title: String theory

text: In the 1930s, it was noticed that according to general relativity, galaxies would fall apart unless surrounded by invisible matter holding a galaxy together, and by the 1970s dark matter began to be accepted. In 1998 it was inferred that the universe's expansion, not slowing, is accelerating, indicating a vast energy density—enough to accelerate both visible matter and dark matter—throughout the universe, a vast field of dark energy. Apparently, under 5% of the universe's composition is known, while the other 95% is mysterious—dark matter and dark energy.


title: String theory

text: By the 1920s, to probe the operating of the electromagnetic field at minuscule scales of space and time, quantum mechanics (QM) was developed. Yet electrons—the matter particles that interact with the photons that are the electromagnetic field's force carriers—would appear to defy mechanical principles altogether. None could predict a quantum particle's location from moment to moment.


title: String theory

text: In the slit experiment, an electron would travel through one hole placed in front of it. Yet a single electron would travel simultaneously though multiple holes, however many were placed in front of it. The single electron would leave on the detection board an interference pattern as if the single particle were a wave that had passed through all the holes simultaneously. And yet this occurred only when unobserved. If light were shone on the expected event, the photon's interaction with the field would set the electron to a single position.


title: String theory

text: By the uncertainty principle, any quantum particle's exact location and momentum cannot be determined with certainty, however. The particle's interaction with the observation/measurement instrument deflects the particle such that greater determination of its position yields lower determination of its momentum, and vice versa.


title: String theory

text: By extending quantum mechanics across a field, a consistent pattern emerged. From location to adjacent location, the probability of the particle existing there would rise and fall like a wave of probability—a rising and falling probability density. When unobserved, any quantum particle enters superposition, such that even a single particle fills the entire field, however large. Yet the particle is not "definitely" anywhere in the field, but there at a definite "probability" in relation to whether it was had been at the adjacent location. The waveform of Maxwell's electromagnetic field was generated by an accumulation of probabilistic events. Not the particles, but the mathematical form, was constant.


title: String theory

text: Setting the field to special relativity permitted prediction of the complete electromagnetic field. Thus arose relativistic quantum field theory (QFT). Of the electromagnetic field, it is relativistic quantum electrodynamics (QED). Of the weak and electromagnetic fields together, it is relativistic electroweak theory (EWT). Of the strong field, it is relativistic quantum chromodynamics (QCD). Altogether, this became the Standard Model of particle physics.


title: String theory

text: When the Standard Model is set to general relativity in order to include mass, probability densities of infinity appear. This is presumed incorrect, as probability ordinarily ranges from 0 to 1—0% to 100% probability. Some theoretical physicists suspect that the problem is in the Standard Model, which represents each particle by a zero-dimensional point that in principle can be infinitely small. Yet in quantum physics, the Planck's constant is the minimum energy unit that a field can be divided into, perhaps a clue to the smallest size a particle can be. So there is a quest to "quantize" gravity—to develop a theory of quantum gravity.


title: String theory

text: String conjectures that on the microscopic scale, Einstein's 4D spacetime is a field of Calabi-Yau manifolds, each containing 6 space dimensions curled up, thus not extended into the 3 space dimensions presented to the classical realm. In string theory, each quantum particle is replaced by a 1D string of vibrating energy whose length is the Planck length. As the string moves, it traces width, and thus becomes 2D, a worldsheet. As a string vibrates and moves within the 6D Calabi-Yau space, the string becomes a quantum particle. With this approach, the hypothetical graviton—predicted to explain general relativity—emerges easily.


title: String theory

text: String theory began as bosonic string theory, whose 26 dimensions act as many fewer. Yet this modeled only bosons, which are energy particles, while omitting fermions, which are matter particles. So bosonic string theory could not explain matter. Yet by adding supersymmetry to bosonic string theory, fermions were achieved, and string theory became "super"string theory, explaining matter, too.


title: String theory

text: String theory's claim that all molecules are "strings of energy" has drawn harsh criticism. There are many versions of string theory, none quite successfully predicting the observational data explained by the Standard Model. M theory is now known to have countless solutions, often predicting things strange and unknown to exist. Some allege that string theorists select only the desired predictions.


title: String theory

text: The allegation that string theory makes no testable predictions is false, as it makes many. No theory—a predictive and perhaps explanatory model of some domain of natural phenomena—is verifiable. All conventional physical theories until the Standard Model have made claims about unobservable aspects of the natural world. Even the Standard Model has various interpretations as to the natural world. When the Standard Model is operated, it is often made a version with supersymmetry, doubling the number of particle species so far identified by particle physicists.


title: String theory

text: None can literally measure space, yet Newton postulated absolute space and time, and Newton's theory made explicit predictions, highly testable and predictively successful for 200 years, but the theory was still falsified as explanatory of nature. Physicists accept that there exists no such attractive force directly attracting matter to matter, let alone that the force traverses the universe instantly. Nevertheless, Newton's theory is still paradigmatic of science.


title: String theory

text: The idea of hidden dimensionality of space can seem occult. Some theorists of loop quantum gravity—a contender for quantum gravity—regard string theory as fundamentally misguided by presuming that space even has a shape until particles shape it. That is, they do not doubt that space takes various shapes, simply regard the particles as determining space's shape, not the other way around. The spacetime vortex predicted by general relativity is apparently confirmed.


title: String theory

text: If interpreted as naturally true, the Standard Model, representing a quantum particle as a 0D point, already indicates that spacetime is a sea of roiling shapes, quantum foam. String theorists tend to believe nature more elegant, a belief that loop theorist Lee Smolin dismisses as romantic while using biology's Modern Synthesis as a rhetorical device. Experiments to detect added spatial dimensions have so far failed, yet there is still the possibility that signs of them can emerge.


title: String theory

text: M theory has many trillions of solutions. Leonard Susskind, a leader of string theory, interprets string theory's plasticity of solutions as paradoxical support resolving the mystery of why "this" universe exists, as M theory shows it but a variant of a general pattern that always approximately results.


title: String theory

text: General relativity has brought many discoveries that in 1915 were all but unimaginable except in fiction. A solution of Einstein's equations that sought to explain quantum particles' dynamics, the Einstein-Rosen Bridge predicts a shortcut connecting two distant points in spacetime. Commonly called a wormhole, the Einstein-Rosen Bridge is doubted but not disproved, showing either that not all consequences of a theory must be accurate or that reality is quite bizarre in ways unobservable.


title: String theory

text: Even the Standard Model of particle physics suggests bizarre possibilities that populist accounts of science either omit or mention as unexplained curiosities. The theory conventionally receives the Copenhagen interpretation, whereby the field is only "possibilities", none real until an observer or instrument interacts with the field, whose wavefunction then collapses and leaves only its particle function, only the particles being real. Yet wavefunction collapse was merely assumed—neither experimentally confirmed nor even mathematically modeled—and no variance from either the wavefunction in the quantum realm or the particle function in the classical realm has been found.


title: String theory

text: In 1957 Hugh Everett described his "Relative state" interpretation. Everett maintained that the wavefunction does not collapse, and since all matter and interactions are presumed to be built up from quantum waveparticles, all possible variations of the quantum field—indicated by the mathematical equations—are "real" and simultaneously occurring but different courses of history. By this interpretation, whatever interacts with the field joins the field's state that is "relative" to the observer's state—itself a waveform in its own quantum field—while the two simply interact in a universal waveform never collapsing. By now, many physicists' interpretation of the apparent transition from the quantum to the classical realms is not wavefunction collapse, but quantum decoherence.


title: String theory

text: In decoherence, an interaction with the field takes the observer into only one determinant constellation of the quantum field, and so all observations align with that new, combined quantum state. Everett's thesis has inspired Many worlds interpretation, whereby within our universe are predicted to be virtually or potentially infinite parallel worlds that are real, yet each a minuscule distance from the other worlds. As each world's waveform is universal—not collapsing—and its mathematical relations are invariant, parallel worlds simply fill the gaps and do not touch.


title: String theory

text: Einstein doubted that black holes, as predicted by the Schwarzschild solution, are real. Some now conjecture that black holes do not exist as such but are dark energy, or that our universe is both—a black hole and dark energy. The Schwarzschild solution of Einstein's equations can be maximally extended to predict a black hole having a flip side—another universe emerging from a white hole. Perhaps our universe's big bang was half of a "big bounce", something's collapse down to a black hole, and our universe popping out its other side as a white hole.


title: String theory

text: Physicists widely doubt that quantum particles are truly 0D points as represented in Standard Model, which offers "formalism"—mathematical devices whose strokes predict phenomena of interest upon input of data—not "interpretation" of the mechanisms determining those phenomena. Yet string theorists do tend to optimistically conjecture that the strings are both real and explanatory, not merely predictive devices. It is far beyond the capacity of today's particle accelerators to propel any probing particles at energy levels high enough to overcome a quantum particle's own energy and determine whether it is a string. Yet this limitation also exists on testing other theories of quantum gravity. Developments suggest other strategies to "observe" the structure of quantum particles.


title: String theory

text: Paradoxically, even if testing confirmed that particles are strings of energy, that still would not conclusively prove even that particles are strings, since there could be other explanations, perhaps an unexpected warpage of space although the particle was a 0D point of true solidity. Even when predictions succeed, there are many possible explanations—the problem of underdetermination—and philosophers of science as well as some scientists do not accept even flawless predictive success as verification of the successful theory's explanations if these are posed as offering scientific realism, true description of the natural world.


