title: Hotlinking

text: The original image may be owned by the original website. It might be wrong to make a copy of the original image file for use on a different web page, without being careful to get proper permission.


title: Hotlinking

text: Hotlinking is known as the act of using another website's bandwidth by linking directly to their website's assets, such as images or videos. For example, say the owner of website A is hosting a particular image on their server. The owner of website B sees that image and decides they want it on their website as well. However, instead of downloading the image and hosting it on his own server, the owner of website B links directly to website A's domain. Therefore, instead of linking to the image via their own domain such as:


title: Hotlinking

text: As a website user you should always try to avoid hotlinking assets from other websites. Doing so helps ensure that the original owner of the asset won't incur unnecessary charges and that the asset that you link to won't be unaccessible given that the owner implements hotlink protection or removes the asset. The following are a couple of solutions for avoiding hotlinking.


title: Hotlinking

text: In both cases, ensure that you have the proper authority to use someone else's assets (e.g. the owner has given you permission or the asset is part of a creative commons license)


title: Hotlinking

text: The alternative method for protecting your website from hotlinking is by direct blocking specific domains that try to use your content. All you need to do is to make a complete list of websites that includes your competitors, suspect websites, hackers and suspicious websites that can use your website content, and directly block them one by one.


title: Hotlinking

text: This is one of the simplest and highly effective methods to prevent hotlinking. If you experience high traffic all of sudden on your traffic or find out multiple websites are hotlinking to particular content, then simply renaming or changing your content/image URL can do wonders in this situation.


title: Hotlinking

text: The last and final step you can take is to File DMCA protection against the website that is hotlinking your content on their website without your permission or license. This method can be very effective if the website owner refuses to remove the hotlinks to your content.


title: Maltipoo

text: The Maltese are believed to have originated from the small island of Malta, located south of Sicily, Italy. Over the centuries, these dogs were loved by royalty, and were considered part of the royal family. The popularity of the Maltese grew steadily and gradually over the years, and they were finally introduced to America in the late 1800s.animalatoz.com


title: Maltipoo

text: The Standard Poodle can be traced back to France in the 15th century. These curly-haired dogs were so popular during that time that they became known as the national breed of France. Although it took almost three centuries, poodles began to gain popularity in other countries such as Spain. During the following century, the standard poodle was bred to the size we now label toy and miniature poodles.


title: Maltipoo

text: Although it is known that the Maltipoo is a new poodle mix, it is not very easy to find the exact place or year that this mixed breed was created. No single person or organization took credit for the first puppy of this new mix.


title: Maltipoo

text: Maltipoos should be kept inside, they cannot be outside for too long. They should only be put outside to use the bathroom, play, or exercise.


title: Maltipoo

text: Maltipoos should be given a bath every 3 weeks to a month. Maltipoos sheds very little to none, making it a good pet for people with allergies.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Muhammad Ali Jinnah (25 December 1876 – 11 September 1948) was the founder of the country of Pakistan. After the partition of India, he became the Governor-General of Pakistan. As a mark of respect, Pakistanis call him "Quaid-e-Azam". bra


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: "Quaid-e-Azam" is a phrase which, in the Urdu language, means "the great leader". He is also called "Baba-e-Qaum", another phrase in the Urdu language which means "the father of the nation". The day of his birth is a national holiday in whole Pakistan called Pakistan day.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Muhammad Ali Jinnah was born on 25 December 1876 in Karachi into the Isma'ilism family of Poonja Jinnah. Jinnah. He was born in Karachi, City of Sindh. His father’s name was Jinnah Poonja (1857- 1901) and his mother’s name was Mithibai. Jinnah was the eldest of the seven children of Jinnah Poonja and Mithibai. His family had migrated to Sindh from the Kathiawar area of Gujarat, present-day India.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Jinnah’s birth name was Muhammad Ali Jinnah. He later changed it to the much simpler 'Muhammad Ali Jinnah' or M.A. At home, his family talked in Gujarati language, and the children also came to speak Kutchi and English. Except for Fatima, little is known of his siblings.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: In 1891 (when he was fifteen), Jinnah went to London and worked for a few years for a company. At around that time, his mother died.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: In 1894, Jinnah quit his job to study law. He joined the course at Lincoln's Inn and graduated in 1896. While still in London, he also started to participate in politics. He greatly admired Indian political leaders Dadabhai Naoroji and Sir Pherozeshah Mehta. Gradually Jinnah was developing his own political outlook. He was thinking on the line that India should have a constitutional self-government.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Around this time, his father lost his business. This put Jinnah under great difficulty. In the meantime, he had started to practice as a lawyer in Mumbai. He also built a house in Mumbai’s Malabar Hill area. The house is now known as Jinnah House.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: He became a successful lawyer. In 1908 he represented Bal Gangadhar Tilak, a famous leader of the Indian National Congress. Tilak was facing charges of sedition against the British Rule. Jinnah pleaded the case well, but Tilak was sent to prison.After that he lost hope


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Jinnah had already joined the Indian National Congress in 1906 when he started his politics. The Congress was the largest political organization in British India. Many members and leaders of the Indian National Congress favoured a limited self-government for the people of the Indian subcontinent. Jinnah also held the same view. At that time, his role model was Gopal Krishna Gokhale.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: On 25 January 1910, Jinnah became a member on the Seventy two-member Imperial Legislative Council. He was an active member of the council. Like many other leaders of British India, Jinnah also supported Great Britain during World War I. The leaders had supported the Great Britain thinking that after the war, Great Britain would grant the people of the subcontinent political freedom.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: At the beginning Jinnah had avoided joining the All India Muslim League, another political organization of British India. Muslims had formed the League in 1906. In 1913, Jinnah became a member of the Muslim League. In 1934, he became the president of the Muslim League. He helped in making an agreement between the Congress and the Muslim League (Lucknow Pact in 1916). The agreement tried to present a united front to the British for giving the people of the subcontinent self-government dominion status in the British Empire. This was similar to the dominion status which Canada, New Zealand and Australia had at that time.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: In 1918, Jinnah married again. His second wife was Rattanbai Petit. She was twenty-four years younger than him. She was the daughter of Jinnah’s personal friend Sir Dinshaw Petit was a Parsi but rattanbai embraced Islam before marrying Jinnah and changed her name to Maryam. The couple resided in Bombay (now Mumbai) and frequently travelled to Europe. In 1919, his wife bore a daughter who was named Dina.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: By 1918, Mohandas Gandhi had become one of the leaders of the Congress Party. Gandhi took a line of non-violent protest for gaining self-government for British India. Jinnah took a different line. He wanted constitutional struggle to gain the self-government for British India. Jinnah also opposed Gandhi’s support for the Khilafat movement. Gradually, many differences between them had arisen. In 1920, Jinnah left the Congress party. He became the president of the Muslim League. At this time, Jinnah brought out a program to reduce the differences between the Congress Party and the Muslim League. The program had fourteen points of action. Therefore, it became popularly known as Jinnah’s Fourteen Points. But the Congress party did not accept these.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: During these years Jinnah’s personal life had suffered. His focus upon politics had led to tensions in Jinnah's marriage. The couple separated in 1927 and after a serious illness Rattanbai died.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Around that time, there was a conference of British Indian leaders with the government of Great Britain. It was held in London and is known as the Round Table Conference. Jinnah criticized the policy of Gandhi. The conference failed. Jinnah was also not happy with the Muslim League. He decided to quit politics. He again started to work as a lawyer in England. During all these years, his sister Fatima Jinnah took care of Jinnah’s affairs, both at home and outside. She also became a close adviser to him. She helped him in raising Jinnah’s daughter, Dina Wadia. The daughter married Neville Wadia, a Parsi who had converted to Christianity. Jinnah did not like this marriage.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Many Muslim leaders of British India like Aga Khan III, Coudhary Rahmat Ali and Sir Muhammad Iqbal requested Jinnah to come back to the British Raj.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: The leaders of the Muslim League wanted him to take charge of the Muslim League. Jinnah agreed to come back to India. In 1934, he left London and returned to India to reorganize the Muslim league again. But he could not revive the stature of the party until after the elections of 1937 as the Muslim League won only a few seats. However, at this time, the League was helped by the powerful Premier of the Punjab, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan. In October 1937, he agreed with Jinnah's Muslim League joining his strong government. This was called the Jinnah-Sikandar Pact.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: His differences with the Congress Party continued to become bigger. In 1930, some Muslim leaders like Allama Iqbal had argued for a separate country for the Muslim people of India. At last he came to the conclusion that Hindus and Muslims cannot live in a single country. Jinnah also started to have the idea of a separate country for Muslims of India. Jinnah and the Muslim League started work to get such a separate country. They made a plan for this in 1940 called the Pakistan Resolution. This new country was to be named Pakistan.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: In 1941, Jinnah founded a newspaper, named the "Dawn". This newspaper published the views and political thinking of the Muslim League. During World War II, Jinnah supported the British, and opposed the Quit India movement of the Congress party. In 1944, Gandhi held 14 rounds of talks with Jinnah, but they could not come to any conclusion. By this time, the Muslim League had formed governments in some provinces, and had also entered the central government.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: The Muslim League under Jinnah’s leadership accepted both the plans. But, on 16 August 1946, Jinnah also announced the Direct Action to achieve independence for Pakistan, a separate country of Muslims of the former British Raj.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: The British Indian Empire was partitioned into two countries, namely, India and Pakistan. Jinnah became the first Governor-General of Pakistan, his sister Fatimah Jinnah became the "Mother of the Nation". He also became the president of Pakistan’s constituent assembly. In an address to the constituent assembly on 11 August 1947, Jinnah told about the future of Pakistan as a secular state. He told this in the following words:


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: "You may belong to any religion caste or creed - that has nothing to do with the business of the state. In due course of time, Hindus will cease to be Hindus and Muslims will cease to be Muslims, not in the religious sense, because that is the personal faith of each individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the state."


