title: Lost (season 6)

text: The spirit of "Jacob" asks who among them would become Protector of the island, and "Jack" volunteers. At the waterfall cave, "Jack" drinks the water of immortality and returns to the group. "Jack" says they must meet with "Locke" and "Desmond" to settle the dispute and kill "Locke". The 2 groups meet on the hilltop, and just the 3 proceed toward the waterfall cave. There, "Desmond" descends on a rope into the cave, but pulls a rock from the bottom, which puts out the light of the power source. The island begins a series of earthquake tremors, to fall into the sea, with rocks tumbling into the water. "Locke" flees the area, now needing to get the sailboat to the other island: he has lost his immortality when the light source was put out. "Jack" chases him to the sea cliffs to stop him from leaving, and a long fight begins. "Locke" grabs a knife and stabs "Jack" in the side, then forces the knife up to "Jack's" neck. Before plunging the knife, a gunshot is heard: "Kate" as promised, has shot "Locke" (the Smoke Monster) in the back, and "Jack" pushes him off the sea cliff, to die on the rocks below.


title: Lost (season 6)

text: "Jack" tells them he must return to the island core, as he promised Jacob, to restore the light at the waterfall cave. He instructs "Kate" to leave with "Sawyer" to get "Claire" into the airplane on the other island. "Kate" in turmoil kisses "Jack" goodbye, fearing it will be the last time. "Kate" and "Sawyer" jump into the sea and swim to the sailboat at anchor.


title: Lost (season 6)

text: "Hurley" and "Ben" help "Jack" return to the waterfall cave. They lower "Jack" into the cave, where he revives and ties "Desmond" to the rope. "Jack" then puts the missing stone back into the floor, and restarts the light power source. When "Hurley" and "Ben" pull the rope, they find only "Desmond". They call below, but "Jack", overcome by the knife wound and rushing water, never answered, so they take "Desmond" away from the area. Some time later, Jack awakens, alone, outside the cave, as if lifted from the depth of the cave by an unseen force. Dazed, he wanders through the jungle, but he is losing strength. Just as with "Locke's" death, "Jack" also lost his immortality, and protection, at the first time the light source was put out. "Jack" falls to the ground, looking up to the blue sky. At that point, he sees "Kate's" plane flying far overhead, and then closes his eyes, for the last time.


title: Lost (season 6)

text: Meanwhile, in the "flash-sideways" view of events, everyone has returned on Oceanic Flight 815, and all have resumed their original lives:


title: Lost (season 6)

text: Soon after returning on Flight 815, "Desmond" has been tasked to ensure that bandmember "Charlie" stays sober to appear at a benefit concert for Charles Widmore. "Charlie" keeps talking about some imaginary, profound romance with a blonde girl, as if in some dream. Trying to rebel against "Desmond", he grabs the steering wheel, and the car goes into the harbor. Underwater, looking back inside the car to save "Charlie", he remembers seeing "" written on "Charlie's" hand, but not actually, then pulls him to the surface. They get rescued to the hospital, and Desmond asks, "Who is Penny?". Some memories come back, and Desmond begins to orchestrate a plan: at the school, he hits "John Locke" with his car, causing him to need surgery, led by "Jack Shephard" at the hospital. "Desmond" turns himself in to the police station for "Sawyer", who puts him in a jail cell near "Kate" and "Sayid".


title: Lost (season 6)

text: Meanwhile, "Hurley" has been hired to free "Kate", "Sayid" and "Desmond" by paying Officer "Ana Lucia" to detour the prison van to the harbor. They get in 2 cars, and make plans to attend the benefit concert. "Desmond" and "Kate" drive to the church, where "Desmond" meets the funeral van, to accept the casket of "Christian Shephard" ("Jack's" father) into the chapel. This same day, "John Locke" has a 2nd spinal surgery, by "Jack", and regains feeling in his legs. Coming to the hospital to visit "Sun-Hwa", the police officer "Sawyer (Ford)" meets "Juliet" at the snack machines, where they both suddenly remember their parallel life, 3 years together on the island.


title: Lost (season 6)

text: Now nighttime, "Hurley" drives "Sayid" to a backstreet, saying that he knows he is really a good guy: a fight breaks out in the alley, and a girl shouts, "Don't hurt my brother!" "Sayid", instinctively, jumps out to rescue her. When he sees her face, he remembers her: ""Shannon?"" Her stepbrother, "Boone" goes to the van and tells "Hurley", he is glad "Sayid" finally arrived because he was getting tired of staging the alley fight for them. "Desmond" attends the concert, where "Daniel Faraday's" mother talks to "Desmond" about the secret plan. While performing on stage, "Charlie" recognizes "Claire" in the audience, as the girl of his dreams, when she leaves to give birth to her son, assisted by "Kate" to get to the hospital.


title: Lost (season 6)

text: Finally, "Kate" has convinced "Jack" (only partially aware of his parallel memories) to drive to the church, intended for his father's funeral. There, he enters the chapel, and upon touching his father's casket, he too begins to remember "everything" from the Island, all of them, including his years spent with "Kate". However, upon opening the casket, he finds it empty: his father has assumed a spirit form, and reminds him that he, too, died on the island, in his other life, which was as real as the present day. They both enter the church, where all the former islanders have gathered: "Sun" with "Jin"; "Sawyer" with "Juliet"; "Sayid" with "Shannon"; "Rose" with "Bernard"; "Hurley" with "Libby" (etc.). Even "Desmond" and "Penny" are together there, remembering their parallel life and birth of their child. Everyone who recently landed with Oceanic Flight 815, now greet and hug each other as if old friends, remembering how, once, they all were "lost" but now they have found each other.


title: Vuvuzela

text: A vuvuzela is a blowing horn commonly used in soccer games in South Africa. They are also called lepatas or a stadium horn. To blow this horn, the lip and lung strength of the blower has to be strong to make a sound like a foghorn or an elephant.


title: Vuvuzela

text: The "vuvuzela" was originally made out of tin. It became very popular in South Africa in the 1990s. A fan of the Kaizer Chiefs FC named Freddie "Saddam" Maake says that he invented the vuvuzela. He got the idea from the aluminium 1965 bicycle horn, and after taking off the black rubber, he blew it. After that, he thought it was too short, and so he joined a pipe to make it longer. He has kept photos of himself in South African soccer games holding the aluminium vuvuzela. He says the instrument was not allowed to be used because it was thought of as a dangerous weapon. Because of this, he tried to find a plastic company that could make it safer.


title: Vuvuzela

text: In 2001, South Africa-based company Masincedane Sport began to sell the plastic version. Neil van Schalkwyk, the co-owner of Masincedane Sport, won the SAB KickStart Award in 2001.


title: Vuvuzela

text: Vuvuzelas have been said to be rooted in African history, but this is argued between many historians. South African people used to blow on a kudu horn to call villagers to a meeting. Also, there is a South African saying that "A baboon is killed by a lot of noise." Similar horns have been made for a long time by many people. A horn that looks identical to a vuvuzela is seen in Winslow Homer's woodcut "The Dinner Horn" from the 1870s.


title: Vuvuzela

text: In the 2010 World Cup, vuvuzelas were in the news all over the world because it was normal in South Africa for them to be blown at football matches. The world football governing body, FIFA, did not want to allow the use of vuvuzelas. This was because they were afraid that hooligans might use the instrument as a weapon and that businesses could put advertisements on vuvuzelas. However the South African Football Association (SAFA) said that vuvuzelas were important for South African games, and FIFA decided in July 2008 to let the instruments be used.


title: Vuvuzela

text: Some football players and audiences did not like the vuvuzelas. The Lee Dixon of the BBC Three said that the sounds were "quite irritating". The European broadcasters also complained to the FIFA that they could not hear the commentators because of the sound.


title: Vuvuzela

text: Vuvuzelas have also caused problems. With a Vuvuzela, high sound pressure levels can be reached. These are about 120 dB(A) at a distance of one metre, and about 191 db(A) next to the instrument. There have been moves to prohibit the use of vuvuzelas in certain public viewing areas, because they can damage hearing, and because their sound may be louder than that of emergency broadcasts. Demand for earplugs to protect from hearing loss during the World Cup was bigger than the available supply. Many pharmacies ran out of stock. Neil van Schalkwyk, manufacturer of the plastic vuvuzela, began selling earplugs to fans. After the World Cup 2010 vuvuzelas started to be banned in other countries. In Britain Tottenham Hotspur was the first football team to ban them in July 2010, and many other football teams have since followed. They were banned because of health and safety reasons, especially because it was said that people might not hear any safety announcements.


title: Kyoto

text: Kyoto is a major city in the Kansai region of Japan. Its population is 1.5 million people. The city of Kyoto is the capital city of the prefecture of Kyoto. Kyoto is one of the cultural, educational, and technology centers of Japan. In it are many universities including Kyoto University, the second oldest national university of Japan.


title: Kyoto

text: In 1868, the city was called "Saikyō" ("Western capital") in order to distinguish it from Edo (Tokyo) which was the "Eastern capital".


title: Kyoto

text: There are mountains around the city on the east, north, and west sides. Some people in Kyoto believe that these mountains make Kyoto's summer especially hot and humid, and Kyoto's winter very cold.


title: Kyoto

text: We can see many temples and shrines built in traditional Japanese architectural styles here. Some of those buildings are registered as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. On the other hand, since Kyoto was one of biggest and richest Japanese cities in the middle of the 19th century; the citizens were eager to import European style, and there are many European style buildings in the center of Kyoto for company offices and schools.


title: Kyoto

text: Kyoto is one of oldest cities in Japan. Many tourists from all over the world come to Kyoto. Japanese people often come to Kyoto in the spring to see the cherry blossoms, and in the autumn to see the leaves change color.


title: Kyoto

text: Traditional Kyoto food often uses vegetables. McDonald's signboards in Kyoto are brown to preserve the traditional surroundings.


title: Kyoto

text: The oldest novel in the world, Shikibu Murasaki's The Tale of Genji is set in Kyoto during the Heian Period.