title: String theory

text: Talk of particle physicists testing theoretical physicists' predicted particles by colliding particles in accelerators suggests that quantum particles are tiny Newtonian particles that experimentalists "crack" open to reveal their structure. Instead, when two particles, each of a certain mass—measured in terms of "energy" as electronvolts—are collided, they can combine into a particle of that combined mass/energy, and the generated particle is "observed" for correspondence with the prediction.


title: String theory

text: It is not controversial among physicists that all particles are "energy". Loop theorists, sometimes in rivalry with string theory, claim that spacetime itself converts into the particles. Matter's being a special variant of energy was a consequence of Einstein's special theory of relativity, and thereupon Einstein formalized the mass-energy equivalence, E=mc. When sufficiently energetic photons collide, they can combine and generate matter—matter creation. All particles have antiparticles, and atoms of matter have antiatoms of antimatter, whose union annihilates the particles and matter while leaving energy.


title: String theory

text: An inspiring development is discovery of mirror symmetry, whereby Calabi-Yau spaces tend to come in pairs such that solutions previously difficult within the extreme vibrational mode of one string can be solved by through the mirror Calabi-Yau space's geometry in its opposite range.


title: String theory

text: String theory is usually solved through conformal field theory, a quantum field theory on 2D space. It is confirmed that molecules can collapse to 2D. And the electron, long presumed an elementary particle, apparently splits into three entities separately carrying the electron's three degrees of freedom when the molecules that contain the electrons are channeled through a 1D pathway.


title: Italian language

text: The Italian language is a Romance language spoken in Italy. Other countries that use Italian as their "official language" are San Marino, Vatican City and Switzerland. Slovenia, and Croatia also use Italian as an official language, but only in some regions. Italian is spoken by about 70 million people in several countries, including some parts of Monaco, Malta, Albania, Montenegro, Dodecanese (Greece), Eritrea, Libya, Ethiopia, Somalia, Tunisia. The standard version from Tuscany is used for most writing but other dialects are sometimes written.


title: Italian language

text: It is mostly derived from Latin, with some words from Greek, Etruscan and elsewhere. It is called an inflected language - that means that the meaning of words can be changed by changing their endings. Italian nouns are either masculine or feminine in gender (these usually have little to do with natural genders).


title: Italian language

text: The ending of verbs are quite complicated because of conjugation. The endings depend upon the "tense" of the verb (past, present, future and so on) and on the "person" of the verb (I, you, they etc.). Because Italian grammar uses endings for these inflections, the personal pronoun is not always needed (in the following example it is in parenthesis).


title: Italian language

text: There are very many of these endings to learn - it is one of the more difficult parts of the Italian Grammar. But pronunciation is simple - there are just a few rules to learn, and hardly any difficult sounds.


title: Italian language

text: Many Italian words for food have entered the English language, such as: pizza, spaghetti and ravioli. Many technical words in music are Italian, such as forte and allegro. Many musical instrument names are also Italian, such as cello and tuba. Mafia and vendetta come from the darker side of Italian culture.


title: Italian language

text: Pidgin versions of the Italian language were developed in the colonies of Italy: the most important were in Eritrea, Somalia and Libya.


title: Brahma

text: According to Hinduism and Hindu mythology, Brahma is one of the three major gods of Hindus. Brahma is said to be the creator of the whole universe. The other two gods are Vishnu, the preserver, and Shiva, the destroyer, all three of which make up the Trimurti.


title: Brahma

text: Hindu tradition states that Brahma originally had five heads. However, the mythological story tells that Shiva ordered Bherav to cut one of the heads of Brahma because Brahma lied, saying that he had found the finite source of the actually infinite Linga of light that was Shiva's manifestation. He had not found it, but had come only to the highest heaven and not to the Transcendent, Shiva. The tradition also states that the remaining four heads of Brahma represent many aspects of Hinduism. The four heads represent four Vedas, which are very important Hindu scriptures. It is said that the four heads of Brahma are eternally reciting the four Vedas in penance for having lied. These four heads also represent four divisions of time of Hinduism, the Yugas. They also represent four divisions of the Hindu society, the four Varnas.


title: Aviation

text: Aviation refers to flying using an aircraft, like an aeroplane. It also includes the activities and industries related to flight, such as air traffic control. The biggest of the many uses of aviation are in air travel and military combat.


title: Aviation

text: Humans first built devices to fly in the air a long time ago. In the sixth century, Yuan Huangtou from China created a kite. Some primitive types of parachutes and gliders were also created in North Africa.


title: Aviation

text: The modern age of aviation started on November 21, 1783, when the Montgolfier brothers flew in their hot air balloon. Airships followed. On December 17, 1903, the Wright brothers flew the first flight in an aeroplane which was heavier than air; their invention is known as the first aeroplane.


title: Aviation

text: Military aircraft became somewhat important in World War I. In the 1930s airliners began carrying many passengers. Jet engines began flying in fighter aircraft in World War II and in airliners in the 1950s.


title: Politics of the United States

text: The United States is a federal constitutional republic, in which the President of the United States (the head of state and head of government), Congress, and judiciary share powers reserved to the national government, and the federal government shares sovereignty with the state governments.


title: Politics of the United States

text: The Constitution of the United States provides for a separation of powers among three branches. The executive branch is mostly about the President and is independent of the legislature. Legislative power is in the two chambers of Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives.


title: Politics of the United States

text: The judicial branch (or judiciary), made of the Supreme Court and lower federal courts, focuses on the judicial power (or judiciary). The judiciary's main focus is to interpret the meaning of the United States Constitution and federal laws and rules. This includes solving problems between the executive and legislative branches.


title: Politics of the United States

text: Two political parties, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party have been the main participants in American politics since the American Civil War. There are also smaller parties like the Libertarian Party, the Green Party, and the Constitution Party. The Whig Party, the Federalist Party, and the Democratic-Republican Party were important many years ago.


title: Politics of the United States

text: There are major differences between the political system of the United States and that of most other developed democracies. These include greater power in the upper house of the legislature, a wider scope of power held by the Supreme Court, the separation of powers between the legislature and the executive, and the dominance of only two main parties. Third parties have less political influence in the United States than in other developed country democracies.


title: Politics of the United States

text: The federal object created by the U.S. Constitution is the main feature of the American governmental system. However, most people are also subject to a state government, and all are subject to various units of local government. The latter include counties, municipalities, and special districts.


title: Politics of the United States

text: The federal government was created by the states, which as colonies were established separately and governed themselves independently of the others. Units of local government were created by the colonies to carry out various state functions. As the country expanded, it admitted new states modeled on the existing ones.


title: Politics of the United States

text: The USA is a federal union of fifty states. They have governors and legislatures to govern and make their laws. Each state also has two senators who represent their state in the United States Senate. There are also representatives who represent their local district in the United States House of Representatives.


title: Politics of the United States

text: The President of the United States is the head of state of the United States. They are elected by the American citizens every four years in democratic elections. They also appoint people who will work in different departments that focuses on special areas for the country.


title: Flask

text: A flask is a type of container made of glass. They are a common piece of apparatus used in laboratories. Their size are chosen by the volume they can hold, and is measured in metric units, like litres (L) or mililitres (mL). Their shape depends on what they are used for, but they usually consist of a wider body, which contains the materials, and a more narrow neck with an opening at the top. The opening is the way to insert materials into the body. Some flasks have more than one neck and opening at the top.


title: Flask

text: Flasks are used to contain substances. They are usually made of glass or borosilicate glass (Pyrex). This is to ensure that the substances inside the flask do not react with the flask itself, due to the volatile nature of many chemicals (such as hydrochloric acid), They can be used to heat a substance. There are many different types of laboratory flasks. They differ in their shape and what they are used for. The most common types of flask are:


title: Flask

text: Flasks can be used to make and hold solutions, to measure chemicals, and to contain chemical reactions like boiling, precipitation and analysis.


title: Physical law

text: A physical law, scientific law, or a law of nature is a scientific generalization based on empirical observations of physical behavior. Empirical laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments over many years, and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community. The production of a summary description of nature in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science.


title: Physical law

text: Laws of nature are distinct from the law, either religious or civil, and should not be confused with the concept of natural law.


title: Physical law

text: Nor should 'physical law' be confused with 'law of physics' - the term 'physical law' usually covers laws in other sciences (e.g. biology) as well.


title: Physical law

text: Some extremely important laws are simply definitions. For example, the central law of mechanics "F" = "dp"/"dt" (Newton's second "law" of mechanics) is often treated as a mathematical definition of force just like Newton's first law of mechanics (an object that is at rest stays at rest and an object that is in motion stays in motion unless acted by an out side force). Although the concept of force predates Newton's law, there was no mathematical definition of force before Newton. The principle of least action (or principle of stationary action), Schroedinger equation, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, causality and a few other laws also fall into this category (of mathematical definitions).


title: Bureaucracy

text: Bureaucracy is a concept. It is the structure and rules which control the activities of people that work for large organizations and government.


title: Bureaucracy

text: It has standardized procedure (rule-following), formal division of responsibility, hierarchy, and impersonal relationships. However, in practice, the interpretation and execution of policy can lead to informal influence.


title: Bureaucracy

text: Bureaucracy is a concept in sociology and political science. Four things are central to any definition of bureaucracy: a well-defined division of work between persons and offices, consistent patterns of recruitment, and stable careers. There is a hierarchy among offices, such that the authority and status are distributed between actors. Formal and informal networks connect people to one another, through flows of information and patterns of cooperation.


