title: Gender dysphoria

text: Different studies find different numbers of people with gender dysphoria. In a New Zealand study, 1.2% of people responded "yes" to a question asking if they thought they were transgender. A study in Massachusetts found that 0.5% of adults say they are transgender.


title: Butene

text: Butene is the third occurring chemical compound in the alkene series of compounds. It has the chemical formula CH. Butene is made in laboratories. Butane is formed from covalent bonds between hydrogen and carbon atoms.


title: Butene

text: All four of these hydrocarbons have four carbon atoms and one double bond in their molecules, but have different chemical structures. The IUPAC and common names, respectively, of these chemical compounds are:


title: Rhetorical question

text: A rhetorical question is a figure of speech in the form of a question. It is a question that is asked in order to make a point: it does not need a reply.


title: Rhetorical question

text: The question is used as a rhetorical device or tool. The question is posed for the sake of persuasion, or to encourage the listener or reader to consider a message or viewpoint.


title: Rhetorical question

text: Rhetorical questions suggest a dialogue which does not really exist. The speaker both asks and answers the question himself. A rhetorical question is often a statement in the form of a question.


title: Rhetorical question

text: For example, in "Can't you do "anything" right?", the words are not intended to start an investigation or to invite any response at all. What the words actually mean could change according to circumstance. It could be a little joke between friends, or it could be an insulting criticism. Generally, it would be taken to mean "You can't seem to do anything right".


title: Rhetorical question

text: The role of context is always important if someone asks "What does that mean". Consider this question: "Do you think this treatment is just?". There is no way of knowing whether this is a genuine question or not, because we do not know what the circumstances are. This is true of many kinds of communication, that what they mean varies according to circumstance.


title: Rhetorical question

text: On the other hand, "Is it right for a murderer to be allowed out of prison after only ten years?" clearly asks for the reply "No!". This is because the questioner has "signalled" what answer is expected. A neutral way to describe the situation might be: "A convicted murderer spends at least ten years in jail".


title: Thongchai McIntyre

text: Thongchai "Bird" McIntyre, who was born as Albert Thongchai McIntyre on December 8, 1958, is a Thai pop singer and actor. He released his debut album in 1986. He is the most successful singer in Thailand, as he sold more than 20 million albums. He is also sometimes called the following names:


title: Thongchai McIntyre

text: Thongchai McIntyre, or "Bird Thongchai", is best known for his "string (Thai pop)" and "luk thung music". He is also known for acting in numerous films, on the television, musicals, and in commercials.


title: Thongchai McIntyre

text: Thongchai McIntyre was born in Bangkok in 1958. His parents were James and Udom McIntyre. He lived in a family of musicians, and so, he enjoyed an upbringing in a musical environment. His father died when Bird was still a child. He started working in a bank as an officer. During that time, he had a chance to meet the famous Thai TV producer, "Kai Varayuth", who saw entertainment talent in Bird. Bird played his first TV series with Kai while still working in the bank. This task showed his talent. His most memorable roles were those of "Captain Kobori" from "Koo Kam", which was a tragic love story between a Japanese soldier (played by Bird) and a local Thai girl during the World War II. In both, he starred in a television series, and he reprised his role in the 1996 film adaptation, "Sunset at Chaophraya".


title: Thongchai McIntyre

text: He reached the top of his musical career in the early nineties. Some of Bird's best-known songs are "Duay Rak Lae Pook Pan", "Koo Gud", "Sabai Sabai" and "Kob Jai Jing Jing". His popular singles released recently include luk thung singles "Mah Tummai" (with Jintara Poonlarp), "Fan Ja" (with Jintara and Jarin B. (Joey Boy), Nat Myria Benedetti and Katreeya English), "Lao Su Kan Fang", and "Yak Tham Kor Tob" and "Mai Kang Ying Pae" from his album "Volume One". Westerners became aware of him in the mid nineties as he became the first Thai artist to receive an International MTV Award, be featured in the most high budget Thai film at the time, "Sunset at Chaopraya" (which reached international acclaim in Japan as well as the United States). He was featured on CNN and Variety magazine. An award winning documentary on his life entitled "Crossing Borders" directed by Phanjanit Garnploog can be seen at St. John's University in New York which includes rare interviews with the director. In 2010, Bird made his first international tour in Los Angeles and the 50th Anniversary of Lincoln Center in New York. It marks the first time in history a Thai pop artist has made an international tour. His Grammy label mates have previously only performed at local venues.


title: Thongchai McIntyre

text: In late 2007, he released another album entitled "Simply Bird", which features songs such as Chuay Rap Tee and Mee Tae Kid Tueng.


title: Cul-de-sac

text: A cul-de-sac (literally "bottom of bag") is a word that came from the French language and means a small street without a way through at the far end. It is also used in Catalan and Occitan, its meaning being equivalent to a dead end, close, or no through road (United Kingdom, Australian and Canadian English). While culs-de-sac were built in history for other reasons, its modern use is to calm down the traffic.


title: Trench

text: Trench warfare has often been used in defense. Entrenched soldiers can be somewhat safe from enemy fire. Trench warfare made World War I longer than expected. The trench coat got its name from there.


title: Tiffany Young

text: Stephanie Young Hwang (Korean name: Hwang Mi-young; Hangul: 황미영; Hanja: 黃美英; born August 1, 1989) is an American singer and dancer. She is known by her Stage name Tiffany or Tiffany Young. She was born in California, but moved to South Korea at the age of fifteen to start a music career. She became a member of the girl group Girls' Generation.


title: Pedogenesis

text: Climate regulates soil formation. Soils develop more in areas with more rainfall and more warmth. The rate of chemical weathering increases by 2-3 times when the temperature increases by 10 degrees Celsius (50°F). Climate also affects which organisms are present, affecting the soil chemically and physically (movement of roots, burrowing by animals).


title: Tiffany Young

text: On August 15th, 2016, she was heavily criticized by Korean social media because she posted a Confederate Japanese flag on the Korean Liberation Day.


title: Pedogenesis

text: The organisms living in and on the soil form distinct soil types. Coniferous forests have acidic leaf litter. Mixed or deciduous forests leave a larger layer of humus. Prairies have very high humus accumulation, creating a dark, thick soil.


title: Pedogenesis

text: The rock from which soil is formed is called 'parent material' (bedrock). The main types are: eolian (wind), glacial material, alluvium, lake material other parent materials.


title: Pedogenesis

text: Pedogenesis is the major topic of the science of pedology. Its other aspects include the soil morphology, classification (taxonomy) of soils, and their distribution in nature.


title: Dawn French

text: French studied acting at the London Central School of Speech and Drama, and met Jennifer Saunders there in 1977. French and Saunders became famous when they appeared on a comedy series called "The Comic Strip". They wrote the famous comedy series "French & Saunders" which was first on BBC TV in 1987. She has been nominated for seven BAFTA Awards and also won a Fellowship BAFTA along with Saunders.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Abnormal psychology is a part of psychology. People who study abnormal psychology are psychologists. They are scientists that investigate the mind using the scientific method. Different cultures tend to have different ideas of how strange (abnormal) any behaviour is considered. This tends to change over time within cultures, so people that live in a country at one time in history might consider abnormal what people who live in the same country consider normal years before or years later.


title: Dawn French

text: French is also well known for appearing as Geraldine Granger in British sitcom "The Vicar of Dibley". In her career in movie, French played "The Fat Lady" picture in the movie "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban" and voiced the beaver in "".


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Abnormal psychology is often used to understand or to treat people with mental disorders to make life better for them. This is because abnormal behaviour is often defined as when someone is not able to change how they behave to fit different settings. This is often also used to define some mental disorders. When someone cannot change their behaviour to fit the people and situations around them when they need to, it can cause suffering, and the person may be uncomfortable when around people. Their behaviour can be unreasonable and hard to understand. Their behaviour can even be dangerous.


title: Dawn French

text: French is known for her larger figure. She tries to promote the idea that "big" can be beautiful. As a result, she has her own line of clothes, Sixteen47. The name is from the statistic that 47% of British females are at least a size 16. The clothes are made to look good on larger women.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Not everyone with a mental disorder is unable to adjust to their surroundings. People who can change to fit their the environment around them more easily than most people can also have behaviour that is considered abnormal and might also have an easier life with the help of a psychologist.


title: Dawn French

text: French and Saunders won the Golden Rose of Montreux award in 2002 and in 2003. She was listed in "The Observer" as one of the 50 funniest acts in British comedy. In a 2006 poll French was named as the most admired female celebrity amongst women in Britain.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: A supernatural belief is a belief in a force that is beyond scientific understanding. There are a lot of cultures that believe in supernatural events. These cultures include religious cultures, as well as the Ancient Chinese, Ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, and Ancient Greeks. These cultures have writings that say abnormal behaviour in the form of supernatural events created demons or Gods that would take over a person and act through those people. This was called possession. In the Roman Catholic Church, exorcisms were done to make these demons leave the body of the individuals they possessed. Exorcism involved prayer, noises and potions. People who had abnormal behaviour were often told they were possessed.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: In some cultures, trepanation was often used. This was when a hole was made in someone's head to release the "bad spirit".