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Jinnah also took the direct charge of the government. After the partition, large scale violence between Muslims and the Hindus took place. Such violence was very serious in Punjab and Bengal. Jinnah toured the areas with Hindu leaders from British India to calm down the population. Many people died in the violence. The estimates of death vary from two hundred thousand deaths to over a million deaths. Jinnah was personally very sad at all these happenings.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Soon after the independence of India and Pakistan, armed conflict broke out in Kashmir. Kashmir’s king had agreed to become a part of India. but mostly Muslims of Kashmir did not like this. They started fighting in Kashmir. India had to send his troops to Kashmir, which had become a part of India. India raised the issue to the United Nations. The United Nations ordered the conflict to end and a Plebiscite. This problem still continues to have a bad effect on the India-Pakistan relationship.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Jinnah’s role in creation of Pakistan as a new nation was very important. This made him very popular among the people of Pakistan. In East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), people opposed Jinnah’s view that the language most commonly known as Urdu should be the sole national language.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Muhammad Ali had been suffering from tuberculosis since the early 1940s. Only his sister and very few other persons close to the family knew this. After the partition of India and creation of Pakistan, he had become the governor general of Pakistan. His work was increased, but his health was deteriorating. To regain his health, he spent many months at his official rest house. The rest house was located at a place named in Ziarat. Jinnah could not regain his health. He died on 11 September 1948 from tuberculosis.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: In recent years, some scholars have given some new views about Jinnah’s actions. Jinnah showed interest that some of the Hindu majority princely states should join Pakistan. These scholars argue that this view was against Jinnah’s declared view that Hindus and Muslims could not live together.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Some historians like H M Seervai and Ayesha Jalal say that Jinnah wanted a united South Asia. He demanded a separate state for Muslims as the Congress leaders were not willing to share power with the Muslim League.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Recently, Indian leaders belonging to the Bhartiya Janta Party, like Lal Krishna Advani and Jaswant Singh praised Jinnah. Jaswant Singh was expelled from the party because he had praised Jinnah in his book 'Jinnah- India, Partition and Independence'.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Nations and people have done many things in memory of Jinnah. In Pakistan he is called "Quaid-e-Azam". His pictures appear on many Pakistani banknotes and coins. Karachi’s international airport is named after him. In 1998 a new university in Karachi was named the Mohammad Ali Jinnah University. Another university in Islamabad is named after Quaid-e-Azam university.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Many other places and institutions bear his name in Pakistan and elsewhere. For example, in Turkey, a very large street is named after him. In Iran, one of the highways of its capital city Tehran bears his name and in Mumbai Jinnah Hall, a public hall is named after him.


title: Muhammad Ali Jinnah

text: Many books, movies and TV programs tell about the life and work of Jinnah, including the biographical movie, "Jinnah".


title: Oxygen

text: Oxygen is a chemical element. It has the symbol O and atomic number 8. It is the third most common element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium.


title: Oxygen

text: Oxygen is more than a fifth of the Earth's atmosphere by volume. In the air, two oxygen atoms usually join to make dioxygen (), a colourless gas. This gas is often just called oxygen. It has no taste or smell. It is pale blue when it is liquid or solid.


title: Oxygen

text: Oxygen is part of the chalcogen group on the periodic table. It is a very reactive nonmetal. It makes oxides and other compounds with many elements. The oxygen in these oxides and in other compounds (mostly silicate minerals, and calcium carbonate in limestone) makes up nearly half of the Earth's crust, by mass.


title: Oxygen

text: Most living things use oxygen in respiration. Many molecules in living things have oxygen in them, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and fats. Oxygen is a part of water, which all known life needs to live. Algae, cyanobacteria and plants make the Earth's oxygen gas by photosynthesis. They use the Sun's light to get hydrogen from water, giving off oxygen.


title: Oxygen

text: At the top of the Earth's atmosphere is ozone (), in the ozone layer. It absorbs ultraviolet radiation, which means less radiation reaches ground level.


title: Oxygen

text: Oxygen gas is used for making steel, plastics and textiles. It also has medical uses and is used for breathing when there is no good air (by divers and firefighters, for example), and for welding. Liquid oxygen and oxygen-rich compounds can be used as a rocket propellant.


title: Oxygen

text: Oxygen gas () was isolated by Michael Sendivogius before 1604. It is often thought that the gas was discovered in 1773 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, in Sweden, or in 1774 by Joseph Priestley, in England. Priestley is usually thought to be the main discoverer because his work was published first (although he called it "dephlogisticated air", and did not think it was a chemical element). Antoine Lavoisier gave the name "oxygène" to the gas in 1777. He was the first person to say it was a chemical element. He was also right about how it helps combustion work.


title: Oxygen

text: One of the first known experiments on how combustion needs air was carried out by Greek Philo of Byzantium in the 2nd century BC. He wrote in his work "Pneumatica" that turning a vessel upside down over a burning candle and putting water around this vessel meant that some water went into the vessel. Philo thought this was because the air was turned into the classical element fire. This is wrong. A long time after, Leonardo da Vinci worked out that some air was used up during combustion, and this forced water into the vessel.


title: Oxygen

text: In the late 17th century, Robert Boyle found that air is needed for combustion. English chemist John Mayow added to this by showing that fire only needed a part of air. We now call this oxygen (O). He found that a candle burning in a closed container made the water rise to replace a fourteenth of the air's volume before it went out. The same thing happened when a live mouse was put into the box. From this, he worked out that oxygen is used for both respiration and combustion.


title: Oxygen

text: Robert Hooke, Ole Borch, Mikhail Lomonosov and Pierre Bayen all made oxygen in experiments in the 17th and 18th centuries. None of them thought it was a chemical element. This was probably because of the idea of the "phlogiston theory". This was what most people believed caused combustion and corrosion.


title: Oxygen

text: J. J. Becher came up with the theory in 1667, and Georg Ernst Stahl added to it in 1731. The phlogiston theory stated that all combustible materials were made of two parts. One part, called phlogiston, was given off when the substance containing it was burned.


title: Oxygen

text: Materials that leave very little residue when they burn, like wood or coal, were thought to be made mostly of phlogiston. Things that corrode, like iron, were thought to contain very little. Air was not part of this theory.


title: Oxygen

text: Polish alchemist, philosopher and physician Michael Sendivogius wrote about something in air that he called the "food of life", and this meant what we now call oxygen. Sendivogius found, between 1598 and 1604, that the substance in air is the same as he got by heating potassium nitrate. Some people believe this was the discovery of oxygen while others disagree. Some say that oxygen was discovered by Swedish pharmacist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. He got oxygen in 1771 by heating mercuric oxide and some nitrates. Scheele called the gas "fire air", because it was the only gas known to allow combustion (gases were called "airs" at this time). He published his discovery in 1777.


title: Oxygen

text: On 1 August 1774, British clergyman Joseph Priestley focused sunlight on mercuric oxide in a glass tube. From this experiment he got a gas that he called "dephlogisticated air". He found that candles burned more brightly in the gas and a mouse lived longer while breathing it. After breathing the gas, Priestley said that it felt like normal air, but his lungs felt lighter and easy afterwards. His findings were published in 1775. It is because his findings were published first that he is often said to have discovered oxygen.


title: Oxygen

text: French chemist Antoine Lavoisier later said he had discovered the substance as well. Priestley visited him in 1774 and told him about his experiment. Scheele also sent a letter to Lavoisier in that year that spoke of his discovery.


title: Oxygen

text: Lavoisier did the first main experiments on oxidation. He was the first person to explain how combustion works. He used these and other experiments to prove the phlogiston theory wrong. He also tried to prove that the substance discovered by Priestley and Scheele was a chemical element.


title: Oxygen

text: In one experiment, Lavoisier found that there was no increase in weight when tin and air were heated in a closed container. He also found that air rushed in when the container was opened. After this, he found that the weight of the tin had increased by the same amount as the weight of the air that rushed in. He published his findings in 1777. He wrote that air was made up of two gases. One he called "vital air" (oxygen), which is needed for combustion and respiration. The other (nitrogen) he called "azote", which means "lifeless" in Greek. (This is still the name of nitrogen in some languages, including French.)


title: Oxygen

text: Lavoisier renamed "vital air" to "oxygène", from Greek words meaning "sour making" or "producer of acid". He called it this because he thought oxygen was in all acids, which is wrong. Later chemists realised that Lavoiser's name for the gas was wrong, but the name was too common by then to change.


title: Oxygen

text: John Dalton's theory of atoms said that all elements had one atom and atoms in compounds were usually alone. For example, he wrongly thought that water (HO) had the formula of just HO. In 1805, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac and Alexander von Humboldt showed that water is made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. By 1811, Amedeo Avogadro correctly worked out what water was made of based on Avogadro's law.


title: Oxygen

text: By the late 19th century, scientists found that air could be turned into a liquid and the compounds in it could be isolated by compressing and cooling it. Swiss chemist and physicist Raoul Pictet discovered liquid oxygen by evaporating sulfur dioxide to turn carbon dioxide into a liquid. This was then also evaporated to cool oxygen gas in order to turn it into a liquid. He sent a telegram to the French Academy of Sciences on 22 December 1877 telling them of his discovery.


title: Oxygen

text: At standard temperature and pressure, oxygen has no colour, odour or taste. It is a gas with the chemical formula called dioxygen.


title: Oxygen

text: As "dioxygen" (or just "oxygen gas"), two oxygen atoms are chemically bound to each other. This bond can be called many things, but simply called a covalent double bond. Oxygen gas is very reactive and can react with many other elements. Oxides are made when metal elements react with oxygen, such as iron oxide, which is known as rust. There are a lot of oxide compounds on Earth.