title: Bureaucracy

text: Examples of everyday bureaucracies include governments, armed forces, corporations, hospitals, courts, ministries and schools.


title: Dhyan Chand

text: Dhyan Chand (29 August 1905 – 3 December 1979) was an Indian field hockey player. He is known as the greatest field hockey player of all time. His skill is compared to footballer Pelé.


title: Dhyan Chand

text: His birthday, 29th August, is celebrated as National Sports Day in India every year. He received the Padma Bhushan from the Government of India in 1956.


title: Dhyan Chand

text: Chand earned three Olympic gold medals in field hockey. These were at the 1928, 1932, and 1936 games.


title: Dhyan Chand

text: Dhyan Chand was born on 29 August 1905 in Allahabad. His father was in the British Indian Army, and he played hockey in the army. The family moved often because of army transfers. The family finally settled in Jhansi, Uttar Pradesh, India.


title: Dhyan Chand

text: Chand joined the Indian Army at the age of 16. The Hindi word "Chand" literally means "the moon". Dhyan was given the nickname Chand because he would wait until the moon was out so that he could practice hockey.


title: Dhyan Chand

text: Chand's first international competition was with the Indian Army in New Zealand. The army later gave Chand permission to compete for a place on the Indian Olympic team for Field Hockey.


title: Dhyan Chand

text: During the 1928 Olympics, Chand was the top scorer of the tournament, scoring 14 goals in 5 matches. A newspaper report about India's triumph said, “This is not a game of hockey, but magic. Dhyan Chand is in fact the magician of hockey.”


title: Dhyan Chand

text: Chand was selected for the 1932 Olympic team without a tryout. The team once again won the gold medal. In the final on 11 August, India played against hosts USA. India won 24-1, a world record at the time.


title: Dhyan Chand

text: Chand was again selected without tryout for the 1936 Olympic team. India defeated Germany 8-1 in the final for the gold medal. Chand scored 3 goals.


title: Dhyan Chand

text: The Dhyan Chand Award is an award in India for lifetime achievement in sports. The National Stadium, Delhi was renamed Dhyan Chand National Stadium in 2002 in his honour.


title: Dhyan Chand

text: Chand's younger brother, Roop Singh, played on the Indian Field Hockey team in the 1932 and 1936 Olympics. His son, Ashok Kumar, won an Olympic bronze medal in 1972 for Field Hockey.


title: Odia language

text: Odia (), formerly known as Oriya, is an Indo-Aryan language, mainly spoken in the Indian state of Odisha. The language is also an official language of India. There are about 33 million people who speak Odia.


title: Odia language

text: A recording of India appeared on the screen. This is The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Odia:


title: Langur

text: The Gray langur or Hanuman langur (Semnopithecus) is a genus of colobine monkey. They are found in southeast Asia. The word "langur" means 'having a long tail'. It is commonly called the leaf monkey. They usually live in small groups of between 2 and 10 individuals. They mainly eat leaves, as well as some fruit. Langur spend most of their time in trees. They have white fur and black faces. They are considered sacred animals therefore the "National social mammal of India".


title: The Legend of Zelda

text: The Legend of Zelda is a series of open world adventure video games. The games are typically about a boy named Link who has to rescue Princess Zelda from Ganon. The first game of the franchise was made by Shigeru Miyamoto and was first sold February 21, 1986 by Nintendo. Most of the Zelda games take place in the fictional kingdom of Hyrule. The games all have fighting, adventuring, item collecting, puzzle-solving, and sometimes racing parts. "The Legend of Zelda" series has sold over 125 million games, with 22 different games in the series during 2017, making it the 20th best-selling video game series ever.


title: The Legend of Zelda

text: Hyrule is a fictional world in "The Legend of Zelda" series. It is inhabited by many races, including Hylians, Gorons, Zoras, and others.


title: The Legend of Zelda

text: Long after the adult version Link from "The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time" disappeared, Ganon returned, and when Link did not come to save the people of Hyrule, they asked the Goddesses to flood Hyrule. Hyrule was flooded, and many people died because of it. Hyrule was lost under the sea, and people lived on islands that are scattered around the Great Sea. The events of "" take place many years after.


title: The Legend of Zelda

text: Termina is a land only in "" that Link finds in the Lost Woods, that he has to save before the Moon crashes into it. It is an alternate land to Hyrule, and has many places and people that look or act like people from "The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time". The people who live in Termina are sometimes referred to as Terminans, or Terminan Hylians.


title: The Legend of Zelda

text: The Master Sword is a sword found in "The Legend of Zelda" series. Link uses it as a weapon in most games.


title: The Legend of Zelda

text: Known as the Sword of Evil's Bane, the Sword of Time, the Sword of Resurrection, and the Sword That Seals the Darkness, the Master Sword is to only be held by a person destined to be the Hero chosen by the Goddesses. The Link in "The Legend of Zelda: Skyward Sword" is the first holder of the Master Sword. The other Links are then given the right to wield the Master Sword because they carry the spirit of the Hero.


title: The Legend of Zelda

text: The Triforce is a mystic object in "The Legend of Zelda" universe created by gods Din, Nayru, and Farore. It has three parts - the first part is the Triforce of Courage, which Link has, the second is the Triforce of Wisdom, which Princess Zelda has, and the third is the Triforce of Power, which Ganon has. When it is completed, the person who unites it can make a wish using the power of the gods.


title: Plateau

text: The biggest, tallest plateau in the world is the Tibetan Plateau. A plateau with a lot of erosion is called a disconnected plateau. A plateau that is also a volcano is called a volcanic plateau. Some plateaus are under the ocean, like the Seychelles plateau or the Ontong Java Plateau. Plateaus are often by themselves with no other plateaus around, sometimes standing on top of mountains.


title: James VI and I

text: James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James I. He was the first monarch to be called the king of Great Britain. He ruled in Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 until his death and he ruled in England and Scotland from 24 March 1603 until his death. He became king of Scotland as a baby when his mother, Mary Queen of Scots, had to abdicate.


title: James VI and I

text: His reign was important because it was the first time England and Scotland had the same monarch. He was the first monarch of England from the House of Stuart. The previous English monarch had been Elizabeth I. She had died without any children, so the English agreed to have a Scottish monarch because James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, thus the closest relative Elizabeth had. By being king of both, he created a personal union, the Union of the Crowns.


title: James VI and I

text: James fought often with the Parliament of England. In addition, he did not use the kingdom’s money well. While James was ruling, the Scottish and English governments were quite stable. After James died, his son Charles tried to rule in the same way as James, but caused the English Civil War. At the end of the war in 1649, Charles was executed.


title: James VI and I

text: James was very well educated and good at learning. He helped people in England and in Scotland to study things such as science, literature, and art. James wrote "Daemonologie" in 1597, "The True Law of Free Monarchies" in 1598, "Basilikon Doron" in 1599, and "A Counterblaste to Tobacco" in 1604. He sponsored the Authorized King James Version of the Bible.


title: James VI and I

text: James was a target of the Gunpowder Plot. A group of Catholics planned to blow up the Houses of Parliament on 5 November 1605 during a ceremony while James was in the building. The plot was stopped when a member of the group, Guy Fawkes, was found in a basement with barrels of gunpowder. The event is remembered every year on 5 November, also known as Bonfire Night, where many people decide to celebrate and light bonfires and fireworks.


title: James VI and I

text: James believed in witchcraft. When he read "The Discoverie of Witchcraft", he ordered all copies of the book to be burnt. The king had an importance with the first English settlers.


title: James VI and I

text: The first permanent English established settlement in North America was made under the charter granted by James to Sir Thomas Gates and other in 1606.


title: Body mass index

text: The body mass index (or BMI) is a measure which shows whether people have the right weight for their height. The World Health Organisation (WHO), governments and health workers use it. It is also sometimes called the Quetelet index.


title: Body mass index

text: A scientist named Ancel Keys first used the term "body mass index" in 1972. He wrote that governments should measure the BMI of adults to find out whether they are too fat or too thin.


title: Body mass index

text: Health organisations, including the World Health Organisation (WHO), use the BMI to help decide whether people are too fat or too thin. The WHO uses these numbers for adults:


title: Body mass index

text: Some people disagree with these numbers. Some experts think the "Overweight" range for people with Asian body types should be 23–27.49, not 25–29.99. Some experts think the lowest "Normal" BMI should be 20 for men, and 18 for women.


title: Body mass index

text: BMI is useful for governments who want to know about the health of their people. For example, in the United States in 2007, 74% of adults had a BMI above 25 ("Overweight" or "Obese") and 27% of adults had a BMI above 30 ("Obese"). Many of these people will become ill because they are too fat. This information helps the United States government decide what to do about the health of its people.


title: Body mass index

text: BMI is less useful for finding out whether one person is too fat or too thin. BMI does not say how much weight is fat, how much is muscle and how much is bone. For example, many athletes have a high BMI. They are not fat. Their BMI is high because they have lots of heavy muscle. Other people have lots of fat and not much muscle. They are too fat but their BMI is normal.


title: Body mass index

text: Even so, BMI is popular. It is easy to use and easy to understand, and it gives useful information for people with "normal" bodies.


title: Body mass index

text: The Ponderal Index is similar to the body mass index, but the height is cubed, not squared. The formula is:


title: Aaliyah

text: Aaliyah Dana Haughton (January 16, 1979 – August 25, 2001) was an American singer, actress, dancer, and model.


title: Aaliyah

text: She was born in Brooklyn, New York, and raised in Detroit, Michigan. From her youth, she began to sing: she did singing competitions, castings and shows. Her career began in 1994 with the release of her first album "Age Ain't Nothing But A Number". She continued going to the High School of the Performing Arts after this.