title: Abnormal psychology

text: "Lunatic asylums" were buildings that kept patients that had abnormal behaviour. They became popular in Europe with the Madhouse Act of 1774, although they did exist before the Act. Asylums were meant to look after people who could not take care of themselves. But they were known for being cruel and abusive to their patients. The buildings were often dirty and not looked after very well.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: During the late 1700s, William Tuke made a religious retreat for patients. This was a turn away from the horrors of mental asylums. Also, in the late 1700s, Philippe Pinel started to encourage better treatment of the mentally insane.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Today the 18th-century lunatic asylum does not exist. Most of the asylums were closed in the late 1900s because of the invention of antipsychotic medicines. Today, there are psychiatric hospitals for people with mental illness. This includes Broadmoor Hospital, which houses some of Britain's the most dangerous criminals with mental illnesses.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: In the 1800s, Dorothea Dix fought against the bad treatment of patients in mental asylums. She started a "mental hygiene" group to encourage politicians to change the treatment of mental patients in the United States. When people became aware of the wrongdoing in mental asylums, money was raised to improve the treatment of patients and the asylums. Dix is thought to have helped to create 32 mental hospitals. By 1940 there were more than 400,000 patients living in mental asylums.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Most treatments were still cruel to patients and were not effective. The asylums were quickly becoming overcrowded. Mary Jane Ward wrote a book in 1946 called "The Snake Pit" that raised awareness of the inhumane treatment of mental patients.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: The National Institute of Mental Health was created the same year. The organisation provided training and support for mental patients and workers that cared for them. The Hill-Burton Act was passed to give money to the mental health hospitals.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Later, the Community Health Services Act of 1963 was passed. This law which created outpatient buildings for patients to live at home rather than in hospitals. Rehabilitation and community care centers were also built under this act.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: During the late 1900s, mental asylums were less accepted. The cruel treatment of patients and the overcrowding and ways of living were seen as not needed. Less money was being given to asylums. So many closed all around the world. The closing down of mental hospitals became known as deinstitutionalization. The movement from asylum to community was meant to help patients' development and recovery. The lack of good support programs meant that patients felt abandoned and found it hard to fit into normal life. This led to many becoming homeless.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: In the past there were three ways to explain abnormal behaviour. These were supernatural, biological, and psychological explanations. Western medicine no longer uses supernatural explanations. Instead we use biological and psychological explanations. Biological explanations use genetics and neuroscience to explain abnormal behaviours. The biological explanation is based on how the brain works and how genes change the way it works. Psychological explanations use how the mind works to explain abnormal behaviours.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Early cultures believed that abnormal behaviour was from demons, spirits and astrology. Trepanation was when a hole was drilled in a person's head. This was done to let the spirits or demons out of the person's head.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Exorcism was practiced mainly by the Catholic Church. Exorcism was believed to ward the spirits out of the person that they possessed.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: These practices were normal during the Middle Ages. This was when abnormal behaviour was thought to be a religious issue rather than a psychological one. Some abnormal behaviour was thought to be witchcraft. People accused of witchcraft were almost always punished for the acts. In many cases, the punishment was to be murdered.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: The Biological approach to explaining abnormal behaviour assumes that the behaviour can be explained by physical factors. Hippocrates was a man who lived during the 5th century and is thought by many to be the father of modern medicine. He did not accept that evil spirits or astronomy were the causes of psychological disorders. Hippocrates believed that there were natural causes for the disorders and appropriate treatments could be found. He focused on the "four humors" of the brain. He believed that the four humours must be balanced for healthy mental states and when one humour was stronger, various disorders would appear. To balance the humors, Hippocrates would tell patients to change their lifestyles. There are now new ideas when talking about the biological explanations of psychological disorders. But, Hippocrates' focus on mental processes and clinical practice was a revolutionary concept.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Another Greek physician called Galen also took a scientific approach to the causes of psychological disorders. He divided them into physical and mental categories. Among Galen's causes were head injuries, alcohol abuse, and life experiences. During the 18th century, Galen's concepts influenced the medical industry. Galen's focus was on the biological causes for mental disorders.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Psychological explanations for abnormal behavior sometimes take a behavioral approach in which the positive behaviors are reinforced and negative ones are not. This approach is more focused on changing the actual behavior of a person than the true cause of it.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Sigmund Freud was one of the most popular psychological theorists of the 20th century. The method he used to study and treat patients was known as psychoanalysis. Methods of hypnosis by were used by Freud, but also by Franz Mesmer and physicians in the Nancy School. However, Freud attempted to have his patients confess their deepest, truest emotions, which was referred to as a catharsis. He would have his patients speak freely about themselves, in free association. Also he would conduct dream analysis where patients would record and discuss their dreams. Freud's work led to other great psychoanalytic theorists such as Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, and Harry Stack Sullivan. Wilhelm Wundt and William James were credited for opening up the first experimental psychology laboratories. This led to many studies and psychological methods, such as classical conditioning led by Ivan Pavlov and John B. Skinner, while Edward Thorndike and B. F. Skinner were the leaders of the study of operant conditioning.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: The North American reference book used by psychiatrists and psychologists to diagnose and treat psychological disorders is known as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). It is produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). The most recent version was released in May of 2013 and is known as the DSM-5. The DSM is relied upon by clinicians, health insurance companies, medicine companies, and the legal system as a reference for understanding and identifying mental disorders. The DSM divides mental disorders into groups and provides descriptive signs and symptoms that define each disorder. In addition, it lists statistics for each disorder ranging from its frequency in the general population to the most effective form of treatment.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Before diagnosing an individual with a "specific" mental disorder, a professional must first determine whether that individual does in fact suffer from a mental disorder. The DSM defines a mental disorder as a condition that:


title: Abnormal psychology

text: When using the DSM, a complete psychiatric diagnosis is split up into five dimensions, called "axes", that relate to different characteristics of disability or disorder:


title: Abnormal psychology

text: The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) was created by the World Health Organization (WHO) and is the universal diagnostic system for mental disorders. The ICD is approved by health officials from 193 WHO member countries, and is available for free on the internet. Its purpose is to help countries reduce the problems associated with mental disorders. The coding system used in the DSM is designed to be compatible with the system used in the ICD; however, some codes may not match because the two publications get revised at different times. The ICD-10 was made public in 1994; its most recent update occurred in 2010. Chapter 5 of the ICD-10 covers over 300 mental and behavioral disorders which are divided into the following categories:


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Psychoanalysis is a form of therapy based on psychoanalytic theory. This theory states that human behavior is controlled by unconscious forces such as instinct and that there is no such thing as free will. Many ideas found in the Psychoanalytic theory can be traced back to the famous psychologist Sigmund Freud. Freud believed mental disorders are a result of repressed memories and emotions from childhood; psychoanalysis is designed to search for these hidden memories and emotions and bring them to the patient's attention. Techniques such as hypnosis are used to tap into the unconscious mind with the hopes that the source of the disturbance is found. Freud also believed dreams had hidden meanings, and often asked patients to record their dreams for analysis. Because of the lack of scientific evidence supporting most Freudian ideas, psychoanalysis is rarely used by clinical psychologists and has been replaced by more effective forms of therapy.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Behavior therapy is based on the theory of behaviorism, which states that all human behavior is a result of a stimulus and reinforcement. Famous behaviorists include James Watson, B.F. Skinner, and Joseph Wolpe. The goal of this therapy is to increase one's positive or socially reinforcing behavior. Behavior therapy can be broken down into three areas:


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Humanistic therapy is a method taken from Carl Rogers, which aims to focus on a client as a human rather than the problem that they have. A therapist can adjust the environment and mood of a session in a way that mimics normal conversation. This often helps the patient realize the issues they have, and share them with the therapist more successfully than in a traditional counseling session. Humanistic therapy creates an effective means of getting to the source of a problem and treating it properly.


title: Abnormal psychology

text: Roger's own term was "client-centered therapy", which has the idea that the therapist is helping the client to become a genuine psychological adult.


title: We Found Love

text: "We Found Love" is a song by Barbadian singer Rihanna. It was released from her album "Talk That Talk" (2011). It features Scottish DJ Calvin Harris. Harris also released the song on his album "18 Months" (2012). The song was released as the lead single from "Talk That Talk". It was released on September 22, 2011. "We Found Love" is a electro house song. It has several musical instruments. These include synthesizers, alarm bells, and a keyboard. The song is about a couple. They found love in a place where it is impossible to find love.


title: We Found Love

text: The song was given mixed reviews from music critics. Many critics liked Rihanna's voice on the song and its instruments. Others did not like the lyrics and Harris' production. "We Found Love" was a hit single. It reached number one on the US Hot 100 chart for eight weeks in 2011 and for two weeks in 2012. This was more than her 2007 single "Umbrella". "We Found Love" became Rihanna's eleventh song to reach number one on the Hot 100 chart. She was then placed third for most number-one singles by a female singer. The song reached number one in 20 countries including Ireland, New Zealand, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. It got to the top five positions in Australia, the Netherlands and Spain. However, it reached the top ten in 29 countries worldwide.


title: We Found Love

text: The music video for the song was directed by Melina Matsoukas. The video shows Rihanna as a drug abuser who searches for things that gets her excited in a relationship. Because of this, the relationship is no longer a positive one. This is because the woman is now a drug addict, and violence can be found between herself and her boyfriend. The video has received over 779 million views as of March 2018. It was given mixed reviews. Some critics believed the video supported violent sex. It was also believed that the actor chosen for the role of the boyfriend looked similar to Rihanna's ex-boyfriend, R&B singer Chris Brown. Brown had assaulted Rihanna two years before the song was released.


title: Shotgun shell

text: A shotgun shell is the standard type of ammunition for a shotgun. It is fired after being loaded into the chamber or chambers of a shotgun. The shell is cylindrical in shape and is normally between and long. It holds a charge of gunpowder and either lead shot or a shotgun slug made to be fired from the shotgun. Shotgun shells are usually mostly plastic but have thin brass at the base, though they can be made of solid brass, paper, or other combinations of these materials.


