title: Johor

text: The airport is also a regional hub of AirAsia, a regional low-cost no-frills airline. Malaysia Airlines also operate flights from Senai airport to some local and international destinations.


title: Johor

text: Johor is a constitutional monarchy. It was the first state in Malaysia which adopted the constitutional monarchy system, and its laws are stated in "Undang-undang Tubuh Negeri Johor" (Johor State Establishment Constitution), written by Sultan Abu Bakar. The constitutional head of Johor is the Sultan. This position can only be passed down and held by a member of the Johor Royal Family, who is descended from Sultan Abu Bakar. The State's Sultan since 1981 has been Sultan Iskandar Al-Haj.


title: Johor

text: Johor was the first state and currently the only state in Malaysia that has its own military force called Johor Military Force or 'Timbalan Setia Negeri'. It is a private army of the Sultan of Johor paid by the state government.


title: Johor

text: The state government is led by the Chief Minister or Menteri Besar. The current Chief Minister is Dato' Abdul Ghani Othman, a former civil servant. The Chief Minister is assisted by an executive council (exco), whose members are selected from the state assembly members.


title: Johor

text: The legislative branch of Johor's government is the Johor State Assembly. The state assembly makes laws in matters on the state. Members of the assembly are elected every five years in an election.


title: Johor

text: Johor is also known for its national parks. Johor currently has five national parks, with a combined area of more than 700 km² and several smaller recreational forest. Almost all recreational parks are based around a mountain. Johor also has the third largest mangrove forest reserve in Peninsular Malaysia (167 km²).


title: Johor

text: In the official census of 2010, the population of Johor was 3.35 million people with 48% Malays, 40% Chinese, 8% Indians and 4% others. It is the fifth largest state (18,984 km²) of Malaysia. It is the southernmost state in Peninsular Malaysia being South of Melaka, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang and North of Straits of Johor. The highest point in Johor is Gunung (mountain) Ledang (1276 m). Gunung Ledang is also known as Mount Ophir. Johor is the only state in Malaysia which has a 400 km beach stretching on both the East and the West coast.


title: Johor

text: Johor experiences wet equatorial weather with monsoon rain from Nov until Feb blowing from the South China Sea. Average annual rainfall is 1778 mm with average temperature of between 25.5 °C (78 °F) and 27.8 °C (82 °F). Humidity is between 82 and 86%.


title: Johor

text: On 19 December 2006, continuously heavy downpour occurred in Johor. Many towns such as Muar, Kota Tinggi and Segamat were seriously flooded with water levels as high as above ground level recorded in some areas. 15 lives were lost and many possessions were destroyed and this resulted in huge financial losses in Johor. More than 100,000 victims were evacuated to flood relief centres.


title: Johor

text: Johor is connected to Singapore by two roads: the Johor-Singapore Causeway and the Malaysia-Singapore Second Link.


title: Johor

text: The Johor-Singapore Causeway (length: 1038 m) was designed by Messrs Coode, Fizmaurice, Wilson and Mitchell of Westminster, while the construction contract was awarded to Topham, Jones & Railton Ltd of London. It started in 1909 as a railway link by Johor State Railway to connect Johor Bahru to Singapore, then the administrative headquarters of British interests in South-East Asia. Construction of the road section started in 1919 and was completed in 1923.


title: African penguin

text: The African penguin ("Spheniscus demersus"), also known as Black-footed penguin or Jackass penguin, is found on the south-western coast of Africa. It lives in colonies on 24 islands between Namibia and Algoa Bay, near Port Elizabeth, South Africa. The largest colony on Dyer Island, near Kleinbaai. Two colonies were established by penguins in the 1980s on the mainland near Cape Town at Boulders Beach near Simon's Town and Stony Point in Betty's Bay. Mainland colonies probably only became possible in recent times due to fewer predators, although the Betty's Bay colony has been attacked by leopards. The only other mainland colony is in Namibia, but it is not known when this was established.


title: African penguin

text: The African penguin may live up to 20 years. It grows up to 65 cm tall and weighs up to 3 kg. They eat fish, crabs and squids. The breeding time is 38 days.


title: African penguin

text: Boulders Beach is a tourist attraction, for the beach, swimming and the penguins. The penguins will allow people to approach them as close as a meter (3 ft).


title: African penguin

text: The closest relatives of the African Penguins are the Humboldt and Magellanic penguins found in southern South America and the Galápagos Penguin found in the Pacific Ocean near the equator.


title: Max Martin

text: Karl Martin Sandberg, known professionally as Max Martin, (born 26 February 1971) is a Swedish music producer and songwriter. Raised in Sweden, he became a producer and songwriter in the mid 1990s after writing a string of hits for pop artists like the Backstreet Boys, Britney Spears, *NSYNC, Kelly Clarkson, Katy Perry, and Pink, Taylor Swift, among many others.


title: Max Martin

text: Some of his earlier hits include I Want It That Way, Baby One More Time, "Larger Than Life", "Show Me the Meaning of Being Lonely", "Oops!...I Did It Again", "Everybody (Backstreet's Back)", "That's the Way It Is", and "It's My Life".


title: Max Martin

text: He also helped the Cheiron Studios create the Album "The Bridge", which has sold more than six million copies worldwide, including one million in the United States.


title: Starships (song)

text: "Starships" is a song by American rapper Nicki Minaj. It is from her second studio album, "". It is the tenth track on the album. It was released on February 14, 2012. The song has a pop rap sound similar to her previous single "Super Bass" and has elements of dance-pop and Eurodance. Minaj co-wrote the song with Wayne Hector, Carl Falk, Rami Yacoub, and its producer, RedOne, who is known for his work with Lady Gaga and Jennifer Lopez.