title: Oxygen

text: The common allotrope (type) of oxygen on Earth is called dioxygen (O). This is the second biggest part of the Earth's atmosphere, after dinitrogen (N). O has a bond length of 121 pm and a bond energy of 498 kJ/mol Because of its energy, O is used by complex life like animals.


title: Oxygen

text: Ozone (O) is very reactive and damages the lungs when breathed in. Ozone is made in the upper atmosphere when O combines with pure oxygen made when O is split by ultraviolet radiation. Ozone absorbs a lot of radiation in the UV part of the electromagnetic spectrum and so the ozone layer in the upper atmosphere protects Earth from radiation.


title: Oxygen

text: Tetraoxygen (O) was discovered in 2001. It only exists in extreme conditions when a lot of pressure is put onto O.


title: Oxygen

text: Oxygen dissolves more easily from air into water than nitrogen does. When there is the same amount of air and water, there is one molecule of O for every 2 molecules of N (a ratio of 1:2). This is different to air, where there is a 1:4 ratio of oxygen to nitrogen. It is also easier for O to dissolve in freshwater than in seawater. Oxygen condenses at 90.20 K (-182.95°C, -297.31 °F) and freezes at 54.36 K (-218.79 °C, -361.82 °F). Both liquid and solid O are see-through with a light-blue colour.


title: Oxygen

text: There are three stable isotopes of oxygen in nature. They are O, O, and O. About 99.7% of oxygen is the O isotope.


title: Oxygen

text: Oxygen is the third most common element in the universe, after hydrogen and helium. About 0.9% of the Sun's mass is oxygen.


title: Oxygen

text: to 49.2% of the Earth's crust as part of oxide compounds like silicon dioxide and other compounds like carbonates. It is also the main part of the Earth's oceans, making up 88.8% by mass. Oxygen gas is the second most common part of the atmosphere, making up 20.95% of its volume and 23.1% of its volume. Earth is strange compared to other planets, as a large amount of its atmosphere is oxygen gas. Mars has only 0.1% by volume, with the other planets having less than that.


title: Oxygen

text: The much higher amount of oxygen gas around Earth is caused by the oxygen cycle. Photosynthesis takes hydrogen from water using energy from sunlight. This gives off oxygen gas. Some of the hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide to make carbohydrates. Respiration then takes oxygen gas out of the atmosphere or water and turns it into carbon dioxide and water.


title: Oxygen

text: O is a very important part of respiration. Because of this, it is used in medicine. It is used to increase the amount of oxygen in a persons blood so more respiration can take place. This can make them become healthy quicker if they are ill. Oxygen therapy is used to treat emphysema, pneumonia, some heart problems, and any disease that makes it harder for a person to take in oxygen.


title: Oxygen

text: Low-pressure O is used in space suits, surrounding the body with the gas. Pure oxygen is used but at a much lower pressure. If the pressure were higher, it would be poisonous.


title: Oxygen

text: Smelting of iron ore into steel uses about 55% of oxygen made by humans. To do this, O gas is injected into the ore through a lance at high pressure. This removes any sulfur or carbon from the ore that would not be wanted. They are given off as sulfur oxide and carbon dioxide. The temperature can go as high as 1,700 °C because it is an exothermic reaction.


title: Oxygen

text: Around 25% of oxygen made by humans is used by chemists. Ethylene is reacted with O to make ethylene oxide. This is then changed to ethylene glycol, which is used to make many products such as antifreeze and polyester (these can then be turned into plastics and fabrics).


title: Oxygen

text: The other 20% of oxygen made by humans is used in medicine, metal cutting and welding, rocket fuel, and water treatment.


title: Oxygen

text: The oxidation state of oxygen is −2 in nearly every compound it is in. In a few compounds, the oxidation state is −1, such as peroxides. Compounds of oxygen with other oxygen states are very uncommon.


title: Oxygen

text: Water () is an oxide of hydrogen. It is the most common oxide on Earth. All known life needs water to live. Water is made of two hydrogen atoms covalent bonded to an oxygen atom (oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen). (this is the basic principle of covalent bonding)


title: Oxygen

text: There are also electrostatic forces (Van de'r Waals forces) between the hydrogen atoms and adjacent molecules' oxygen atoms. These pseudo-bonds bring the atoms around 15% closer to each other than most other simple liquids. This is because Water is a polar molecule (Net asymmetrical distribution of electrons) due to its bent shape, giving it an overall net field direction, mainly due to oxygens 2 non bonding pairs of electrons, pushing the bonding H's further together than the linear arrangement with lower enthalpy (see CO). This property is exploited by microwaves to oscillate polar molecules, especially water. And its responsible for the extra energy needed to disassociate H0.


title: Oxygen

text: Because of oxygen's high electronegativity, it makes chemical bonds with almost all other chemical elements. These bonds give oxides (for example iron reacts with oxygen to give iron oxide). Most metal's surfaces are turned into oxides when in air. Iron's surface will turn to rust (iron oxide) when in air for a long time. There are small amounts of carbon dioxide () in the air, and it is turned into carbohydrates during photosynthesis. Living things give it off during respiration.


title: Oxygen

text: Many organic compounds have oxygen in them. Some of the classes of organic compounds that have oxygen are alcohols, ethers, ketones, aldehydes, carboxylic acids, esters, and amides. Many organic solvents also have oxygen, such as acetone, methanol, and isopropanol. Oxygen is also found in nearly all biomolecules that are made by living things.


title: Oxygen

text: Oxygen also reacts quickly with many organic compounds at, or below, room temperature when autoxidation happens.


title: Oxygen

text: One hundred million tonnes of O are gotten from air for industrial uses every year. Industries use two main methods to make oxygen. The most common method is fractional distillation of liquefied air. N evaporates while O is left as a liquid. O is the second most important industrial gas.Because it is more economical , oxygen is usually stored and transported as a liquid. A small steel tank of 16 liters water capacity with a working pressure of 139 bar (2015 psi) holds about 2150 liters of gas and weighs 28 kilograms (62 lb) empty. 2150 liters of oxygen weighs about 3 kilograms (6.6 lb).


title: Oxygen

text: The other main method of making oxygen is by passing a stream of clean, dry air through a pair of zeolite molecular sieves. The zeolite molecular sieves soaks up the nitrogen. It gives a stream of gas that is 90% to 93% oxygen.


title: Oxygen

text: At high pressures, oxygen gas (O) can be dangerous to animals, including humans. It can cause convulsions and other health problems. Oxygen toxicity usually begins to occur at pressures more than 50 kilopascals (kPa), equal to about 50% oxygen in the air at standard pressure (air on Earth has around 20% oxygen).


title: Oxygen

text: Premature babies used to be placed in boxes with air with a high amount of O. This was stopped when some babies went blind from the oxygen.


title: Oxygen

text: Concentrated amounts of pure O can cause a quick fire. When concentrated oxygen and fuels are brought close together, a slight ignition can cause a huge fire. The Apollo 1 crew were all killed by a fire because the air of the capsule had a very high amount of oxygen.


title: Monaco

text: Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco (French: Principauté de Monaco), is the second smallest country in the world after the Vatican City; approximately 39,000 persons live there. It is near south-eastern France, on the Mediterranean Sea in Western Europe. French is the most common language spoken in Monaco. The Sovereign Prince of Monaco, who is the head of state, is Prince Albert II, whose family has ruled since 1297. The government and the prince share power. Tourism is the main industry. People in Monaco pay no income tax. Monaco is a city-state, because all its territory is urban and built-up. France, Genoa and Sardinia have ruled it at various times.


title: Monaco

text: Monte Carlo, famous for its casino, is in the north-east of the country. Monaco is famous for two car races: the Monte Carlo Rally and the Monaco Grand Prix.


title: Monaco

text: A sovereign and independent state, the Principality of Monaco has borders on its land-ward side with several communes of the French Department of the Alpes-Maritimes; from west to east these are Cap d’Ail, La Turbie, Beausoleil and Roquebrune Cap Martin. Seawards, Monaco faces the Mediterranean.


title: Monaco

text: The population of the Principality consists of 39,102 inhabitants (2019), 5,070 of whom are Monégasques, 12,047 French and 5,000 Italian (according to the last official census in 1990).


title: Monaco

text: Its surface area is 2.02 square kilometres, of which approximately 0.4 were recovered from the sea since 1980.


title: Monaco

text: It lies in a narrow coastal strip which sometimes rises straight upwards with its highest point at 163 metres. Its width varies between 1,050 metres and only 350 metres. Its coastline is 4,100 metre long.


title: Monaco

text: Monaco is made of four districts: Monaco-Ville (historic seat of the Principality, on the monolith where the Prince’s Palace stands), Monte-Carlo (the district surrounding its Casino), La Condamine (around Port Hercules), and Fontvielle (the new industrial area built on ground reclaimed from the sea, which constitutes 0.22 square kilometres).


title: Taiwan

text: Taiwan (Chinese: 臺灣 / 台灣), officially the Republic of China (ROC; Chinese: 中華民國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó), is considered a country in East Asia by some countries (including 13 countries and Vatican City/Holy), while other countries and the United Nations have not officially recognized its status as a country. Not to be confused with the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Republic of China (Taiwan) once governed all of China (from 1911 to 1949), but moved to the island of Taiwan after a Chinese civil war. In the years since, the PRC (People's Republic of China) has become the recognized government of China (replacing the ROC at the United Nations in 1971), and the status of the ROC has been left not said.


title: Taiwan

text: The country of Taiwan comprises the island of Taiwan with the nearby islands (Pescadores islands and parts of Fujian). Taiwan is located southeast of the People's Republic of China's mainland, south of Japan, and north of the Philippines. The capital is Taipei.