Article One of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, the United States Congress. The Congress is a bicameral legislature consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate


title: Shotgun shell

text: A shotgun shell's size is usually measured in gauge (also known as bore). The most common size of shotgun shell is the 12-gauge. When measuring gauge, a smaller number means a larger shell: a 12-gauge shell is larger than a 20-gauge shell. Shell gauge is an old measurement. Except for the .410 bore or gauge, which is not a gauge at all but a caliber,


title: Article One of the United States Constitution

text: Section 1 gives federal legislative power exclusively to Congress. Similar clauses are found in Articles II and III. The former gives executive power to the President. The latter grants judicial power to the federal judiciary. These three articles create a separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government. The separation of powers was intended to limit Congress to making law, the President to enforcing the law and the courts as interpreting the law in different cases.


title: Shotgun shell

text: the gauge of a shotgun was equal to the number of lead balls that added up to . So in a 12 gauge, 12 balls add up to about a pound of lead. So the diameter is equal to a ball weighing 1/12th of a pound of lead. A 20 gauge, another popular size today, has the diameter of a ball weighing 1/20th of a pound of lead.


text: There is no provision in the Constitution that gives Congress the power to investigate. However, before the adoption of the Constitution, assemblies| in the American colonies exercised that power. Before them, the British Parliament had investigative powers. Congress has always considered it an implicit power in the Constitution. In "McGrain v. Daugherty" (1927), the Supreme Court held that Congress did have the power to investigate.


title: Shotgun shell

text: Besides lead shot and slugs which are designed to be lethal, there are special less lethal types of shotgun shells which shoot things made to hurt but not kill people. Less lethal shells are most often used by police. These can be loaded with plastic or rubber shot, rubber slugs, beanbags, or salt.


text: Section Two provides for the election every two years of members of the House of Representatives by the people of the respective states. The "electors" (voters) in the state are those who the state decides are eligible to vote for "the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature" are eligible to vote for members of the House of Representatives from that state.


text: The Constitution provides three requirements for Representatives. A Representative must be at least 25 years old. He or she must live in the state in which he or she is elected. A Representative must also have been a citizen of the United States for the previous seven years.


text: After much debate, the framers of the Constitution compromised and made population the basis of determining the number of seats (called apportionment) in the House of Representatives. It also used apportionment to determine the tax liability among the states. To accomplish this, the Constitution requires that a census be conducted every ten years. This is to determine the population of each state and of the nation as a whole. It also establishes a rule for who should and who should not be included in the count. Because the Constitution would go into effect before the completion of a national census, it provides for a temporary apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives.


text: Originally, the population of each state and of the nation as a whole was determined by adding to the whole number of free Persons, three-fifths the number of all other persons (slaves), but excluding non-taxed Native Americans. This Constitutional rule was known as the three-fifths compromise. It was used to determine the number of Representatives in the House. Larger states contributed more money and would have more seats in the House of Representatives.


text: The Fourteenth Amendment removed the three-fifths rule and ordered the census to count everyone regardless of skin color. It stipulated that males over the age of twenty-one could vote. The Sixteenth Amendment removed the connection between apportionment and direct taxes. The 19th Amendment removed the restriction by sex allowing women to vote. The 26th Amendment reduced the voting age requirement to those 18 years of age and older. But none of these amendments changed congressional apportionment.


text: Since enactment of the Reapportionment Act of 1929, Congress set the number of House seats at 435, except in 1959 when Alaska and Hawaii were admitted as states. Then the number became 437 temporarily.


text: Section two, Clause four, provides that when vacancies occur in the House of Representatives, it is not the job of the House of Representatives to arrange for a replacement. It is the job of the State whose vacant seat is up for refilling. In addition, the Constitution does not authorize a State Governor to appoint a temporary replacement. He is to arrange for a special election to fill the vacancy. The original qualifications and procedures for holding that election are still valid.


text: Section Two also provides that the House of Representatives may choose its Speaker and its other officers. The Constitution does not require it but every Speaker has been a member of the House of Representatives. The Speaker rarely presides over routine House sessions. Instead he chooses to deputize a junior member to accomplish the task.


text: Finally, Section Two grants to the House of Representatives the sole power of impeachment. Although the Supreme Court has not had an occasion to interpret this specific provision, the Court has suggested that the grant to the House of the ""sole"" power of impeachment makes the House the exclusive interpreter of what constitutes an impeachable offense.


text: This power, which is analogous to the bringing of criminal charges by a grand jury, has been used only rarely. The House of Representatives has initiated impeachment proceedings 62 times since 1789, and nineteen federal officials have been formally impeached as a result, including: three Presidents (Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton, and Donald Trump), one Cabinet Secretary (William W. Belknap), one Senator (William Blount), one Supreme Court Associate Justice (Samuel Chase), and fourteen federal judges.


text: The Constitution does not specify how impeachment proceedings are to be initiated. Until the early 20th century, a House member could rise and propose an impeachment, which would then be assigned to a committee for investigation. Presently, it is the House Judiciary Committee that initiates the process. It does this only after investigating the allegations, prepares recommendations for the whole House's consideration. If the House votes to adopt an impeachment resolution, the Chairman of the Judiciary Committee recommends a slate of "managers," whom the House subsequently approves by resolution. These Representatives then become the prosecution team in the impeachment trial in the Senate (see Section 3, Clause 6 below).


text: The first Clause of Section Three provides that each state is entitled to have two Senators. It states they would be elected by its state legislature and serve six-year terms. Each Senator has one vote. By these provisions, the framers of the Constitution intended to protect the interests of the states as states. However, this clause has been superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in 1913. Due to problems in the Senate, it was changed to Senators would now be elected by the people instead of the state legislatures.


text: Approximately one-third of the Senate is up for re-election every two years. But the entire body is never up for re-election in the same year. The Seventeenth Amendment changed how vacancies would be filled. Under the Seventeenth Amendment, if a Senator dies or has to leave office, his state governor may appoint a temporary Senator until a special election can be held.


text: A Senator must be at least 30 years of age, must have been a citizen of the United States for at least nine years before being elected, and must reside in the State he or she will represent at the time of the election. As with Representatives in the House, the Constitution sets the qualifications to be a Senator.


text: Section Three provides that the Vice President is the President of the Senate. When serving in this capacity, the Vice President, who is not a member of the Senate, may cast a vote to break a tie. Early in the nation's history, Vice Presidents frequently presided over the Senate. In modern times, the Vice President usually does so only during ceremonial occasions or when a tie in the voting is anticipated. A tie-breaking vote has been cast 243 times by 35 different Vice Presidents.


text: Clause five provides for a President "pro tempore of the Senate" (meaning temporary), a Senator elected to the post by the Senate, to preside over the body when the Vice President is either absent or exercising the Office of the President.


text: The Senate's current practice is to elect a full-time President pro tempore at the beginning of each Congress, as opposed to making it a temporary office only existing during the Vice President's absence. Since World War II, the senior (longest serving) member of the majority party has filled this position. As is true of the Speaker of the House, the Constitution does not require that the President pro tempore be a senator, but by tradition, a senator is always chosen.


text: The House of Representatives votes to impeach a president, vice president or other civil officer, but the Senate serves as judge and jury. The defendant in the trial can be removed from office by a two-thirds vote of the Senate. Only three times has the Senate brought impeachment charges against a president still in office. This was in 1868 against Andrew Johnson, in 1998 against Bill Clinton, and in 2020 against Donald Trump. In each case, the president was not convicted and allowed to serve out his term of office.


text: If any officer is convicted on impeachment, he or she is immediately removed from office. He or she may be barred from holding any public office in the future. No other punishments may be used. Any person removed from office may still be criminally prosecuted. They may also be subject to lawsuits.


text: State legislatures have the task of deciding how congressional elections are held. They may decide the scheduling of an election, where voters may cast ballots and how voters are to register. Congress has the right to change these rules.


text: Clause 2 fixes an annual date upon which Congress must meet. By doing so, the Constitution gives Congress the power to meet, whether or not the President called it into session.


text: Section Five states that a majority of each House constitutes a quorum to do business; a smaller number may adjourn the House or compel the attendance of absent members. In practice, the quorum requirement is all but ignored. A quorum is assumed to be present unless a quorum call, requested by a member, proves otherwise. Rarely do members ask for quorum calls to demonstrate the absence of a quorum; more often, they use the quorum call as a delaying tactic.


text: Each House can determine its own Rules (assuming a quorum is present), and may punish any of its members. A two-thirds vote is necessary to expel a member. Section 5, Clause 2 does not provide specific guidance to each House regarding when and how each House may change its rules, leaving details to the respective chambers.


text: Each House must keep and publish a Journal, though it may choose to keep any part of the Journal secret. The decisions of the House—not the words spoken during debates—are recorded in the Journal; if one-fifth of those present (assuming a quorum is present) request it, the votes of the members on a particular question must also be entered.


text: Neither House may adjourn, without the consent of the other, for more than three days. Often, a House will hold "pro forma" sessions every three days. Such sessions are held just to fulfill the constitutional requirement. They are not for the purpose of conducting business. Neither House may meet in any place other than that designated for both Houses (the Capitol), without the consent of the other House.