title: Starships (song)

text: The song has been very successful worldwide, reaching the top ten in countries like the US, UK, Canada, and Australia.


title: Heat wave

text: A heat wave is a period of unusually warm or very hot weather, and may be accompanied by high humidity. "Heat wave" is not an exact term: Any weather that feels warmer than people expect, might be called a heat wave. For example, temperatures normal for a warmer climate might be called a "heat wave" by people living in a place that is usually cooler. So a "heat wave" could mean a little warm weather, (like "several days as hot as summer, but in winter"), or temperatures so high they make history, (such as, "the hottest summer in a hundred years").


title: Gaspard Ulliel

text: Gaspard Ulliel (; 25 November 1984 – 19 January 2022) was a French actor. He played the young Hannibal Lecter in "Hannibal Rising" (2007). He also played Yves Saint Laurent in the biopic "Saint Laurent" (2014). He was a model for Chanel men's fragrance Bleu de Chanel.


title: Gaspard Ulliel

text: Ulliel was nominated for a César Award in 2002 and 2003. In 2004, he won that award for his role in "A Very Long Engagement". In 2017, he won a César Award for his role in "It's Only the End of the World".


title: Gaspard Ulliel

text: On 18 January 2022, Ulliel was injured while skiing at a resort in Savoie, France. He crashed into another skier and had serious brain trauma because he was not wearing a helmet. He was taken by helicopter to a hospital near La Tronche, France. Ulliel died the next day from his injuries, at the age of 37.


title: Persian people

text: The Persians are an Iranian ethnic group who natively speak the Persian language. They share the same Persian culture and history. In Western writings, it is common to name all ancient Iranian peoples as Persian, although some of them were not of the Persian culture, and did not speak the Persian language.


title: Persian people

text: Persian people include many groups, such as Lurs. Most Persians today live in Iran and have significant populations in Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It is important to note that ethnic groups such as the Tajiks are sometimes seen as an extension of the Persians rather than their own group and are thus referred to as "Central Asian Persians".


title: Salary

text: A salary is a type of payment a person gets for work done for a job. A "salary" is usually paid for a fixed period of time, such as a month or a week. Generally, it does not matter how many hours are worked, the salary remains the same. If someone is not a salaried employee, they are generally an "hourly" employee and are paid a certain amount for each hour's which is known as "wages."


title: Danny Kaye

text: Danny Kaye (born David Daniel Kaminsky; January 18, 1911 – March 3, 1987) was an American actor, singer, dancer and comedian. He hosted his own television show, "The Danny Kaye Show". He has also starred in many movies.


title: Verónica Alcocer

text: Verónica Alcocer García (born May 26, 1976) who has been the First Lady of Colombia since 2022. She is the wife of the former mayor of Bogotá and president of Colombia, Gustavo Petro.


title: Verónica Alcocer

text: She has a son from another marriage. Her and Petro were married in 2003 and they have two children together. During Petro's political career, she was the subject of many death threats and spying.


title: Inauguration

text: Inauguration is a ceremony marking the beginning of a politician taking office or the opening of, for example, a bridge.


title: Inauguration

text: When a politician, for example a President, takes office, he may make an oath of office in front of an audience as part of the inauguration ceremony.


title: Inauguration

text: The Inauguration of the President of the United States takes place on January 20 in the year after an election.


title: Locust

text: Locust are the swarming phase of certain species of short-horned grasshoppers in the family Acrididae. Such swarms are usually made of a great number of locusts. They do a lot of damage to the places where they pass, by eating the crops.


title: Locust

text: These are species which breed rapidly under suitable conditions. The migratory locust is the best-known example. They become gregarious and migratory when their populations become dense enough. They form bands as nymphs and swarms as adults. Both the bands and the swarms are nomadic and rapidly strip fields and greatly damage crops. The adults are powerful fliers; they can travel great distances, consuming practically all green material wherever the swarm settles.


title: Locust

text: The origin and apparent extinction of certain species of locust—some of which grew to in length—are unclear.


title: Locust

text: Locusts are edible insects, and are considered a delicacy in some countries. There have been references to their consumption as food throughout history.


title: Locust

text: More detailed information on locusts can be found at the pages of the Australian Plague Locust Commission .


title: Thích Nhất Hạnh

text: Thích Nhất Hạnh (; October 11, 1926 – January 22, 2022) was a Vietnamese Zen Buddhist monk, teacher, author, poet and peace activist who is considered by many to be the father of mindfulness. He lived in the Plum Village Monastery in the Dordogne region in the South of France. He was born in Thừa Thiên Huế province, Vietnam.


title: Thích Nhất Hạnh

text: He created the term Engaged Buddhism in his book "Vietnam: Lotus in a Sea of Fire". A long-term exile, he was given permission to make his first return trip to Vietnam in 2005. Nhất Hạnh has published more than 100 books, including more than 40 in English.


title: Thích Nhất Hạnh

text: He believed that peace and joy is always accessible for all people. One way to discover that joy, is by what they call "mindful" meditation. Which is a type of meditation that concentrates on your breathing and embracing everything that comes up on your consciousness, without interpreting it with thought and critisism. But accompanying it with the great power of forgiveness, understanding and realisation of the present moment, which is also a very important point of reference in his teachings.


title: Thích Nhất Hạnh

text: Nhất Hạnh died on January 22, 2022 in Huế, Vietnam from problems caused by a stroke at the age of 95.


title: Hypergiant

text: A hypergiant (luminosity class 0) is a star with an enormous mass and luminosity, It shows signs of a very high rate of mass loss. The exact definition is not yet settled.