title: Taiwan

text: Most people living in Taiwan (called Taiwanese) are Han. Taiwan has three large Han groups. They speak different dialects (languages) of Chinese and their ancestors came from different places: the Southern Fujianese (from China's Fujian Province), the Hakka (from China), and Mainlanders (from Mainland China after 1948).


title: Taiwan

text: There are also Taiwanese Aborigines (native tribes called Taiwanese Aborigines) who have lived in Taiwan before the Han came to live there.


title: Taiwan

text: There are two Chinese governments: The People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC). Today, in reality, the PRC government controls mainland China, and the ROC government governs Taiwan. The ROC government governed most of China mainland from 1911 to 1949, before losing control of China mainland to the PRC. The ROC constitution still claims ownership of all of China.


title: Taiwan

text: The People's Republic of China has never ruled over the island of Taiwan, since the last time Taiwan and the mainland were united under one government was under the rule of the ROC.


title: Taiwan

text: Although Taiwan's status prevents it from participating in some international organizations, polls show that most Taiwanese prefer to keep things as they are (referred to as the status quo), rather than declare formal independence (and risk inviting an attack by communist China), or to be "reunified" with China.


title: Taiwan

text: Most countries of the world recognize the People's Republic of China as China. Although Taiwan is not recognized by the UN as a sovereign nation, most countries still have close economic and cultural relations with Taiwan. Countries often set up de facto embassies in Taiwan—officially non-government organizations—that perform the same functions as an embassy.


title: Taiwan

text: In 1992, the ROC and PRC agreed to a consensus that there was only "one China" but that both sides could continue to disagree on what that meant.


title: Taiwan

text: In March 2004, China's government passed a law called the Anti-Secession Law. The law requires the Chinese military to invade Taiwan immediately if they declare independence. Tsai Ing-wen, the elected President of Taiwan, says Taiwan is already an independent country and does not need to declare independence.


title: Taiwan

text: President of communist China, President Xi Jinping, has vowed "reunification" with Taiwan by any means, including through military force. Joe Biden, President of The United States, has said that the US will defend Taiwan from Chinese attack. Australia has said they would join the US, and Japan has indicated they may as well.


title: Taiwan

text: The island of Taiwan is about 180 kilometers off the southeastern coast of China. It is across the Taiwan Strait. It has an area of .


title: Taiwan

text: The East China Sea is to the north, the Philippine Sea to the east, the Luzon Strait directly to the south and the South China Sea to the southwest.


title: Taiwan

text: Taiwan's highest point is Yu Shan (Jade Mountain). It is 3,952 meters high (12,966 ft). There are five other peaks over 3,500 meters.


title: Taiwan

text: The Penghu Islands are west of the main island. They have an area of . More distant islands controlled by the Republic of China are the Kinmen, Wuchiu and Matsu Islands off the coast of Fujian. They have a total area of . The Pratas Islands and Taiping Island in the South China Sea have a total area of . They have no permanent inhabitants.


title: Trans woman

text: A trans woman (sometimes spelled as trans-woman or transwoman) is a male-to-female (MTF) transsexual or transgender person. Many people in this group like the name "trans woman" over the many medical terms that are out there. Other non-medical names are t-girl, tg-girl, and ts-girl. Transgender woman, though, is the more common name.


title: Trans woman

text: Some people who are assigned male at birth later identify as women. They feel that the gender they were assigned and the gender they actually are do not match. Some trans women want to simply be called "women" rather than being called a "trans" woman, but this does not apply to all trans women.


title: Trans woman

text: "Transitioning" refers to the act of changing a person's social and personal gender identity to the gender identity that they feel is their real self, and may or may not include having medical treatments done, or surgery, and the changing of their legal papers to show their new identity (such as their birth certificate) and changing the way that they dress.


title: Trans woman

text: Like trans men, trans women have many choices that they can make, depending on what culture they are in and what gender roles they, and the people who support them feel like they should have. No case is the same, and the options that are there for trans women depend very much on if they have easy access to medical care and money. Some trans women choose to have hair removed on their face, armpits and other parts of their body as well as train their voice so that it sounds more like a woman. There are surgeries that can make trans women's faces look more female, but may not always be necessary, as some trans women have faces that do not look very male. They are mainly to provide emotional benefits to patients so that they can see themselves changing or as a step in sexual reassignment surgery.


title: Trans woman

text: Some trans women who feel that their gender change is done, meaning that they have all the same physical characteristics of women who were assigned female at birth, want to just be called "women". They think that the names "transwoman" or "male-to-female" should only be used for people who have not finished their change. Some others do not feel that their gender ever changed and that they were always girls who were forced to live as boys. Because of this many see it as important to include a space in the name, as in "trans woman", using "trans" as a word to talk about a particular type of woman, not a "third gender" as "transwoman" might imply.


title: Trans woman

text: The story of the young boy who is very much like a young girl and grows up to live life as a woman has a very long history. It is commonly, but wrongly, thought that all transgender and transsexual women are straight (attracted to males). Many studies on this issue have been thought to be hurt by bias, since many transsexuals feel they must give the "right" answers to such questions to help their chances of being able to get hormone therapy. 35% of trans women are lesbians.


title: Trans woman

text: Studies have shown that trans women are likely to have less sex drive (34%) than those who are born female (23%), but the difference was small.


title: Trans woman

text: Some governing bodies for sports allow trans women to compete in female-only sports and some do not. Opponents believe that growing up with a male body (usually larger and stronger) gives trans women unfair advantages. Trans women have set women's records for sports that some biological women believe should not count. High school athletes who have routinely lost to trans athletes have sued to have trans competitors excluded as unfair competition for scholarships designated for women. The American Civil Liberties Union sides with the trans athletes.


title: Trans woman

text: Trans women convicted of crimes often believe they are not safe in men's prisons. Some women believe they are not safe in women's prisons if trans women are allowed there. Transition has been used as grounds for releasing prisoners for crimes committed as men.


title: Don Quixote

text: Don Quixote is a novel by Miguel de Cervantes. The book was published in two parts (1605 and 1615). It was first written in Spanish. Soon afterwards it was translated to English by Thomas Shelton. It is considered by many scholars to be the first modern novel. The main character, Don Quixote, is a paragon of chivalry, but in a deeply flawed and impractical way. Don Quixote is so influential as a character that the word "quixotic" is used to describe his type of behavior.


title: Don Quixote

text: The story is about Alonso Quixano, a rich middle-aged man. Quixano, having read many tales about chivalry and knights, goes crazy and believes that he is a knight named Don Quixote. He rides around the country with his squire, Sancho, having adventures. He believes his adventures are real, but everyone else laughs at him.


title: Don Quixote

text: One of the most famous stories in the book is Don Quixote's fight with windmills. He sees some windmills and thinks they are giants. When he rides to fight with them, he is knocked off his horse. Sancho tells him they are only windmills, but Don Quixote does not believe him. He is sure a magician changed windmills into the giants to hurt him.


title: Train

text: A train is a set of railway cars (also called vehicles) that are tied together with or without a locomotive. Trains are used to carry people, and also things like raw material, finished goods, cargo, and waste. The vehicles that carry freight are called "cars" (in the United States) or "wagons" (in the United Kingdom). The ones that carry passengers are often called coaches or carriages. A place where a train stops to let people get on and off is called a train station or railway station.


title: Train

text: Before steam trains there were "wagonways" where horses and people pulled cars over tracks made of stone and wood.


title: Train

text: A steam train made it's first journey on 21 February 1804 at the Penydarren Iron Works in Merthyr Tydfil, Wales, UK. The locomotive "Coalbrookdale" was built by "Richard Trevithick" helped by the owner of the ironworks Samual Homfray.


title: Train

text: The Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 showed how a train could be run. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830 was the first to run passenger trains and freight trains in the way that trains run on most railways today. The use of trains were then to go from country to country over the world, and it was more easy for people and things to get from one place to another place.


title: Train

text: Soon after 1830 nearly all trains were pulled by steam locomotives. The steam engine was be the main way to run trains until the 1960s when many countries stopped using them, for example the United States of America had 38,853 steam engines in 1945 but by 1961 that was only 110.


title: Train

text: As the internal combustion engine that used petroleum oil and diesel oil got better people tried to use those those, but they were not very successful at first. The year 1913 in Sweden was when the first successful in the world ran, and it was able to keep going until 1939. The 1920s saw diesel trains get better and by the 1930s diesel trains were going very fast, including the a German train going from Berlin to Hamburg at over and a train going from Denver to Chicago, without stopping at an end-to-end speed of .


title: Train

text: While the first small railway run by electricity was in 1835 it was about after the 1890s when more electric railways and trains started across the world.


title: Train

text: After World War 1 there improvements in road cars and buses and people began to use them more than trains. The same was true for how things were moved. From the 1950s the aeroplane became a better way for people to go to some places that were further away. Trains and railways had to get better to stop losing people and things to cars and aeroplanes but many have had to close.


title: Train

text: Freight trains have freight cars (US) or goods' wagons (UK) to carry goods from one place to another. Some are boxcars (closed and roofed cars for cargo); others are special so they can carry special cargo. There are hopper cars for sand, coal, ore and other granulous (sand-like) materials, flatbed cars for vehicles and machinery, tank cars for liquids, container cars for containers and even bottle cars for molten iron. Almost anything which is not too large to fit under tunnels and bridges can be transported on special freight cars.


title: Train

text: Passenger trains have passenger cars (US) or coaches (UK) made so people can ride them from one train station to another.


title: Train

text: Passenger trains are usually a very comfortable way of traveling. Many trains have electrical outlets and Wi-Fi hotspots for computers,


title: Train

text: Most passenger cars are single-deckers: there are also double-decker passenger cars, such as the Finnish Inter-City cars.