text: Senators and Representatives set their own compensation. Under the Twenty-seventh Amendment, any change in their compensation will not take effect until after the next congressional election.


text: Members of both Houses have certain privileges, based on those enjoyed by the members of the British Parliament. Members attending, going to or returning from either House are privileged from arrest, except for treason, felony or breach of the peace. One may not sue a Senator or Representative for slander that may happen during Congressional debate, nor may speech by a member of Congress during a Congressional session be the basis for criminal prosecution.


text: Senators and Representatives may not simultaneously serve in Congress and hold a position in the executive branch. This restriction is meant to protect legislative independence by preventing the president from using patronage to buy votes in Congress. It is a major difference from the political system in the British Parliament, where cabinet ministers are required to be members of parliament.


text: This establishes the method for making Acts of Congress that involve taxation. Accordingly, any bill may originate in either House of Congress, except for a revenue bill, which may originate only in the House of Representatives.


text: This clause of the U.S. Constitution stemmed from an English parliamentary practice that all money bills must have their first reading in the House of Commons. This practice was intended to ensure that the power of the purse is possessed by the legislative body most responsive to the people, although the English practice was modified in America by allowing the Senate to amend these bills.


text: This clause is known as the Presentment Clause. Before a bill becomes law, it must be presented to the President, who has ten days (excluding Sundays) to act upon it. If the President signs the bill, it becomes law. If he disapproves of the bill, he must return it to the House in which it originated together with his objections. This procedure has become known as the veto, although that particular word does not appear in the text of Article One. The bill does not then become law unless both Houses, by two-thirds votes, override the veto. If the President neither signs nor returns the bill within the ten-day limit, the bill becomes law, unless the Congress has adjourned in the meantime, thereby preventing the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated. In the latter case, the President, by taking no action on the bill towards the end of a session, exercises a "pocket veto", which Congress may not override. In the former case, where the President allows a bill to become law unsigned, there is no common name for the practice, but recent scholarship has termed it a "default enactment."


text: What exactly constitutes an adjournment for the purposes of the pocket veto has been unclear. In the "Pocket Veto Case" (1929), the Supreme Court held that "the determinative question in reference to an 'adjournment' is not whether it is a final adjournment of Congress or an interim adjournment, such as an adjournment of the first session, but whether it is one that 'prevents' the President from returning the bill to the House in which it originated within the time allowed." Since neither House of Congress was in session, the President could not return the bill to one of them, thereby permitting the use of the pocket veto. In "Wright v. United States" (1938), however, the Court ruled that adjournments of one House only did not constitute an adjournment of Congress required for a pocket veto. In such cases, the Secretary or Clerk of the House in question was ruled competent to receive the bill.


text: In 1996, Congress passed the Line Item Veto Act, which permitted the President, at the time of the signing of the bill, to rescind certain expenditures. The Congress could disapprove the cancellation and reinstate the funds. The President could veto the disapproval, but the Congress, by a two-thirds vote in each House, could override the veto. In the case "Clinton v. City of New York", the Supreme Court found the Line Item Veto Act unconstitutional because it violated the Presentment clause. First, the procedure delegated legislative powers to the President, thereby violating the nondelegation doctrine. Second, the procedure violated the terms of Section Seven, which state, "if he approve [the bill] he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it." Thus, the President may sign the bill, veto it, or do nothing, but he may not amend the bill and then sign it.


text: Every bill, order, resolution, or vote that must be passed by both Houses, except on a question of adjournment, must be presented to the President before becoming law. However, to propose a constitutional amendment, two-thirds of both Houses may submit it to the states for the ratification, without any consideration by the President, as prescribed in Article V.


text: Many powers of Congress have been interpreted broadly. Most notably, the Taxing and Spending, Interstate Commerce, and Necessary and Proper Clauses have been deemed to grant expansive powers to Congress.


text: Congress may lay and collect taxes for the "common defense" or "general welfare" of the United States. The U.S. Supreme Court has not often defined "general welfare," leaving the political question to Congress. In "United States v. Butler" (1936), the Court for the first time construed the clause. The dispute centered on a tax collected from processors of agricultural products such as meat; the funds raised by the tax were not paid into the general funds of the treasury, but were rather specially earmarked for farmers. The Court struck down the tax, ruling that the general welfare language in the Taxing and Spending Clause related only to "matters of national, as distinguished from local, welfare". Congress continues to make expansive use of the Taxing and Spending Clause; for instance, the social security program is authorized under the Taxing and Spending Clause.


text: Congress has the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States. In 1871, when deciding "Knox v. Lee," the Court ruled that this clause permitted Congress to emit bills and make them legal tender in satisfaction of debts. Whenever Congress borrows money, it is obligated to repay the sum as stipulated in the original agreement. However, such agreements are only "binding on the conscience of the sovereign", as the doctrine of sovereign immunity prevents a creditor from suing in court if the government reneges its commitment.


text: The Supreme Court has seldom restrained the use of the "commerce clause" for widely varying purposes. The first important decision related to the commerce clause was "Gibbons v. Ogden", decided by a unanimous Court in 1824. The case involved conflicting federal and state laws: Thomas Gibbons had a federal permit to navigate steamboats in the Hudson River, while the other, Aaron Ogden, had a monopoly to do the same granted by the state of New York. Ogden contended that "commerce" included only buying and selling of goods and not their transportation. Chief Justice John Marshall rejected this notion. Marshall suggested that "commerce" included navigation of goods, and that it "must have been contemplated" by the Framers. Marshall added that Congress's power over commerce "is complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations other than are prescribed in the Constitution".


text: The expansive interpretation of the Commerce Clause was restrained during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when a "laissez-faire" attitude dominated the Court. In "United States v. E. C. Knight Company" (1895), the Supreme Court limited the newly enacted Sherman Antitrust Act, which had sought to break up the monopolies dominating the nation's economy. The Court ruled that Congress could not regulate the manufacture of goods, even if they were later shipped to other states. Chief Justice Melville Fuller wrote, "commerce succeeds to manufacture, and is not a part of it."


text: The U.S. Supreme Court sometimes ruled New Deal programs unconstitutional because they stretched the meaning of the commerce clause. In "Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States," (1935) the Court unanimously struck down industrial codes regulating the slaughter of poultry, declaring that Congress could not regulate commerce relating to the poultry, which had "come to a permanent rest within the State." As Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes put it, "so far as the poultry here in question is concerned, the flow of interstate commerce has ceased." Judicial rulings against attempted use of Congress's Commerce Clause powers continued during the 1930s.


text: In 1937, the Supreme Court began moving away from its laissez-faire attitude concerning Congressional legislation and the Commerce Clause, when it ruled in "National Labor Relations Board v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Company", that the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (commonly known as the Wagner Act) was constitutional. The legislation under scrutiny, prevented employers from engaging in "unfair labor practices" such as firing workers for joining unions. In sustaining this act, the Court, signaled its return to the philosophy espoused by John Marshall, that Congress could pass laws regulating actions that even indirectly influenced interstate commerce.


text: This new attitude became firmly set into place in 1942. In "Wickard v. Filburn", the Court ruled that production quotas under the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938 were constitutionally applied to agricultural production (in this instance, home-grown wheat for private consumption) that was consumed purely intrastate, because its effect upon interstate commerce placed it within the power of Congress to regulate under the Commerce Clause. This decision marked the beginning of the Court's total deference to Congress' claims of Commerce Clause powers, which lasted into the 1990s.


text: "United States v. Lopez" (1995) was the first decision in six decades to invalidate a federal statute on the grounds that it exceeded the power of the Congress under the Commerce Clause. The Court held that while Congress had broad lawmaking authority under the Commerce Clause, the power was limited, and did not extend so far from "commerce" as to authorize the regulation of the carrying of handguns, especially when there was no evidence that carrying them affected the economy on a massive scale. In a later case, "United States v. Morrison" (2000), the justices ruled that Congress could not make such laws even when there was evidence of aggregate effect.


text: In contrast to these rulings, the Supreme Court also continues to follow the precedent set by "Wickard v. Filburn". In "Gonzales v. Raich" it ruled that the Commerce Clause granted Congress the authority to criminalize the production and use of home-grown cannabis even where states approve its use for medicinal purposes. The court held that, as with the agricultural production in the earlier case, home-grown cannabis is a legitimate subject of federal regulation because it competes with marijuana that moves in interstate commerce.


text: Congress may establish uniform laws relating to naturalization and bankruptcy. It may also coin money, regulate the value of American or foreign currency and punish counterfeiters. Congress may fix the standards of weights and measures. Furthermore, Congress may establish post offices and post roads (the roads, however, need not be exclusively for the conveyance of mail). Congress may promote the progress of science and useful arts by granting copyrights and patents of limited duration. Section eight, clause eight of Article One, known as the Copyright Clause, is the only instance of the word "right" used in the original constitution (though the word does appear in several Amendments). Though perpetual copyrights and patents are prohibited, the Supreme Court has ruled in "Eldred v. Ashcroft" (2003) that repeated extensions to the term of copyright do not constitute perpetual copyright; also note that this is the only power granted where the means to accomplish its stated purpose is specifically provided for. Courts inferior to the Supreme Court may be established by Congress.