title: Hypergiant

text: Hypergiants are the largest stars in the universe, usually larger than supergiants. The hypergiant with the largest known diameter is Stephenson 2-18, which is about 2,150 times wider than the Sun.


title: Hypergiant

text: Another large hypergiant is NML Cygni, about 1,650 times wider than the Sun. It is one of the extreme luminous supergiant stars. A pulsating red hypergiant named UY Scuti is probably larger, with a radius of about 1,700 times the sun.


title: Hypergiant

text: Hypergiants are very hard to find and they have a short lifespan because of their size. While the Sun has a lifespan of around 10 billion years, hypergiants will only exist for a few million years.


title: Hypergiant

text: There are two special groups: luminous blue variables (LBV), and yellow hypergiants. Both of these types are very rare, with only a few examples in the Milky Way galaxy. Their rareness is probably because each type passes through this stage quite rapidly.


title: Hypergiant

text: As luminosity of stars increases greatly with mass, the luminosity of hypergiants often lies very close to the Eddington limit. This is the luminosity at which the force of the star's gravity equals the radiation pressure outward.


title: Hypergiant

text: This means that the radiative flux passing through the photosphere of a hypergiant may be nearly strong enough to lift away the photosphere. Above the Eddington limit, the star would generate so much radiation that parts of its outer layers would be thrown off in massive outbursts. This would effectively restrict the star from shining at higher luminosities for longer periods.


title: Hypergiant

text: A good candidate for hosting a continuum-driven wind is Eta Carinae, one of the most massive stars ever observed. Its mass is about 130 solar masses and its luminosity four million times that of the Sun. Eta Carinae may occasionally exceed the Eddington limit. The last time might have been outbursts observed in 1840–1860. These reached mass loss rates much higher than stellar winds would normally allow.


title: Hypergiant

text: Another theory to explain the massive outbursts of Eta Carinae is the idea of a deeply situated hydrodynamic explosion, blasting off parts of the star’s outer layers. The idea is that the star, even at luminosities below the Eddington limit, would have insufficient heat convection in the inner layers, resulting in a density inversion potentially leading to a massive explosion. The theory has, however, not been explored very much, and it is uncertain whether this really can happen.


title: Springfield, Illinois

text: Springfield is the capital city of the U.S. state of Illinois. It is the county seat and largest city of Sangamon County, Illinois. It is close to the center of the state. In the 2000 census, Springfield had more than 110,000 people living in it.


title: Springfield, Illinois

text: The state Capitol, in the middle of Springfield, is where the General Assembly (the state's legislature) meets and where the governor's office is. The Capitol is a big building with a dome that can be seen from many miles away. Springfield also has an old capitol, which is now a historic site.


title: Springfield, Illinois

text: Springfield was the home of Abraham Lincoln before he was elected president in 1860. Lincoln was a lawyer and practiced law many places in Illinois. His office is near the old capitol. When he died, his body was brought back to Springfield. His home, his law office, his tomb are all open to the public. Springfield also has a new building with a museum and library dedicated to him and his presidency.


title: Springfield, Illinois

text: Springfield has two Interstate highways: I-55 and I-72. I-55 runs from Chicago to Springfield and then through St. Louis, Missouri. Springfield also has many smaller roads to other cities.


title: Insomnia

text: Insomnia is when people cannot sleep for long or short periods. A person with this problem is called an "insomniac". Insomnia can mean a problem with getting to sleep or a problem with staying asleep. Insomnia is a symptom and not a disease or illness.


title: Insomnia

text: There are drugs available that can help treat the different kinds of insomnia. In some cases, there are also certain herbs that can help. A third way that seems to help is a type of therapy that aims at changing the behaviour of those affected.


title: Damocloid

text: A damocloid is an asteroid that takes a long time to orbit the Sun. They are very similar to the periodic comets, like Halley's Comet, but a damocloid does not have a tail like a comet. They are believed to be comets that have lost their volatile material and are dormant. Scientists think that they come from the Oort cloud. This is because some damocloids, such as C/2001 OG (LONEOS), later developed tails and became comets. Some damocloids also orbit in the same direction as comets, which is the opposite direction to asteroids. By January 2010, scientists had found 41 damocloids.


title: George Galloway

text: George Galloway (born 16 August 1954) is a British politician. He is a former member of the Labour Party, but left in October 2003; later he was in the Respect Party, until this group was wound up in 2016.


title: George Galloway

text: Galloway was born and raised in Dundee, Scotland. He joined the Labour Party Young Socialists when he was 13 years old.


title: George Galloway

text: In 1983 Galloway became General Secretary of the London charity War on Want. Galloway was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Glasgow Hillhead from 1987-1997 and Glasgow Kelvin from 1997-2005. In 1998, he started a political campaign called the Mariam Appeal. Galloway became the Vice-President of the Stop the War Coalition in 2001. Galloway was thrown out of the Labour Party in 2003 because of some of his actions. From 2004 to 2016, he was a leading figure in Respect. He was MP for Bethnal Green and Bow from 2005-2010. From 29 March 2012 to 8 May 2015 he was the Respect Party MP for Bradford West.


title: George Galloway

text: In 1979, he married Elaine Fyffe; their daughter was born in 1983. The couple divorced in 1999. In 2000, he married Amineh Abu-Zayyad; she divorced him in 2009 for his unreasonable behaviour. He married Rima Husseini in 2007; their sons were born in 2007 and 2011. He married Putri Gayatri Pertiwi in 2012. Their son was born in 2014.


title: Antidote

text: An antidote is a chemical or medicine that will reverse the effects of some poisons. An antidote will make some or all of the effects of the poison go away.