title: Kyoto

text: Kyoto is famous for three festivals: Gion festival, Aoi festival in the summer, and Jidai festival in the autumn.


title: TCP/IP model

text: The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a model with four layers which is for both modelling current Internet architecture, as well as providing a set a rules that govern all forms of transmission over a network. DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense,created it in the 1970s. It evolved from ARPANET, which was an early wide area network and a predecessor of the Internet. The TCP/IP Model is sometimes called the "Internet Model" or less often the "DoD Model."


title: TCP/IP model

text: This model was being made at the same time as the OSI Model was created. The TCP/IP model is not the same as the OSI Model, however it was influenced by the model, which is why many names of the different layers are the same.


title: TCP/IP model

text: The TCP/IP model describes a set of general design guidelines and implementations of specific networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over a network. TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination. Protocols exist for a variety of different types of communication services between computers.


title: TCP/IP model

text: TCP/IP has four abstraction layers as defined in : link layer, IP layer, transport layer and application layer. People often compare this layer architecture with the seven-layer OSI Reference Model; using terms such as "Internet reference model". This is incorrect, however, because it is descriptive while the OSI Reference Model was intended to be prescriptive, hence being a reference model.


title: Ankara

text: Ankara is the capital city of the country of Turkey. It is in the center of Anatolia. Ankara is the second largest city after Istanbul. The city has a population of 4,319,167 (2005) (Province 5,153,000), and an elevation of 938 meters (3080 feet). It was formerly known as Engürü the city is also the capital of Ankara Province


title: Ankara

text: Ankara is a very modern city. Ankara was made the capital of Turkey in 1923. Ankara is known for its performing arts, home to the State Opera and Ballet, the Presidential Symphony Orchestra and several national theater companies. In Ankara there's a place called Anitkabir, which is a big hilltop mausoleum that was built to celebrate Kemal Atatürk who was the first president.


title: Ankara

text: Ankara is a city that has a lot of history. Ankara was invaded many times. In 546 BCE, Achaemenid Persians was in control of Ankara (approximated date). Ankara was then invaded by the Romans in 25 BCE. At the time, Ankara was controlled by Augustus. Ankara castle was captured by the Crusaders in 1101. Ankara castle was captured again by the Seljuks in 1227. Ankara was controlled again by the Ottomans in 1403. On October 13, 1923 Ankara became the capital of Turkey.


title: Tipi

text: A tipi (also called tepee or teepee) is a kind of tent. It is cone-shaped. They were made by Native Americans of the Great Plains who frequently moved from place to place, following buffalo or other animals Native Americans hunted.


title: Tipi

text: Tipis are made from long poles, and are covered with material. Long ago the material was animal skin or tree bark. Today, they are made from cloth.


title: Tipi

text: Tepees are no longer usually used for a full-time home, but they are still used for special occasions.


title: John Adams

text: John Adams, Jr. (October 30, 1735 – July 4, 1826) was the second president of the United States (1797–1801), and father of the sixth president, John Quincy Adams. He was also the first vice president of the United States (1789–1797).


title: John Adams

text: Adams was born in Braintree, Massachusetts. He was the son of Lt. Col. John Adams, Sr. (1691-1761) and Susanna Boylston (1708-1797), and he was the cousin of the philosopher and fellow Founding Father Samuel Adams. He went to Harvard College. He married Abigail Adams in 1764.


title: John Adams

text: Adams wanted the Thirteen Colonies to be free from Great Britain. However, Adams was fair and thought every person should be treated fairly. Even though he did not want British soldiers in Boston, he was the lawyer who defended the British soldiers who were involved in the Boston Massacre.


title: John Adams

text: Adams was a representative from Massachusetts during the Second Continental Congress. He helped Thomas Jefferson write the United States Declaration of Independence. During the American Revolutionary War, Adams helped make peace with Great Britain. He served in France, the Netherlands and England as an ambassador in the 1780s.


title: John Adams

text: Adams was the first vice president under George Washington. After Washington chose not to run again, Adams won the 1796 election. Adams is thought to have been the first president to belong to a political party, but like George Washington, he thought himself above any particular party. He ran for president on the Federalist ticket. He beat Thomas Jefferson of the Democratic-Republican Party. President candidates and vice president candidates did not run together like they do today. Since Jefferson got the second-highest number of votes, he became vice president.


title: John Adams

text: During his term, he resolved a conflict against France peacefully. He also passed the Alien and Sedition Acts which made it illegal to say bad things about the government. Many people did not like those acts because they felt it took away their freedom of speech. Adams was not re-elected president and lost to Thomas Jefferson. The Federalist Party was not as popular as it was when Adams was elected. One of his last acts as president was to make John Marshall the Chief Justice of the United States. This made sure that the Federalist Party would still be important.


title: John Adams

text: Of the first five U.S. presidents, Adams was the only one who did not own slaves. He was also the only one to be from New England.


title: John Adams

text: Adams died on July 4, 1826 of heart failure. This was the same day that Thomas Jefferson died, and was also exactly 50 years after the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776. At 90, John Adams was the longest lived president of the United States until Ronald Reagan surpassed him in October 2001. John Adams was also a longest lived Vice President of the United States until Levi P. Morton surpassed him in 1915 and later by John Nance Garner in 1959.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Roanoke Colony was a British colony in North America that disappeared mysteriously. It is called the "Lost Colony." It was on Roanoke Island in what is today Dare County, North Carolina, in the United States. It was started in 1585 by Sir Walter Raleigh. It disappeared sometime between 1587 and 1590. Today, nobody knows what happened to the people who were living there.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: On 25 March 1584, Queen Elizabeth gave Sir Walter Raleigh a charter to start a colony in North America. A "charter" is a document which gives permission from a monarch to the holder. Raleigh's charter said he could start a colony in a part of North America called "Virginia". It also said that if he did not start the colony, Raleigh would not be able to start any other colonies ever again.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth hoped that the colony would be rich. They wanted it to be a base for privateering. "Privateers" are pirates who work for the government to attack ships from other countries. The English privateers from the colony would attack the Spanish ships that were carrying treasure across the Atlantic Ocean to Spain.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Raleigh sent some ships to explore North America in 1584. On 27 April 1584, Phillip Amadas and Arthur Barlowe sailed to the Eastern coast of North America. They landed on Roanoke Island on 4 July 1584. On the island they met some of the Native American people living there. The tribes they met were the Secotans and the Croatans. Barlowe took two Croatans back to England with him. They were Manteo and the chief, Wanchese. Manteo and Wanchese told Raleigh about Roanoke Island and the politics of the local tribes. Raleigh decided to send more ships back to the Island to learn more. This new expedition (trip) was led by Sir Richard Grenville.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Grenville took five ships to Roanoke: the "Tiger", "Roebuck", "Red Lion", "Elizabeth", and "Dorothy". They left from Plymouth on 9 April 1585. There was a big storm that made the "Tiger" get separated from the other ships. The captains of the ships had a plan that if the ships got separated, they would all go to Puerto Rico to meet up again. The "Tiger" arrived at the "Baye of Muskito" (Guayanilla Bay) on 11 May 1585.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Grenville and the "Tiger" waited in Puerto Rico for the other ships. While they were waiting, Grenville built a fort called Fort Elizabeth. He also did some privateering from there against the Spanish. One of the other ships, the "Elizbeth", arrived in Puerto Rico right after Fort Elizabeth was built. Grenville soon got tired of waiting for the other ships. On 7 June 1585 he left Puerto Rico and abandoned the fort. Nobody knows what happened to the fort, or where exactly it was.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: The "Tiger" arrived at the Outer Banks on 26 June 1585. (The Outer Banks are islands on the coast of the Carolinas in North America. Roanoke Island is part of the Outer Banks.) The "Tiger" hit a shoal in Ocracoke Inlet. This damaged the ship and most of their food was ruined. They fixed the ship and met up with the "Roebuck" and the "Dorothy". The other ships had arrived at the islands a few weeks before. The "Red Lion" also arrived at the Outer Banks, but it dropped off its passengers and went to Newfoundland for privateering.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: The English explored some of the coast and the Native American settlements there. One of the villages they visited was called Aquascogoc. The English blamed the natives of Aquascogoc for stealing a silver cup. They destroyed the village and burned it to the ground as punishment. Aquascogoc was a village of the Croatan tribe.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Genville decided to leave some men to start a colony at the north end of Roanoke Island. He did this even though they did not have a lot of food and the Croatans were angry about Aquascogoc. Ralph Lane and 107 men were left on Roanoke Island. Grenville promised to return in April 1586 with more men and supplies. Lane and his men left for Roanoke on 17 August 1585. Lane built a small fort on Roanoke Island and explored some of the area. There are no pictures of the Roanoke fort. It was probably a lot like Fort Elizabeth on Guayanilla Bay, Puerto Rico.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Grenville did not return in April 1586. The Croatans were angry because the English had destroyed Aquascogoc, so they attacked the fort. The colonists were able to repel the attackers. (This means that the Croatan warriors didn't win the fight.) Soon after this attack, Sir Francis Drake stopped by the fort on his way back to England. The colonists agreed to go back to England with Drake. They brought with them tobacco, maize, and potatoes to Europe for the first time.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: A little while after Drake left with the colonists, Grenville's ships arrived at the fort. When they got there, the fort was abandoned. Grenville decided to take his men back to England. A small number of men stayed behind to run the fort.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Sir Walter Raleigh sent 150 people to start a colony in 1587. A man named John White was in charge of the colony. John White was an artist and a friend of Raleigh. He had gone to Roanoke with Barlowe and Grenville. Raleigh told them to start a colony on the Chesapeake Bay. On the way, they were going to stop at the Roanoke fort to pick up Grenville's men and take them to the new colony.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: White's ships landed at Roanoke on 22 July 1587. They did not find any of Grenville's men at the base of the old fort. All they found was one skeleton that might have been the body of one of the Englishmen. The commander of the fleet (group of ships), Simon Fernandez, would not let the colonists get back on the ships. He said they had to start the new colony on Roanoke Island. Nobody knows exactly why he did this.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: White tried to talk to the Croatans and make peace with them. The Croatans were the same tribes that Ralph Lane and his men had fought against the year before. The Croatans would not talk to White. They killed a colonist named George Howe. Howe was looking for crabs in the Albemarle Sound when he was killed.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: The colonists were scared. They asked Governor White to go back to England and get help. White agreed to go. He left behind 115 colonists at Roanoke. 114 colonists had come from England with White. The last colonist was Virginia Dare. Virginia was the first English child ever born in the Americas. She was also John White's granddaughter.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Governor White left the colony in late 1587. The ship barely made it back to England. It was very dangerous to cross the Atlantic Ocean in the winter. There were bad storms and lots of heavy wind. White wanted to return to Roanoke fast with help. The captain said he would not go back during the winter because it was too dangerous. At the same time, the Spanish Armada was sailing to attack England. All English ships were sent to fight the Spanish, so there were no ships for White to sail back to Roanoke.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: White found two small ships that were not being used to defend England against the Spanish Armada. He hired the ships to sail to Roanoke. They set sail in the spring of 1588. The captains of the ships were greedy. They tried to attack some Spanish ships to steal their cargo. ("Cargo" is things being carried by a ship. Cargo can be food, supplies, money, or treasure.) The Spanish ships fought White's ships and won. The Spanish took all of White's cargo. White's ships turned around and sailed back to England because they had nothing to take to the colony.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: England was at war with Spain. White could not find any ships to take to Roanoke because of the fighting. After three years, White found a group of privateers who said they would take him to Roanoke. He landed on Roanoke Island on 15 August 1590. The colony was empty. All 90 men, 17 women, and 11 children were gone. There were no signs of fighting. The people had just disappeared.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: The only thing White found was the word "CROATOAN" carved on a tree. The word "CRO" was carved on another tree. All of the houses and buildings had been taken apart. This means that the colonists did not leave in a hurry.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: White had told the colonists what to do if something bad happened to them. He told them to carve a Maltese Cross on a tree if someone made them leave the colony. The colonists didn't carve the cross on any of the trees. White thought that the colonists had gone to an island called Croatoan Island. (Today, Croatoan Island is called Hatteras Island.)