text: Congress has several powers related to war and the armed forces. Under the War Powers Clause, only Congress may declare war, but in several cases it has, without declaring war, granted the President the authority to engage in military conflicts. Five wars have been declared in United States' history: the War of 1812, the Mexican–American War, the Spanish–American War, World War I and World War II. Some historians argue that the legal doctrines and legislation passed during the operations against Pancho Villa constitute a sixth declaration of war. Congress may grant letters of marque and reprisal. Congress may establish and support the armed forces, but no appropriation made for the support of the army may be used for more than two years. This provision was inserted because the Framers feared the establishment of a standing army, beyond civilian control, during peacetime. Congress may regulate or call forth the state militias, but the states retain the authority to appoint officers and train personnel. Congress also has exclusive power to make rules and regulations governing the land and naval forces. Although the executive branch and the Pentagon have asserted an ever-increasing measure of involvement in this process, the U.S. Supreme Court has often reaffirmed Congress's exclusive hold on this power (e.g. Burns v. Wilson, 346 U.S. 137 (1953)). Congress used this power twice soon after World War II with the enactment of two statutes: the Uniform Code of Military Justice to improve the quality and fairness of courts martial and military justice, and the Federal Tort Claims Act which among other rights had allowed military service persons to sue for damages until the U.S. Supreme Court repealed that section of the statute in a divisive series of cases, known collectively as the Feres Doctrine.


text: Congress has the exclusive right to legislate "in all cases whatsoever" for the nation's capital, the District of Columbia. Congress chooses to devolve some of such authority to the elected mayor and council of District of Columbia. Nevertheless, Congress remains free to enact any legislation for the District so long as constitutionally permissible, to overturn any legislation by the city government, and technically to revoke the city government at any time. Congress may also exercise such jurisdiction over land purchased from the states for the erection of forts and other buildings.


text: Finally, Congress has the power to do whatever is "necessary and proper" to carry out its enumerated powers and, crucially, all others vested in it. This has been interpreted to authorize criminal prosecution of those whose actions have a "substantial effect" on interstate commerce in "Wickard v. Filburn" ; however, Thomas Jefferson, in the Kentucky Resolutions, supported by James Madison, maintained that a penal power could not be inferred from a power to regulate, and that the only penal powers were for treason, counterfeiting, piracy and felony on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations.


text: The necessary and proper clause has been interpreted extremely broadly, thereby giving Congress wide latitude in legislation. The first landmark case involving the clause was "McCulloch v. Maryland" (1819), which involved the establishment of a national bank. Alexander Hamilton, in advocating the creation of the bank, argued that there was "a more or less direct" relationship between the bank and "the powers of collecting taxes, borrowing money, regulating trade between the states, and raising and maintaining fleets and navies". Thomas Jefferson countered that Congress's powers "can all be carried into execution without a national bank. A bank therefore is not necessary, and consequently not authorized by this phrase". Chief Justice John Marshall agreed with the former interpretation. Marshall wrote that a Constitution listing "all" of Congress's powers "would partake of a prolixity of a legal code and could scarcely be embraced by the human mind". Since the Constitution could not possibly enumerate the "minor ingredients" of the powers of Congress, Marshall "deduced" that Congress had the authority to establish a bank from the "great outlines" of the general welfare, commerce and other clauses. Under this doctrine of the necessary and proper clause, Congress has sweepingly broad powers (known as implied powers) not explicitly enumerated in the Constitution. However, the Congress cannot enact laws solely on the implied powers, any action must be necessary and proper in the execution of the enumerated powers.


text: The first clause in this section prevents Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves into the United States prior to 1808. Congress could however, levy a "Per capita" duty of up to ten dollars for each slave imported into the country. This clause was further entrenched into the Constitution by Article V, where it is explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808. On January 1, 1808, the first day it was permitted to do so, Congress approved legislation prohibiting the importation of slaves into the United States.


text: A writ of "habeas corpus" is a legal action against unlawful detainment that commands a law enforcement agency or other body that has a person in custody to have a court inquire into the legality of the detention. The court may order the person released if the reason for detention is deemed insufficient or unjustifiable. The Constitution further provides that the privilege of the writ of "habeas corpus" may not be suspended "unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it". In "Ex parte Milligan" (1866), the Supreme Court ruled that the suspension of "habeas corpus" in a time of war was lawful, but military tribunals did not apply to citizens in states that had upheld the authority of the Constitution and where civilian courts were still operating.


text: A bill of attainder is a law by which a person is immediately convicted without trial. An "ex post facto" law is a law which applies retroactively, punishing someone for an act that was only made criminal after it was done. The "ex post facto" clause does not apply to civil matters.


text: Section Nine reiterates the provision from that direct taxes must be apportioned by state populations. This clause was also explicitly shielded from constitutional amendment prior to 1808 by Article V. In 1913, the 16th Amendment exempted income taxes from this clause. Furthermore, no tax may be imposed on exports from any state. Congress may not, by revenue or commerce legislation, give preference to ports of one state over those of another; neither may it require ships from one state to pay duties in another. All funds belonging to the Treasury may not be withdrawn except according to law. Modern practice is that Congress annually passes a number of appropriations bills authorizing the expenditure of public money. The Constitution requires that a regular statement of such expenditures be published.


text: The Title of Nobility Clause prohibits Congress from granting any title of nobility. In addition, it specifies that no civil officer may accept, without the consent of Congress, any gift, payment, office or title from a foreign ruler or state. However, a U.S. citizen may receive foreign office before or after their period of public service.


text: States may not exercise certain powers reserved for the federal government: they may not enter into treaties, alliances or confederations, grant letters of marque or reprisal, coin money or issue bills of credit (such as currency). Furthermore, no state may make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts, which expressly forbids any state government (but not the federal government) from "making a tender" (i.e., authorizing something that may be offered in payment) of any type or form of money to meet any financial obligation, unless that form of money is coins made of gold or silver (or a medium of exchange backed by and redeemable in gold or silver coins, as noted in "Farmers & Merchants Bank v. Federal Reserve Bank"). Much of this clause is devoted to preventing the States from using or creating any currency other than that created by Congress. In Federalist no. 44, Madison explains that "... it may be observed that the same reasons which shew the necessity of denying to the States the power of regulating coin, prove with equal force that they ought not to be at liberty to substitute a paper medium in the place of coin. Had every State a right to regulate the value of its coin, there might be as many different currencies as States; and thus the intercourse among them would be impeded." Moreover, the states may not pass bills of attainder, enact "ex post facto" laws, impair the obligation of contracts, or grant titles of nobility.


text: The Contract Clause was the subject of much contentious litigation in the 19th century. It was first interpreted by the Supreme Court in 1810, when "Fletcher v. Peck" was decided. The case involved the Yazoo land scandal, in which the Georgia legislature authorized the sale of land to speculators at low prices. The bribery involved in the passage of the authorizing legislation was so blatant that a Georgia mob attempted to lynch the corrupt members of the legislature. Following elections, the legislature passed a law that rescinded the contracts granted by the corrupt legislators. The validity of the annulment of the sale was questioned in the Supreme Court. In writing for a unanimous court, Chief Justice John Marshall asked, "What is a contract?" His answer was: "a compact between two or more parties." Marshall argued that the sale of land by the Georgia legislature, though fraught with corruption, was a valid "contract". He added that the state had no right to annul the purchase of the land, since doing so would impair the obligations of contract.


text: The definition of a contract propounded by Chief Justice Marshall was not as simple as it may seem. In 1819, the Court considered whether a corporate charter could be construed as a contract. The case of "Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward" involved Dartmouth College, which had been established under a Royal Charter granted by King George III. The Charter created a board of twelve trustees for the governance of the College. In 1815, however, New Hampshire passed a law increasing the board's membership to twenty-one with the aim that public control could be exercised over the College. The Court, including Marshall, ruled that New Hampshire could not amend the charter, which was ruled to be a contract since it conferred "vested rights" on the trustees.


text: The Marshall Court determined another dispute in "Sturges v. Crowninshield". The case involved a debt that was contracted in early 1811. Later in that year, the state of New York passed a bankruptcy law, under which the debt was later discharged. The Supreme Court ruled that a retroactively applied state bankruptcy law impaired the obligation to pay the debt, and therefore violated the Constitution. In "Ogden v. Saunders" (1827), however, the court decided that state bankruptcy laws "could" apply to debts contracted after the passage of the law. State legislation on the issue of bankruptcy and debtor relief has not been much of an issue since the adoption of a comprehensive federal bankruptcy law in 1898.


text: Still more powers are prohibited of the states. States may not, without the consent of Congress, tax imports or exports except for the fulfillment of state inspection laws (which may be revised by Congress). The net revenue of the tax is paid not to the state, but to the federal Treasury.


text: Under the Compact Clause, states may not, without the consent of Congress, keep troops or armies during times of peace. They may not enter into alliances nor compacts with foreign states, nor engage in war unless invaded. States may, however, organize and arm a militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. (Article I, Section 8, enumerated powers of Congress.) The National Guard, whose members are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by , fulfill this function, as do persons serving in State Militias with federal oversight under .


text: The idea of allowing Congress to have say over agreements between states traces back to the numerous controversies that arose between various colonies. Eventually compromises would be created between the two colonies and these compromises would be submitted to the Crown for approval. After the American Revolutionary War, the Articles of Confederation allowed states to appeal to Congress to settle disputes between the states over boundaries or "any cause whatever". The Articles of Confederation also required Congressional approval for "any treaty or alliance" in which a state was one of the parties.