title: Antidote

text: Not every poison has an antidote. For example, the poison aconitine has no known antidote. Aconitine is a very poisonous toxin that comes from the "Aconitum" plant. If enough of the poison enters a person's body, the person often dies.


title: Antidote

text: Activated charcoal can be used as an antidote for many poisons, but only poisons that were swallowed. For example, activated charcoal can be used for some drug overdoses, and for some poisonings. The charcoal attaches to the poison and keeps it from being taken into the bloodstream through the stomach.


title: Antidote

text: Activated charcoal will not work for every kind of poison. For example, it will not work for alcohol, strong acids, and products made of petroleum (like paint thinner and fuel oil).


title: Antidote

text: Antivenoms will fight the poisonous effects of bites from venomous animals (animals that make venom), like some snakes and spiders.


title: Antidote

text: To create some antivenoms, a little bit of venom is injected into an animal, like a horse. That animal's immune system will create antibodies which signal other cells in the immune system to destroy the venom. Then, those antibodies can be taken out of the animal's blood to make an antivenom. Then, when that antivenom is given to a person who has been poisoned by that venom, the person's immune system will already "know" to kill the venom.


title: Antidote

text: Sometimes, antidotes are poisons themselves. For example, atropine, which is found in deadly nightshade, is very poisonous. However, because of the way it reacts with the body, atropine is used as an antidote against some insecticides and certain kinds of nerve gas. Atropine is carried on many ambulances because it has other uses. For example, it can help restart a heart that is not beating.


title: Antidote

text: There is a product called DuoDote that combines atropine with a medicine called pralidoxime chloride (also called 2-PAM). Both medicines are antidotes against some insecticides and nerve gases. DuoDote is given by injection (through a needle into the thigh muscle). It comes in an auto-injector, which looks like a large pen. When its safety cap is taken off and the auto-injector is pushed against the thigh, it will automatically send the needle into the thigh and deliver the medicines. DuoDote is not carried on many ambulances, but some special teams that specialize in treating poisons carry them.


title: Antidote

text: There are a few different antidotes to cyanide. Some of them need to be given together in order to work.


title: Antidote

text: Often, the first thing that medical professionals will do for cyanide poisoning is to give amyl nitrate or sodium nitrate. These work by making the cyanide attach (stick) to a chemical called methemoglobulin. When it is stuck to methemoglobulin, cyanide is not as dangerous. However, methemoglobulin will only stick to cyanide for a while. Eventually, it will not stick any more. This is why another medicine is needed.


title: Antidote

text: That medicine is called sodium thiosulfate. This medicine sticks to cyanide, and never un-sticks. It helps make cyanide into another chemical that is not poisonous. This new chemical can easily be removed from the body by the kidneys, through urination.


title: Antidote

text: Some ambulances carry cyanide antidote kits for firefighters who have breathed in too much smoke. (Smoke from a fire has cyanide in it.) These antidote kits are auto-injectors like the DuoDote.


title: Antidote

text: Ethanol - drinking alcohol - can actually be used as an antidote. It works for people who have been poisoned by drinking ethylene glycol. Ethylene glycol is used in antifreeze. Because ethylene glycol tastes very sweet, children and animals sometimes drink a lot of it without realizing that it is poison.


title: Antidote

text: Ethanol also works as an antidote for methanol poisoning. Methanol is sometimes called "wood alcohol." It is also used in antifreeze, fuel, and solvents. People can get methanol poisoning accidentally by getting methanol on their skin or breathing it in. Methanol is also poisonous if it is drunk.


title: Antidote

text: Ethanol works as an antidote for ethylene glycol and methanol by sticking to those poisons. Once the ethanol is stuck onto the poisons, the kidneys urinate out the poisons.


title: Antidote

text: A medicine called fomepizole is also an antidote for ethylene glycol and methanol poisoning. It works the same way as ethanol.


title: Antidote

text: Naloxone is an antidote for overdoses on opiates, like heroin, oxycodone (OxyContin), and other prescribed painkillers. The most common brand name for the naloxone antidote is Narcan.


title: Antidote

text: Opiates cause changes in the body by sticking to special opiate receptors (like landing spots) in the brain. If they are not attached to these receptors, they cannot cause any changes in the body. Naloxone works by pushing the opiates off their landing spots. Narcan sticks to those landing spots instead and keeps opiates from attaching to them.


title: Antidote

text: 100% (pure) oxygen is an antidote for carbon monoxide poisoning. When pure oxygen is not enough, hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT) can also be used.


title: Antidote

text: HBOT is done in a special tube or room that can handle high pressures (called a hyperbaric chamber). 100% pure oxygen is sent into the room for the patient to breathe. However, the air pressure is increased to three times more than the normal air pressure. This helps the lungs get more oxygen than they could if the patient were breathing at normal air pressure. It also makes it easier for the blood to carry more oxygen to the entire body.


title: Antidote

text: Vitamin K is an antidote for warfarin (Coumadin) poisoning. Warfarin is a medicine which makes the blood thinner. It is used to prevent blood clots. However, if a person is given too much warfarin, their blood can get too thin. When the blood is too thin, it cannot clot. This can cause serious bleeding problems.


title: Antidote

text: The blood needs vitamin K to be able to clot. When a person has warfarin poisoning, giving them vitamin K can make their blood able to clot again.


title: Antidote

text: It takes vitamin K four to six hours to reverse warfarin poisoning. Because of this, if a person with warfarin poisoning is bleeding, doctors may also give fresh frozen plasma. This will work more quickly to make the blood less thin.