title: Aaliyah

text: In 1996, Aaliyah's second album, "One in a Million". Aaliyah always wanted to act and she got the leading role in "Romeo Must Die" (2000). Then she starred in "Queen of the Damned" in 2002.


title: Aaliyah

text: In 2001, Aaliyah returned to music with her third eponymous album, she put a lot into it, as a singer and as an executive producer. She worked on it with her uncle. After completing her music video Rock the Boat, she was killed in a plane crash in the Bahamas on August 25, 2001 at age of 22. She was going to be in the movie "The Matrix Reloaded", but the filmmakers had to use another person after her death.


title: Aaliyah

text: Aaliyah Dana Haughton was born in Brooklyn, New York. She was of African American descent, with Native American heritage from her grandmother. Her father was of Jamaican heritage. She was the second and younger child of Diane and Michael Haughton. Aaliyah was enrolled in voice lessons by her mother, and she would perform at weddings, church choir and charity events. When she was five years old, her family moved to Detroit, Michigan, where she was raised along with her older brother, Rashad. She attended a Catholic school, Gesu Elementary, where she received a part in the stage play named "Annie" in first grade. From then on, she was determined to become an entertainer.


title: Aaliyah

text: Aaliyah's mother was a vocalist. Her uncle, Barry Hankerson, was an entertainment lawyer who had been married to Gladys Knight. As a child, Aaliyah traveled with Knight and worked with an agent in New York to audition for commercials and television programs, including "Family Matters"; she went on to appear on "Star Search" at the age of ten. She then auditioned for several record labels and appeared in concerts alongside Knight at age 11.


title: Aaliyah

text: Aaliyah attended the Detroit High School for the Performing Arts, where she majored in drama and graduated in 1997. Aaliyah began her acting career that same year.


title: Aaliyah

text: After Hankerson signed a distribution deal with Jive Records, he signed Aaliyah to his label named Blackground Records when Aaliyah was 12 years old. She released her debut album "Age Ain't Nothing but a Number" in 1994. Rumors circulated that she and her mentor R. Kelly were not only romantically involved, but had also married. Aaliyah admitted to a friendship with R. Kelly, which had developed while recording "Age Ain't Nothing but a Number". She said they would go out together and watch a movie or eat somewhere when they went on breaks from recording the album and said they were "rather close". She dismissed the rumors about her relationship with him as people taking it "the wrong way."


title: Aaliyah

text: Jamie Foster Brown wrote about R. Kelly's recollection of the time he had spent working with Aaliyah, writing, "R. Kelly told me that he and Aaliyah got together and it was just magic." Brown reported hearing Aaliyah being a frequent guest at R. Kelly's home and walking his dog 12 Play. Along with this, he heard that she was pregnant. There were complaints about Aaliyah being in the studio recording with a bunch of older men. Aaliyah went on to admit that she had lied about her age in court documents and filed suit in Cook County to have the records erased since she was not old enough at the time (being fifteen when the marriage took place) to get married without having the go-ahead by her parents. Reports indicate that Aaliyah had a crush on R. Kelly at some point, but after the marriage was ended, she ceased professional and personal contact with him.


title: Aaliyah

text: Jomo Hankerson later said that Aaliyah was treated bad over the marriage and that she had a hard time getting her second album to have a producer because of what had happened between her and R. Kelly. With the exception of Sean Combs, he said, there were not too many producers seeking to work with her because people were upset with her, which he did not understand given her age at the time. After the marriage ended, she stopped answering questions about R. Kelly and would often change the subject whenever it was brought up. This was noted by several organizations that did interviews with her. Aaliyah indicated that she would never again work with R. Kelly during an interview with Christopher John Farley, who went on to write a biography of the singer titled "Aaliyah: More Than a Woman". R. Kelly would go on to have more allegations about relationships with underage girls and the relationship with Aaliyah was brought up or mentioned most of the time as a starting point. He refused to discuss his relationship with her and explained his reason for doing this: ""Out of respect for her, and her mom and her dad, I will not discuss Aaliyah. That was a whole other situation, a whole other time, it was a whole other thing, and I'm sure that people also know that." According to her mother Diane Haughton, everything "that went wrong in her life" began with her relationship with R. Kelly. The allegations were dismissed as having little effect on her image or career.


title: Aaliyah

text: In 1996, Aaliyah left Jive Records and signed with Atlantic Records. She worked with record producers Timbaland and Missy Elliott, who contributed to her second studio album, "One in a Million". She developed friendships with the pair. Timbaland was in love with her, but did not act out on it due to her being years younger than him. Instead he wanted to be a bigger brother figure for her, similar to her own brother Rashad Haughton. However, he struggled with keeping his feelings at bay. During her last days, the pair had an argument and it would be the last time they would speak to each other, as he next learned that she had passed.


title: Aaliyah

text: She played as herself in the police drama television series "New York Undercover". During this time, Aaliyah participated in the Children's Benefit Concert, a charity concert that took place at the Beacon Theatre in New York.


title: Aaliyah

text: Aaliyah's first major movie role was in "Romeo Must Die". Aaliyah starred opposite martial artist Jet Li, playing a couple who fall in love amid their warring families. It grossed US$18.6 million in its first weekend, ranking number two at the box office. Aaliyah was scared about bad reviews so she did not look for them. She heard good things about her role in the movie, but there were critics that did not like her role because of her relationship with Jet Li's character not having any realism along with the rest of the movie.


title: Aaliyah

text: Before she died, she talked to the Isley Brothers about working together, having recorded one of their songs when she was younger during her tenure with Jive Records and was signed to appear in more movies. One of them was "Honey", which came out in 2003 "Some Kind of Blue", a romantic movie and "Sparkle", a movie produced by Whitney Houston that was the remake of the 1976 film of the same name. Houston said after Aaliyah passed that she wanted to be in the movie. Studio officials from Warner Brothers said she and her mother read the script and Aaliyah was passionate about appearing in the movie.


title: Aaliyah

text: Aaliyah had a vocal range of a soprano. With the release of her first single "Back & Forth", Dimitri Ehrlich of "Entertainment Weekly" expressed that Aaliyah's "silky vocals are more agile than those of self-proclaimed queen of hip-hop soul Mary J. Blige." Aaliyah described her sound as "street but sweet", which featured her "gentle" vocals over a "hard" beat. Though Aaliyah did not write any of her own material, her lyrics were described as in-depth. She incorporated R&B, pop and hip hop into her music. Her songs were often uptempo and melancholy, revolving around "matters of the heart". Her songs have been said to have "crisp production" and "staccato arrangements" that "extend genre boundaries" while containing "old-school" soul music. When she experimented with other genres, such as Latin pop and heavy metal, critics did not like the attempt. As her albums progressed, writers felt that Aaliyah acted more older, calling her progress a "declaration of strength and independence". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic described her eponymous album, "Aaliyah", as "a statement of maturity and a stunning artistic leap forward" and called it one of the strongest urban soul records of its time. She portrayed "unfamiliar sounds, styles and emotions", but managed to please critics with the contemporary sound it contained. Ernest Hardy of "Rolling Stone" felt that Aaliyah reflected a stronger technique, where she gave her best vocal performance. Others felt that she was "satisfying rather than extraordinary", stating that she added little to modern R&B.


title: Aaliyah

text: On August 25, 2001, at 6:50 pm (EST), Aaliyah and various members of the record company boarded a twin-engine Cessna 402B (registration N8097W) at the Marsh Harbour Airport in Abaco Islands, The Bahamas, to travel to the Opa-locka Airport in Florida, after they completed filming the music video for the single "Rock the Boat". They had a flight scheduled the following day, August 26, but with filming finishing early, Aaliyah and her entourage were eager to return to the United States and made the decision to leave immediately. The designated airplane was smaller than the Cessna 404 in which they had originally flown. The whole party and all of the equipment were accommodated on board. As a result, when the aircraft attempted to depart, it was over its maximum takeoff weight by and was carrying one excess passenger, according to its certification. The plane crashed shortly after takeoff, about from the runway. Aaliyah and the eight others on board, pilot Luis Morales III, hair stylist Eric Forman, Anthony Dodd, security guard Scott Gallin, video producer Douglas Kratz, stylist Christopher Maldonado, and Blackground Records employees Keith Wallace and Gina Smith, were all killed.


title: Aaliyah

text: According to findings from an inquest, conducted by the coroner's office in The Bahamas, Aaliyah suffered from "severe burns and a blow to the head", in addition to severe shock and a weak heart. The coroner theorized that, even if Aaliyah had survived the crash, her recovery would have been virtually impossible given the severity of her injuries. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) report stated that "the airplane was seen lifting off the runway, and then nose down, impacting in a marsh on the south side of the departure end of runway 27 and then exploding in flames." It indicated that the pilot was not approved to pilot the plane he was attempting to fly. Morales falsely obtained his Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) license by showing hundreds of hours never flown, and he may also have falsified how many hours he had flown in order to get a job with his employer, Blackhawk International Airways. Additionally, an autopsy performed on Morales revealed traces of cocaine and alcohol in his system. The NTSB reported that the maximum allowed gross weight of the plane was "substantially exceeded" and that the center of gravity was positioned beyond its rear limit. John Frank of the Cessna Pilots Association stated that the plane was "definitely overloaded".