title: Train

text: The world's longest passenger train was long and had 100 cars. It was a special train that ran in October 2022 in Switzerland.


title: Train

text: To get to a city and to move around it trains may need to carry many people and they can get very busy. There are many names for this type of train including "rapid transit". The railway for these trains may go underground or be above the road. Trains which go along city roads are called "Trams". A new word for trams that also use tracks used by other trains outside the city is <nowiki></nowiki>tram-trains<nowiki></nowiki>.


title: Train

text: They may have a special car where you can eat. Sometimes there are also sleeping cars (passenger cars with beds) for long overnight voyages.


title: Train

text: High-speed rail uses special, fast passenger trains on special tracks. A few of the fast ones are maglev trains, using magnets to hover slightly off the tracks to have less friction.


title: Train

text: Most trains are pulled by locomotives. Before 1900, almost all were steam locomotives. As this kind of steam engine uses very much fuel for the work it does, steam began to give way to diesel locomotives and electric locomotives during the 1930s. Today, most locomotives are diesel-electric locomotives.


title: Train

text: Sometimes a train has no separate locomotive, but the prime mover (diesel engine or electric motor) is located on the first car of the train itself, and the car has engineer's cabin. The car is called a "motor unit". Some trains have motors in many or all of the cars. This is called a diesel multiple unit or electric multiple unit. Usually, both ends of the train have engineer's cabins. These trains are especially popular in commuter traffic in large towns and cities. Electric trains get their power from a third rail or from overhead wires.


title: Train

text: The fastest train in the world is a special type of train using maglev propulsion, and it can reach .


title: Train

text: The are many words used when talking about trains. Sometimes some people and some countries use these words in different ways than other people and other countries. This is a list of some of those that are often used:


title: Swimming

text: Swimming is the movement of the body through water using arms and legs. People can swim in the sea, swimming pools, rivers and lakes. People swim for exercise, for fun, and as a sport. There are several styles of swimming, known as "strokes", including: "front crawl", "breaststroke", "freestyle", "butterfly", and "backstroke".


title: Swimming

text: The goal of competitive swimming is to improve speed, and to beat other competitors in events. An athlete goes through several stages of training. At the beginning, the body is overloaded with work. The workload becomes less closer to the date of the competition. This final stage is often referred to as "shave and taper"; the swimmer tapering downs his or her workload to be able to perform at their optimal level. At the end of this stage, before competition, the swimmer shaves off all exposed hair and dead skin. Often confused within shaving, swimmers shave to rid the skin of dead skin cells to expose sensitive skin to the water. The effect of shaving is a decrease in drag from hair and an increase in the sensation of "feeling" the water.


title: Chicken

text: Chicken ("Gallus gallus domesticus") is a term which refers to a species of poultry. It is raised in many places for its meat and eggs. They are usually kept by humans as livestock. Some breeds of chickens can fly for a short distance. Some sleep in trees (if there are trees around).


title: Chicken

text: A male chicken is called a rooster or a cock(erel). Roosters do not have penises. A female chicken is called a hen; a young chicken is called a chick. Like other female birds, hens lay eggs. The eggs hatch into chicks.


title: Chicken

text: When raising chickens, a farmer needs a chicken coop (like a little house) for the chickens to roost (sleep) in. They also need a run or yard where they can exercise, take dust baths, eat and drink. The chickens also need to be protected from predators such as foxes. Fences are often used for this.


title: Chicken

text: Chickens are well known for their eggs. Many people eat them for their breakfast. The eggs can be prepared in many different ways.


title: Chicken

text: Because of their low cost, chicken meat (also called "chicken") is one of the most used kinds of meat in the world. Americans eat 8 billion chickens every year. Some popular dishes with chicken are: Buffalo wings, butter chicken, chicken rice, chicken balls, chicken pot pie, chicken soup, fried chicken (see picture), roasted chicken and tandoori chicken.


title: Chicken

text: There are different cuts of chicken. Chicken meat can also be bought whole. The leanest part is known as the breast. Sliced pieces of the breast are known as the tender(loin). There are also wings, thighs, and legs (also known as drumsticks).


title: Chicken

text: Chickenpox has nothing to do with chickens. When chickenpox was first described, people thought that the pox spots looked like chickpeas placed upon the skin. The Latin word for chickpeas is "grana". That is the original word that chickenpox got its name from.


title: Chicken

text: In some parts of the world people breed chickens to fight. They bet money on which of two birds will win. In many places this is illegal.


title: The Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time

text: The Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time is a list published in 1990 by the Crime Writers' Association (CWA).


title: The Top 100 Crime Novels of All Time

text: Five years later, the Mystery Writers of America (MWA) published a similar list named The Top 100 Mystery Novels of All Time. Many titles can be found in both lists.


title: Psi (letter)

text: Psi (uppercase/lowercase Ψ ψ) is the 23rd letter of the Greek alphabet. It is used to represent the "ps" sound in Ancient and Modern Greek. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 700. Letters that came from it include Cyrillic Ѱ.


title: Psi (letter)

text: In mathematics, the uppercase formula_1 is used as a variable for sets of sentences (in logic), and the lowercase formula_2 is used to represent the sum of reciprocals of Fibonacci numbers. Other applications include the polygamma function, the gamma function and the super golden ratio.


title: Kalyana Vaibhogam (TV series)

text: Kalyana Vaibhogam is an Indian Telugu-Language drama television series. It starred Meghana Lokesh and Sunny. Kalyana Vaibhogam broadcasted on Zee Telugu and now available on digital platform ZEE5 before TV telecast. The series premiered on 1 May 2017.


title: Kalyana Vaibhogam (TV series)

text: The series tells the story of Manga Thayaru (Meghana Lokesh) and Nithya Srinivas (Meghana Lokesh) They are look alike with opposite behaviors. Manga's challenges in the Suryadevara family and the effects of the family curse on her form the remaining story. Suryadevara Jai Surya family has a curse which is the cause of the ancestor of the family of the village Devipuram. The priest of the temple believed the zamindar a lot.


title: Kalyana Vaibhogam (TV series)

text: ZEE5 launched all the episodes of Kalyana Vaibhogam, including latest episodes, on Zee5 website and Zee5 app under their “Before TV” service.


title: 1980s

text: This decade (group of ten years) is sometimes called the "Greed decade" in English speaking countries. Unlike the 1960s and 1970s, this is when the word "yuppie" was used to describe "young urban professionals" – young adults who lived in cities and started to get good jobs. This was also the rise of a more conservative period in these countries – Ronald Reagan was president for most of this time in the United States, Margaret Thatcher was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, and Brian Mulroney was Prime Minister of Canada.


title: 1980s

text: This decade also saw the Soviet Union fight a war that seemed endless in Afghanistan, civil war in Ethiopia, and the fall of the Berlin Wall which started the end of the Cold War and of Communism in Eastern Europe.


title: 1980s

text: The "eighties" are also well known for their extreme fashions, such as "big hair", New Wave, punk rock, funk, or preppies. Rap music first started to get big in the 80s, and often went with breakdancing in what is now called the "old school" days. Many developments were also made in computer technology during these years, and video games became popular.


title: 1980s

text: In sports, Italy and Argentina won the FIFA World Cup. The Philadelphia Phillies, Los Angeles Dodgers, St. Louis Cardinals, Baltimore Orioles, Detroit Tigers, Kansas City Royals, New York Mets, Minnesota Twins and Oakland Athletics won the World Series. The Pittsburgh Steelers, Oakland Raiders, San Francisco 49ers, Washington Redskins, Los Angeles Raiders, Chicago Bears and New York Giants won the Super Bowl. Finally, the Los Angeles Lakers dominated the NBA, with only the Houston Rockets winning a title.


title: Staple food

text: A staple food is a food item that can be stored easily and eaten throughout the year. Different kinds of staple foods are used in different parts of the world.


title: Staple food

text: The term means the common basis of the everyday diet in a place. Potatoes and rice are the most usual examples, but bread is "not" a staple food because it is a manufactured food which cannot be stored. Of course, it can always be made, since wheat "is" a staple food. Fruit is not a staple because it usually grows at a certain time of year. Meat is not a staple because it may not be available, or is expensive to buy. Green vegetables may be a staple in some countries, but not others. Foods which need special facilities, such as refrigeration are not staple foods.


title: Greek alphabet

text: The modern Greek alphabet has 24 letters. It is used to write the Greek language. The Greek alphabet is also frequently used in science and mathematics to represent various values or variables. Most letters in the Greek alphabet have an equivalent in the English language.


title: Greek alphabet

text: Α α, Β β, Γ γ, Δ δ, Ε ε, Ζ ζ, Η η, Θ θ, Ι ι, Κ κ, Λ λ, Μ μ, Ν ν, Ξ ξ, Ο ο, Π π, Ρ ρ, Σ σ or ς, Τ τ, Υ υ, Φ φ, Χ χ, Ψ ψ, and Ω ω.


title: Greek alphabet

text: The Greek alphabet is thought to be where most European alphabets came from. The alphabet was borrowed from the Phoenician alphabet around the 10th century BC, with many changes to make it fit the Greek language.


title: Greek alphabet

text: Some of the Phoenician letters for sounds not used in Greek were turned into vowels. The Phoenicians had written their abjad without any vowels, and this is the case with Hebrew and Arabic to the present day. Obviously, their peoples knew how to say the words, so that worked well for them. But the Greek addition of vowels was better for countries where it might be a second language.


title: Greek alphabet

text: The Greek change made reading easier for trading with other cultures. In general, Indo-European languages did not use consonant-based roots (where the word's central meaning is based on the consonants) like those in Semitic languages such as Phoenician, Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic.


title: Greek alphabet

text: At first, Greek was written from right to left, same as Phoenician, but after the 6th century BC, it was written from left to right.


