety in a pile of rocks but were driven away. It is not known how many Blackfeet died in that incident. The historian David Roberts wrote that "if anything like pity filled Carson's breast as, in his twenty-ninth year, he beheld the ravaged camp of the Blackfeet, he did not bother to remember it." Carson wrote in his "Memoirs" that this battle was "the prettiest fight I ever saw."


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson's notions about Native Americans softened over the years. He found himself more and more in their company as he grew older. His thoughts about Native Americans became more understanding and more humane. He urged the government to set aside lands, called reservations, for their use. As an Indian agent, he saw to it that those under his watch were treated with honesty and fairness and were clothed and fed properly. The historian David Roberts believes that his first marriage to an Arapaho women, named Singing Grass, "softened the stern and pragmatic mountaineer's opportunism."


title: Kit Carson

text: In killing Native Americans, Carson was making America safe for settlers heading west to build their homes, farms, and villages. He had the approval of the US government and its citizens. In addition, Senator Thomas Hart Benton, the United States Congress, and President James K. Polk had developed and were working under a concept called Manifest Destiny, which stated that it was the will of God that the United States push America's western boundary to the Pacific Ocean at all costs. That spurred the movement of American settlers to the West.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson was married three times. His first two wives were Native Americans. His third wife was Mexican. He was the father of ten children. Carson never wrote about his first two marriages in his "Memoirs". He may have thought he would be known as a "squaw man". Such men were not welcomed by polite society.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1836, Carson met an Arapaho woman named Waanibe (Singing Grass) at a mountain man "rendezvous". This "rendezvous" was held along the Green River in Wyoming. Singing Grass was a lovely young woman. Many mountain men were in love with her. Carson was forced to fight a duel with a French trapper named Chouinard for Waanibe's hand in marriage. Carson won, but he had a very narrow escape. The French trapper's bullet singed his hair. The duel was one of the best known stories about Carson in the 19th century.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson married Singing Grass. She was a good wife. She tended to his needs, and went with him on his trapping trips. They had a daughter named Adaline (or Adeline). Singing Grass died after giving birth to Carson's second daughter. This child did not live long. In 1843, she fell into a kettle of boiling soap in Taos. Waanibe died about 1841.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson's life as a mountain man was too hard for a little girl. In 1852, he took Adaline to live with his sister Mary Ann Carson Rubey in Saint Louis, Missouri. Adaline was taught in a school for girls called a seminary. Carson brought her West when she was a teenager. She married and divorced. In 1858, she went to the California goldfields. Adaline died in 1860.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1841, Carson married a Cheyenne woman named Making-Out-Road. They were together only a short time. Making-Out-Road divorced him in the way of her people. She put Adaline and all Carson's property outside their tent. Making-Out-Road left Carson to travel with her people through the west. Historian David Lavender writes: "[Making-Out-Road] was spoiled. She had put most of the Cheyenne bachelors and half the white men at the fort in a slow burn, and they had showered her with gifts. Now that they were married she expected Kit to keep her in expensive foofaraw (finery). She ignored her household chores and neglected little Adaline ..."


title: Kit Carson

text: About 1842, Carson met Josefa Jaramillo. She was the beautiful daughter of a wealthy Mexican couple living in Taos. Lewis Garrard wrote: "Her style of beauty was of the haunting, heartbreaking kind ... such as would lead a man with a glance in his eye, to risk his life for one smile." Carson wanted to marry her. He left the Presbyterian Church for the Catholic Church. Thirty-three-year old Carson married 14-year-old Josefa on February 6, 1843. They had eight children.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1842, Carson was returning from Missouri after depositing his daughter Adaline with relatives when met John Charles Frémont aboard a steamboat on the Missouri River. Frémont was a United States Army officer in the Corps of Topographical Engineers. Carson had very little money at the time and was hired by Frémont at $100 a month as a guide. Frémont wrote, "I was pleased with him and his manner of address at this first meeting. He was a man of medium height, broad-shouldered, and deep-chested, with a clear steady blue eye and frank speech and address; quiet and unassuming."