title: Aaliyah

text: The day of the crash was Morales' first official day with Blackhawk International Airways, an FAA Part 135 single-pilot operation. Morales was not registered with the FAA to fly for Blackhawk. As a result of the accident, Aaliyah's parents filed a wrongful death lawsuit against the company, which was settled out of court for an undisclosed amount. Barry & Sons, Inc., a corporation formed in 1992 to develop, promote and capitalize Aaliyah and to oversee the production and distribution of her records and music videos, brought an unsuccessful lawsuit in the New York Supreme Court against Instinct Productions LLC, the company that was hired in August 2001 to produce the music video for "Rock the Boat". The case was dismissed because of New York's wrongful death statute only permitting certain people to recover damages for wrongful death.


title: Aaliyah

text: Aaliyah's funeral was held on August 31, 2001, at the Saint Ignatius Loyola Church in Manhattan. Her body was set in a silver casket, which was carried in a glass hearse and was drawn by horse. An estimated 800 mourners were in attendance of the procession. Among those in attendance at the private ceremony were Missy Elliott, Timbaland, Gladys Knight, Lil' Kim and Sean Combs. After the service, 22 white doves were released to symbolize each year of Aaliyah's life. She was interred in a crypt in a private room in the Rosewood Mausoleum at the Ferncliff Cemetery.


title: Aaliyah

text: The week after Aaliyah's death, her third studio album, "Aaliyah", rose from number 19 to number one on the "Billboard" 200. "Rock the Boat" was released as a posthumous single. The music video premiered on BET's "Access Granted"; it became the most viewed and highest rated episode in the history of the show. The song peaked at number 14 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number two on the "Billboard" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It was also included on the "Now That's What I Call Music! 8" compilation series; a portion of the album's profits was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund. The following two singles from "Aaliyah", "More than a Woman" and "I Care 4 U", peaked within the top 25 of the "Billboard" Hot 100. The album was certified double Platinum by the RIAA and sold 2.95 million copies in the United States. "More than a Woman" reached number one in the UK singles chart making Aaliyah the first deceased artist to reach number one in the UK single chart. "More than a Woman" was replaced by George Harrison's "My Sweet Lord" which is the only time in the UK singles chart history where a dead artist has replaced another dead artist at number one.


title: Aaliyah

text: She won two posthumous awards at the American Music Awards of 2002; Favorite Female R&B Artist and Favorite R&B/Soul Album for "Aaliyah". Her second and final movie, "Queen of the Damned", was released in February 2002. Before its release, Aaliyah's brother, Rashad, re-dubbed some of her lines during post-production. It grossed US$15.2 million in its first weekend, ranking number one at the box office. On the first anniversary of Aaliyah's death, a candlelight vigil was held in Times Square, where millions of fans observed a moment of silence. Throughout the United States, radio stations played her music in remembrance. In December 2002, a collection of previously unreleased material was released as Aaliyah's first posthumous album, "I Care 4 U". A portion of the proceeds was donated to the Aaliyah Memorial Fund, a program that benefits the Revlon UCLA Women Cancer Research Program and Harlem's Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. It debuted at number three on the "Billboard" 200, selling 280,000 copies in its first week. The album's lead single, "Miss You", peaked at number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and was at the top of the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. In August of the following year, clothing retailer Christian Dior donated profits from sales in honor of Aaliyah.


title: Aaliyah

text: Aaliyah was signed to appear in several future movies, including "Honey" (recast to Jessica Alba). "Some Kind of Blue" and a Whitney Houston-produced remake of the 1976 movie "Sparkle" were canceled due to Aaliyah's death. Before her death, Aaliyah had filmed part of her role in "The Matrix Reloaded" and was scheduled to appear in "The Matrix Revolutions" as Zee. The role was later recast to Nona Gaye. Aaliyah's scenes were later included in the tribute section of the "Matrix Ultimate Collection" series.


title: Aaliyah

text: In 2005, Aaliyah's second compilation album, "Ultimate Aaliyah" was released in the UK by Blackground Records. "Ultimate Aaliyah" is a three disc set, which included a greatest hits audio CD and a DVD. Andy Kellman of Allmusic remarked ""Ultimate Aaliyah" adequately represents the shortened career of a tremendous talent who benefited from some of the best songwriting and production work by Timbaland, Missy Elliott, and R. Kelly." A documentary movie "Aaliyah Live in Amsterdam" was released in 2011., shortly before the tenth anniversary of Aaliyah's death. The documentary, by Pogus Caesar, contained previously unseen footage shot of her career beginnings in 1995 when she was appearing in the Netherlands.


title: Aaliyah

text: In 2012 music producer Jeffrey "J-Dub" Walker via twitter said "Just got great news today; the smash unreleased song called "Steady Ground" I produced on #Aaliyah is gonna be on her upcoming album". Walker co-wrote "I Refuse" and "What if" from Aaliyah's third self-titled album and produced the song "Steady Ground" for her 'One in a Million' album. This second proposed posthumous album would feature this song using demo vocals since Walker claims the originals were somehow lost by his sound engineer. However, Walker's original tweet announcing this event has since been removed, and Aaliyah's brother, via Twitter, has stated that "no official album [is] being released and supported by the Haughton family."


title: Monopoly (game)

text: Monopoly is a board game played by two to eight players. In the game, players move around the spaces of the board, buying and selling land and buildings to try to become the richest player. When all the other players run out of money, you win the game.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: Many books give advice on how to win the game. An early book, "1000 Ways to Win Monopoly Games" was written by Jeffrey S. Lehman (who later became President of Cornell University) and Jay S. Walker (founder of priceline.com.)


title: Monopoly (game)

text: "Monopoly" was created by Elizabeth Magie as a teaching tool based on the economic concept of land monopoly. Magie created the game in 1903, to explain the single tax theory of Henry George. She wanted her game to be an educational tool to highlight the negative aspects of concentrating land in private monopolies. Her game, which she called "The Landlord's Game", was self-published, beginning in 1906. The original rules included several ways to play the game, including one where players could agree to share the land rents and everyone would win.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: In 1934, Charles Darrow in Philadelphia found The Landlord's Game and thought that the game was more exciting when players didn't share their land rents. He published his own version of the game where making money was the focus of the game, and called it "Monopoly." Later on, he sold his game to Parker Brothers, who falsely credited Charles Darrow as the creator of the game.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: On the Monopoly board are 40 spaces. In the four corners of the board are "GO", "Free Parking", "JAIL", and "Go to Jail". Along the sides of the board are properties (streets and businesses) for sale. The properties are: 22 "streets" (each marked with one of eight colors), 4 "railroad stations", the "Electric Company" and the "Water Works". There are also spaces called "Income Tax", "Luxury Tax", "Community Chest" and "Chance".


title: Monopoly (game)

text: In the original version, the properties and railroad stations were named after the streets in Atlantic City in New Jersey in the United States. In the British original version, they are named after streets in London.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: To prepare for the game, the board is put in position. The Chance and Community Chest cards are shuffled and placed face down on the board. Each player chooses a token (a playing piece), such as a thimble, a rocking horse, a boot, a dog, etc. (the tokens vary depending on the edition), and places it on "GO". One player is chosen to be the banker - this player is trusted with handing out money from the bank and collecting players' spent money during the game.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: The banker gives each player $1500 to start with. Each player rolls the dice, and the player who rolled the highest total takes the first turn.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: On your turn, you roll the dice and move your token forward (clockwise around the edge of the board) the same number of spaces as the sum of the dice you rolled. You must then follow the instructions of whatever space your token lands on.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: If you roll doubles (the same number on both dice), you get to take another turn after this one is over. However, if you roll doubles three times in a row, you don't get your third turn but you must go directly to Jail (see below).


title: Monopoly (game)

text: The Jail space has two sections, labeled IN JAIL and JUST VISITING. If you land on Jail by your normal roll of the dice, place your token on JUST VISITING and nothing bad (or good) happens to you. But there are three ways to be placed IN JAIL:


title: Monopoly (game)

text: If you are put into Jail, take your token from wherever it is and place it directly on IN JAIL. This does not count as a move, so if this causes you to go past GO, you don't collect $200 from the Bank. If you are put in Jail, your turn ends immediately, even if you rolled doubles and would get to take another turn.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: While you are in Jail, you still roll the dice on your turn but you don't get to move your token. There are three ways to get out of Jail:


title: Monopoly (game)

text: Note that being in Jail doesn't prevent you from doing anything else in the game - it just stops your token from moving around the board.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: There are many editions of Monopoly. Officially-licensed editions are produced by Hasbro itself or by USAopoly, and unofficial editions are published by Toy Vault. Official versions are named "____ Monopoly" (such as "Star Wars Monopoly") and feature the Monopoly logo, and unofficial versions are named "____-Opoly" (such as "Python-Opoly") and do not feature the Monopoly logo.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: Milton Bradley has produced editions to symbolize the decades of popular culture in America. For example, The 1970s Monopoly has spaces depicting the fashion of the time. Players can purchase bell bottom blue jeans instead of street properties.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: A number of video game adaptations have been made. In addition, many electronic editions exist that use credit cards instead of paper money.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: Acquire is another game with rules for more advanced business practices with stocks, but has similar basic concepts of Monopoly (owning properties of the same color, buying land and building on it, making the most money, etc.).


title: Monopoly (game)

text: People play Monopoly for different reasons. Some may play for family game night, others use it as a learning tool at school, and others play it just to have fun.