title: Roanoke Colony

text: The men who brought White to Roanoke did not let him search Croatoan Island. They wanted to leave because there was a big storm coming. They left on 16 August 1590 and went back to England.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: In 1602, Raleigh decided to find out what happened to his colony. He sent several ships to the colony. A man named Samuel Mace was in charge. Raleigh bought all of the ships and promised that the sailors would be paid. He did this so they would not go privateering on the way to Roanoke.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: The ships stopped at the Outer Banks to pick up some sassafras and other aromatic woods. These plants were used to make perfume in Europe. They could be sold in England for a lot of money. By the time they finished getting the sassafras, the weather had gotten bad. The ships turned around and went back to England. They never got to Roanoke Island. Raleigh could not send any more ships to Roanoke because King James I arrested him for treason.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: The Spanish also tried to go to Roanoke. They knew that Raleigh wanted to use the colony for privateering. They wanted to destroy the colony so he could not do that. The Spanish thought that the colony was a lot more successful than it really was. In 1590, the Spanish found the remains of Roanoke by accident. They didn't think it was the Roanoke Colony. They thought it was a small settlement outside of the main colony. They thought that Roanoke Colony was by the Chesapeake Bay. (That was where John White was supposed to set up the colony.) The Spanish could not get enough ships and people to look for the Roanoke colony because of the Anglo-Spanish War.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: The colony was called the "Lost Colony" because no one knows what happened after 1587. There are many ideas about what might have happened. There is no proof that any of these ideas are right. It is still a mystery today.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: One idea is that the colonists went to live with the Native American tribes. They may have joined the Chowanoke tribe. The Choanoke were attacked by another tribe. The Jamestown Colony's records say that a tribe called "Mandoag" attacked the Choanoke. (Jamestown was a colony in Virginia started 20 years after Roanoke.) The word "Mandoag" is from the Algonquian language. It means 'enemy nation.' The "Mandoag" might have been the Tuscarora people or the Eno people. The historian Lee Miller wrote about this idea in the book "Roanoke: solving the mystery of the lost colony" (2000).


title: Roanoke Colony

text: There is some proof for this idea. A 1607 map from Jamestown called the "Zuniga Map" had some writing on it.) The writing said "four men clothed that came from roonock" were living in an Iroquois village on the Neuse River. (The Tuscarora tribe spoke the Iroquois language.) Also, a secretary from Jamestown wrote about strange Native American villages. William Strachey wrote that there were two-story houses with stone walls in the villages of Peccarecanick and Ochanahoen. He thought that the Roanoke colonists taught the Native Americans build these kinds of buildings.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: In the late 1880s, there were Native Americans in Robeson County, North Carolina who said they were related to the Roanoke settlers. A politician from North Carolina named Hamilton McMillan learned about this claim. He found that a lot of the words in this Native American tribe's language were a lot like some old English words that are no longer used. Also a lot of the people in the tribe had family names that were the same as the names of the colonists'. McMillan thought that these Native Americans were the descendents of the Roanoke settlers. Because of this, he helped pass a bill called the "Croatan Bill" on February 10, 1885. This bill said that the Native American people in Robeson county were officially called "Croatan."


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Two days after the bill, there was an article written about the tribe. It was printed in the "Fayetteville Observer" on 12 February 1885. It said that "Croatoa" was just a village and the tribe called themselves the Tuscaroras. The article also said that the tribe was always friendly to the white people of Roanoke. When they saw that there was no help coming from England, the tribe let the colonists live in their villages. Over time, the tribe left their old villages and moved to live in the center of Robeson County.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Historians are not sure that this is really what happened. There are many different Native American tribes that have legends and stories about the Roanoke Colony. There is a legend that is a lot like the Robeson County tribe about the Saponi people of Person County, North Carolina. The Saponi are now extinct (today there are no living Saponi people). The legend says that the Saponi were descended from the English colonists. When settlers met the Saponi, they were surprised to find that they already spoke English and knew about Christianity. The Saponi also had European features. (Their faces were shaped like Europeans' faces.)


title: Roanoke Colony

text: A historian named David Beers Quinn thinks that the Roanoke colony moved to a new place and then was destroyed. In 1607, Captain John Smith started the Jamestown Colony in Virginia. One of his jobs was to find out what happened to the Roanoke Colony. Chief Powhatan told Smith that he had killed all of the Roanoke colonists. He said that they were living with the Chesepian tribe. The Chesepians would not join Chief Powhatan's Powhatan Confederacy. Also there was a prophecy that said the Chespians would destroy Powhatan's empire.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Because of this, the Powhatan Confederacy killed all the Chesepians. Chief Powhatan showed Captain Smith proof of this. He showed Smith some iron tools made in England. The bodies of the colonists were never found. Archaeologists do not have any evidence either.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: In 1998, there was a team of scientists studying the climate (weather) of the Roanoke area. The team took cores of some 800-year-old trees on Roanoke Island. They wanted to look at the tree rings to see the history of rain and temperature over the years.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: They found that the colonists had started Roanoke Colony in the middle of the worst drought in 800 years. (A "drought" is a period of time when there is very little rain.) "This drought persisted for 3 years, from 1587 to 1589, and is the driest 3-year episode in the entire 800-year reconstruction," the team wrote in the journal "Science". The drought happened in all of the southeastern United States. It was worst in the area near Roanoke Island.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: The people in charge of the team were David W. Stahle and Dennis B. Blaton. Stahle was a climatologist from the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville, Arkansas. Blaton was an archaeologist from The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Governor White left some ships at the colony when he left in 1587. They had a full-rigged pinnace and some small ships. One idea is that the colonists tried to sail back to England in these ships. It could be that the ships sank and the colonists died.


title: Roanoke Colony

text: Another idea is that the Spanish destroyed the colony. Earlier in the 1500s, the Spanish destroyed a French colony in South Carolina called Fort Charles. They also killed all of the people in a French colony in Florida. This is probably not what happened in Roanoke, because the Spanish were still looking for the colony in 1600.


title: Dick Van Dyke

text: Richard Wayne "Dick" Van Dyke (born December 13, 1925) is an American actor, comedian, dancer, producer, singer and writer with his career that has lasted 60 years. He is the older brother of Jerry Van Dyke and father of Barry Van Dyke.


title: Dick Van Dyke

text: Van Dyke starred in many movies; "Bye Bye Birdie", "Mary Poppins", "Chitty Chitty Bang Bang" and "Night at the Museum" and in television series "The Dick Van Dyke Show" and in "Diagnosis: Murder". He has a star in the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Van Dyke was once offered the role as Ambassador Thorn in the 1976 movie "The Omen", but turned it down because of the movie's violent gory content.


title: Dick Van Dyke

text: Van Dyke was born on December 13, 1925 in West Plains, Missouri. He was raised in Danville, Illinois. Van Dyke now lives in Malibu, California. During his early years, Van Dyke use to work as a weather man.


title: Dick Van Dyke

text: Van Dyke has been married to Margie Willett in 1948 until they divorced in 1984. He was married to Arlene Silver since 2012. Van Dyke had been partners with Michelle Triola from 1976 until her death from lung cancer in 2009. Van Dyke has 4 children and one grandson.


title: Dick Van Dyke

text: He has won a Grammy Award, a Tony Award, and an Emmy Award. He has been honored a Disney Legend Award in 1999. He was given The Life Achievement Award from the Screen Actors Guild in 2013.


title: Dick Van Dyke

text: Van Dyke was a heavy cigarette smoker for most of his life. He has been using Nicorette gum since 2003.


title: Dick Van Dyke

text: In April 2013, Van Dyke revealed that he has been displaying symptoms of a neurological disorder since 2006, but despite undergoing tests no diagnosis has been made. In 2013 the actor stated that his dental-related implants might be responsible.


title: Dick Van Dyke

text: On August 19, 2013, it was reported that Van Dyke, age 87, was rescued from inside his Jaguar by a passerby as the actor's car caught fire on a Los Angeles-area highway. He was not injured in the fire. The car burned down to its frame.