title: Arizona Cardinals

text: The Arizona Cardinals are a professional American football team based in the Phoenix suburb of Glendale, Arizona. They are the oldest continuous professional American football club in the United States, founded in 1899 in Chicago, Illinois. They moved to St. Louis, Missouri in 1960 before moving to Phoenix in 1988. The head coach of the team is Kliff Kingsbury. As of 2019, their starting quarterback is Kyler Murray. Drew Stanton is currently the number 2 quarterback. Arizona Cardinals play their home games at State Farm Stadium. The Arizona Cardinals played in Super Bowl XLIII, but lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke is a cloud of very small, solid particles that is made when something is burned with a flame, such as wood or paper.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke can be bad because if it goes into the lungs of a person, it can hurt their lungs or even kill them (for example, in a house fire). Most people think that they are always able to see smoke, but people cannot see some types of smoke: they are invisible.


title: Smoke

text: Smoke removal is a set of measures designed to redistribute gas flows, reduce the temperature and concentration of smoke during a fire in order to: evacuate people from a building or to a safety zone; find people in safety zones; limit the spread of fire hazards; ensure the possibility of effective fire extinguishing by firefighters.


title: Smoke

text: When people smoke tobacco in cigars or cigarettes, they are burning the tobacco and inhaling the smoke. Tobacco smoke can hurt the mouth, throat, and lungs. It can cause mouth, throat, or lung cancer. It can also cause emphysema and bronchitis (trouble breathing). They continue doing it because the smoke also has a nicotine.


title: Smoke

text: Factories and power plants produce large amounts of smoke into the atmosphere which pollutes the air. Eventually the toxic chemicals in smoke fall to the ground, and then they pollute the soil and the water. When the air, soil and water are polluted with toxic chemicals, the chemicals also get absorbed by plants and animals (including humans).


title: Smoke

text: When Dry ice is put into water, the dry ice boils and makes fog. This is not real smoke but movie makers and other show people do this to simulate smoke.


title: Due process

text: Due process is the legal requirement that the government must respect all legal rights that are owed to a person. Due process balances the power of law of the land and protects the individual person from it. When a government harms a person without following the exact course of the law, this is a due process violation, which offends the rule of law.


title: Due process

text: Due process has also been frequently interpreted as limiting laws and legal proceedings. This means that judges—instead of legislators—may define and guarantee basic fairness, justice, and liberty. This interpretation has proven controversial, and is seen as being closer to the concepts of natural justice, and procedural justice used in various other jurisdictions. This interpretation of due process is sometimes expressed as a command that the government must not be unfair to the people or abuse them physically.


title: Due process

text: Due process developed from clause 39 of the Magna Carta in England. The Magna Carta called it "the law of the land" which became the more modern term due process. When English and American law gradually went in different directions, due process was not upheld in England, but did become part of the Constitution of the United States. It is found in the Fifth Amendment which says "No person shall…be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law,". It is applied to all states by the Fourteenth Amendment.


title: Due process

text: Due process is not used in contemporary English law. But it recognizes two similar concepts are natural justice and the British constitutional concept of the rule of law. However, neither concept lines up perfectly with the American theory of due process. It contains many implied rights not found in the ancient or modern concepts of due process in England.


title: Due process

text: Islamic law provides for due process. It includes the presumption of innocence, the right to remain silent and a fair and public trial before a judge. There is no jury and both parties, the injured party and the accused, usually present their own cases.


title: Due process

text: Scandinavia gets high ratings by the World Justice Project. They were noted for their criminal justice system including their observance of due process. As of the 2013 "Rule of Law Index", the Scandinavian countries were rated higher than the US for due process. The three lowest rated countries in the index were Afghanistan, Zimbabwe and Venezuela.


title: Abstraction

text: An Abstraction keeps only the most important information about something in order to make it easier to reuse.


title: Abstraction

text: Abstraction concerns the ways by which higher, less "real" concepts are derived from the usage and classification of literal ("real" or "concrete") data or other information.


title: Abstraction

text: Abstractions may be formed by reducing the information content of a concept or a phenomenon as viewed, often to keep only the information which is needed for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball will keep only the information on general ball attributes and behavior, leaving out the traits of that particular ball. Compare with word: "generalizing". The opposite of the adjective ""abstract"" is commonly the word ""concrete"".


title: Abstraction

text: The first symbols of abstract thinking in humans can be traced to fossil objects dating between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago in Africa.


title: Abstraction

text: In philosophical terminology, "abstraction" is the thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects.


title: Abstraction

text: Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, where formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient.


title: Abstraction

text: For example, many different things can be the color red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in "picture 1", to the right). The property of "redness" and the relation "sitting-on" are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram "graph 1" identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their six labels), whereas the "picture 1" shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph.


title: Abstraction

text: "Graph 1" details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example, the arrow between the "agent" and "CAT:Elsie" depicts an example of an "is-a" relationship, as does the arrow between the "location" and the "MAT". The arrows between the gerund "SITTING" and the nouns "agent" and "location" express the diagram's basic relationship; ""agent is SITTING on location""; "Elsie" is an instance of "CAT".


title: Abstraction

text: Although the description "sitting-on" (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in "Gödel, Escher, Bach" (1979):


title: Abstraction

text: An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about some thing, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle.


title: Abstraction

text: Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents; for example, "happiness" (when used as an abstraction) can refer to as many things as there are people and events or states of being which make them happy. Likewise, "architecture" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.


title: Abstraction

text: Things that do not exist at any particular place and time are often considered abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be "multiply instantiated", in the sense of "picture 1", "picture 2", etc., shown above.


title: Abstraction

text: It is not sufficient, however, to define "abstract" ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define "abstraction" as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts "cat" and "telephone" abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are "abstractions", they are not "abstract" in the sense of the objects in "graph 1" above.