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1842, Carson guided Frémont across the Oregon Trail to Wyoming, their first expedition into the West. The purpose of the expedition was to map and describe the Oregon Trail as far as South Pass, Wyoming. A guidebook and maps would be printed for settlers. Frémont praised Carson in his government reports and so Carson became well known across the United States. He became the hero of many cheap popular books called dime novels.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1843, Frémont asked Carson to join his second expedition. Carson guided Frémont across part of the Oregon Trail to the Columbia River in Oregon. The trip's purpose was to map and describe the Oregon Trail from South Pass, Wyoming, to the Columbia River. They also traveled to Great Salt Lake in Utah. The men then headed to California but suffered from bad weather in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The men were saved by Carson's good judgement and his guiding skills. They found American settlers, who fed them. The expedition then went into California, which was illegal and dangerous. California was Mexican territory. The Mexican government ordered Frémont to leave. He finally went back to Washington, DC. The government liked his reports but ignored his illegal trip into Mexico. Frémont was made a captain, and the newspapers called him "The Pathfinder."


title: Kit Carson

text: During the expedition, Frémont went to the Mojave Desert. Frémont's party met a Mexican man and boy. The two told Carson that Native Americans had ambushed their party of travelers. The male travelers were killed; the women travelers were staked to the ground, sexually mutilated, and killed. The murderers then stole the Mexicans' 30 horses. Carson and a mountain man friend, Alexis Godey, went after the murderers and took two days to find them. They rushed into their camp and killed and scalped two of the murderers. The stolen horses were recovered and returned to the Mexican man and boy. That selfless and generous deed brought Carson even greater fame. It confirmed his status as a western hero in the eyes of the American people.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1845, Carson guided Frémont on their third and last expedition. They went to California and Oregon. Frémont made scientific plans, but the expedition appeared to be political in nature. Frémont may have been working under secret government orders. President Polk wanted the province of Alta California in the United States. Once in California, Frémont started to rouse the American settlers into a patriotic fever and so tne Mexican government ordered him to leave. Frémont went north to Oregon and camped near Klamath Lake. Messages from Washington, DC, made it clear that President Polk wanted California.


title: Kit Carson

text: At Klamath Lake in southern Oregon, Frémont's party was attacked by about 20 Native Americans on the night of March 6, 1846. Three men in camp were killed. The Native Americans fled after a brief struggle. Carson was angry that his friends had been killed. He took an axe and avenged the death of his friends by chopping away at a dead Klamath's face. Fremont wrote, "He knocked his head to pieces."


title: Kit Carson

text: In June 1846, both Frémont and Carson participated in a California uprising against Mexico, the Bear Flag Revolt. Mexico ordered all Americans to leave California. They did not want to go and declared California an independent republic. American settlers in California wanted to be free of the Mexican government. The Americans found the courage to oppose Mexico because they had Frémont and his troops on board. He wrote an oath of allegiance. He and his men gave some protection to the Americans. He ordered Carson to execute an old Mexican man named Berresaya and his two adult nephews. The three had been captured when they stepped ashore at San Francisco Bay. They were executed to keep them from taking reports to Mexico about the uprising.


title: Kit Carson

text: Mexico ordered Frémont and Carson to leave the area. They left for Oregon. Along the way, Carson and most of the group attacked a Native American village and killed about 100 villagers. Carson thought that the massacre would discourage Native Americans from attacking white settlers. Frémont heard that the Klamath tribe had killed three of his men. Carson was sorry to have lost his friends. He attacked another Native American village and wrecked it.