title: Beverly Hills, California

text: Beverly Hills is a city in the west of Los Angeles County, California, United States. Beverly Hills and the neighboring city of West Hollywood are surrounded by the city of Los Angeles.


title: Beverly Hills, California

text: Beverly Hills is bordered on the east by the city of West Hollywood, on the north by Bel-Air and the Santa Monica Mountains, the Carthay neighborhood of Los Angeles, and the Fairfax District of Los Angeles, and on the south by the Beverlywood.


title: Beverly Hills, California

text: The largest and most expensive homes in Los Angeles County and in the United States are in Beverly Hills. These homes range from really large and luxurious, to more common and modern homes, and then to smaller homes with less than , which is still quite large.


title: Beverly Hills, California

text: In 2007, Coldwell Banker lists Beverly Hills as having the most expensive houses. The houses in Beverly Hills cost a lot. They can cost over 2 million dollars. However the houses are large, spacious, and fancy and that is why a lot of celebrities live there, and also because it is close to Hollywood.


title: Janet Jackson

text: Janet Damita Jo Jackson (born May 16, 1966, in Gary, Indiana) is an American singer, dancer, actress, and songwriter. She is the younger sister of Michael Jackson and has had many popular songs such as "Nasty," "Rhythm Nation," and "That's the Way Love Goes." Jackson also plays Patricia in the 2007 movie "Why Did I Get Married?" She is one of the best-selling artists in the history of pop music, with over 160 million records sold worldwide. In 2011, "True You: A Journey to Finding and Loving Yourself", a book written by Jackson and David Ritz, was published. The book reached number five in "The New York Times"<nowiki>'</nowiki> Best Seller list.


title: Janet Jackson

text: Jackson was born to Katherine and Joe Jackson on May 16, 1966 at St Mary's Mercy Hospital in Gary, Indiana. She was raised as a Jehovah's Witness. She did not want to be an entertainer. She wanted to become a race-horse jockey. However her father planned for her to go into the show business. When Jackson was seven she went on stage in the Las Vegas Strip with her siblings in a routine show at the MGM Casino.


title: Janet Jackson

text: In September 1979, Jackson started acting in "A New Kind of Family". Her first album, "Janet Jackson", was released on September 21, 1982, by A&M Records.


title: Janet Jackson

text: Jackson had several hit singles worldwide. Among them are "What Have You Done for Me Lately", "Control", "Nasty", "Rhythm Nation", "Miss You Much", "Escapade", "Love Will Never Do (Without You)", and "That's the Way Love Goes".


title: Janet Jackson

text: Jackson won her first Grammy Award in 1987. On September 19, 1989 Jackson's fourth album "Janet Jackson's Rhythm Nation 1814" was released. Eight singles were released from the album. In 1993, Jackson was on the cover of "Rolling Stone" magazine. On May 31, 1995, "Scream", a song that Janet made with her older brother Michael Jackson, was released as the first single from Michael's album "". This song reached the top five on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Janet Jackson

text: Jackson released the album "The Velvet Rope" in 1998, it sold over 10 million copies. The album had provocative lyrics. The single "Together Again" became her eighth number-one song in the US, it sold over 6 million copies worldwide, making it one of the best selling singles of all time.


title: Janet Jackson

text: In 2000, she contributed to the movie "Nutty Professor II: The Klumps". A single from the soundtrack, "Doesn't Really Matter", became her ninth chart-topper.


title: Janet Jackson

text: In 2001, she released the album "All for You". A single, also called "All for You", reached number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100 for seven weeks, making it the longest reigning number one hit of the year. The next single, "Someone to Call My Lover", reached the top three.


title: Janet Jackson

text: Jackson released her album "Discipline" in 2008. The lead single, "Feedback", reached the top 20 in the US and Canada.


title: Janet Jackson

text: In June 2009, Jackson's brother Michael died. In September 2009, she performed "Scream" at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards as part of a tribute to Michael.


title: Janet Jackson

text: She released her first studio album in seven years, "Unbreakable", in 2015. It entered at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 album chart. Jackson canceled her ongoing Unbreakable World Tour because she announced that she was "planning her family" with her husband, Wissam Al Mana.


title: Janet Jackson

text: Jackson has been married three times. It was announced that Jackson was pregnant shortly before her 50th birthday in May 2016. She gave birth to her first child, a son, with current husband, billionaire Wissam Al Mana, in January 2017.


title: William McKinley

text: William McKinley Jr. (January 29, 1843 – September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, from 1897 until his assassination in 1901.


title: William McKinley

text: When the USS "Maine" was sunk, the public wanted war. Congress declared war against Spain in Latin America. This was the Spanish-American War. It started the era of imperialism for the United States.


title: William McKinley

text: During his presidency, McKinley also supported higher tariffs (taxes on countries which trade with the US). During his term, the United States annexed Hawaii, Cuba, the Philippines, and Wake Island.


title: William McKinley

text: McKinley was shot by an anarchist named Leon Czolgosz on September 6, 1901. His abdominal gunshot wounds became infected and resulted in gangrene. He died eight days later and Czolgosz said that the President committed war crimes in the Philippines and was an enemy of the people. Czolgosz was executed in the electric chair on October 29, 1901. McKinley was the third American president to be assassinated.


title: William McKinley

text: McKinley's biographer, H. Wayne Morgan remarks that McKinley died the most beloved president in history.


title: William McKinley

text: Kenneth F. Warren emphasizes the national commitment to a pro-business, industrial, and modernizing program, represented by McKinley.


title: Devon

text: Devon is a county in southwest England. Sometimes called by its historical name "Devonshire". Devon is the fourth largest county in England by area, and has the longest road network of any county in England.


title: Devon

text: After the last ice age, Devon was one of the first places in England where people started to live. Archaeologists have found many old places in Devon with ancient buildings. For example, many ruins of old buildings have been found in an area called "Dartmoor", which is now a National Park.


title: Devon

text: Devon gets its name from the "Dumnonii", a name that the invading Romans gave to the Celtic tribe in that area. The Romans invaded Devon about AD 50. The name "Dumnonii" means "a person who lives in a deep valley", and it comes from the hills and valleys of the area. The Roman army stayed in Devon for about 350 years. Their base was in the city of Exeter.


title: Devon

text: It was a long time before anyone else invaded Devon. Saxons came to Devon in the 7th century, and the King of Wessex may have attacked in 614. There was a conflict between Devon and Wessex for 200 years. Some historians think that Wessex won the war by about 715 but others think this did not happen until at least 936. Eventually Wessex took control, but the Kings of Devon still had some power.


title: Devon

text: A person living at the time called William of Malmesbury said that in Exeter both Britons and Saxons were equal in 927 but that King Athelstan of Wessex then chased the Britons from Exeter. From place names and church dedications it seems that the British did not go far and later came back into Exeter because an area in the city was called "Britayne" until recently.


title: Devon

text: A large number of Devon placenames include (or are) the word "combe" (e.g. Ilfracombe). This word comes from the Brythonic (Celtic) language and is like the Welsh word "cwm". Another typical Devon word is "tor" which is also Brythonic, and like the Welsh word "twr".


title: Devon

text: Both of these words are often found in neighbouring counties, but Devon has the greatest number. Overall Devon has a number of other placenames that are Brythonic and others that come from Old English, and a few that come from Norse. Devon's placenames are like those of western Somerset and eastern Cornwall which was also part of the old kingdom of "Dumnonia".


title: Devon

text: Starting in the 9th century, groups of Viking raiders tried to invade Devon. This continued until the Norman Conquest. The name of "Lundy Island" comes from the Viking language, which was called Norse. The Vikings are remembered for moving the cathedral from Crediton to Exeter.


title: Devon

text: There are many famous (well known) people from Devon, especially seamen. For example, Sir Francis Drake, Sir Richard Grenville and Sir Walter Raleigh all come from Devon. Many other famous people were also born in Devon: for example, the author Agatha Christie was born in the town of Torquay.


title: Devon

text: Devon has its own flag. It is linked to St Petroc, who is a local saint with links to Devon and nearby counties. The flag was chosen after winning a competition on the BBC Devon website in 2003.


title: Devon

text: Devon is less wealthy than many parts of England, for example the south east. This is because the traditional industries of Devon, for example fishing, mining and farming are declining. The European Union has given parts of Devon help (Objective 2). For example, grants of money have been given to help new industries grow. Tourism has become more important recently as a part of the economy of Devon.


title: Devon

text: An epidemic of Foot and Mouth disease in 2001 led to many farmers losing their cattle, so they lost a lot of money. Other industries also lost a lot of income because of this.


title: Devon

text: The main city of Devon is Plymouth. Exeter is where the county council is based. The county of Devon is split up into districts. Each district is run by a district council. Some things are the job of the county council and others are the job of the district council. There are also smaller town and parish councils inside the districts.


title: Devon

text: Plymouth and Torbay are not run by the county council, but have their own special councils. These councils do the jobs of both a county and a district council. These type of areas are called "unitary authorities".