title: Abstraction

text: We might look at other graphs, in a progression from "cat" to "mammal" to "animal", and see that "animal" is more abstract than "mammal"; but on the other hand "mammal" is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to "marsupial" or "monotreme".


title: Abstraction

text: A physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered "concrete" (not abstract) if it is a "particular individual" that occupies a particular place and time.


title: Abstraction

text: Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like "God", "the number three", and "goodness" are real, abstract, or both.


title: Abstraction

text: An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use "predicates" as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g. "good"). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the "graph 1" above, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Different levels of abstraction might be denoted by a progression of arrows joining boxes or ellipses in multiple rows, where the arrows point from one row to another, in a series of other graphs, say graph 2, etc.


title: Abstraction

text: Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept-formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for discussion of abstraction is thought space.


title: Abstraction

text: The way in which physical objects, like rocks and trees, have "being" differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have "being". For example, the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in "picture 1" exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in "graph 1" exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.


title: Abstraction

text: Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to "tropes" (instances of properties) as "abstract particulars". E.g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an "abstract particular". Akin to qualia and sumbebekos.


title: Abstraction

text: If an abstract concept, such as "society" or "technology" is treated as if it were a concrete object, that is a fallacy (an error). In linguistics, it may happen that abstract concepts are used as if they were nouns that signify concrete objects:


title: Abstraction

text: An abstraction can be seen as a process of mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data based on similarities in the constituent data, for example many different physical cats map to the abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object).


title: Abstraction

text: Chains of abstractions can therefore be constructed moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat to semantic abstractions such as the "idea" of a CAT to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed to "action".


title: Abstraction

text: This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail.


title: Abstraction

text: A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has greater engagement for abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged for processing of concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts cause greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus, compared to concrete concepts when concrete concepts cause greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus.


title: Abstraction

text: Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres, of the brain, differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage.


title: Abstraction

text: Typically, "abstraction" is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world—it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freed from objective context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs.


title: Abstraction

text: In music, the term "abstraction" can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized the exploration of internal numeric relationships.


title: Abstraction

text: Carl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four mutually exclusive, opposing complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these opposing functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of abstraction is concretism. "Abstraction" is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of "Psychological Types".


title: Abstraction

text: There is an abstract "thinking", just as there is abstract "feeling", "sensation" and "intuition". Abstract thinking singles out the rational, logical qualities ... Abstract feeling does the same with ... its feeling-values. ... I put abstract feelings on the same level as abstract thoughts. ... Abstract sensation would be aesthetic as opposed to sensuous "sensation" and abstract intuition would be symbolic as opposed to fantastic "intuition". (Jung, [1921] (1971):par. 678).


title: Abstraction

text: Computer scientists use abstraction to understand and solve problems, such as organizing data to be stored in a database.


title: Abstraction

text: Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying essence of a mathematical concept, removing any dependence on real-world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena.


title: Abstraction

text: The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and require a degree of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated.


title: Appellation d'origine contrôlée

text: Appellation d'origine controlée (AOC, "controlled designation of origin") is a French phrase which shows that a product comes from a certain area.


title: Appellation d'origine contrôlée

text: Some products must come from a certain area and be made in a certain way in order to have the name of the product. The most famous example is champagne, which must be fermented in the bottle and be made in the Champagne region of France.


title: Appellation d'origine contrôlée

text: The French government set up the "Institut national des appellations d'origine et de la qualité" (INAO, "National institute of controlled designation of origin") in 1935 to oversee the system. Although usually linked with wines, the start of the system of protecting the name of goods started in the 15th century when the French parliament defined what could be called Roquefort cheese.


title: Billy Idol

text: William Michael Albert Broad (born 30 November 1955), known professionally as Billy Idol, is an English rock musician and singer-songwriter. He became famous in the 1970s as a member of Generation X. He later began a solo career which led to international fame and made Idol a lead artist during the MTV-driven "Second British Invasion" in the United States.


title: Billy Idol

text: Idol's second studio album, "Rebel Yell" (1983), was a major commercial success, featuring hit singles "Rebel Yell" and "Eyes Without a Face". In 1986, he released "Whiplash Smile". Idol then released two studio albums, "Charmed Life" (1990) and the concept album "Cyberpunk" (1993).


title: Hôtel Ritz Paris

text: The Hôtel Ritz is a grand hotel in the heart of Paris in the Place Vendôme. The hotel is ranked highly among the most prestigious and luxurious hotels in the world and is a member of "The Leading Hotels of the World".


title: Hôtel Ritz Paris

text: The hotel has 159 rooms. It was founded by the Swiss hotelier, César Ritz, in collaboration with the chef Auguste Escoffier in 1898. The new hotel was constructed behind the façade of a Town house from the 18th-century. It overlooks one of the central squares in Paris.


title: Hôtel Ritz Paris

text: It was one of the first hotels in Europe to provide a bathroom "en suite", a telephone and electricity for each room. It established a reputation for luxury. The clients have included royalty, politicians, writers, film stars and singers. Several of its suites are named in honour of famous guests of the hotel, for example Coco Chanel and Ernest Hemingway who lived at the hotel for years. One of the bars of the hotel, "Bar Hemingway", is devoted to Hemingway.


title: Hôtel Ritz Paris

text: The Ritz has the reputation of being the most expensive hotel in Paris. The rooms as of May 2011 started at €850 a night. Suites start at €3,600 and cost up to €13,900 a night for the most expensive ones (the "Suite Impériale" is the most expensive). The Ritz employs more than 600 people.