title: Kit Carson

text: Frémont worked hard to the win California for the United States and became its military governor. Carson took military records to the Secretary of War in Washington, DC. Frémont wrote, "This was a service of great trust and honor... and great danger also." In 1847 and 1848, Carson made two quick trips to Washington, DC, with messages and reports. In 1848, he took news of the California Gold Strike to the nation's capital.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson's fame spread throughout the United States with government reports, dime novels, newspaper accounts, and word of mouth. The dime novels celebrated Caron's adventures but were usually colored with exaggeration. A factual biography was attempted by DeWitt C. Peters in 1859 but has been criticized for inaccuracies and exaggerations.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1847, the first story about Carson's adventures was printed. Called "An Adventure of Kit Carson: A Tale of the Sacramento", it was printed in "Holden's Dollar Magazine". Other stories were also printed such as "Kit Carson: The Prince of the Goldhunters" and "The Prairie Flower". Writers thought that Carson the perfect mountain man and Indian fighter. His exciting adventures were printed in the story "Kiowa Charley, The White Mustanger; or, Rocky Mountain Kit's Last Scalp Hunt". In it, an older Kit is said to have "had ridden into Sioux camps unattended and alone, had ridden out again, but with the scalps of their greatest warriors at his belt."


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1849, Carson guided soldiers on the trail of Mrs. Ann White and her baby daughter. They had been captured by Apaches. No one paid attention to Carson's advice about a rescue attempt. Mrs. White was found dead. An arrow was in her heart. She had been horribly abused. She may have been passed among the Apaches as a camp prostitute. Her child had been carried away and was never found.


title: Kit Carson

text: A soldier in the rescue party wrote: "Mrs. White was a frail, delicate, and very beautiful woman, but having undergone such usage as she suffered nothing but a wreck remained; it was literally covered with blows and scratches. Her countenance even after death indicated a hopeless creature. Over her corpse, we swore vengeance upon her persecutors."


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson discovered a book about himself in the Apache camp. That was the first time that he found himself in print. He was the hero of adventure stories. He was sorry for the rest of his life that Mrs. White had been killed. He wrote in his "Memoirs": "In camp was found a book, the first of the kind I had ever seen, in which I was made a great hero, slaying Indians by the hundreds... I have often thought that Mrs. White read the same... [and prayed] for my appearance that she might be saved."


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1856, Carson told his life story to someone who wrote it down. Tne book is called "Memoirs". Some say Carson forgot dates or got them wrong. The manuscript was lost when it was taken east to find a professional writer who would work it into a book. Washington Irving was asked but declined. The lost manuscript was found in a trunk in Paris in 1905 and was later printed.


title: Kit Carson

text: The first biography of Carson was written by DeWitt C. Peters in 1859. The book was called "Kit Carson, the Nestor of the Mountains, from Facts Narrated by Himself". When it was read to Carson, he said, "Peters laid it on a leetle too thick."


title: Kit Carson

text: The Mexican–American War was between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848. Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the defeated Mexico was forced to sell the territories of Alta California and New Mexico to the United States.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson was not a member of the US Army, but one of his best known adventures took place during the war. In December 1846, Carson was ordered by General Stephen W. Kearny to guide him and his troops from Socorro, New Mexico, to San Diego, California. Mexicans soldiers attacked Kearny and his men near the village of San Pasqual, California.


title: Kit Carson

text: There were too many Mexican soldiers. Kearny knew he would could not win and so he ordered his men to take cover on a small hill. Kearny then sent Carson, a naval lieutenant named Beale, and a Native American scout to get help. The three left on the night of December 8 for San Diego. San Diego was away. Carson and the lieutenant removed their shoes because they made too much noise. They walked barefoot through the desert.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson wrote in his "Memoirs": "Finally got through, but had the misfortune to lose our shoes. Had to travel over a country covered with prickly pear and rocks, barefoot." By December 10, Kearny believed that help would not arrive. He planned to break through the Mexican lines the next morning. That night, 200 mounted American soldiers arrived in San Pasqual, swept the area, and drove the Mexicans away. Kearny was in San Diego on December 12. Carson went back to Taos after the Mexican–American War to start a ranch.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1853, Carson became the US Indian agent to the Utes, people who lived across northern New Mexico. The Jacarilla Apaches and the Puebloans at the Rio Grande would also come under Carson's watch. His job was to keep the peace between the southwestern tribes and to hunt down and punish any who committed crimes. Carson was honest and fair as an Indian agent.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson came to realize that the hostilities between white Americans and Native Americans were the result of a great decrease in available wild game. That situation forced the Native Americans into raiding American farms, ranches, and herds of cattle. He also knew that the liquor available in towns and villages led the Native Americans into serious trouble. Carson wanted the government to put aside large areas of land far from white settlements. The lands would be called reservations and intended for the use of Native Americans only. He thought the Native Americans should be taught agriculture, but it would prove almost impossible to teach nomadic hunters to settle on one piece of land and farm it. He thought his plans would keep these peoples from becoming extinct. Carson resigned as Indian agent with the outbreak of the American Civil War in April 1861. He joined the Union Army to lead the 1st New Mexico Volunteer Infantry.