The 2020 United States presidential election happened on November 3, 2020. Joe Biden, the Democratic candidate and former vice president of the United States, won the election. He defeated his Republican opponent Donald Trump, who was the 45th president of the United States at the time.


title: 2020 United States presidential election

text: Voters selected presidential electors who then voted on December 14, 2020 to either elect a new president and vice president or re-elect the incumbents. On November 7, Biden won the election and became the president-elect of the United States.


text: Donald Trump, the 45th president, started a campaign to be president for four more years in the Republican primaries. Several state Republican Party organizations cancelled their primaries in a show of support for his candidacy. He became the presumptive nominee in March 2020.


text: Twenty-seven major candidates started campaigns for the Democratic nomination. This was the largest number of candidates for any political party in modern-day American politics. In April 2020, former Vice President Joe Biden became the presumptive nominee after beating Senator Bernie Sanders. In August 2020, Biden picked U.S. Senator and former 2020 candidate Kamala Harris as his running mate.


text: Some issues of the election included the impact of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, which killed over 220,000 Americans at the time of the election, protests in reaction to the murder of George Floyd and other black Americans, the death of Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg and the nomination of Amy Coney Barrett, and the Affordable Care Act, with Biden wanting to protect and expand it and Trump pushing for ending it.


text: After the election, Donald Trump filed over 40 lawsuits against states and politicians trying to change the election results. The lawsuits said that the election was not fair. Almost all of the lawsuits failed in court because Trump could not prove what he said. In some states, the votes were counted again, which still showed that Biden won. After the electors voted for Biden on December 14, Trump tried other ways to overturn the election results. When the electoral votes were counted in Congress on January 6-7, some Republicans voted not to count votes from certain states.


text: The 2020 U.S. presidential election was the first time all members of the millennial generation were able to vote. The age group of people in the 18 to the 45-year-old area was 40 percent of those able to vote in 2020.


text: The United States House of Representatives voted to impeach President Donald Trump on December 18, 2019, making him the third president in American history to be impeached. He was acquitted by the United States Senate on February 5, 2020.


text: More people voted by mail in the United States, with 25% of voters nationwide mailing their ballots in 2016 and 2018. The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 means there has been an increase in mail voting because of the possible danger of large groups at polling places. For the 2020 election, a state-by-state analysis found that 76% of Americans are eligible to vote by mail in 2020, a record number. The analysis predicted that 80 million ballots could be cast by mail in 2020—more than double the number in 2016. The Postal Service sent a letter to multiple states in July 2020, warning that the service would not be able to meet the state's deadlines for requesting and casting last-minute absentee ballots.


text: President Trump was critical of voting by mail saying that it would make it easier for voter fraud to happen. Many people dropped their votes in voting boxes in their voting places instead of going to the polls.


text: On July 20, 2018, the Republican National Convention chose Charlotte, North Carolina as the site for their 2020 national convention. The convention was held between August 24 to 27. In June 2020, the convention location was moved to Jacksonville, Florida over COVID-19 health measures.


text: Though Jacob Hornberger won the most primaries and received the most votes, Jo Jorgensen was chosen as the party's presidential nominee on the night of May 23, 2020, after four rounds of voting.


text: On December 10, 2017, the Libertarian National Committee chose Austin, Texas as the site of their 2020 national convention. The convention was going to be held there between May 22–25, 2020. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, it was held through an online convention from May 22 to May 24.


text: The 2020 Green National Convention was held in Detroit, Michigan from July 9-12. Greenville, South Carolina and Spartanburg, South Carolina were also considered to host the convention.


text: Various independent candidate campaigns were on the ballot in several states, among the most notable of these are billionaire and child actor Brock Pierce and rapper Kanye West.


text: Three presidential debates and one vice presidential debate were scheduled. The second presidential debate was cancelled, because Trump was ill with COVID-19. The presidential candidates still debated in the third debate.


text: After the election, Trump, and many of his supporters, said that he only lost because of fraud or conspiracies. In early December, only a quarter of Republicans believed that Biden was the real winner of the election. Trump did not accept Biden's win until January 7.


text: Trump and his lawyers filed over 40 lawsuits after the election, in Arizona, Georgia, Michigan, Nevada, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Biden won each of these states by a small number of votes. Some lawsuits said that states should not allow more time to collect ballots in the mail, and some said that voters should not be allowed to put ballots in drop boxes. Other lawsuits said that election workers did not make sure all signatures were correct. Judges rejected most of the lawsuits because they did not have evidence. The Trump campaign only won one lawsuit.


text: Many of the lawsuits asked states to remove thousands of votes, and others asked for the states to ignore the results of the election. In December, the Attorney General of Texas filed a lawsuit (Texas v. Pennsylvania) against Pennsylvania, Michigan, Georgia, and Wisconsin, in front of the Supreme Court. It asked the court to stop these states from certifying their votes. Over 100 Republicans in the House of Representatives supported it. However, the Supreme Court rejected it and said Texas did not have standing.


text: After lawsuits failed, Trump said many times that the election was "rigged". From November to January, Trump and his lawyers made phone calls to many election officials, and told them that they should not certify the votes for Biden. In the calls, they said many things which were false. On January 2, Trump called the Georgia Secretary of State and told him that Georgia (where Biden was the winner) should find more votes for Trump, so Trump could win.


text: On January 6-7, members of Congress counted the votes of the Electoral College. Some Republican members of Congress signed objections to the votes (they thought the votes should not be counted) from Arizona and Pennsylvania. By the end, seven Republican senators and 138 Republican representatives voted not to count these votes. Half of senators and half of the representatives must vote to throw out electoral votes. Congress has never thrown out electoral votes.


text: While Congress was counting the votes on January 6, Far-right terrorists broke into the US Capitol building in protest. Members of Congress hid for hours until police forced the protestors to leave.


title: Indo-Iranian languages

text: The Indo-Iranian languages or Indo-Iranic languages are the largest group of the Indo-European language family. They include the Indo-Aryan (Indic) and Iranic (Iranian) languages. They are mostly spoken in the Indian subcontinent and the Iranian plateau. Originally, they were spoken in Central Asia, to the east and the north of the Caspian Sea.


title: Indo-Iranian languages

text: Sanskrit, the sacred language of the Hindus, is also an Indo-Aryan language. Today it is spoken by around 14,000 people, is an official language in the Indian state of Uttarakhand, and is one of the 22 official languages of India.


title: Indo-Iranian languages

text: There are about 86 Iranian languages, or "Iranic languages" as argued by some scholars, with between 150 and 200 million speakers.


title: Indo-Iranian languages

text: The Iranian languages also contain the extinct language Avestan, which is used in the Zoroastrian scriptures of Zoroastrianism. It is similar to Sanskrit but is not widely spoken today.


title: Indo-Iranian languages

text: Some scholars consider the Nuristani and Bangani languages as part of the Indo-Aryan subgroup, but some other scholars consider them as two separate subgroups of Indo-Iranian. The Badeshi language is also an unclassified Indo-Iranian language.


title: Sodomy

text: Sodomy is anal or oral sex. The word "sodomy" is derived from Sodom and Gomorrah in the "Book of Genesis". Some countries have passed laws making sodomy a crime. Some of these sodomy laws have been overturned in the western world. In some places, they are not routinely enforced.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop is a popular image changing software package. It is widely used by photographers for photo editing (fixing colors, reducing noise, adding effects, fixing brightness/contrast) and by graphic designers and Web designers to create and change images for web pages. The first version was introduced in 1990. Version Photoshop CC 2018 was launched on October 18 2017.


title: Adobe Photoshop

text: Photoshop works on computer systems like Windows and Mac. The software is made by the company Adobe Systems. A simpler version named Photoshop Elements is made for home users who do not want to buy the more powerful, more expensive full version. Photoshop Express, a free version, is even more limited. There are different pricing plans for the application.


title: Weight

text: The weight of an object (or the weight of an amount of matter) is the measure of the intensity of the force imposed on this object by the local gravitational field. Weight should not be confused with the related but quite different concept of mass. For small objects on Earth, the weight force is directed towards the center of the planet. For larger objects, such as the Moon orbiting around the Earth, the force is directed towards the center of mass of the combined system.


title: Weight

text: In common language, the weight of something is typically understood to be the value measured at or near the Earth's surface. Unfortunately the common terms used to describe the weight of an object are units of mass such as kilograms or pounds. For almost all of human history, weight has been measured on the surface of the Earth. Here, the weight is proportional to the mass. Objects which have the same mass have the same weight. An object with the twice the mass of another will also have twice the weight. As a consequence it is common practice to use the two words, mass and weight, as if they mean the same thing and to use kilograms and pounds as the units for both mass and weight. Using the same terms to describe and measure the two different properties has led to confusion between these two properties, mass and weight. Mass and weight are not the same thing.


title: Weight

text: The unit of weight in the International System of Units is the newton, which is represented by the symbol 'N'.


title: Weight

text: Other units have been in use in the past but have been abandoned, such as the dyne (the unit of force in the old CGS system) or the kilogram-force, which is the force exerted on a


title: Weight

text: kilogram of matter by a 'standard' Earth: a body with a mass of 1 kg has a weight of about 9.81 N at sea level.


title: Weight

text: The weight of an object, or of an amount of matter, is typically measured with an instrument such as a spring scale. The scale includes a spring which provides a force to oppose the gravitational force on the object which is being weighed. The gravitational force pulls down, the spring pushes or pulls upwards. Typically, the scale has a readout which gives not the weight (which is a force) but rather the mass of the object. Spring scales are made with the assumption that they are being used on the surface of the Earth. If a spring scale was taken to the Moon it would give a misleading reading.


title: Weight

text: A balance style weighing scale is a device that compares the weights of two object in the same gravitational field: it determines whether one object is heavier or lighter than the other.


title: Weight

text: Weight is not an intrinsic property of matter because the local gravitational field that generates the force called weight is variable in space and time:


title: Identical twins

text: Identical twins start out as genetically identical: they have the same alleles. They both share the same sack in the womb They are always of the same sex, and are monozygotic or MZ twins (mono = one; zygote = fertilised egg). This contrasts with "fraternal twins", who are formed by two separate eggs fertilised by two separate sperms, and who are not always the same sex (DZ = dizygotic). Both types of twin are carried in the same uterus at the same time, so their birth environment is the same.


title: Identical twins

text: Research shows that the frequency of monozygotic twinning is one in 240 births. Fraternal twins are twice as common. In vitro fertilization (IVF) techniques are more likely to create dizygotic twins. For IVF deliveries, there are nearly 21 pairs of twins for every 1,000.


title: Identical twins

text: Identical twins are natural clones. Because they start out with the same genes, they can be used to investigate how much heredity contributes to individual people. This is the nature vs nurture question.


title: Identical twins

text: Studies with twins have been quite interesting. If we make a list of characteristic traits, we find that they vary in how much they owe to heredity. For example:


title: Identical twins

text: The way the studies are done is like this. Take a group of identical twins and a group of fraternal twins, and a group of siblings from the population. Measure them for various traits. Do a statistical analysis (such as analysis of variance). This tells you to what extent the trait is inherited. You will find that all those traits which are partly inherited will be significantly more similar in identical twins.