title: Monopoly (game)

text: Monopoly may be used as a teaching tool to teach children a variety of lessons while having fun. It teaches how to make deals when trading, playing fair (because cheaters never win), knowing the value of money, addition and subtraction, good sportsmanship, the thrill of competition, strategies and organization. At an elementary level, “it offers a marvelous vehicle for teaching mathematics”. Through the game, children explore different areas of mathematics: not only adding and subtracting but also probability, percentages, and patterns. At a higher level, teachers can use Monopoly to teach microeconomics principles.


title: Gay

text: Gay is a word used to describe someone who is homosexual. Today, the word usually means a person who is sexually attracted to people of the same sex. Often that person is also romantically interested in people of the same sex. A gay person can be a male who likes other males or a female who likes other females.


title: Gay

text: A person that is attracted to people only of the opposite sex is heterosexual. While a person attracted to people of the same sex and the opposite sex is bisexual.


title: Gay

text: The word "gay" can mean any homosexual person, but sometimes it is used just for homosexual men. In that case, homosexual women are called "lesbian" instead. Sometimes, people use the word "queer" to mean the same thing as "gay" when talking about sexuality.


title: Gay

text: In the early 20th century and before, "gay" used to mean 'happy' or 'carefree', but now people use it to define sexuality.


title: Robert Walpole

text: Sir Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford was a British politician. He is regarded by many as the first de facto Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (then called Great Britain). The position of prime minister was not actually official at that time.


title: Robert Walpole

text: Walpole He was born in Houghton, Norfolk on 26 August 1676. He died on 18 March 1745. Historians think he became England's first Prime Minister in 1721. He was then Prime Minister for a longer time than anyone who came after him. This long time is sometimes called "the robinocracy" (Robin is a common version of Robert).


title: Robert Walpole

text: Although the exact dates of Walpole's dominance are not entirely clear, the period 1721–1742 is often used. He dominated the Walpole–Townshend ministry, as well as the subsequent Walpole ministry, and holds the record as the longest-serving British prime minister in history.


title: Robert Walpole

text: W.A. Speck wrote that Walpole's uninterrupted run of 20 years as Prime Minister "is rightly regarded as one of the major feats of British political history... Explanations are usually offered in terms of his expert handling of the political system after 1720, [and] his unique blending of the surviving powers of the crown with the increasing influence of the Commons".


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: Between 1519 and 1521, Spanish conquistadors, led by Hernán Cortés, overthrew the Aztec Empire. This event is called the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. Cortés helped old enemies of the Aztecs defeat them in one of the most important events in the Spanish colonization of the Americas.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: The Spanish conquest was devastating to the Aztec people. By 1680, 94% of the Aztec population had died.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: In 1515, two of the states in the Aztec Empire rebelled. This was nothing new for the Aztecs. However, this time, the Tlaxcala and Huexotzingo rebels beat the Aztec military.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: Then, in April 1519, Spanish conquistadors, led by Cortés, arrived on the coast of Mexico. In August they marched to Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire. At first, Montezuma II, the Aztecs' ruler, invited the Spanish into Tenochtitlan, and things were friendly. Even when the Spanish made Montezuma II a prisoner, the Aztecs stayed friendly.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: However, soon, while Cortés was away, Spanish soldiers attacked and killed many Aztecs during a festival. When Cortés got back, he got Montezuma II to tell the Aztecs to stop fighting the conquistadors. By this time, though, the Aztecs had made Montezuma II's brother, Cuauthemoc, the king. Nobody did what Montezuma II said. They kept fighting the conquistadors, and they killed two out of every three Spanish soldiers. In July 1520 the Spanish survivors fled to Tlaxcala, where enemies of the Aztecs protected them.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: Ten months later, Cortés came back to Tenochtitlan with more Spanish soldiers but mostly Tlaxcaltecas and other indigenous enemies of the Aztecs. They started a siege of Tenochtitlan, so that no food or supplies could get in. After 91 days, without any food, and with disease throughout the city, Cuauhtemoc finally surrendered to the Spanish on August 13, 1521. The Spanish destroyed Tenochtitlan. They started a Spanish colony that they named New Spain. The Aztec Empire had ended.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: First, their weapons and armor were better than the Aztecs'. Aztec warriors had only cotton armour and shields made of wood or reeds to protect them. The Spanish had metal armor and shields.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: None of these weapons could compare to the conquistadors' guns and steel swords. Their horses and war dogs gave them even more of an advantage against the Aztecs.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: As early as 1528, reports have said that Montezuma II thought Hernán Cortés was the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. Aztec legends said that Quetzalcoatl would return as a man, and Cortés had arrived on Quetzalcoatl's birthday. Aztec writings from the time say that when Montezuma II greeted Cortés, he gave an abdication speech, giving up the Aztec throne to "Quetzalcoatl-Cortés":


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: As historian David Carrasco explains: Motecuhzoma II is welcoming "Quetzalcoatl-Cortes ... back to his city in order to reoccupy the throne which has been guarded by Montezuma and the other [kings] ... The ancient prophecy has been fulfilled and the returning lord is invited to occupy his throne and visit the palace. There could hardly be a clearer statement of returning the sovereignty to the original king."


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: Some historians say that the Spanish conquistadors were not the only reason the Aztec Empire fell apart. By 1519, the Empire had other problems that made it easier for Spain to take it over. For example:


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: Because of these things, many people in the Aztec Empire were unhappy. Some of them helped the Spanish conquistadors take over the Empire. Some historians, like Brian Fagan and Nadia Durrani, say that the Empire would have fallen apart even if the Spanish had never come. However, because so many people had died of smallpox, there were also not enough people left to fight against the conquistadors when they did come.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: Under Spanish control, the Aztec Empire did not exist any more. The Spanish tried to change the Aztecs into Catholics and make them act like Spanish people. They made it easier to change from Aztec rule to Spanish rule by letting many Aztec nobles become Spanish nobles.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: The conquistadors rewarded people who had helped them defeat the Aztecs. Many received an Encomienda, a village full of Aztecs who were forced to work for them. This was not much different from what many serfs had done during the Aztec Empire. However, workers were badly abused, and many died. Because of this, a Spanish bishop named Bartolomé de las Casas suggested using African slaves to work in New Spain instead. Later, when he saw how much worse African slaves were treated, las Casas changed his mind about this.


title: Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire

text: After taking over the Aztec Empire, the Spanish conquistadors moved on to take over other parts of Mesoamerica. During the same 160 years from 1520 to 1680 between 85% and 95% of Mesoamerica's native population died.


title: Durban

text: Durban (Zulu: "eThekwini"; IPA: ) has the third largest population of a city in South Africa. It is in the province KwaZulu-Natal.


title: Durban

text: It is thought that the first known inhabitants of the Durban area arrived from the north around 100,000 BC, according to carbon dating of rock art found in caves in the Drakensberg. These people lived in the central plains of KwaZulu-Natal until the expansion of Bantu people from the north during the last millennium.


title: Sleep

text: Sleep is a state of resting, which happens in animals, including humans. During deep sleep, most of the muscles that animals can otherwise control are not active, but regain the energy for the next time they wake up. Animals during sleep are usually in an unconscious, relaxed state. Like most animals, healthy sleep in humans takes place at night. Asleep describes the condition where animals are in the process of sleeping. During this time, they will not react as quickly (if at all) as they would if they were awake. They can, however, wake up from sleep more easily than from hibernation or coma. All mammals, birds, many reptiles, amphibians and fish have a sleep cycle. In humans, other mammals, and most other animals that were studied, regular sleep is essential for survival.


title: Sleep

text: Sleep is extremely important to human health and well-being. Humans and animals need sleep in order for their bodies to be prepared for the next day. Everyday activities, one’s appearance, and how one expresses oneself all rely on this necessity. If one is tired (from not getting enough sleep), one will not be able to function properly in common activities. Being sleep-deprived leads to struggling to remember information, altering one’s mood, energy, health, focus and a number of other effects. Sleep deprivation (not allowing a person enough sleep) can even be used as torture. Also, the immune system releases compounds known as cytokines which are used to help fight inflammation and infection. If a person does not receive enough sleep, they will not have enough cytokines to protect them from getting sick. The body may not have time to complete memory recollection, muscle repair, and release hormones that regulate growth and appetite.


title: Sleep

text: During daytime, the sun is out and most people are awake. They work, go to school, or complete daily errands and activities. Many people sleep for a short time in the early afternoon for a quick rest—or because they are not able to sleep during the day. This is called a nap. A successful nap should run between 15 and 30 minutes, and longer naps taking 30–60 minutes will result in feeling dazed and less attentive.


title: Sleep

text: In some countries, most notably where the weather is warm, there is a tradition to take a nap right after noon, or early in the afternoon. This tradition is called siesta, and is most common in Spain and Latin America. Some stores and services close while their owners and/or employees take their siesta.


title: Sleep

text: The word "sleep" comes from the old Old Germanic verbs for sleep. In Old and Middle High German, it was called "SLAF". The original meaning of the word was "to slap", which was related to the word for "flabby" (not hard or firm).


title: Sleep

text: Many words related to "sleep" have very different meanings. For example, "sleep" may be used to mean death, so that "putting an animal to sleep" means to kill the animal without pain. "Sleep with someone" can also have a sexual meaning.


title: Sleep

text: Sleep helps the brain function. The details are not fully understood, but it is important to get enough sleep for the body and the brain to be healthy and to work properly. In general, animals (and people) sleep at periodic intervals, such as once a day. Certain animals send out signals to the others that they will soon go to sleep. Yawning is such a signal.


title: Sleep

text: Both humans and many animals sleep about once a day. Some animals, such as cats, sleep many times a day for short periods up to 15 hours a day (or even longer).