title: Greek alphabet

text: There were some differences in the early Greek alphabet depending on what part of the Greek world it was used in. But over time, all Greeks started to use the same alphabet, especially after the Ionic alphabet of Miletus was officially adopted in Athens in 403 BC. A little later, the rest of Greece did the same, and by 350 BC, during the life of Alexander the Great, almost all Greeks were using the same twenty-four letter Greek alphabet.


title: Greek alphabet

text: Later, Aristophanes of Byzantium (c. 257185 BC), a Greek scholar and grammarian, invented the three diacritics (accent marks): acute, grave, and circumflex, to mark the tone or pitch of Greek words.


title: Greek alphabet

text: Although the Greek letters accurately represented all the main sounds of the Greek language early on, the sounds of the Greek language changed over time. Some of the vowel sounds began to sound similar to one another, aspirated voiceless stops became voiceless fricatives, and voiced stops became voiced fricatives. One can get an idea of how older Greek pronunciations sounded, by looking at the Latin and English spellings of Greek loanwords like "philosopher", "Chimera", "Cyprus", and "Thessalonica".


title: Greek alphabet

text: Another diacritic is a comma, usually above initial vowels. This signaled whether or not the sound of the letter 'H' was present. It is not available in the English standard character-set. If this comma-like diacritic above the vowel is reversed, it indicates the presence of an /h/ sound before a vowel, diphthong, or rho. Thus, the Greek name "Ἕκτωρ" is pronounced Hektōr, not Ektor. Another example is ἥρως, pronounced hḗrōs ("hero").


title: Greek alphabet

text: In 1982, a new, simplified orthography, known as "monotonic", was adopted for official use in Modern Greek by the Greek state. It uses only a single accent mark, the acute accent. This marks the stressed syllable of polysyllabic words, that is, words with more than one syllable.


title: Town

text: A town is usually a place with a lot of houses, but not a city. As with cities, there is more than one way to say what a town is in different countries. In some places, it is a kind of local government. When they say "town" people are normally thinking of a big, important place. It may even be a city.


title: Town

text: Generally, a town is smaller than a city and larger than a village, but that is not always the case, and the definition can differ in each country.


title: Town

text: Generally, the difference between towns and villages or hamlets is the sort of economy they have. People in towns usually get money from industry (factories etc.), commerce (shops etc.) and public service (working for the town), not agriculture (growing food).


title: Town

text: The number of people who live in a place does not tell us if it is a town or a village. In many areas of the world, like India, a big village can have many more people than a small town. It is also difficult to say if a place is a town because today, some towns are becoming bigger.


title: Town

text: Sometimes a place is a city because it got the name "city" by law. However, people often call a place a "town" if it is small.


title: Town

text: In the United States of America, the meaning of the term "town" is different in each state. In some states, a town is a town if the state says it is. In other states, like Wisconsin, a town is a subdivision of a county. In other states, like Michigan, the name "town" has no official meaning. People use it to describe any place where many people live.


title: Town

text: In the six New England states, a town is a smaller part of the county. In all six, towns do things that, in most other states, the counties do. In many of these towns, town meetings are the main form of government, so citizens can say what happens where they live by direct democracy. In these states, the towns are really more important than the county. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, counties are only on the map and have no power. In the other four states, courts are the main work of counties. The counties with other functions are mostly in New Hampshire and Vermont.


title: Town

text: In Alabama, whether or not a place is a "town" or a "city" is based on how many people live there. A place with 2,000 people or more is a city. A place with less than 2,000 people is a town (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-6). For legislative purposes, places are put into eight categories based on the number of people. Class 8 includes all towns, and it includes all cities with that have less than 6,000 people (Code of Alabama 1975, Section 11-40-12).


title: Town

text: All incorporated places in Kansas are called cities. Once a city is incorporated in Kansas, it will continue to be a city no matter what. There are three categories for cities:


title: Town

text: In Louisiana, a "town" is a place that has a city government, and it has 1,0014,999 people living there.


title: Town

text: In New York, a town is also a smaller part of the county, but it is less important than in New England. Towns provide almost all municipal services to places, called "hamlets", that are not in villages, and some services to places that are in "villages". In New York, a town usually has some hamlets and villages. But, because villages have power without towns (they are "independent") they can be in two towns or even two counties. Everyone in New York State who does not live in an Indian reservation (a special place for American Indians) or a city lives in a town, and perhaps in one of the town's hamlets or villages. A city may be part of a county, but even if it is surrounded by a town that has more people than the city, it is not part of the town.


title: Town

text: In Utah, the terms "town" and "city" is based on the number of people living there. A place with 1,000 or more people is a city. A place with fewer than 1,000 people is a town. Cities are divided into five different categories based on the number of people.


title: Town

text: In Virginia, a town is similar to a city, but it can have a smaller number of people in it. By Virginia law cities are independent of counties (they have power without counties), towns are part of a county.


title: Town

text: Wyoming law says towns are incorporated places that have less than 4,000 people living there. Places with 4,000 or more people are "first-class cities".


title: Town

text: In England and Wales, the name "city" is only for places that have a Royal Charter (a special document) saying they can have that name.


title: Town

text: In the past, cities usually had a cathedral. Some English people think that a place with a cathedral must be a city, but it is not true today. For example, Northampton, Blackburn and Middlesbrough (where is the cathedral??) are all towns with a cathedral.


title: Town

text: In the past, a place was usually a town, not a village, when it had a regular market or fair (a market, but not so often). There are some English villages (for example Ipswich, Oxfordshire) larger than some small towns (e.g. Middleham, North Yorkshire).


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Postcodes are used in Australia to sort and send mail to the correct address. All postcodes in Australia have four numerals and are placed at the end of the address. Australian postcodes are managed by Australia Post.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Postcodes are published in small books that can be collected from your nearest post offices, or online at the Australia Post website.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: On envelopes and postcards there are often four square boxes printed in orange ink at the bottom right for the postcode numerals. These are used when addressing mail by hand.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Postcodes were started in Australia in 1967 by the Postmaster-General's Department (PMG), now called Australia Post. They replaced earlier postal sorting systems, such as Melbourne's letter and number codes (e.g., "N3", "E5") and a similar system once used in rural and regional New South Wales.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australian Postcodes are four digits, and written after the name of the city, suburb, or town, and the state or territory:


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: When writing an address by hand, a row of four boxes (pre-printed on the lower right hand corner of many envelopes) is usually used.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australian postcodes are sorting information. They are often linked with one area (e.g. 6160 belongs only to Fremantle, Western Australia). But sometimes they can be quite complex, especially in country areas (e.g. 2570 belongs to twenty-two towns and suburbs around Camden, New South Wales). The south-western Victoria 3221 postcode of the Geelong Mail Centre also includes twenty places around Geelong with very few people. This means that mail for these places is not fully sorted until it gets to Geelong. Some postcodes cover large populations (e.g., postcode 4350 serving some 100,000 people in the City of Toowoomba), while other postcodes have much smaller populations, even in urban areas. The postcode numbers range from as low as 0200 (for the Australian National University) to 9729 (mail addressed to the Gold Coast City Council).


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Some towns and suburbs have two postcodes—one for street deliveries and one for [post office box]es. For instance, a street address in the Sydney suburb of Parramatta would be written like this:


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Many big businesses, government departments and other institutions receive large volumes of mail. They can have their own postcode as a Large Volume Receiver ("LVR"), e.g. the Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital has the postcode 4029. More postcode ranges were made available for LVRs in the 1990s.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Sometimes near the state and territory borders, Australia Post finds it easier to send mail through a nearby post office that is across the border:


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Some or all of the postcodes above may cover two states. For example postcode 2620 covers both a suburb in NSW ("Gundaroo") as well as a suburb in the ACT ("Hume") - the postcode is within the ACT range.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Jervis Bay Territory, once an exclave of the ACT but now a separate territory, is geographically located on the coast of NSW. It is just south of the towns of Vincentia and Huskisson, with which it shares a postcode. Mail to the Jervis Bay Territory is still addressed to the ACT.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: The numerals used to show the state on each radio callsign in Australia are the same numerals as the first numerals for postcodes in that state, e.g. "2xx" in New South Wales, "3xx" in Victoria, etc. Radio callsigns pre-date postcodes in Australia by more than 40 years.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australia's external territories are also included in Australia Post's postcode system. While these territories do not belong to any state, they are addressed as such for mail sorting:


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Three scientific bases in Antarctica operated by the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions share a postcode with the isolated sub-Antarctic island of Macquarie Island (part of Tasmania):


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Each state's capital city ends with three zeroes, while territorial capital cities end with two zeroes. Capital city postcodes were the lowest postcodes in their state or territory range, before new ranges for LVRs and PO Boxes were made available. The last numeral can usually be changed from "0" to "1" to get the postcode for General Post Office boxes in any capital city (though Perth now uses a different range of postcodes for its GPO Boxes):


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: While the first numeral of a postcode usually shows the state or territory, the second numeral usually shows a region within the state. However, postcodes with the same second numeral are not always next to each othera. As an example, postcodes in the range 2200–0001 are split between the southern suburbs of Sydney and the Central Coast of New South Wales.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Postcodes with a second numeral of "0" or "1" are almost always located within the metropolitan area of the state's capital city. Postcodes with higher second numerals are usually located in rural and regional areas. Common exceptions are where towns were rural when postcodes were first introduced in 1967, but have since been suburbanised and incorporated into metropolitan areas, e.g. Penrith, New South Wales has the postcode 2750 and Petrie, Queensland has the postcode 4502.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Within each region with the same second numeral, postcodes usually get bigger the further one travels from the state's capital city along major highways and railways. For instance, heading north on the North Coast railway in New South Wales away from Sydney:


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Major towns and cities tend to have "0" as the last numeral or last two numerals, e.g. Rockhampton, Queensland has the postcode 4700 and Ballarat, Victoria has the postcode 3350. There are exceptions; the major town of Ipswich, Queensland has the postcode 4305, while Goodna, a relatively unimportant suburb of Ipswich, is allocated 4300.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Post Office Preferred envelopes sold in Australia have four boxes in the bottom right corner of the front of the envelope. These boxes or squares, which by Australia Post calls "postcode squares", have the postcode for hand-addressed mail. This is for the purpose of Australia Post's automated mail-sorting equipment, which uses optical character recognition software. Postcode squares were introduced in 1990.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Australia Post says that postcode squares should not be used for machine-addressed mail, or mail going overseas.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: Many other organisations now use postcodes. Insurance companies often use postcodes when working out the cost of car and house insurance. The NSW Ministry of Transport uses postcodes to give specific numbers for each bus stop in Greater Sydney. The stop number is five to seven numbers: the first four are the postcode, and the others show the bus stop (sometimes written with a space in between, e.g. "2000 108"). Many companies that produce metropolitan street maps also list the postcodes for each suburb, both in indexes on the maps themselves.


title: Postcodes in Australia

text: To improve mechanised sorting, each address now has a sorting number which is printed on the letter as an orange coloured barcode. This number might be 12 numbers long. This system enables the post office to place items in delivery order.


title: Honey Bunny Ka Jholmaal

text: Honey Bunny Ka Jholmaal () is an Indian animated comedy television series that is the new version of Sab Jholmaal Hai.


title: Honey Bunny Ka Jholmaal

text: The story revolves around the adventures of four pets: two cats named Honey and Bunny, a dog named Zordaar and a parrot named Popat, who live in a cozy house, owned by Miss Katkar. The pets always set off on fun and crazy adventures together. While they are usually sweet and well-mannered, the pets also save their town from evil men and thieves and help the good and poor people.


title: Castor and Pollux

text: Castor and Pollux were twin brothers in Greek and Roman mythology. Together they are called the Dioscuri. They were the sons of Queen Leda of Sparta. Their twin sisters were Helen of Troy and Clytemnestra. Castor and Pollux were changed into the constellation called Gemini. Tyndareus, the king of Sparta, was the father of Castor, which made Castor mortal, while Zeus was the father of Pollux which made him a demigod.


title: Castor and Pollux

text: Zeus seduced Leda as a swan and she laid four eggs, these eggs hatched and four children were born to Leda, the two brothers Castor and Pollux, and two sisters, Helen and Clytemnestra; Castor and Clytemnestra were considered to be the children of King Tyndareus, Pollux and Helen were the demigod offspring of Zeus.


title: Castor and Pollux

text: Castor and Pollux are universally named among the Argonauts, the crew of the Argo who sailed for Colchis with Jason. During the quest for the Golden Fleece, Pollux is noted for having bested the King of Bebryces during a boxing match.


title: Castor and Pollux

text: One of the best-known myths with Castor and Pollux is how they became a constellation. During a battle Castor, being mortal was killed. Heartbroken at the death of his brother, Pollux prayed to Zeus to make Castor immortal which meant Pollux would have to give up half of his immortality. Eventually, Zeus agreed to the request, and so Castor and Pollux were transformed into the Gemini constellation. To balance the cosmos, the Dioscuri would only be on Olympus one half of the year, and the other six months would be spent in the Underworld in the Elysium fields.


title: Castor and Pollux

text: They became the gods of sailing and horsemanship. ... Pollux and Castor were also known for their boxing abilities and were thus the gods of athletes and athletic competitions. In both art and literature, Pollux and his brother were shown with horses, as the two were famed horsemen.


title: Gordon Brown

text: James Gordon Brown (born 20 February 1951) is a British politician. He served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and was the leader of the British Labour Party. He was the Labour MP Representative for the Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath UK Constituency.


title: Gordon Brown

text: He was born at Orchard Maternity Nursing Home in Giffnock, Scotland and is married to Sarah Macaulay. Their daughter Jennifer Jane died as a baby. They have two sons, John Macaulay and James Fraser. Brown is blind in his left eye after a sports injury but he has a replacement eye made of glass.


title: Gordon Brown

text: Brown took over as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom after Tony Blair resigned on 27 June 2007. Before this, he had been Chancellor of the Exchequer since May 1997.


title: Gordon Brown

text: Brown has a PhD in history from the University of Edinburgh. He spent his early career working as a television journalist. He has been a Member of Parliament since 1983. At the beginning for Dunfermline East and since 2005 for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath. As Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, he was also First Lord of the Treasury and the Minister for the Civil Service.


title: Gordon Brown

text: Brown's time as Chancellor was marked by major reform of Britain's financial and fiscal policy architecture. For example, was the interest rate setting power transferred to the Bank of England. This was done by a wide extension of the powers of the Treasury to cover much domestic policy and by giving the responsibility for banking supervision to the Financial Services Authority. Controversial moves included the abolition of Advance Corporation Tax (ACT) relief in his first budget, and the removal in his final budget of the 10 per cent "starting rate" of personal income tax which he had introduced in 1999.


title: Gordon Brown

text: After an initial rise in opinion polls, Brown's time as Prime Minister saw his approval ratings fall. The Labour Party suffered its worst local election results in 40 years. Despite public and parliamentary pressure on his leadership, he remained leader of the Labour Party. He announced on 6 April 2010 that there would be a general election on 6 May 2010, in which Labour came second, with 258 seats. Brown resigned, and Conservative leader David Cameron became Prime Minister.


title: Gordon Brown

text: On 14 July 2012, United Nations Secretary-General Ban ki-moon named Brown UN Special Envoy for Education.


title: Gordon Brown

text: In 2017, he made a statement about Scotland having a "full blown mental health emergency" citing the hiring of mental health staff by a charity.


title: People's Republic of China

text: The People's Republic of China (PRC) () is a one-party state in East Asia governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It was founded on 1 October 1949. It currently has more than 1.4 billion people (as of 2017), which is more than any other country in the world. It covers an area of 9.6 million square kilometers.


title: People's Republic of China

text: The capital city is Beijing and Shanghai is the city with the most people living in it. Along with the cities of Tianjin and Chongqing, these four cities are "municipalities" directly controlled by the national government. Two other cities are given the status of "special administrative region" (SAR). They are Hong Kong, which was once a colony of the United Kingdom and given back to China in 1997 and Macau, which Portugal gave back in 1999. These two cities remain highly autonomous or have much of their own power. Aside from the "municipalities" and the "SARs", there are 23 provinces and five "autonomous regions" or regions with more law-making rights than the provinces and with many people of a minority group population. They are the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, the Tibet Autonomous Region or Xizang Autonomous Region, the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region or Nei Mongol Autonomous Region and the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region.


title: People's Republic of China

text: In the SARs, the central government is responsible for defense and foreign affairs but not daily operations for 50 years. PRC claims Taiwan as one of its many provinces. However, PRC does not have control of Taiwan. It has an entirely different political system and is officially known as the Republic of China.


title: People's Republic of China

text: China has one of the world's oldest civilizations and has the oldest continuous civilization. It has archaeological evidence over 5,000 years old. It also has one of the world's oldest writing systems (and the oldest in use today), and is viewed as the source of many major inventions.


title: People's Republic of China

text: Ancient China was one of the first civilizations and was active since the 2nd millennium BC as a feudal society.


title: People's Republic of China

text: Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing, with the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley civilization, the Maya civilization, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt. It reached its golden age during the Tang Dynasty (c. A.D. 10th century). Home of Confucianism and Daoism, it had great influence on nearby countries including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam in the areas of political system, philosophy, religion, art, and even writing and literature. China is home to some of the oldest artwork in the world. Statues and pottery, as well as decorations made of jade, are some classic examples.


title: People's Republic of China

text: Before the Qin Dynasty united China, there were hundreds of small states that fought each other for hundreds of years in a war to control China. This is known as the Warring States Period. Although the continuing wars made people suffer, it was at this time when many of the great philosophies of the East were born, including Confucianism and Daoism. Confucianism and Daoism alone have been the foundation of many social values seen in modern eastern-Asian cultures today.


title: People's Republic of China

text: Its geography mostly looked like that of modern China, except with northern and western edges that varied. It was often attacked by northern nomadic people such as the Turkic tribes and the Mongols lead by Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan. During the history of ancient China, the northern nomadic people and the Chinese people had been fighting each other and taking turns to rule the land and the people of China. However, when the northern people beat the Chinese people and came to rule the kingdom, they also Incorporated the Chinese way of living and became like the Chinese. Many of the strongest dynasties of China were ruled by the northern people, including the Qin, Tang, Yuan (Mongolian), and Qing (Manchu). Each time, they also brought new elements into the Chinese culture.


title: People's Republic of China

text: While China achieved many things in the First millennium and early 2nd millennium, it became an isolationist country in the 15th century C.E. This was because Spain found a lot of silver in the newly explored continents of North and South America. Silver was the main currency (money) in China and Europe at the time, and China did not want to be bought by the foreigners.


title: People's Republic of China

text: By the time of the Renaissance, European powers started to take over other countries in Asia. During this time the opium epidemic was growing in China. Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting opium mainly from India to China since the 18th century, but that trade grew dramatically from about 1820. The resulting widespread addiction in China was causing serious social and economic disruption there. This led to what is now known as the first opium war. The first Opium War between China and Great Britain lasted from 1839 to 1842. The conflict was the result of years of attempts by the British to exploit China as a market for British goods. Britain eventually relied on its superior military capabilities to force open the lucrative Chinese market, while imposing an illicit trade in opium on the Chinese people.