title: Identical twins

text: Studies like this may be carried further, by comparing identical twins brought up together with identical twins brought up in different circumstances. That gives a handle on how much circumstances can alter the outcomes of genetically identical people.


title: Identical twins

text: Modern research has shown quite clearly that genetic inheritance does influence psychological aspects of life (how people behave), not just physical aspects.


title: Identical twins

text: The person who first did twin studies was Francis Galton, Darwin's half-cousin, who was a founder of statistics. His method was to trace twins through their life-history, making many kinds of measurement. Unfortunately, though he knew about mono and dizygotic twins, he did not appreciate the real genetic difference. Twin studies of the modern kind did not appear until the 1920s.


title: Identical twins

text: Wilhelm Weinberg made the first estimate of the rate of twinning. Realizing that identical twins would have to be the same sex, while non-identical twins could be either same or opposite sex, Weinberg derived a formula for estimating the frequency of MZ and DZ twins from the ratio of same and opposite sex twins to the total of maternities. Weinberg also estimated that the heritability of twinning itself was close to zero. That means the capacity to have twins is not hereditary.


title: Identical twins

text: Monozygotic twins are genetically "nearly identical" and they are always the same sex unless there has been a mutation during development. Monozygotic twins always have different phenotypes. Twins may express different sexual phenotypes, normally from an XXY Klinefelter's syndrome zygote splitting unevenly.


title: Identical twins

text: Although monozygotic twins are genetically almost identical, a 2012 study of 92 pairs of monozygotic twins found that monozygotic twins acquire hundreds of genetic differences early in fetal development. This is caused by mutations (or copy errors) taking place in the DNA of each twin after the splitting of the embryo. Another study in 2018 of 450 pairs of monozygotic twins showed that often (87%) the two twins varied in sexuality. the study also showed that if one twin married before 40, the other was also likely to marry before 40.


title: Identical twins

text: It is estimated that, on average, a set of monozygotic twins will have about 360 genetic differences that occurred early in fetal development.


title: Identical twins

text: Another cause of difference between monozygotic twins is epigenetic modification. These are caused by differing environmental influences throughout their lives, which affects which genes are switched on or off. A study of 80 pairs of monozygotic twins ranging in age from three to 74 showed that the youngest twins have relatively few epigenetic differences. The number of epigenetic differences increases with age. Fifty-year-old twins had over three times the epigenetic difference of three-year-old twins. Twins who had spent their lives apart (such as those adopted by two different sets of parents at birth) had the greatest difference. However, certain characteristics become more alike as twins age, such as IQ and personality. This phenomenon illustrates the influence of genetics in many aspects of human characteristics and behaviour.


title: Identical twins

text: Twinning is normal in many mammals, such as rats, cats, dogs. Identical twins are normal in a few species. The nine-banded armadillo, "Dasypus novemcinctus", gives birth to identical quadruplets.


title: Identical twins

text: Offspring produced by non-sexual methods, such as parthenogenesis, are identical unless crossing over takes place in the production of eggs.


title: Pink Floyd

text: Pink Floyd were an English rock band that became famous in the 1960s and 1970s. They performed for more than 30 years, and have sold more than 200 million (200,000,000) albums. They are famous for their live shows and deep music. Most of their albums are concept albums, which means every song is linked through a theme. Their first album was "The Piper at the Gates of Dawn", which was released in 1967. Their latest album is "The Endless River", which was released in November 2014. The band were named after the blues artists "Pink Anderson" and "Floyd Council" by Syd Barrett, one of the band's founder members. In 2005, they played at a concert called Live Aid after 24 years of not playing together. The line up was David Gilmour, Roger Waters, Nick Mason and Richard Wright. They have made some very popular albums including "The Dark Side of the Moon," which was released in 1973 and "The Wall," which was released in 1979. After Richard Wright died in 2008, David Gilmour has said that he does not want to reunite, despite Roger saying he might want to. It is now believed that David Gilmour and Roger Waters are friends after becoming enemies for a long time.


title: Pink Floyd

text: Syd Barrett started the group, and played guitar and sang in the band. He left soon after, at the start of 1968, because of a mental illness that was made worse by heavy drug use. The other people in the band were Roger Waters (bass guitar and vocals), David Gilmour (lead guitar and vocals), Richard Wright (keyboard and vocals), and Nick Mason (drums). David Gilmour joined the band in 1968. Roger Waters quit the band in 1985.


title: Pink Floyd

text: During most of their career, they played a kind of rock music that some people call "progressive rock".


title: Pink Floyd

text: The original members of Pink Floyd met in an architectural college. The band started as a blues band. Later, under Syd Barrett's leadership, they played music that was psychedelic in style. After Barrett left the band, they started to play longer and more complicated songs, and to play at a lot of colleges and universities. Soon, they were famous as studio musicians who loved to experiment with music. On the album "Atom Heart Mother", from 1970, they used a brass band and a choir.


title: Pink Floyd

text: They used a lot of things to make their concerts interesting to watch. They had a round movie screen on the stage. They would show videos on the screen when they played. They also used lighting and lasers in a much fancier way than many bands do. They also had big balloon puppets. The most famous is in the shape of a pig, which first appeared on the cover for their album, "Animals". The pig has since become a symbol of Pink Floyd. Another symbol that reminds people of Pink Floyd is a prism with light shining through it. This was on the cover of "Dark Side of the Moon", one of their most popular albums. The album was released in 1973, and stayed on music charts for a very long time. Millions of people bought it.


title: Pink Floyd

text: The album "The Wall", recorded in 1979, was also famous. It was made into a movie, directed by Alan Parker, in 1982. That album is important to the history of the group. It talks about the distance they put between them and their fans. It was the last album they all worked on together before starting to split up.


title: Pink Floyd

text: Roger Waters forced Richard Wright to leave the band in 1979, but Wright came back in 1987, after Waters quit. Waters tried to sue the other members so that they could not call themselves Pink Floyd without him, but he did not succeed. Because of this and other reasons, there was a lot of anger and bitterness between Waters and the other members of the band, especially Gilmour.


title: Pink Floyd

text: The last album of new songs that Pink Floyd released is called "The Division Bell". It was made in 1994, when Pink Floyd also played their last concert tour. The very last time that Pink Floyd played was in 2005, as part of the Live 8 concerts for charity. Waters sang with the band for the first time since leaving the band. It was a big surprise to many people who thought Pink Floyd would never play together again, especially not with Roger Waters.


title: Herschel Walker

text: Herschel Walker (born March 3, 1962) is an American retired football player, bobsledder, sprinter, and mixed martial artist. He played college football for the University of Georgia. He has been called one of the best college football players of all time. He was the Republican candidate for the United States Senate in Georgia for the 2022 election and was defeated in the runoff election by Raphael Warnock.


title: Herschel Walker

text: Walker was born in Augusta, Georgia. He studied at University of Georgia. He was married to Cindy DeAngelis Grossman from 1983 until their divorce in 2002. They have one son, Christian.


title: Herschel Walker

text: Walker began his professional football career with the New Jersey Generals of the United States Football League (USFL) in 1983. He later joined the Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League (NFL). In the NFL, he also played for the Minnesota Vikings, Philadelphia Eagles, and New York Giants. He retired from the NFL in 1997.


title: Herschel Walker

text: He was named Co-Chair of the President's Council on Sports, Fitness, and Nutrition after being appointed by President Donald Trump in 2020. He supported Trump's presidential campaigns in 2016 and 2020.


title: Herschel Walker

text: Walker ran for the Republican nomination for the United States Senate from Georgia in the 2022 election. Former President Trump supported his Senate campaign.


title: Number theory

text: Number theory is a part of mathematics. It explains what some types of numbers are, what properties they have, and ways that they can be useful.


title: Number theory

text: A well-known application of number theory is encrypted messaging (encryption). Data compression also makes use of the field.


title: Sutton Coldfield

text: Sutton Coldfield, officially the Royal Town of Sutton Coldfield, is a suburban town and civil parish located in the Borough of Birmingham in the county of the West Midlands, England. However, it used to be part of Warwickshire. It is about 7 miles (11 km) northeast of Birmingham city centre. The 2011 census revealed the parish has a population of 95,107 people.


title: Sutton Coldfield

text: It is a royal town because King Henry VIII granted it a Charter of Incorporation and named it a royal town in 1528 due to the influence of Bishop Vesey who was born in Sutton Coldfield. He became Henry VIII's chaplain and then became Bishop of Exeter.


title: Sutton Coldfield

text: Sutton Coldfield railway station is on the Cross-City Line. Passengers can get direct trains to Birmingham, Redditch and Bromsgrove.


title: Flag of the Republic of China

text: The flag of the Republic of China or Taiwan is a red flag with a navy blue canton bearing a white sun with 12 triangular rays. In Chinese, the flag is commonly described as Blue Sky, White Sun, and a Wholly Red Earth(青天白日滿地紅) to reflect its property.


title: Flag of the Republic of China

text: The flag was first used in mainland China as the Navy flag in 1912, and was made the official national flag of the Republic of China (ROC) in 1928 by the Kuomintang (KMT). The flag is no longer used in mainland China after the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949.


title: Biological species concept

text: The biological species concept gives an explanation of how species form (speciation). A biological species is a group of individuals that can breed together (panmixia). However, they cannot breed with other groups. In other words, the group is reproductively isolated from other groups.


title: Biological species concept

text: According to Ernst Mayr, a new species forms when an existing species splits. A similar idea had been suggested in the 19th century by Moritz Wagner. Dobzhansky described the role of reproductive isolation in the formation of new species. Once a species lives in two different areas, the geographical isolation makes breeding between the groups reduce or stop. Each group develops features which make breeding between them work less well. Eventually, each group becomes a 'good' biological species, because the two species do not reproduce with each other even when they are together.


title: Biological species concept

text: This is still considered the most common reason for species splitting, and has the technical name of allopatric speciation. It is contrasted with sympatric speciation where speciation takes place even though all the members live in the same area.