title: Kit Carson

text: In April 1861, the American Civil War broke out. Carson left his job as an Indian agent and joined the Union Army. He was made a lieutenant and led the 1st New Mexico Volunteer Infantry. He trained the new men. In October 1861, he was made a colonel. The Volunteers fought the Confederate forces at Valverde, New Mexico, in February 1862. The Confederates won that battle but were later defeated.


title: Kit Carson

text: Once the Confederates had been driven from New Mexico, Carson's commander, Major James Henry Carleton, turned his attention to the Native Americans. The historian Edwin Sabin wrote that officer had a "psychopathic hatred of the Apaches." Carleton led his forces deep into the Mescalero Apache territory. The Mescaleros were tired of fighting and put themselves under Carson's protection. Carleton put those Apaches on a remote and lonely reservation east on the Pecos River.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson disliked the Apaches and wrote in a report that the Jicarilla Apaches "were truly the most degraded and troublesome Indians we have in our department... [W]e daily witness them in a state of intoxication in our plaza." Carson half-heartedly supported Carleton's plans. He was tired and had suffered an injury two years before that gave him great trouble. He resigned from the Army in February 1863. Carleton refused to accept the resignation because he wanted Carson to lead a campaign against the Navajo.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carleton had chosen a bleak site on the Pecos River for his reservation, which was called Bosque Redondo (Round Grove). He chose the site for the Apaches and the Navajos because it was far from white settlements. He also wanted the Apaches and the Navajo to act as a buffer for any aggressive acts committed upon the white settlements from the Kiowas and Comanches to the east of Bosque Redondo. He thought as well that the remoteness and desolation of the reservation would discourage white settlement.


title: Kit Carson

text: The Mescalero Apaches walked 130 miles to the reservation. By March 1863, 400 Apaches had settled around nearby Fort Sumner. Others had fled west to join fugitive bands of Apaches. By middle summer, many of them were planting crops and doing other farm work.


title: Kit Carson

text: On July 7, Carson, with little heart for the Navajo roundup, started the campaign against the tribe. His orders were almost the same as those for the Apache roundup: he was to shoot all men on site and to take the women and children captives. No peace treaties were to be made until all of the Navajo were on the reservation.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson searched far and wide for the Navajo. He found their homes, fields, animals, and orchards, but the Navajo were experts at disappearing quickly and hiding in their vast lands. The roundup was a great frustration for Carson. In his fifties, he was tired and ill. By autumn 1863, Carson started to burn the Navajo homes and fields and to remove their animals from the area. The Navaho would starve if the destruction continued, and 188 Navajo surrendered. They were sent to Bosque Redondo, where life had turned grim. Murders occurred since the Apaches and Navajos fought. The water in the Pecos contained minerals that gave people cramps and stomach aches. Residents had to walk about twelve miles to find firewood.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson wanted to take a winter break from the campaign, but Carleton refused. Kit was ordered to invade the Canyon de Chelly. It was there that many Navajos had taken refuge. The historian David Roberts wrote, "Carson's sweep through the Canyon de Chelly in the winter of 1863-1864 would prove to be the decisive action in the Campaign."


title: Kit Carson

text: The Canyon de Chelly was a sacred place for the Navajo. Believing that it would now be their strongest sanctuary, 300 Navajo took refuge on the canyon rim at a place called Fortress Rock. They resisted Carson's invasion by building rope ladders and bridges, lowering water pots into a stream, and keeping out of sight. The 300 Navajo survived the invasion. In January 1864, Carson swept through the 35-mile Canyon with his forces. He cut down the thousands of peach trees in the Canyon. Few Navajo were killed or captured. Carson's invasion, however, proved to the Navajo the white men could invade their country at any time. Many Navajo surrendered at Fort Canby.