text: There have been a number of Supreme Court cases concerning what constitutes valid congressional consent to an interstate compact. In "Virginia v. Tennessee", , the Court found that some agreements among states stand even when lacking the explicit consent of Congress. (One example the court gave was a state moving some goods from a distant state to itself, it would not require Congressional approval to contract with another state to use its canals for transport.) According to the Court, the Compact Clause requires congressional consent only if the agreement among the states is "directed to the formation of any combination tending to the increase of political power in the States, which may encroach upon or interfere with the just supremacy of the United States". The congressional consent issue is at the center of the current debate over the constitutionality of the not yet effective National Popular Vote Interstate Compact entered into by several states plus the District of Columbia.


title: Out-of-order execution

text: In computer engineering, out-of-order execution, OoOE, is a technique used in most high-performance microprocessors to make use of cycles that would otherwise be wasted by a certain type of costly delay. Most modern CPU designs include support for out of order execution.


title: Out-of-order execution

text: The key concept of OoO processing is to allow the processor to avoid a class of delays (termed: ""stalls "") that occur when the data needed to perform an operation are unavailable.


title: Out-of-order execution

text: OoO processors fill these "slots" in time with other instructions that are ready, then re-order the results at the end to make it appear that the instructions were processed as normal. The way the instructions are ordered in the original computer code is known as program order, in the processor they are handled in data order (the order in which the data, operands, become available in the processor's registers). Fairly complex circuitry is needed to convert from one ordering to the other and maintain a logical ordering of the output; the processor itself appears to be running the instructions in random order.


title: Out-of-order execution

text: The benefit of OoO processing grows as the instruction pipeline expands and the speed difference between main memory (or cache memory) and the processor increases. On modern machines, the processor runs many times faster than the memory, so during the time an in-order processor spends waiting for data to arrive, it could have processed a large number of instructions.


title: Out-of-order execution

text: In the examples outlined above, the OoO processor avoids the stall that occurs in step (2) of the in-order processor when the instruction is not completely ready to be processed due to missing data.


title: Panhandle

text: A panhandle is a word used in geography. What people mean when they talk about panhandles is a narrow strip of land, that is surrounded on all sides except one, by one or more countries or regions. The strip of land is connected to the country or region it belongs to on one side only. This looks like the handle of a frying pan.


title: Going commando

text: People have many different reasons for going commando. Some people do it to feel comfortable. Other people do it because their culture (the group they grew up with) does not have underwear. ‘Going commando’ refers to wearing no underwear but still wearing clothes on your bottom half (trousers etc)


title: Countdown (game show)

text: Countdown is a British game show on Channel 4. It began on 2 November 1982. It is currently presented by Anne Robinson and Rachel Riley; etymologist Susie Dent is in the dictionary corner. It was hosted by Richard Whiteley until his death in 2005, then by Des Lynam from 2005 to 2006, and then by Des O'Connor from 2007 to 2008. Both O'Connor and Carol Vorderman, the show's co-host, who had been on the programme since it began, left the show in December 2008. From 2009, Jeff Stelling and Rachel Riley replaced O'Connor and Vorderman respectively. It has been hosted by Nick Hewer from 2012 to 2021, on 28 June 2021, Anne Robinson became the host. The show was 30 minutes long, but since 2001, it is 45 minutes long.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: With over 7,000 episodes, it is one of the longest-running game shows in the world, along with the original French version Des chiffres et des lettres which has been running on French television continuously since 1972.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: "Countdown" originated from the format of the French game show "Des chiffres et des lettres" ("Numbers and Letters"), created by Armand Jammot. After watching the programme, Belgian record executive Marcel Stellman brought the format to Britain on the belief it could be popular overseas, and proposed his concept for the British version to several networks. The concept was purchased in the early 1980s by Yorkshire Television, which commissioned a series of eight shows under the title "Calendar Countdown", aimed at being a spin-off of their regional news programme "Calendar" with the programme's host deemed the natural choice for the concept. The spin-off was aired only in the Yorkshire area, with Whiteley earning the nickname of "Twice Nightly Whiteley" because of his daily appearances on both programmes. He was assisted by Cathy Hytner and Denise McFarland-Cruickshanks, who handled the letters and numbers rounds respectively.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: By 1982, after an additional pilot episode was made with a refined format – an episode that was never broadcast - the gameshow was bought up by Channel 4, a new British television channel set to launch in November 1982, based on the refined concept. While Whiteley and Hytner from the original cast were retained, the programme was renamed "Countdown", with the format was expanded to include additional members in the hosting team, including letters and number experts. An additional spin-off to the programme for young contestants was proposed at the time, dubbed "Junior Countdown" – the concept would be similar in format, but with it hosted by Gyles Brandreth and Ted Moult – but while a pilot was created, the proposal was abandoned after it was found to be highly flawed. Instead, the production staff opted to allow contestants of differing ages, young and old, to participate on "Countdown".


title: Countdown (game show)

text: The game show and its first episode were the first to be broadcast when the channel launched, with Whiteley opening the programme with the line:


title: Countdown (game show)

text: Alongside the original cast from "Calendar Countdown", the new format of the gameshow led to production staff seeking out further hostesses through advertisement in national newspapers for young women to become a member of the programme's cast, with notable conditions about their involvement; in particular, those recruited for calculations found it made clear that as an applicant, their appearance would be less important than their skill as a mathematician. Amongst those recruited, Beverley Isherwood was hired to work alongside Hytner in handling the selection of number and letter tiles respectively, while Linda Barrett and Carol Vorderman were recruited for checking over calculations by contestants in the numbers round. In addition, a lexicographer was also required to form part of the format's "Dictionary Corner" segment of the game show, in order to verify words given by contestants in the letters round (see "Letters round rules"), along with pointing out any longer or otherwise interesting words available; such a role was aided by the show's producers, with no assistance from any computer program, and the role accompanied by a celebrity guest for a set period on the programme – contributing words and providing entertainment through anecdotes, puzzles, poems and stories. Amongst these who have appeared on the programme are Nigel Rees, Jo Brand, Martin Jarvis, Richard Digance, Geoffrey Durham, Ken Bruce, Magnus Magnusson, Pam Ayres, Paul Zenon, Jenny Eclair, Al Murray, John Sergeant and Gyles Brandreth.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: Over time, the additional hostesses on the programme were dropped by production staff, who retained Vorderman and assigned her primarily to handle the selection of letter and number tiles, as well as verifying contestant calculations. Thus her role was expanded to that of a co-presenter alongside Whiteley. The programme frequently rotated between various lexicographers, including Richard Samson and Alison Heard, for each series, until in 2004 the role was permanently given to Susie Dent, after her debut on "Countdown" in 1992.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: On 26 June 2005, Whiteley died after a failed heart operation. At the time, he had been slowly recovering from pneumonia earlier that year. This had prevented him recording further episodes. His death impacted the show, causing the episode for that day to be taken off the air by Channel 4 as a mark of respect, while the remaining episodes he had managed to complete were aired after his death, beginning with a tearful tribute from Vorderman. After the series' conclusion, "Countdown" was placed into hiatus on 1 July to determine how to proceed.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: In October 2005, Channel 4 announced that Des Lynam would take over as the main presenter, having previously participated in the celebrity edition ("Celebrity Countdown") in April 1998. Lynam's tenure ran until December 2006, whereupon his demanding filming schedule forced him to resign from the programme. His departure was due to the travel requirements that his 2007 schedule required of him; despite an effort by Channel 4 to deal with this by changing the filming location from Leeds to a site closer to his residence in Worthing, West Sussex, viewers reacted angrily to the idea, while Lynam decided it would cause considerable disruption for many of the programme's camera crew.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: In January 2007, Des O'Connor took over as the main presenter. During his tenure as host, Dent went on maternity leave over the winter of 2007–08, and Alison Heard temporarily replaced her on the programme until 6 February 2008. By July 2008, both O'Connor and Vorderman had announced that they would be leaving by the end of that year, after the end of the 59th series. While O'Connor was forced to leave in order to concentrate on other projects, Vorderman left after her offer to take a 33% salary decrease was rejected and production staff asked her to take a 90% pay cut; her agent stated that staff had told him that the show had survived without Whiteley and could "easily survive without you". Some media reports suggested that the new presenter would be either Rory Bremner, the early favourite, or Alexander Armstrong, but both ruled themselves out of the job. At the same time there was speculation that several prominent women, including Anthea Turner, Ulrika Jonsson and Myleene Klass, were strong candidates to take over Vorderman's job, but Channel 4 revealed that the role was to be assigned to a previously unknown male or female arithmetician with "charm and charisma".