title: Biological species concept

text: The biological species is the main reason for classifying living things, but applying it in practice is not easy. Good examples of this are the following:


title: Biological species concept

text: What this is saying is that, in practice, the biological species concept is not sufficient by itself to decide on the classification of animals.


title: Biological species concept

text: In 1686 John Ray introduced a non-evolutionary biological concept. To him, species were distinguished by always producing the same species, and this was fixed and permanent, though considerable variation was possible within a species.


title: Biological species concept

text: The idea of a species as a physical type of organism had a long history. This survives as the concept of a type specimen in taxonomy. It was the way Linnaeus worked in his binomial classification, and is still useful for amateur naturalists today.


title: Biological species concept

text: In the "Origin", Charles Darwin said that species were labels which experts gave on the basis of their observations.


title: Biological species concept

text: But twenty years before, he had a much better idea. He thought of species as maintained by reproductive isolation. He even says "Hence species may be good ones and differ scarcely at all in any external character". Here he quotes the two sibling species of leaf warbler discovered in England by Gilbert White in 1768. At this early stage in his career, Darwin came very close to the modern biological species concept.


title: Biological species concept

text: The first is the population genetics concept. This is where a species is seen as a group which can mate together even though they are all to some extent different. It amounts to saying that a species is a gene pool.


title: Biological species concept

text: The second is the use of DNA sequence analysis to show whether similar-looking species are genetically different from each other. This is especially useful when it is not practical to do breeding experiments.


title: Biological species concept

text: Sibling species are often called cryptic (hidden) species because their differences can only be seen by analysing their DNA. They are very common in the marine environment.


title: Biological species concept

text: Many cryptic species exist in all habitats. In the marine bryozoan "Celleporella hyalina", DNA sequence analysis was used to show that more than ten ecologically distinct species that had been diverging for many millions of years.


title: Biological species concept

text: Evidence from the identification of cryptic species means that older estimates of global species richness are too low. For example, mitochondrial DNA research suggests there are at least 11 genetically distinct populations of giraffes. Similarly, the Amazonian frog "Eleutherodactylus ockendeni" is at least three different species which diverged over 5 million years ago.


title: Sun of May

text: The Sun of May ("el sol de mayo") is a national emblem of Argentina and Uruguay. It is a reference to the May revolution in Argentina, which led to that country's later independence from Spanish rule. In Uruguay it also refers to the May revolution. On 25 May 1810, the sun came out in Buenos Aires during a public gathering. This was seen as a good omen for the future success of the independence struggle.


title: Battle of Hastings

text: The Battle of Hastings (14 October 1066) was a pitched battle between the Anglo-Saxon English and an invading Norman army. The day-long battle ended in the death of the Anglo-Saxon king and a decisive victory for the Normans. William, the Duke of Normandy, was crowned as King William I of England 10 weeks later. The Norman conquest was a major turning point in England's history.


title: Battle of Hastings

text: In 1002 Ethelred King of England married Emma, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. The alliance formed by this marriage had far reaching effects. When King Canute came to the throne of England in 1016, he took Queen Emma of Normandy as his wife. Her two sons by her former marriage fled to Normandy for their own safety. Edward the Confessor the older son stayed in Normandy for many years at the court of the dukes. The last duke who protected him there was his cousin Duke William. Edward became king of England in 1042. in 1052 King Edward, who was childless, made William his heir. In 1065 Harold Godwinson was in Normandy. While he was there he promised Duke William he would support him as successor to the English throne.


title: Battle of Hastings

text: On 5 January 1066 Edward the king died. But Harold did not respect his oath to William. The next day, the day of the funeral, Harold Godwinson was crowned king of England. The story was that on his deathbed the king had changed his mind and promised Harold the throne. Harold was not royalty himself and had no legal claim on the throne. For weeks William must have known Edward was dying. But the news of the king's death and Harold's taking the throne must have been a surprise.


title: Battle of Hastings

text: When William heard the news that Harold had become king his reaction was swift. He called a meeting of his greatest men. William made plans to gather a large army from all over France. His influence and wealth meant he could mount a large campaign. His first task was to build a fleet of ships to carry his army across the English Channel. Then he started gathering an army. His friendship with Brittany, France, and Flanders meant he did not have to rely only on his own army. He hired and paid soldiers from many parts of Europe. William asked for and got the support of the pope who gave him a banner to carry into battle. At the same time Duke William was planning his invasion so too was Harald Hardrada. The king of England knew both would be coming but he kept his ships and forces in the south of England where William might land.


title: Battle of Hastings

text: William may have had as many as 1,000 ships in his invasion fleet. They had favorable winds to leave Normandy on the night of 27 September 1066. William's ship, the Mora, was a gift of his wife, Matilda. It led the fleet to the landing at Pevensey the next morning. As soon as he landed William got news of King Harold's victory over the Norwegian king at Stamford Bridge in the north of England. Harold also received news that William had landed at Pevensey and came south as quickly as he could. The king rested at London for a few days before taking his army to meet William and his French forces.


title: Battle of Hastings

text: King Harold's army took up a position on an east-west ridge north of Hastings. The ridge itself was called Senlac Hill. They found the Norman army marching up the valley in front of them. While Harold had more soldiers, they were tired from the from London. William formed his lines at the base of the hill facing the shield wall of the English. He sent his archers halfway up the slope to attack the English. He sent his mounted knights to the left and right to find any weak spots. At first William's knights tried to break through the shield wall with the weight of their horses. But they were attacking uphill and could not gain any speed. Harold's front line simply stood fast and was able to fend off any attacks. William's army began to fall back with rumors of Duke William's death. William removed his helmet so his men could see he was still alive. When William saw that many of Harold's men were following his knights back down the hill, he used a trick he had learned years before. He turned suddenly and charged the oncoming English foot soldiers, who had no chance against mounted knights.


title: Battle of Hastings

text: This tactic worked at least two more times during the battle and made Harold's shield wall weaker. Next William used something new. Where his attacks by knights and soldiers had been separate movements he now used them together. Where his archers had not succeeded against the shield wall he had them shoot high into the air so the arrows came down on top of the English. This may be where King Harold was killed by an arrow through his eye. The shield wall finally broke and the Normans were on top of them. By nightfall the English were either dead on the field or being hunted down by William's men. William called his men back and they spent the night camped on the battle field.


title: Battle of Hastings

text: The battle was won, but the English still had smaller armies which had not joined King Harold at Hastings. They had lost their king but were still trying to reorganize. William rested his army for five days before moving towards London. His line of march took him through several towns he either captured or destroyed. When William reached London the English resisted for a short time but in the end surrendered.


title: Battle of Hastings

text: The Battle of Hastings was a major turning point in English history. William's claim to the throne was strong, and he was able to back it up with force. On Christmas Day in 1066 William was crowned King of England.


title: Battle of Hastings

text: Some time later the battle was pictured on a series of panels called the Bayeux Tapestry. His victory at Hastings gave William the nickname he has been known by ever since: 'William the '.


title: Movie theater

text: A movie theater or movie theatre, is a place where movies are shown on a big screen. People or "patrons" (the audience) watch movies, usually in chairs inside an auditorium. The movie is projected with a movie projector onto a large projection screen at the front of the auditorium while the dialogue, sounds and music are played through a number of wall-mounted speakers. A movie theatre is sometimes called a cinema. A theatre with multiple screens commonly is called a "multi-plex" or "mega-plex" (if more than 10 screens). Movie theatres have comfortable chairs. There are different types of formats of a movie theatre.


title: Movie theater

text: The first movie theatre was opened to the public on April 23, 1896, in Koster and Bial's Music Hall on 34th Street in New York City. The oldest movie theatre in the world, which is still in action today is the "Kino Pionier" (opened 1907) in Szczecin, Poland. Movie theatres make money from not only movie tickets but from concessions which sell food and drinks (popcorn, candy, soft drinks, etc.). In recent years with the increase of movie rental costs, theatres have become more and more creative about how they make money. New theatres being built include restaurants, party rooms, conference rooms, arcades and more.


title: Mechanical engineering

text: Mechanical engineering is a branch of engineering that applies the principles of Mechanics and Materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It involves the production and usage of heat and mechanical power for the design, production, and operation of machines and tools. They can range from building a rocket ship down to things as small as an integrated circuit. It is one of the oldest and broadest engineering disciplines.


title: Erosion

text: Erosion is a process where natural forces like water, wind, ice, and gravity transport rocks and soil. It is a geological process, and part of the rock cycle. Erosion occurs at the Earth's surface, and has no effect on the Earth's mantle and core.


title: Erosion

text: Most of the energy that makes erosion happen is provided by the Sun. The Sun's energy causes the movement of water and ice in the water cycle and the movement of air to create wind.


title: Erosion

text: Erosion can cause problems that affect humans. Soil erosion, for example, can create problems for farmers. Soil erosion can remove soil, leaving a thin layer or rocky soil behind. Erosion can also cause problems for humans by removing rocks or soil that support buildings.


title: Erosion

text: Temperature changes cause pieces of rock to flake away from the surface. Also, the acid in rainwater dissolves rocks containing calcium carbonate. These processes are called weathering.


title: Erosion

text: Water erosion happens when water moves the pieces of rock or soil downhill. Waves also carry away small pieces of material. A wave can wash up onto the surface of rock or soil and then carry away pieces of material as it flows back into the ocean or lake.


title: Erosion

text: The size of earth materials that can be moved by water depends on how fast the water is moving. A fast-flowing stream can carry large rocks while a slow-moving stream might only be able to carry very small things like clay. Canyons are among the most obvious features made by erosion. Where a river meets the sea, it drops the solids, sometimes making a river delta.


title: Erosion

text: Large tropical rivers like the Paraná, Indus, Brahmaputra, Ganges, Zambezi, Mississippi and the Amazon carry huge amounts of sediment down to the sea. The Nile, perhaps the world's longest river, carries much less sediment than the others because, part of the way, it runs through less fertile regions than the other great rivers.


title: Erosion

text: The Amazon has by far the largest waterflow, with an average discharge greater than the next seven largest rivers combined. It has the largest drainage basin in the world, about . The Amazon accounts for about one-fifth of the world's total river flow.