title: Kit Carson

text: By March 1864, there were 3,000 refuges at Fort Canby. An additional 5,000 arrived in the camp. They were suffering from the intense cold and hunger. Carson asked for supplies to feed and clothe them. The thousands of Navajo were led to Bosque Redondo. Many died along the way, and stragglers in the rear were shot and killed. In Navajo history, thw horrific trek is known as the Long Walk. By 1866, reports indicated that Bosque Redondo was a complete failure, Carleton was fired, and Congress started investigations. In 1868, a treaty was signed, the Navajo were allowed to return to their homeland, and Bosque Redondo was closed.


title: Kit Carson

text: On November 25, 1864, Carson led his forces against the southwestern tribes at the First Battle of Adobe Walls in the Texas Panhandle. Adobe Walls was an abandoned trading post that had been blown up by its inhabitants to prevent a takeover by hostile Native Americans. Combatants at the First Battle were the United States Army and masses of Kiowas, Comanches, and Plains Apaches. It was one of the largest engagements fought on the Great Plains. The Texas State Library and Archives Commission noted: "The result of Adobe Walls was a crushing spiritual defeat for the Indians. It also prompted the U.S. military to take its final actions to crush the Indians once and for all. Within the year, the long war between whites and Indians in Texas would reach its conclusion."


title: Kit Carson

text: The battle was the result of General Carleton's belief that the Native Americans were responsible for the continuing attacks on white settlers along the Santa Fe Trail. He wanted to punish the thieves and murderers and brought in Carson to do the job. With most of the Army engaged elsewhere during the American Civil War, the protection that the settlers sought was almost nonexistent, and they begged for help. Carson led 260 cavalry, 75 infantry, and 72 Ute and Jicarilla Apache Army scouts. In addition, he had two mountain howitzer cannons.


title: Kit Carson

text: On the morning of November 25, Carson discovered and attacked a Kiowa village of 176 lodges. After the destruction, he moved forward to Adobe Walls. Carson found other Comanche villages in the area and realized that he would face a very large force of Native Americans. A Captain Pettis estimated that 1,200 to 1,400 Comanche and Kiowa began to assemble. The number would swell to possibly 3,000. Four to five hours of battle ensued. When Carson ran low on ammunition and howitzer shells, he ordered his men to retreat to a nearby Kiowa village, which they burned Along with many fine buffalo robes. His Native American scouts killed and mutilated four elderly and weak Kiowas. Their retreat to New Mexico was then begun. There were few deaths among Carson's men. General Carleton wrote to Carson: "This brilliant affair adds another green leaf to the laurel wreath which you have so nobly won in the service of your country." The battle is considered by some to be Carson's finest moment and is thought to be one of the factors that made the Kiowas and the Comanches sue for peace in 1865.


title: Kit Carson

text: Some of those who have studied the battle believe that Carson was correct in ordering his troops to retreat. Only one Comanche scalp was reported to ne taken by Carson's soldiers. The First Battle at Adobe Walls would be the last time the Comanche and Kiowa forced American troops to retreat from battle. Adobe Walls marked the beginning of the end of the Plains tribes and of their way of life.


title: Kit Carson

text: A decade later, the Second Battle of Adobe Walls was fought on June 27, 1874, between 250 and 700 Comanche and a group of 28 hunters defending Adobe Walls. After a four-day siege, the hundreds of Native Americans withdrew. The Second Battle led to the Red River War of 1874–1875, which that resulted in the final relocation of the Southern Plains Indians to reservations in Oklahoma.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson left the army on November 22, 1867. He moved his family to a small settlement on the Purgatoire River called Boggsville, Colorado. He had no money and sold his house in Taos. He wanted to build a ranch. In January 1868, he was made superintendent of Indian Affairs in the Colorado Territory. He was called to Washington, DC, in February 1868 with Ute chiefs and other men to make a treaty. Carson was seriously ill and doubted that he could make the journey, but he felt a responsibility to the chiefs and made the journey. He asked doctors on the East Coast about his health (they gave him little hope of recovery) and toured New York City, Philadelphia, and Boston. His last photograph was snapped in Boston.