title: Countdown (game show)

text: In November 2008, Jeff Stelling was confirmed as the new host, while Oxford maths graduate Rachel Riley was confirmed as Vorderman's replacement. Stelling remained with the programme until the end of 2011, when his football commitments with Sky Sports forced him to reluctantly leave "Countdown". Prior to his departure, "The Apprentice" star Nick Hewer was announced as his replacement, and he took over as the main presenter when his first episode aired on 9 January 2012. In 2020, during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, it was announced that Colin Murray, a frequent Dictionary Corner guest, would fill in for Hewer while he spent a period of time in isolation due to the UK's second lockdown.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: On 7 December 2020 Hewer announced that he would be stepping down as the host of "Countdown" at the end of series 83 in summer 2021. Hewer said it had been "privilege and a pleasure to take the helm of "Countdown"". It was then announced on 15 February 2021 that Anne Robinson would take over from Hewer at the start of series 84. Hewer's final show aired on 25 June 2021.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: The first intro after the beginning of Countdown in 1982 was a black background with the words Countdown in yellow.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: After this, it was blue until the late 80s/early 90s, COUNT DOWN with the background having letters and numbers (until the mid 90s), then a yellow triangle with Countdown in Red.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: From 1999, the clock appeared for the first time in the Countdown intro, the background was into a mash of pink and orange, and COUNTDOWN in white under the clock.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: This continued until 2001 when the current clock and letters 'Countdown' were introduced, until 2003, there were montages of the show in front of the tangerine set. And then in 2003, montages changed to those on the new pink and white striped set.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: After Whiteley died in 2005, the Lynam and O'Connor series had letters spitting out of the clock in the same colour form, eventually merging into 'Countdown'.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: With the introduction of Stelling in 2009, the background changed to blue and the letters continued to spit out of the clock. Merging into Countdown.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: In 2012, the background once again changed to dark blue and the intro would start with a globe of letters and numbers breaking, and then later merging into Countdown, just as it did since the early 2000s.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: "Countdown" quickly established cult status within British television – an image which it maintains today, despite the loss of key presenters. The programme's audience comprises mainly students, homemakers and pensioners, owing to the "teatime" broadcast slot and inclusive appeal of its format and presentation. "Countdown" has been one of Channel 4's most-watched programmes for over twenty years, but has never won a major television award. When Des Lynam became the new presenter after Whiteley's death in 2005, the show regularly drew an average 1.7 million viewers every day; this was around half a million more than in the last few years of Richard Whiteley presenting. The Series 54 final, on 26 May 2006, attracted 2.5 million viewers. 3–4 million viewers had watched the show daily in its previous 16:15 slot. The drop in viewing figures following the scheduling change, coupled with the show's perceived educational benefits, even caused Labour Member of Parliament (MP) Jonathan Shaw to table a motion in the UK Parliament, requesting that the show be returned to its later time. Minor scheduling changes have subsequently seen the show move from 15:15 to 15:30, 15:45, 15:25 and 15:10. As of 2018, it is broadcast at 14:10.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: On each episode, the prize for defeating the reigning champion is a teapot that is styled to resemble the 30-second time clock used in each round. Introduced in December 1998, the pot is custom-made and can only be obtained by winning a game on the programme. Defeated contestants receive an assortment of "Countdown"-themed merchandise as a parting gift.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: At first, the prize for the series winner was a leather-bound copy of the twenty-volume "Oxford English Dictionary", worth over £4,000. Since 2011, the prize consists of ordinary hardback twenty-one-volume dictionaries, a laptop computer and a lifetime subscription to Oxford Online (replaced by a MacBook pro laptop by series 68). David Acton, winner of Series 31, opted for a CD-ROM version of the dictionaries, not wanting to accept leather-bound books owing to his strict veganism, and he donated the monetary difference to charity.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: Since Series 54 in 2006, the series champion also receives the Richard Whiteley Memorial Trophy, in memory of the show's original presenter.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: Though the style and colour scheme of the set have changed many times (and the show itself moved to Manchester, after more than 25 years in Leeds), the clock has always provided the centrepiece and, like the clock music composed by Alan Hawkshaw, is an enduring and well-recognised feature of "Countdown". Executive producer John Meade once commissioned Hawkshaw to revise the music for extra intensity to introduce at the start of series 31 in January 1996; after hundreds of complaints from viewers, the old tune was reinstated after just 12 shows. The original clock featured until September 2013, when it was replaced.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: The first episode of "Countdown" was repeated on 1 October 2007 on More4 and also on 2 November 2007 on Channel 4; this was as part of "Channel 4 at 25", a season of programmes to celebrate its 25th birthday.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: On 2 November 2007, "Countdown" celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary and aired a special 'birthday episode'. The two players were 2006 winner Conor Travers and 2002 winner Chris Wills. However, for the rounds, VIP guests selected the letters and numbers. Guests included Gordon Brown, Amir Khan and Richard Attenborough. A statement from the French TV network France Télévisions was read out on air by Vorderman to commend Channel 4 on its success of "Countdown".


title: Countdown (game show)

text: On 26 March 2010, Queen Elizabeth II congratulated "Countdown" for amassing 5,000 episodes. On 5 September 2014, the programme received a Guinness World Record at the end of its 6,000th show for the longest-running television programme of its kind during the course of its 71st series.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: "Countdown" has occupied a tea-time broadcast slot since its inception, originally in a 30-minute format. Since 2001, an episode lasts around 45 minutes including advertising breaks. During the normal series, the winner of each game returns for the next day's show. A player who wins eight games is declared an "octochamp" and retires from the programme. At the end of the series, the eight best players (ranked first by number of wins, then by total score if required to break a tie) are invited back to compete in the series finals. They are seeded in a knockout tournament, with the first seed playing the eighth seed, the second playing the seventh, and so on. The winner of this knockout, which culminates in the Grand Final, becomes the series champion. Each series lasts around six months, with about 125 episodes.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: Approximately every four series, a Champion of Champions tournament takes place. For this, sixteen of the best players to have appeared since the previous Championship are invited back for another knockout tournament. The producer, former contestant Damian Eadie, decides which players to include, but typically the tournament includes the series winners and other noteworthy contestants. Series 33 was designated a "Supreme Championship", in which 56 of the best contestants from all the previous series returned for another knockout tournament. Series 10 champion Harvey Freeman was declared Supreme Champion after beating Allan Saldanha in the final. There are also occasional special episodes, in which past contestants return for themed matches. For example, David Acton and Kenneth Michie returned for a rematch of their Series 31 final, while brothers and former contestants Sanjay and Sandeep Mazumder played off against each other on 20 December 2004.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: Since the change to 45-minute episodes, the game has been split into three sections, separated by advertising breaks. The first section contains two letters rounds and a numbers round, the second has two letters rounds and a numbers round followed by the anecdote from the Dictionary Corner guest and then a further two letters rounds and a numbers round, while the last section has two letters rounds, Susie Dent's "Origins of Words" item, two further letters rounds, a numbers round and a final "Conundrum" puzzle. With the exception of the Conundrum, the contestants swap control after every round so that each of them has control for five letters rounds and two numbers rounds.


title: Countdown (game show)

text: At the end of the first two sections, Each presenter poses a "Teatime Teaser" for the viewers, giving a set of short words and a cryptic clue to a single word that can be anagrammed from them. The solution is revealed at the start of the next section. (Example: Given the words HAD SAIL and the clue "Flowers seen 7 times a week," the solution would be DAHLIAS, given the words GON GOLD and the clue "A greyhound at full stretch, perhaps," the solution would be LONGDOG, given the words NUDE LUMP and the clue "It helps you get into the swing of things," the solution would be PENDULUM, given the words WOECALLS and the clue "This is something for you to chew over," the solution would be COLESLAW, given the words ICYHINGE and the clue "It's the condition of good clean fun," the solution would be HYGIENIC, and given the words SAD MOODY and the clue "We'll all be sad and moody when this arrives," the solution would be DOOMSDAY.) When the Teatime Teaser was first introduced, the anagrams were seven letters long; they were later extended to eight, then to nine in late 2016 before returning to 8 in 2020.


title: Perennial stream

text: A perennial stream or perennial river is a stream or river (channel) which always flows in some parts all year round during years of normal rainfall. Perennial streams are different to intermittent streams; which normally stop flowing for weeks or months each year. They are also different to ephemeral streams that flow only for hours or days after rainfall. During unusually dry years a perennial stream may stop flowing. In a drought, they may not flow for months. The differences between perennial, intermittent, and ephemeral streams are not exact and can change if different measures are used by different groups.


title: Perennial stream

text: In dry weather it may not be possible to see the water flowing, or see any water at all. In streams with gravel, sandy or rock bottoms, the water may be flowing beneath or between the rocks. In biology, a stream is flowing if there is enough water to support aquatic life, including fish and gill-breathing amphibians, benthic insects, crustaceans, and mollusks. These can live in a shallow flow beneath rocks or logs. The flow may be so small that it can not be measured by stream flow measurement instruments.


title: Linus Torvalds

text: His parents named him after Linus Pauling. He studied at the University of Helsinki from 1988 to 1996. He became famous because of the success of his operating system, Linux. He started making this system as a student project in 1991. He based it on the popular UNIX operating system. Today, Linux has become the most popular free operating system.


title: Linus Torvalds

text: Linus is the leader of the Linux project, which has many members around the world. He is the one person who can make decisions about changes or future development on the operating system. He also made the version control system Git. He now lives with his family in the United States.


title: Linus Torvalds

text: Linus chose the penguin to be the logo of Linux. A picture of a penguin called Tux appears on many desktop computers that run Linux.


title: Gulf of Mexico

text: The Gulf of Mexico is an ocean basin or bay of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a marginal sea of North America. The United States of America, Mexico, and Cuba are the countries around it.


title: Gulf of Mexico

text: The Straits of Florida connect to the rest of the Atlantic Ocean, and the Yucatán Channel connects to the Caribbean Sea. Because of its narrow connection to the Atlantic Ocean, the Gulf has very small tides.


title: Gulf of Mexico

text: The size of the Gulf basin is about 1.6 million km2 (615,000 sq mi). Almost half of the basin is shallow continental-shelf waters. The climate is tropical, with heavy growth of plankton and sea grass.