title: Hôtel Ritz Paris

text: "L'Espadon" is a world-renowned restaurant. It attracts aspiring chefs from all over the world who come to learn at the nearby Ritz-Escoffier School. The cuisine is run by the award-winning chef Michel Roth, the ninth head chef of the hotel. The restaurant was awarded a second star by the 2009 edition of the influential Michelin Red Guide.


title: Hôtel Ritz Paris

text: During the Second World War, the German Luftwaffe used the hotel as local headquarters in Paris. The son of César Ritz, Charles, died in 1976. The last members of the Ritz family who owned the hotel sold it to the Egyptian businessman Mohamed Al-Fayed in 1979. In August 1997, Diana, Princess of Wales and Al-Fayed's son, Dodi, dined in the hotel's Imperial Suite before their fatal car crash.


title: Hôtel Ritz Paris

text: The hotel is being entirely renovated. It has been closed since 1 August 2012 and will open its doors in March 2016, after a delay of nearly two years. Because of its status as a symbol of high society and luxury, the hotel has featured in many novels (for example F. Scott Fitzgerald's "Tender Is The Night" and Hemingway's "The Sun Also Rises"),


title: Hôtel Ritz Paris

text: a play (Noël Coward's "Semi-Monde"), and films (such as Billy Wilder's 1957 comedy "Love in the Afternoon" and William Wyler's 1966 comedy "How to Steal a Million").


title: Resource room

text: Resource room is a place where special education students attend daily classes. These students are usually included in the general classroom and just need more support. Students are taught individually and in small groups. The number of students in a resource room is at most five students per teacher. Mainstreaming in education typically includes this service. Students in separate classes generally do not need the resource room because all the support they need is in the self-contained classroom.


title: Resource room

text: Special education teachers in resource rooms focus on the goals set by an Individualized Education Program. These goals are based on the individual student's need to develop executive skills, complete their homework and behave. The programs can help students with language-based learning disabilities like dyslexia. Visuo-motor perception, arithmetic, spelling and overall self-perception improve after time in the resource room classroom. The small-group instructional model leads to achievement in students with a multitude of educational disabilities.


title: Resource room

text: Their peers also benefit when the concepts they learned in general education are reinforced in resource rooms.


title: Dune

text: In physical geography, a dune is a hill or ridge of sand, usually deposited by eolian processes (wind) or sometimes by the flow of water. Dune fields cover large parts of some deserts, and some beaches have dunes. Mars has many dunes. Sand dunes have different forms and sizes based on their interaction with the wind. Sometimes they migrate downwind.


title: Hecate

text: Hecate (, "Hekátē") is the goddess of magic, crossroads, witchcraft, sorcery, ghosts and necromancy in ancient Greek religion and myth. The daughter of Perses and Asteria (twin sister of Leto), Hecate was a member of the third generation of Titans, but sided with Zeus and his siblings during the Titanomachy. As such, she was greatly honored by Zeus, who allowed her to operate on Earth, as well as the sky and the Underworld. A nocturnal figure, Hecate often dwelled in underground caves or in the Underworld itself. She was often invoked as a household deity, to provide aid in warding off evil spirits. Hecate assisted Demeter in her search for her daughter Persephone following Hades' abduction of her, guiding the goddess' path at night by her flaming torches. Afterwards, she frequently served as a companion of Persephone, joining her on her yearly journey to and from the realm of the dead. In later times, Hecate was depicted as a woman with three-heads, thought to represent the past, present and future. Serving as her attendants were the empousai, a species of man-eating monsters who were vampiric in appearance with a leg made of solid bronze and the other that of a donkey. Often identified with the goddesses Artemis and Selene, Hecate served as a representative of the harvest moon. Her symbols were a pair of torches, keys and daggers, and the serpent, polecat, and dog were considered her sacred animals.


title: Bail

text: Bail is money given to the court to guarantee that someone will go to their trial. If the person does not show up for their trial, the government gets to keep the money.


title: Bail

text: If the arrested person cannot afford the full bail amount, they can use a bail bond. This is a system where part of the bail amount is paid to a company, and they do the bail paperwork. Unlike placing the full bail to the court, the bail bond payment is not returned.


title: Luis Miguel

text: Luis Miguel Gallego Basteri (April 19, 1970) is a Mexican singer. He is widely known only by the name Luis Miguel. He is often called "El Sol de México" (The Sun of Mexico) or simply "El Sol" (The Sun).


title: Luis Miguel

text: Luis Miguel has won five Grammys and four Latin Grammys among other numerous awards. He is considered as one of the top male pop vocalists in the world. At the age of fifteen, Luis Miguel received his first Grammy for his duet "Me Gustas Tal Como Eres" (I Like You Just The Way You Are) with Sheena Easton. Luis Miguel is the only Latin artist to have two Spanish-language albums ("Romance" and "Segundo Romance") go platinum in the USA. His album "Luis Miguel" got gold and platinum certifications in four countries, including the United States, within just three days of its release.


title: Crohn's disease

text: Crohn's disease is a disease that causes the intestines to become swollen. It is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The intestines may also develop ulcers. People with Crohn's disease often have pain in the stomach, diarrhea, vomiting, and weight loss. Crohn's can also cause skin rashes, arthritis, and swollen eyes. It is named after Burrill Bernard Crohn, who described cases in 1932. It was first


title: Crohn's disease

text: Nobody knows exactly what causes Crohn's disease. In the disease, the person's body attacks itself. The immune system attacks healthy parts of the digestive tract. This causes swelling in the digestive tract.


title: Crohn's disease

text: Though Crohn's is an immune-related disease, it is not an autoimmune disease (the immune system is not triggered by the body itself). The exact underlying immune problem is not clear. Crohn's disease seems to be connected to the person's genes. People whose brothers or sisters have the disease are the most likely to get it. Men and women can both be affected by Crohn's disease.