title: Kit Carson

text: He returned home in April 1868. Josefa had given birth to their last child, Josefita. It was not an easy birth, and Josefa died within two weeks on April 23, 1868. Carson missed her greatly. His health grew worse. He needed chloroform to ease the pain. Carson made his will on May 15, 1868 at Fort Lyon and named Thomas Boggs his administrator. Any monies realized from his estate would be used to support his children. Carson had been diagnosed with an aortic aneurysm. The aneurysm broke; Carson's mouth gushed with blood. His doctor and his best friend Thomas Boggs were present when he died. Carson's last words were "Doctor, goodbye. "Compadre, adíos"." He died on May 23, 1868 at Fort Lyon, Colorado. He was 58 years old.


title: Kit Carson

text: The wife of an officer offered her wedding dress to line Carson's casket, and the women of the fort took the cloth flowers from their hats to decorate his coffin. Carson and Josefa were first buried in Boggsville. Both were disinterred in 1869 and buried in Taos, New Mexico.


title: Kit Carson

text: Carson's home in Taos is today a museum maintained by the Kit Carson Foundation. A monument was raised in the plaza at Santa Fe by the New Mexico Grand Army. In Denver, a statue of a mounted Kit Carson can be found atop the Mac Monnies Pioneer Monument. Another equestrian statue can be seen in Trindad. A national forest in New Mexico was named for Carson as well as a mountain and a county in Colorado. A river in Nevada is named for Carson as well as the state's capital, Carson City. Fort Carson, an army training post near Colorado Springs, was named for him during World War II by popular vote of the men training there.


title: Kit Carson

text: In the 1960s and the 1970s, Carson came under the scrutiny of revisionist historians. He had been regarded as an American hero, but as the tide turned, he became an archvillain in the genocidal campaign against the Native Americans. Clifford Trafzer's 1982 "Kit Carson Campaign: The Last Great Navajo War" found fault with both Carleton and Carson, but Trafzer completely ignored Carson's many acts and deeds that humanized the Long Walk.


title: Kit Carson

text: In 1992, a young professor at Colorado College was successful in abruptly demanding for a period photograph of Carson to be removed from the ROTC office. That year, a tourist told a journalist at the Carson home in Taos, "I will not go into the home of that racist, genocidal killer." In 1973, militants in Taos tried to change the name of Kit Carson State Park. Six years later, Kit Carson Cave near Gallup, New Mexico, was the target of vandals, and in 1990, protestors spraypainted Kit and Josefa's tombstones with the word "NAZI". In the 1970s, a Navajo at a trading post said, "No one here will talk about Kit Carson. He was a butcher." In 1993, a symposium was organized to air various views on Carson, but the Navajo spokespeople refused to attend.


title: Kit Carson

text: In time, views of Carson returned to their former glory. David Roberts wrote, "Carson's trajectory, over three and a half decades, from thoughtless killer of Apaches and Blackfeet to defender and champion of the Utes, marks him out as one of the few frontiersmen whose change of heart toward the Indians, born not of missionary theory but of first hand experience, can serve as an exemplar for the more enlightened policies that sporadically gained the day in the twentieth century."


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: Magnetic susceptibility shows whether a material is attracted into or repelled out of a magnetic field. It is a term in electromagnetism.


title: Magnetic susceptibility

text: It can be measured. Magnetic susceptibility is a prediction of how magnetised a material will get in a magnetic field. It shows whether a material will be attracted or repelled by a magnet.


title: Billie Piper

text: Billie Paul Piper (born Leian Paul Piper, 22 September 1982, in Swindon, Wiltshire) is an English singer and actress.


title: Billie Piper

text: She began her career in the late 1990s as a pop singer. Later on, she moved to acting. Her most famous role is as Rose Tyler, a companion to the Doctor in the television series "Doctor Who". She played this role from 2005 to 2006, and also reprised it in 2008 and 2010.