title: Sleep

text: Not only people sleep, but all mammals and birds, and most fish, reptiles and other animals also too.


title: Sleep

text: While humans sleep, REM and NREM are sleep patterns that help with long-term memory, remembering information, procedural memory, and creative thinking.


title: Sleep

text: In mammals and birds, sleep can be divided into two categories. In one of them, the eyes move rapidly. It is called REM-sleep (rapid eye movement). Most dreams take place in this phase. as the body becomes relaxed and the eyes move while sleeping. This phase helps prepare one for the next day. REM-sleep occurs normally at intervals throughout the night, and the periods of REM-sleep increase in length in the second half of the night. It is often encountered 90 minutes after falling asleep, and continues to occur every 90 minutes. REM-sleep was first discovered in 195253.


title: Sleep

text: REM sleep is found in mammals and songbirds, but is "poorly established" in reptiles and fish. According to a survey:


title: Sleep

text: The other category, where this movement of the eyes does not happen, is called NREM-sleep (Non-REM sleep). In general, dreams do not occur during this time. There are three or four stages of NREM-sleep. Stage I is just barely sleeping, or dozing. Stage II is also light sleep. Normally, in adult humans, about half of the time spent asleep is spent in light sleep. Stages III and IV are called deep sleep. Deep sleep is necessary for growth and healing. It can be quite difficult to awaken someone who is in stage III or stage IV sleep. Sometimes, stages III and IV are combined and called stage III.


title: Sleep

text: Adult humans normally sleep in cycles of 90 to 110 minutes each. The night's sleep can be 4 or 5 of these cycles. Each cycle includes, in this order: stage I, stage II, stage III (IV), and REM.


title: Sleep

text: People who regularly get less than 8 hours of sleep a night tend to complain more and feel very fatigued throughout the day. Getting the appropriate amount of sleep is extremely important, as it could affect one’s body and increase the chances of serious health problems. For each age group, there are different amounts of sleep that are recommended:


title: Sleep

text: The timing of sleep and the amount of it are both important. Both are different for different people. Some adults sleep best from 22:00 to 05:00 or 06:00 or 07:00. Some sleep best from midnight to seven or eight. These variations are normal.


title: Sleep

text: How much sleep is enough also depends on age. Children need more sleep than adults. Newborn babies sleep about 18 hours per day. Small babies sleep many times a day; human babies do not develop circadian rhythms before they are 3 – 4 months old. At the age of 1 year, they sleep for about 14 hours.


title: Sleep

text: A nine-year-old should sleep about 9–10 hours per day and teenagers, too, also need that much sleep. Adults who sleep less than about 8 hours a day perform worse than those who sleep that long.


title: Sleep

text: Poor habits could affect one’s sleep schedule in many ways without taking notice. A few habits that are very common and ruin sleep are:


title: Sleep

text: A good night’s sleep is extremely important for one’s quality of life. People may have trouble going to sleep, staying asleep or getting enough sleep. This usually means that they are too sleepy in the daytime.


title: Sleep

text: There are many things that influence sleep. Also some substances, called stimulants – coffee is an example – can cause poor sleep. When people have just eaten something, the body is busy digesting what they have eaten. This can cause poor sleep, too. Worrying and stress can also cause poor sleep.


title: Sleep

text: There are many diseases that cause poor sleep. Fever can lead to bad dreams. Poor sleep can be a side effect of some medications.


title: Sleep

text: Sleep disorders directly influence how a person sleeps. Examples of sleep disorders are narcolepsy, sleep apnea and circadian rhythm sleep disorders.


title: Sleep

text: Sleep specialists - doctors specialized in sleeping problems - often suggest better sleep hygiene to people with sleeping problems. Sleep hygiene means things people can try, such as:


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The Civil Rights Movement was a social movement in the United States that tried to gain equal rights for African Americans. The movement is famous for using non-violent protests and civil disobedience (peacefully refusing to follow unfair laws). Activists used strategies like boycotts, sit-ins, and protest marches. Sometimes police or racist white people would attack them, but the activists never fought back.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: However, the Civil Rights Movement was made up of many different people and groups. Not everyone believed the same things. For example, the Black Power movement believed black people should demand their civil rights and force white leaders to give them those rights.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The Civil Rights Movement was also made of people of different races and religions. The Movement's leaders and most of its activists were African-American. However, the Movement got political and financial support from labor unions, religious groups, and some white politicians, like Lyndon B. Johnson. Activists of all races came to join African-Americans in marches, sit-ins, and protests.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The Civil Rights Movement was very successful. It helped to get five federal laws and two amendments to the Constitution passed. These officially protected African Americans' rights. It also helped change many white people's attitudes about the way black people were treated and the rights they deserved.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Before the American Civil War, there were almost four million black slaves in the United States. Only white men with property could vote, and only white people could be United States citizens.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: After the Civil War, the U.S. government tried to enforce the rights of ex-slaves in the South through a process called Reconstruction. However, in 1877, Reconstruction ended. By the 1890s, the Southern states' legislatures were all-white again. Southern Democrats, who did not support civil rights for blacks, completely ruled the South. This gave them a lot of power in the United States Congress. For example, Southern Democrats were able to make sure that laws against lynching did not pass.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Starting in 1890, Southern Democrats began to pass state laws that took away the rights African Americans had gained. These racist laws became known as Jim Crow laws. For example, they included:


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In 1896, the United States Supreme Court ruled in a case called "Plessy v. Ferguson" that these laws were legal. They said that having things be "separate but equal" was fine. In the South, everything was separate. However, places like black schools and libraries got much less money and were not as good as places for whites. Things were separate, but not equal.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Violence against black people increased. Individuals, groups, police, and huge crowds of people could hurt or even kill African Americans, without the government trying to stop them or punishing them. Lynchings became more common.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Problems were worse in the South. However, social discrimination and tensions affected African Americans in other areas as well.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Segregation in housing was a problem across the United States. Many African Americans could not get mortgages to buy houses. Realtors would not sell black people houses in the suburbs, where white people lived. They also would not rent apartments in white areas. Until the 1950s, the federal government did nothing about this.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: When he was elected in 1913, President Woodrow Wilson made government offices segregated. He believed that segregation was best for everyone.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Black people fought in both World War I and World War II. However, the military was segregated, and they were not given the same opportunities as white soldiers. After activism from black veterans, President Harry Truman de-segregated the military in 1948.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: African Americans tried to fight back against discrimination in many ways. They formed new groups and tried to form labor unions. They tried to use the courts to get justice. For example, in 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was created. It fought to end race discrimination through lawsuits, education, and lobbying.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: However, eventually, many African Americans became frustrated and began to dislike the idea of using slow, legal strategies to achieve desegregation. Instead, African American activists decided to use a combination of protests, nonviolence, and civil disobedience. This is how the Civil Rights Movement of 1954-1968 began.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Schools in the South, and some other parts of the country, had been segregated since 1896. In that year, the Supreme Court had ruled in "Plessy v. Ferguson" that segregation was legal, as long as things were "separate but equal."


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In 1951, thirteen black parents filed a class action lawsuit against the Board of Education in Topeka, Kansas. In the lawsuit, the parents argued that the black and white schools were not "separate but equal." They said the black school was much worse than the white one.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The lawsuit eventually went to the United States Supreme Court. After years of work, Thurgood Marshall and a team of other NAACP lawyers won the case. The Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were illegal. All nine Supreme Court judges agreed.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: "We conclude that, in ... public education, the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: This was the Civil Rights Movement's first major victory. However, "Brown" did not reverse "Plessy v. Ferguson." Brown made segregation in schools illegal. But segregation in all other places was still legal.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Civil rights leaders focused on Montgomery, Alabama, because the segregation there was so extreme. On December 1, 1955, local black leader Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a public bus to make room for a white passenger. Parks and was a civil rights activist and NAACP member; she had just returned from a training on nonviolent civil disobedience. She was arrested.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: African-Americans gathered and organized the Montgomery Bus Boycott. They decided they would not ride on the buses again until they were treated the same as whites. Under segregation, blacks could not sit in front of whites - they had to sit in the back of the bus. Also, if a white person told a black person to move so they could sit down, the black person had to.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Most of Montgomery's 50,000 African Americans took part in the boycott. It lasted for 381 days and almost bankrupt the bus system. Meanwhile, the NAACP had been working on a lawsuit about segregation on buses. In 1956, they won the case, and the Supreme Court ordered Alabama to de-segregate its buses. The boycott ended with a victory.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In 1957, the NAACP had signed up nine African American students (called the "Little Rock Nine") to go to Little Rock Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. Before this, only whites were allowed at the school. However, the Little Rock School Board had agreed to follow the Supreme Court's decision in "Brown v. Board of Education" and de-segregate its schools.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Then came the black students' first day of school. The Governor of Arkansas called out soldiers from the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the black students from even entering the school. This was against a Supreme Court ruling, so President Dwight D. Eisenhower got involved. He took control of the Arkansas National Guard and ordered them to leave the school. Then he sent soldiers from the United States Army to protect the students. This was an important civil rights victory. It meant the federal government was willing to get involved and force states to end segregation in schools.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Unfortunately, the Little Rock Nine were treated very badly by many of the white students at the school. At the end of the school year, Little Rock Central High School closed so it would not have to allow black students the next year. Other schools across the South did the same thing.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Between 1958 and 1960, activists used sit-ins to protest segregation at lunch counters (small restaurants inside stores). They would sit at the lunch counter and politely ask to buy some food. When they were told to leave, they would continue to sit quietly at the counter. Often they would stay until the lunch counter closed. Groups of activists would keep coming back to sit in at the same places until those places agreed to serve African Americans at their lunch counters.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In 1958, the NAACP organized the first sit-in in Wichita, Kansas. They sat in at a lunch counter in a store called Dockum's Drug Store. After three weeks, they got the store to de-segregate. Not long after, all of the Dockum Drug Stores in Kansas were de-segregated. Next, students in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma led a successful sit-in at another drug store.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In 1960, college students (including some white students) began to sit in at a Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina. After a while, they began to sit in at other lunch counters. In the stores that held these lunch counters, sales dropped by one-third. These stores de-segregated to avoid continuing to lose money. After five months of sit-ins, the Woolworth's in Greensboro also de-segregated its lunch counter. Newspapers all over the country wrote about the Greensboro sit-ins. Soon, people started sitting in across the South.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: A few days after the Greensboro students started their sit-in, students in Nashville, Tennessee began their own sit-ins. They chose stores in the part of Nashville that had the most businesses. Before starting their sit-ins, they decided they would not be violent, no matter what. They wrote out rules, which activists in other cities began to use also. Their rules said:


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: "Do not [hit] back or curse if abused. ... Do not block entrances to stores outside [or] the aisles inside. [Be polite] and friendly at all times. Do sit straight; always face the counter. ... Do refer information seekers to your leader in a polite manner. Remember the teachings of Jesus, Gandhi, Martin Luther King. Love and nonviolence is the way."


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Many of the Nashville students were attacked and abused by groups of white people; arrested; and even beaten by police. However, the students were always nonviolent. Their protests, and the attacks on them, brought more newspaper stories and attention. It also showed how the activists were truly nonviolent. After three months of sit-ins, all of the lunch counters in Nashville's downtown department stores were de-segregated.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Soon, there were sit-ins all over the country. Sit-ins even happened in Nevada, and in northern states like Ohio. Over 70,000 people, black and white, took part in sit-ins. They used sit-ins to protest all kinds of segregated places - not just lunch counters, but also beaches, parks, museums, libraries, swimming pools, and other public places.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The sit-ins even got the support of President Eisenhower. After the Greensboro sit-ins started, he said he was "deeply sympathetic with the efforts of any group to enjoy the rights of equality that they are guaranteed by the Constitution."


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In April 1960, students who had led sit-ins were invited to a conference. At the conference, they decided to form the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC). SNCC would become an important group in the civil rights movement.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In 1960, the Supreme Court had ruled in "Boynton v. Virginia" that it was illegal to segregate people on public transportation that was going from one state to another. In 1961, student activists decided to test whether the Southern states would follow this ruling. Groups of black and white activists decided to ride buses through the South, sitting together instead of segregating themselves. They planned to ride buses from Washington, D.C., to New Orleans, Louisiana. They called these rides the "Freedom Rides."


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) brought in more Freedom Riders to keep the movement going. They were also met with violence:


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: However, people around the country began to support the Freedom Riders, who had never used violence, even when being attacked. Eventually, Robert Kennedy, the Attorney General in his brother John F. Kennedy's government, insisted on a new law about de-segregation. It said that:


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Between 1961 and 1965, activist groups worked on trying to get black people registered (signed up) to vote. Since the end of Reconstruction, the Southern states had passed laws and used many strategies to keep black people from registering to vote. Often, these laws did not apply to white people.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Voter registration activists started out in Mississippi. All of Mississippi's civil rights organizations joined together to try to get people registered. Activist groups in Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina then started similar programs. However, when the activists tried to register black people to vote, police, white racists, and the Ku Klux Klan beat, arrested, shot, and even murdered them.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Meanwhile, black people who tried to register to vote were fired from their jobs, thrown out of their homes, beaten, arrested, threatened, and sometimes murdered.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In 1964, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed. It made discrimination illegal, and specifically said it was illegal to have different voter registration requirements for different races. However, even after this law was passed, the Southern states still made it very difficult for black people to vote. Finally, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was passed. This law included ways to make sure that all United States citizens were getting their right to vote.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Starting in 1956, a black man named Clyde Kennard wanted to go to Mississippi Southern College. Kennard had served in the Korean War, and he wanted to use the GI Bill to go to college. The college's president, William McCain, asked state politicians and a local racist group who supported segregation to make sure Kennard never got into the college.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Kenner was arrested twice for crimes he never committed. Eventually he was convicted and sentenced to seven years in prison. After Kennard had spent three years in prison doing forced labor, Governor Ross Barnett pardoned him. Journalists had looked into Kennard's case, and wrote that the state did not give Kennard the treatment he needed for his colon cancer. Kennard died that same year. Later, in 2006, a court ruled that Kennard was innocent of the crimes he had been sent to jail for.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In September 1962, James Meredith won a lawsuit that gave him the right to go to the University of Mississippi. He tried three times to get into the university to sign up for classes. Governor Ross Barnett blocked Meredith each time. He told Meredith: "[N]o school will be integrated in Mississippi while I am your Governor."


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Attorney General Robert Kennedy sent United States Marshals to protect Meredith. On September 30, 1962, Meredith was able to enter the college with the Marshals protecting him. However, that evening, students and other racist whites started a riot. They threw rocks and fired guns at the Marshals. Two people were killed; 28 marshals were shot; and another 160 people were hurt. President John F. Kennedy sent the United States Army to the school to stop the riot. Meredith was able to begin classes at the college the day after the Army arrived. Meredith survived harassment and isolation at the college and graduated on August 18, 1963, with a a degree in political science.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Meredith and other activists kept working on de-segregating public universities. In 1965, the first two African American students were able to go to the University of Southern Mississippi.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In 1963, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) started a campaign in Birmingham, Alabama. Its goals were to de-segregate the stores in downtown Birmingham; make hiring fair; and create a committee, including blacks and whites, that would make a plan for de-segregating Birmingham's schools. Martin Luther King described Birmingham as "probably the most [completely] segregated city in the United States."


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Birmingham's Commissioner of Public Safety was Eugene "Bull" Connor. (A Commissioner of Public Safety is in charge of the police and fire department, and deals with emergencies that could be dangerous to people in the city.) Connor was very much against integration. He often let the police, Ku Klux Klan, and racist white people attack civil rights activists. He promised that blacks and whites would never be integrated in Birmingham.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The activists used a few different non-violent ways of protesting, including sit-ins, "kneel-ins" at local churches, and marches. However, the city got a court order saying all protests like this were illegal. The activists knew this was illegal, and in an act of civil disobedience, they refused to follow the court order. The protesters, including Martin Luther King, were arrested.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: While in jail, King was held in solitary confinement. While there, he wrote his famous "Letter from Birmingham Jail." He was let go after about a week.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: However, very few activists could afford to risk being arrested. One of SCLC's leaders then came up with the idea of training high school, college, and elementary school students to take part in the protests. He reasoned that students did not have full-time jobs to go to, they did not have families to take care of, and they could "afford" to be in jail more than their parents.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: "Newsweek" magazine later named this plan the "Children's Crusade." On May 2, more than 600 students, including some as young as 8 years old, tried to march from a local church to City Hall. They were all arrested.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: The next day, another 1,000 students started to march. Bull Connor let police dogs loose to attack them and used fire hoses to knock down the students. Reporters were there, and videos and pictures showing the violence were shown on television and printed across the country.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: People throughout the United States were so angry at seeing these videos that President Kennedy worked with the SCLC and the white businesses in Birmingham to work out an agreement. It said:


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Some of Birmingham's whites were not happy with this agreement. They bombed the SCLC's headquarters; the home of King's brother; and a hotel where King had been staying. Thousands of blacks reacted by rioting; some burned buildings and one even stabbed and hurt a police officer.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: On September 15, 1963, the Ku Klux Klan bombed a church in Birmingham, where civil rights activists often met before starting their marches. Since it was a Sunday, church services were going on. The bomb killed four young girls and hurt 22 other people.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: During the spring and summer of 1963, there were protests in over a hundred United States cities, including Northern cities. There were riots in Chicago after a white police officer shot a 14-year-old black boy who was running away from the scene of a robbery. In Philadelphia and Harlem, black activists and white workers fought when the activists tried to integrate state-run construction projects. On June 6, over a thousand white people attacked a sit-in in North Carolina; black activists fought back, and a white man was killed.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In Cambridge, Maryland, white leaders declared martial law to stop fighting between blacks and whites. Attorney General Robert Kennedy had to get involved to create an agreement to de-segregate the city.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: On June 11, 1963, Alabama Governor George Wallace actually stood in the doorway of the University of Alabama to stop its first two black students from getting inside. President Kennedy had to send United States soldiers to make him get out of the doorway, and make sure that the black students could get into the school.


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: Meanwhile, the Kennedy government had become very worried. Black leaders had told Robert Kennedy that it was getting harder and harder for African Americans to be nonviolent when they were getting attacked, and when it was taking so long for the United States government to help them get their civil rights. On the evening of June 11, President Kennedy gave a speech about civil rights. He talked about "a rising tide of discontent [unhappiness] that threatens the public safety." He asked Congress to pass new civil rights laws. He also asked Americans to support civil rights as "a moral issue ... in our daily lives."


title: Civil Rights Movement

text: In the early morning of June 12, Medgar Evers, a leader of the Mississippi NAACP, was murdered by a Ku Klux Klan member. The next week, President Kennedy gave Congress his Civil Rights bill, and asked them to make it into law.