title: Erosion

text: The sediment discharged by the gigantic mouth of the Amazon stains the sea brown for hundreds of miles out to sea.


title: Erosion

text: When a glacier moves downhill,it pushes & pulls rocks with it. There is also another way. Cold weather causes water inside tiny cracks in rocks to freeze. When it freezes, the ice gets larger,& pushes hard against the rock to break it.


title: Erosion

text: Wind erosion occurs when wind moves pieces of earth materials. Wind erosion is one of the weakest kinds of erosion. Small pieces of earth material can be rolled along the ground surface by wind. Very small pieces can be picked up and carried by the wind. Sometimes, wind can carry small pieces of earth materials over large distances. Some sediment from the Sahara Desert is carried across the Atlantic Ocean by wind.


title: Erosion

text: One of the most famous examples of wind erosion occurred in the Dust Bowl, when wind erosion severely damaged farming communities.


title: Erosion

text: Gravity erosion is the simplest kind of erosion. Gravity simply pulls loose earth materials downhill. Landslides are dramatic examples of gravity erosion.


title: Erosion

text: Tectonic effects on erosion has long been recognized. For example, rivers form as a result of tectonic uplift (as Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau). All of the Earth's mountain ranges were created by the upward movement of the land by changes beneath the Earth's surface. When the ground rises the whole weather system can also be changed including local sea levels, wind strength and direction, rainfall and more.


title: Erosion

text: The Earth's landscape is a product of two factors. Tectonics builds up height by surface and rock uplift, and climate controls the erosion. Erosion wears away upland areas over time. The interaction of these processes can form, modify, or destroy features of the Earth’s surface.


title: Crime and Punishment

text: Crime and Punishment is a novel by Russian author Fyodor Dostoevsky. It was the first great novel of his mature period.


title: Crime and Punishment

text: It was first published in the literary journal "The Russian Messenger" in 12 monthly series in 1866. It was later published in a single volume. It is the second of Dostoevsky's novels, written after he returned from his punishment (exile in Siberia).


title: Crime and Punishment

text: "Crime and Punishment" is about the troubles of Raskolnikov, a young man living in St. Petersburg. He used to be a student, but he became so poor he had to stop studying. He plans to kill a selfish old pawnbroker for her money, and he acts on his plan. Raskolnikov argues that with her money he can do good things, and that he was simply killing a person who was not worth anything. He also murdered her to test his idea that some people are naturally better than others and have the right to murder. Several times in the novel, Raskolnikov justifies himself by comparing himself to Napoleon, saying that murder is allowed for a higher purpose.


title: Crime and Punishment

text: However, after he kills the pawnbroker, questions which he cannot answer and feelings he had not expected terrify him. He feels separated from mankind, nature, and truth. Because of this, he decides at last to confess to the police and accept suffering.


title: Crime and Punishment

text: Dostoevsky began the idea of "Crime and Punishment" in the summer of 1865. This was after he had gambled away much of his money. Because of this, he could not pay his bills or eat properly. He owed large sums of money to creditors, and was also trying to help the family of his brother Mikhail. Mikhail had died in early 1864. He began writing it under the title "The Drunkards". He wanted to write about "the current problem of drunkenness". However, when Dostoevsky began writing about Raskolnikov's crime, the theme of crime and punishment became his main subject instead.


title: Crime and Punishment

text: Dostoevsky offered his story to the publisher Mikhail Katkov. At the time, he did not think of "Crime and Punishment" as a novel. Famous writers such as Ivan Turgenev and Leo Tolstoy often used Katkov's monthly journal, "The Russian Messenger", to print their writings. Dostoevsky, though, had argued with Katkov in the early 1860s, and had never printed anything in the journal. Finally, Dostoevsky asked Katkov for help when others would not print his book. In September 1865, Dostoevsky wrote a letter to Katkov. In the letter, he explained to him that "Crime and Punishment" was going to be about a young man who believes in "certain strange, 'unfinished' ideas, yes floating in the air". He also said that he wanted to study the moral and psychological dangers of "radical" ideas. In letters written in November 1865 an important change had happened: the "story" has become a "novel", From then on, Dostoevsky always spoke of "Crime and Punishment" as a novel.


title: Crime and Punishment

text: Dostoevsky had to write very quickly to finish both "The Gambler" and "Crime and Punishment". Anna Snitkina, a stenographer whom he later married, helped him very much. The first part of "Crime and Punishment" appeared in January 1866 in "The Russian Messenger". The last part was published in December 1866.


title: Crime and Punishment

text: When Dostoevsky's complete writings were published in the Soviet Union, the editors put together the notebooks that Dostoevsky kept while he was working on "Crime and Punishment" and printed it. They printed the notebooks in the same order as the book was written. Through their efforts, there is now a small part of how Dostoevsky first imagined "Crime and Punishment" to be written. There are also two other versions of the story. They are called the Wiesbaden edition, the Petersburg edition, and the final (last) plan. A part of a change in the story was that instead of the story being told by a character inside it, it was written as if many uninvolved people were writing it (this was a form of writing that Dostoevsky made up). The Wiesbaden edition is mostly about the reaction of the writer to his murder. It is quite similar to the story that Dostoevsky described in his letter to Katkov, and was written like a diary or journal. It had the same story as what later became part II.


title: Crime and Punishment

text: Raskolnikov is a mentally insecure student who has stopped going to university. He lives in a very small, rented room in Saint Petersburg. He does not let anyone help him, not even his friend Razumihin. He plans to kill and steal money from an old pawnbroker and moneylender, Alyona Ivanovna, but it is not clear why he wants to kill her yet. While he is thinking about this plan, Raskolnikov meets Semyon Zakharovich Marmeladov, a sad drunkard who recently spent all of his poor family's money on drinking. He also gets a letter from his mother. His mother says that she will soon visit St. Petersburg. She writes about his sister's sudden engagement, saying that they will talk about it when they arrive.


title: Crime and Punishment

text: After thinking, Raskolnikov goes to Alyona Ivanovna's apartment. There, he murders her with an axe. Her quiet half-sister, Lizaveta, comes inside. Surprised, Raskolnikov quickly kills her, too. Frightened by what he has done, he leaves most of Alyona Ivanovna's wealth behind, only stealing a few things and a small purse. He then runs away without being seen by anybody.


title: Crime and Punishment

text: After his murder, Raskolnikov is filled with worry. He hides the things he stole under a rock and tries to clean away the blood from his clothes. After a short visit to his friend Razumihin, he becomes sick with a fever and seems to wish to betray himself. Whenever anyone speaks of the murder of the pawnbroker, he acts strangely.


title: Takbir

text: Takbir is the name for the Arabic phrase Allahu Akbar which is a Muslim saying. The exact words in Arabic mean "God is greater", but people know that saying "God is great" in the right time and place means the same as ""God is Greater"." ""Allahu Akbar"" is the first part of the Adhan, which people hear 5 times a day where Muslim people live together. Saying "God is Great" tells people in a few words what Islam believes and teaches.


title: Takbir

text: This Arabic phrase was added to the Iraqi flag, in Saddam Hussein's handwriting, in 2001. Muslims say it before changing positions during their prayers. Allahu Akbar was the anthem of Libya during the rule of Muammar Gaddafi.


title: B. D. Jatti

text: Basappa Danappa Jatti (10 September 1913 – 7 June 2002) was an Indian politician. He was the fifth Vice President of India from 1974 to 1979. He was Acting President of India from 11 February to 25 July 1977. He was a member of the Indian National Congress. Jatti was born in Savalagi, Bombay Presidency, British India.


title: Sigma Team

text: Sigma Team is a Russian video game company. It was founded in the year 2003. The headquarters of the company is in Novosibirsk and its office will be in . Their first game, "Alien Shooter" was an arcade game with RPG elements.


title: Jamie Lee Curtis

text: Jamie Lee Curtis, Lady Haden-Guest (born November 22, 1958) is an American actress and author. Although at the beginning of her career she was known as “The one girl” because of her roles in many horror movies beginning in her first ever movie "Halloween" (1978) as Laurie Strode, Curtis has since worked in a lot of different movie genres. She has received an Grammy Award nomination and two Golden Globe Awards. Her 1998 book, "Today I Feel Gross, and Other Grammy That Make My Day", made the best-seller list in "The New York Times".


title: Jamie Lee Curtis

text: In late the 2010s, Curtis returned as Strode in the horror movie "Halloween" (2018) and in the upcoming sequels "Halloween Kills" (2020) and "Halloween Ends" (2021). She also played Linda Drysdale in the mystery comedy movie "Knives Out" (2019).


title: Jamie Lee Curtis

text: Curtis was born in Santa Monica, California. She is the daughter of actor Tony Curtis and actress Janet Leigh. Her paternal grandparents were Hungarian Jewish immigrants and two of her maternal great-grandparents were Danish. Curtis's parents divorced in 1962, after which her mother married Robert Brandt. Curtis has an older sister, Kelly Curtis, who is also an actress, and several half-siblings (all from her father's remarriages), Alexandra, Allegra, Ben, and Nicholas Curtis (who died in 1994 of a drug overdose). Curtis attended Westlake School (now Harvard-Westlake School) in Los Angeles and Beverly Hills High School, and graduated from Choate Rosemary Hall. Returning to California in 1976, she attended the University of the Pacific in Stockton, California. She considered majoring in social work, but quit after one semester to pursue an acting career.


title: Jamie Lee Curtis

text: She is married to actor Christopher Guest (Baron Haden-Guest) and, as the wife of a Baron, she has the title Baroness Haden-Guest and she could be called The Lady Haden-Guest, but she chooses not to use the title nor the style when in the United States.


title: Rhea (mythology)

text: Rhea () is one of the Titans in Greek mythology, daughter of Gaia and Ouranos. She was the sister and wife of Kronos, and the mother of the first generation of the Olympian gods (Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and Zeus). Known as the “Great Mother” ("Magna Mater"), Rhea had little influence in Greek cult, although she was identified with the Phrygian mother-goddess Cybele. Her Roman equivalent is Ops.