title: Billie Piper

text: Piper's first chance in the entertainment world came when she was a teenager, when she was selected to appear on the Saturday morning kids' television show "Scratchy and Co". Piper later got a role in a television commercial promoting the pop magazine "Smash Hits". In 1996 she sang on a backing song Nobody's Business. It was a dance track by h20. Soon after she was offered a record deal at the age of fifteen, and in 1998 became the youngest artist ever to start at number one in the UK Singles Chart with "Because We Want To", released under the artist name "Billie". Her follow-up single "Girlfriend" also started at number one and her first album, "Honey to the B" (released immediately afterwards) started at Number 14 in the UK album charts. She released two further singles off the album, "She Wants You" and "Honey to the B"; both songs started at Number 3.


title: Billie Piper

text: Piper then took a year to record her second album. She decided to release more records under her full name, Billie Piper. She returned to the Singles Chart in May 2000 with a new, sexier sound. She hit the Number 1 spot with "Day & Night", but her success was not to carry on. She waited until the following September to release "Something Deep Inside". That reached Number 4 in the UK Singles Chart. In October 2000, Piper released her second album, "Walk of Life", which reached Number 14 in the UK Album Chart. The song "Walk of Life", the last single off this album, was released in December 2000 and reached Number 25 in the UK Singles Chart.


title: Billie Piper

text: In 1999, Piper was nominated for two BRIT Awards and was named Best Female Star at the "Smash Hits" Poll Winners' party, although at the latter ceremony she began crying after being nastily booed by jealous fans of Ritchie Neville, member of boyband Five, whom she was dating at the time.


title: Billie Piper

text: On 15 January 2007, BBC Radio 1 DJ Chris Moyles started a campaign to get "Honey to the B" back into the Top 100 on download sales as a way of testing out new chart rules that favour download sales. The campaign was highly successful, with "Honey to the Bee"re-entering the official UK singles chart at No. 17, eight years after it was first released.


title: Billie Piper

text: Piper prefers lip singing during performances. She backs this up with the reason that she is afraid she would not be able to sing live. However, in 1999 she decided to try actually singing during her tour in America. The audience loved it, but Piper said it made her too nervous to do it in Britain, where she had many more fans.


title: Billie Piper

text: After an extended break, Piper decided to end her pop career in 2003 and return to her first ambition, acting. She took acting lessons while living in London. Piper gained very good reviews for these appearances and critics said that she was a far better actress than she was a singer.


title: Billie Piper

text: In 2004, Piper appeared in the movies "The Calcium Kid", as the romantic interest of Orlando Bloom's character, and "Things to do Before You're Thirty". Shortly before starting work on "Doctor Who", she was one of the main characters in the horror movie "Spirit Trap" alongside Russian pop star Alsou, released in the summer of 2005 to bad reviews.


title: Billie Piper

text: In May 2004, it was announced that Piper was to play the character Rose Tyler, companion to The Doctor, played by Christopher Eccleston, in the long-running BBC television series "Doctor Who", beginning in 2005.


title: Billie Piper

text: Piper won the Most Popular Actress category at the 2005 and 2006 National Television Awards for her work on "Doctor Who". BBC News named Piper as one of its "Faces of the Year" for 2005, primarily due to her success in "Doctor Who". At "The South Bank Show" Awards on 27 January 2006 Piper was awarded "The Times" Breakthrough Award for her successful transition from singing to acting. In March 2006, the Television and Radio Industries Club named Piper as best new TV talent at their annual awards ceremony. In September 2006, Piper was named Best Actress at the TV Quick and TV Choice Awards.


title: Billie Piper

text: After the completion of the very successful first series of the revamped "Doctor Who", the British media regularly released conflicting reports about how long Piper would be staying with the programme. In March 2006, she claimed that she would continue on "Doctor Who" into its third season in 2007. On 10 May 2006, however, she was reported to be considering quitting the series, although she did express an interest in playing a female version of the Doctor in the future (possibly related to a proposed "Doctor Who" spin-off series about Rose which was later dropped). On 15 June 2006, the BBC announced that she was to depart in the final episode of the second series, "Doomsday". Piper's decision to leave had been taken a year previously, but remained a secret until news of her departure became public.