title: People's Republic of China

text: While China was never actually taken over by Europeans, many European countries, such as Britain and France built spheres of influence in China. Since China had cut itself off from the world over the previous few centuries, by the Qing Dynasty, it had fallen behind other countries in technology, and was helpless to stop this from happening. This had become clear when it lost the Opium Wars to Britain in the 19th century.


title: People's Republic of China

text: In 1912, the Qing dynasty was overthrown by the Sun Yat-sen and the Kuomintang, a nationalist party, and the Republic of China established. Over time, Marxist ideas grew popular and the Communist party was formed.


title: People's Republic of China

text: The Chinese Civil War later started between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Communists of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Communists wanted to make China like the Soviet Union, whereas the other side wanted to keep China in its current state at the time. The Communists were led by Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, Liu Shaoqi and others. Later Liu lost influence with Mao and his death to this day remains unresolved. The Communists eventually won the war. The Nationalists (led by Chiang Kai-shek) fled to the island of Taiwan and set up their new capital city in Taipei. After the Chinese Civil War, the Communist leader Mao Zedong declared a new country, the People's Republic of China (PRC), in Beijing on October 1, 1949.


title: People's Republic of China

text: In 1927, the Chinese Civil War began as the Kuomintang, led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Communists fought one another.


title: People's Republic of China

text: Amidst the turmoil brewing between the Nationalist and Communist parties who were vying for control of China at the time, Japan had launched an invasion of Manchuria in 1934 and began to creep steadily inland. China, the Nationalist party in particular, owed Japan immense amounts of money, which they could not pay whilst infused in their own civil war. The Treaty of Versailles promised the Japanese government land in China in return for forgiveness of their debt. This ended up not being a popular sentiment and was rallied against all over the country, and most famously during the May 4th Movement in Beijing in 1919. When the Chinese did not readily give up their rights to their land, Japan tried to take it by force. This was the beginning of World War II in the Pacific Theater.


title: People's Republic of China

text: By 1949, the Red Army of the Chinese Communist Party had gained control over mainland China and Mao Zedong announced the creation of the People's Republic of China. Chiang Kai-shek and the other nationalists fled to Taiwan.


title: People's Republic of China

text: As the Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao began many social and economic reform projects with mixed results. The Great Leap Forward, from 1958 to 1961, tried to industrialize China and increase its food production, but resulted in one of the largest famines in history. It is estimated that 45 million people died as a result of this reform project. In 1966, Mao began the Cultural Revolution to remove capitalist influences from society and government. Major government officials and ordinary citizens were accused of being "revisionists" - people who disagreed with some parts of Marxism - or "counter-revolutionaries" and were persecuted. Many universities and schools were closed, and historical and religious sites were destroyed. Although the program officially ended in 1969, it continued until Mao's death in 1976.


title: People's Republic of China

text: During this time period, the People's Republic of China did not get along with the capitalist countries of the Western world. Beginning in the 1960s, relationships between the People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union also became increasingly unfriendly in the Sino-Soviet Split. In 1972, to counter the power of the Soviet Union, Chairman Mao and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai met with US President Richard Nixon in Beijing. This began to improve relationships between China and the Western world.


title: People's Republic of China

text: After Mao's death, there was a power struggle between the Gang of Four and Chinese Premier Hua Guofeng, the man Mao had chosen to be the next leader of China. Eventually, Deng Xiaoping, one of the veterans of the revolution, took power. He began a "Reform and Opening Up" () campaign. These reforms tried to make the People's Republic of China a modern, industrial - but still socialist - nation by moving towards a market system. Deng's policies would be known as "socialism with Chinese characteristics."


title: People's Republic of China

text: Although Deng's policy helped loosen restrictions on citizens, the People's Republic of China continues to have problems with the amount of control the government has over citizens' private lives. In 1979, the one-child policy, which limits most couples to one child, was created because of the overpopulation problem in the People's Republic of China. This policy is highly controversial and many Westerners have criticized it. News and Internet sites are also censored by the government.


title: People's Republic of China

text: In 1989, the Chinese Communist Party used soldiers and tanks to stop a protest in Beijing's Tiananmen Square organized by students seeking political reform. This action received worldwide criticism and led to economic sanctions being placed on the Chinese government.


title: People's Republic of China

text: The People's Republic of China is the third- or fourth-largest country in the world after Russia, Canada, and (in some sources) the United States and the second-largest by land area. China has every kind of climate in the northern hemisphere except the polar climate. It is also the largest country without any land north of the Arctic Circle. China borders 14 nations, which is more than any other country in the world. It borders Vietnam, Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan in South Asia; Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; a small section of Russian Altai and Mongolia in Inner Asia; and the Russian Far East and North Korea in Northeast Asia.


title: People's Republic of China

text: China has two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. There is also the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert.


title: People's Republic of China

text: The world's highest point, Mt. Everest (8848m), is on the border between China and Nepal. The country's lowest point, and the world's fourth-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154m).


title: People's Republic of China

text: China is one of 17 megadiverse countries. It is in two of the world's major ecozones: the Palearctic and the Indomalaya. In the Palearctic zone, mammals such as the horse, camel, tapir, and jerboa can be found. Among the species in the Indomalaya region are the Leopard Cat, bamboo rat, treeshrew, and various monkey and ape species. Some overlap is between the two regions; deer, antelope, bears, wolves, pigs, and many rodent species can all be found in China's environments. The famous giant panda is found only in a limited area along the Yangtze River. China has a continuing problem with trade in endangered species. There are now laws to stop such activities.


title: People's Republic of China

text: China also has a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests cover most of the north of the country. The forest have animal species such as moose and the Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species. Moist conifer forests can have thickets of bamboo. It is replaced by rhododendrons in higher montane stands of juniper and yew. Subtropical forests, which are mostly in central and southern China. These support as many as 146,000 species of flora. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, have a quarter of all the plant and animal species found in China.


title: People's Republic of China

text: China is a one-party state wherein the General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government and serves as the paramount leader. The current General Secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012 and was re-elected on 25 October 2017.


title: People's Republic of China

text: The President is the titular head of state, elected by the National People's Congress. The current president is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's Paramount leader. The Premier is the head of government, heading the State Council alongside with four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The current premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the CCP Politburo Standing Committee, China's "de facto" top decision-making body.


title: People's Republic of China

text: The PRC Armed Forces, also known as the People's Liberation Army (PLA), is one of the most powerful armies in the world. Nowadays PRC is among the atomic powers in the world. It also has the largest standing army in the world of over 2 million soldiers on active duty.


title: People's Republic of China

text: There are 56 recognized ethnic minority groups in China. Han is the largest ethnic group in China. Mandarin Chinese is the main spoken language.


title: People's Republic of China

text: China is the origin of Eastern martial arts, called Kung Fu or Wushu. China is also the home of the well-respected Spa Monastery and Wudang Mountains. Martial art started more for the purpose of survival, defense, and warfare than art. Over time some art forms have branched off, while others have retained their distinct Chinese characteristics.


title: People's Republic of China

text: China has had renowned artists including Wong Fei Hung and many others. Art has also co-existed with a variety of paints including the more standard 18 colors. Legendary and controversial moves like Big Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture.


title: People's Republic of China

text: China has many traditional festivals, such as the Chinese New Year, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival and so on. The most significant is Chinese New Year. Another important holiday is the National Day celebration around October. Weekends are moved around to make sure everyone has a week-long holiday for it, just like during the lunar new year.


title: People's Republic of China

text: Chinese New Year lasts fifteen days, including one week as a national holiday. It starts with the first day of the Chinese lunar year and ends with the full moon fifteen days later. It is always in the middle of winter, but is called the Spring Festival in Chinese because Chinese seasons are a little different from English ones. On the first day of the Chinese New Year, people call on friends and relatives. Because most people watch the special performances on CCTV all the night on New Year's Eve and don't go to bed until 12:00 AM, they usually get up later in the next day. The fifth day of the Chinese New Year is the day to welcome the god of Wealth (Chinese:财神爷), many people make and eat dumplings (Chinese:饺子. Pinyin: Jaozi). They believe that dumplings can hold the god of Wealth and bring luck. The last day of the Chinese New Year is the Lantern Festival. On this day, the moon becomes the full moon. People go out and watch the lantern festivals everywhere. After that, they eat sweet dumpling (Chinese:汤圆,元宵), a kind of dumpling which is round and looks like the full moon.


title: People's Republic of China

text: Dragon Boat Festival is celebrated to commemorate the death of Qu Yuan, a patriotic poet of the State of Chu during the Warring States period. He persuaded his emperor not to accept Qin's diplomats's offers several times but his emperor did not listen to him. He was very sad and ended up jumping into the river to end his life. The people loved him so much that they did not want the fish to eat his corpse. They made and threw rice dumplings into the river. They hope the fish eat these dumplings instead of the poet's corpse. They also rowed dragon boats in the river to get rid of the fish. Eating rice dumplings and holding dragon boat races, became what the Chinese do in this festival nowadays.


title: People's Republic of China

text: Held on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, the Mid-Autumn Festival is a festival for families. Now when the festival sets in, people sit together to eat moon cakes, appreciate the moon and the moon itself, celebrate the bumper harvest, and enjoy the family love and happiness. To the Chinese people, the full moon symbolizes family reunion, as do the moon cakes. Hence why the Mid-Autumn Festival is also called the Family Reunion Festival.


title: People's Republic of China

text: Trains are commonly used for moving from one place to another, mainly for long distances. Bullet trains are faster and more common in the cities. China has more high-speed trains than any other country in the world. Buses and air transport are also very common.


title: Montenegro

text: Montenegro (meaning Black Mountain) is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is on the Adriatic Sea, between Albania (to the South) and Croatia to the North. Inland (to the East and South-East) it also has a common border with Serbia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. For most of the 20th century it was part of Yugoslavia. It had also been independent before World War I and existed as a kingdom. Its leader is Milo Đukanović.