title: Gulf of Mexico

text: Petroleum is found near the north and west coast of this gulf. Many hurricanes hit this area, for example, Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita hurt many of the oil wells in 2005 in the United States. There is also a big fishing industry in the gulf. The Gulf of Mexico is one of the most important offshore petroleum-production regions in the world, making one-sixth of the United States' total production.


title: Francis Drake

text: Vice Admiral Sir Francis Drake (1540 – 27 January 1596) was an English sea captain, privateer, navigator, slaver, and politician of the Elizabethan era. He was born in Tavistock and grew up in Kent, where he learned to be a sailor. Soon he was a shipmaster (captain). Queen Elizabeth I awarded Drake a knighthood in 1581, which he received on the Golden Hind in Deptford. He was second-in-command of the English fleet against the Spanish Armada in 1588. He also carried out the second circumnavigation of the world, from 1577 to 1580 during which he attacked towns of the Spanish Empire. He had always been a powerful enemy to the Spanish.


title: Francis Drake

text: His exploits were legendary. He was a hero to the English but a pirate to the Spaniards. King Philip II was reported to have offered a reward of 20,000 ducats, today worth about £4,000,000 (about US $6,500,000) for him to be killed.


title: Hebei

text: Hebei (Hanzi: 河北 ; pinyin: Héběi) is a province in China that wraps around the cities of Beijing and Tianjin, two of China's four "municipalities". The name Hebei means "North of the (Yellow) River" in Chinese. It was formed in 1928 after the central government dissolved Chihli province. The old name, Chihli or Zhili, which means "directly administered" referred to its status under the Qing dynasty. Hebei province borders Liaoning province on the northeast. On the north it borders Inner Mongolia. To the west it borders Shanxi province. It borders the provinces of Henan to the south and Shandong to the southwest. Shijiazhuang is the capital of the province.


title: Hebei

text: The abbreviated name of Hebei is Ji (冀), since there is another province that also has the syllable "He" (河) in it, Henan (河南). Due to Hebei completely surrounding Beijing and Tianjin, the municipalities of Beijing and Tianjin and the province of Hebei are often lumped together and called Jingjinji, with the "Jing" being Beijing, the "Jin" being Tianjin, and the "Ji" being the abbreviation of Hebei.


title: Eintracht Frankfurt

text: Eintracht Frankfurt is a German sports club from Frankfurt am Main, best known for the football section.


title: Eintracht Frankfurt

text: The club plays in the Bundesliga. They have won the German Championship once and German Cup (DFB-Pokal) 5 times (last time in 2018) and the UEFA Cup twice.


title: Eintracht Frankfurt

text: They were founded in 1899. The team colours are red, black and white. They play at Deutsche Bank Park (former Waldstadion). The current captain of the side is midfielder Sebastian Rode from Germany.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., (; November 11, 1922 – April 11, 2007) was an American writer. He influenced many other writers. He combined satire, black comedy, and science fiction in his writing. Some of his works include "Slaughterhouse-Five" (1969), "Cat's Cradle" (1963), and "Breakfast of Champions" (1973). He was known for his humanist beliefs and was honorary president of the American Humanist Association.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, United States. His parents were Kurt Vonnegut, Sr., and Edith Lieber. He was the youngest of three children. His ancestors had come to America from Germany in 1855. They were prosperous, originally as brewers and merchants. Both his father and his grandfather attended Massachusetts Institute of Technology and were architects in the Indianapolis firm of Vonnegut & Bohn. His great-grandfather was the founder of the Vonnegut Hardware Company, an Indianapolis institution.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: Vonnegut graduated from Shortridge High School in Indianapolis in May 1940. He went to Cornell University that autumn. He studied Chemistry, but he was Assistant Managing Editor and Associate Editor of the university newspaper called "The Cornell Daily Sun". He was a member of the Delta Upsilon Fraternity just like his father. Vonnegut joined the U.S. Army while he was at Cornell. The Army transferred him to the Carnegie Institute of Technology and the University of Tennessee to study Mechanical Engineering. On Mothers' Day in 1944, his mother committed suicide with sleeping pills.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: Kurt Vonnegut's experience as a soldier and prisoner of war (POW) had a deep and powerful effect on his writing. During the war, he was a soldier with a low rank. He was a private with the 423rd Infantry Regiment, 106th Infantry Division. Vonnegut was captured during the Battle of the Bulge on December 19, 1944. He was in prison in the German city of Dresden. He became a leader among the prisoners because he could speak German a little bit. But, he told German guards "...just what I was going to do to them when the Russians came…". The guards beat Vonnegut and stopped him from being a leader. He experienced the fire bombing of Dresden in February 1945 which destroyed most of the city.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: Vonnegut's group of American prisoners of war survived the attack. The Germans had kept them in an underground room for storing meat at a slaughterhouse. The Germans called the building "Schlachthof Fünf" (Slaughterhouse Five) and the Allied POWs used that name for their prison. Vonnegut said the result of the attack was complete destruction and death that nobody could understand. This experience gave him ideas for his famous novel, "Slaughterhouse-Five". His experience of death and destruction is a central theme in at least six of his other books. In "Slaughterhouse-Five" he described the city as looking like the surface of the moon after the bombing. He told about how the Germans making the prisoners work. They had to break into basements and bomb shelters to gather bodies. They had to bury these dead people all together in large holes while German people threw rocks at them and shouted curses. Vonnegut said later, "There were too many corpses to bury. So instead the Germans sent in troops with flamethrowers. All these civilians' remains were burned to ashes."


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: Vonnegut was freed by Red Army troops in May 1945 at the Saxony-Czechoslovakian border. The U. S. Army gave him a Purple Heart. But he said it was funny because he was not hurt badly at all. He wrote in "Timequake" that he was given the award for getting "frostbite".


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: After the war, Vonnegut became an anthropology graduate student at the University of Chicago. He also worked at the City News Bureau of Chicago. Vonnegut admitted that he was a not a good student. One professors said that some of the students were going to be professional anthropologists but he was not one of them. In the book "Bagombo Snuff Box", Vonnegut wrote that the university rejected his first thesis. It was about Cubist painters and the leaders of Native American uprisings. The university said it was "unprofessional."


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: He moved from Chicago to Schenectady, New York. He worked in public relations for General Electric. His brother Bernard worked in the research department at the same company. While in Schenectady, Vonnegut lived in a tiny village called Alplaus. Vonnegut rented an upstairs apartment across the street from the Alplaus Volunteer Fire Department. He was an active Volunteer Fire-Fighter for a few years. That apartment still has his desk in it. He wrote many of his short stories at that desk carved his name into the bottom of it. The University of Chicago later accepted his novel "Cat's Cradle" as his thesis because they said the story was anthropological. They gave him an M.A. degree in 1971.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: In the mid 1950s, Vonnegut worked for "Sports Illustrated" magazine for a very short time. He was asked to write about a racehorse that had jumped a fence and tried to run away. Vonnegut stared at the blank piece of paper on his typewriter all morning. Then, he typed, "The horse jumped over the fucking fence," and left. He was almost going to quit writing, but the University of Iowa Writers' Workshop asked him to teach. While he was there, "Cat's Cradle" became a best-seller, and he began "Slaughterhouse-Five". That book is now called one of the best American novels of the 20th century. It is on the 100 best lists of "Time" magazine and the Modern Library. In 1961, he published the famous short story Harrison Bergeron.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: Vonnegut moved to Barnstable, Massachusetts, a town on Cape Cod. He was the manager of the first Saab dealership in the U.S.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: After coming home from World War II, Kurt Vonnegut married Jane Marie Cox. They had loved each other since they were very young. He wrote about their early relationship in several of his short stories. The couple separated in 1970. He did not divorce Cox until 1979, but from 1970 Vonnegut lived with another woman, the photographer Jill Krementz. She became his second wife after Vonnegut divorced Cox.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: He raised seven children. Three were from his first marriage to Cox. He adopted one daughter named Lily with Krementz. Three were his sister Alice's children. Vonnegut adopted them after she died of cancer.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: Of Vonnegut's four adopted children, three are his nephews: James, Steven, and Kurt Adams. Vonnegut adopted them after a terrible week in 1958. During that week the children's father James Carmalt Adams was killed in a train crash and their mother died two days later. In his novel "Slapstick", Vonnegut told how Alice's husband had died two days before she did. Her family tried to keep her husband's death a secret. However, she found out when another patient gave her a newspaper one day before she died. The three boys had a younger brother named Peter Nice. He was a baby when their parents died. Peter went to live with their father's cousin in Birmingham, Alabama.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: On January 31, 2001, a fire destroyed the top story of Vonnegut's home. He had smoke inhalation and was in the hospital in critical condition for four days. He survived, but his personal papers were destroyed.


title: Kurt Vonnegut

text: Vonnegut smoked unfiltered Pall Mall cigarettes. He called this habit a "classy way to commit suicide".


title: Methanol

text: Methanol is the simplest alcohol: CHOH. It has similarities to ethanol (the alcohol humans drink), but it is toxic. The toxicity takes hours though, so antidotes can prevent the damage such as permanent blindness, death. It is used as fuel additive, solvent, and in the chemical industry. Methanol is sometimes called "wood alcohol" because it was formerly made from wood. Methanol is the simplest alcohol, and is a light, volatile, colorless, flammable liquid with a distinctive odor very similar to that of ethanol (drinking alcohol).