title: Crohn's disease

text: Managing Crohn's disease includes both lifestyle changes and various kind of medication. It is a chronic condition for which there is no cure. Certain parasitic intestinal worms appear to make the bowel less inflamed. It is supposed that the worms modify the immune reactions in the parts of the intestine where they live.


title: Eddie Murphy

text: Edward "Eddie" Regan Murphy (born April 3, 1961) is an American actor, comedian, producer, singer and writer. He won the Golden Globe Award in 2006 and was nominated for an Academy Award in 2002.


title: Eddie Murphy

text: He has received Golden Globe Award nominations for best actor in a comedy or musical for his performances in "Beverly Hills Cop", "Beverly Hills Cop II", "Beverly Hills Cop III", "Trading Places", and "The Nutty Professor". In 2007, he won the Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of soul singer James "Thunder" Early in "Dreamgirls", and received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the same role.


title: Eddie Murphy

text: His work as a voice actor includes Thurgood Stubbs in "The PJs", Donkey in the "Shrek" series and the dragon Mushu in Disney's "Mulan". In some of his films, he plays multiple roles in addition to his main character, intended as a tribute to one of his idols Peter Sellers, who played multiple roles in "Dr. Strangelove" and elsewhere. Murphy has played multiple roles in "Coming to America", Wes Craven's "Vampire In Brooklyn", the "Nutty Professor" films (where he played the title role in two incarnations, plus his father, brother, mother and grandmother), "Bowfinger" and 2007's "Norbit".


title: Eddie Murphy

text: His brother was comedian and screenwriter Charlie Murphy, who wrote the screenplay for "Norbit" and "Vampire in Brooklyn".


title: Eddie Murphy

text: He was a usual member on "Saturday Night Live" from 1980 to 1984, and has worked as a stand-up comedian. He has worked a little as a singer too, having a number 87 on the uk singles chart and number 2 on the "billboard" hot 100 with "Party All The Time" and a uk singles chart number 64 with "I Was A King".


title: Eddie Murphy

text: In 1992 Murphy acted in the music video for Michael Jackson's single "Remember the Time". In 1993 Murphy released a song with Michael Jackson called "Whatzupwitu". It was voted by MTV viewers in 1999 as the third worst music video of all time.


title: Eddie Murphy

text: Murphy stated musicians like Luther Vandross and Michael Jackson and comedians like Bill Cosby, John Belushi, Redd Foxx, Robin Williams, George Carlin, Peter Sellers, Richard Pryor and Steve Martin as influences.


title: Thierry Henry

text: Thierry Henry (born 17 August 1977 in Les Ulis, Essonne, France) is a French football player. He is now retired but used to play at New York Red Bulls and was previously a part of the France national team. He is considered one of the world's best players.


title: Peat

text: Peat, or turf, is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation. Peat forms in wetland bogs, moors, mires, and swamps.


title: Thierry Henry

text: Henry started his career at small clubs in France. He had played for the Italian team, Juventus. In 2001, he joined Arsenal of England, where he became one of the best players in the English Premier League. After three years with FC Barcelona he went to the USA to play for the New York Red Bulls in the Major League Soccer. He has been named the Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year three times and the French Player of the Year four times since 2001.


title: Peat

text: Peat forms when plant material, usually in marshy areas, is inhibited from decaying fully by acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of marshland vegetation: trees, grasses, fungi, as well as other types of organic remains, such as insects, and animal remains. Under certain conditions, the decomposition of the latter (in the absence of oxygen) is inhibited.


title: Thierry Henry

text: On the France national team, Henry has scored 5 goals in World Cup competitions. Only one French player, Michel Platini, has scored more goals than Henry.


title: Peat

text: Peat formed in very wet conditions accumulates faster, and is less decomposed, than that in drier places. This allows climatologists to use peat as an indicator of climatic change. The composition of peat can also be used to reconstruct ancient ecologies by examining the types and quantities of its organic constituents.


title: Peat

text: Under the proper conditions, peat is the earliest stage in the formation of coal. The coal measures of the Pennsylvanian period were laid down in a gigantic tropical river basin, and later squeezed and heated to form the metamorphic rock we call 'coal'.


title: Peat

text: Most modern peat bogs formed in high latitudes after the retreat of the glaciers at the end of the last ice age some 9,000 years ago. They usually grow slowly, at the rate of about a millimetre per year.


title: Peat

text: The peat in the world's peatlands has been forming for 360 million years and contains 550 Gigatonnes of carbon.


title: Peat

text: Peat is harvested as an important source of fuel in certain parts of the world. By volume, there are about 4 trillion m³ of peat in the world covering a total of around 2% of global land area (about 3 million km²), containing about 8 billion terajoules of energy.


title: Peat

text: Peat is soft and easily compressed. Under pressure, water in the peat is forced out. Upon drying, peat can be used as a fuel. It has industrial importance as a fuel in some countries, such as Ireland and Finland, where it is harvested on an industrial scale. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland, where trees are often scarce, peat is traditionally used for cooking and domestic heating. Stacks of drying peat dug from the bogs can still be seen in some rural areas.


title: Peat

text: Peat fires are used to dry malted barley for use in Scotch whisky distillation. This gives Scotch whisky its distinctive smoky flavour, often called "peatiness".


title: Peat

text: Although peat has many uses for humans, it also presents problems. When dry, it can be a major fire hazard, as peat fires can burn almost indefinitely (or at least until the fuel is exhausted). Peat fires can even burn underground, reigniting after the winter, provided there is a source of oxygen. Peat deposits also pose major difficulties to builders of structures, roads, and railways, as they are highly compressible under even small loads. When the West Highland Line was built across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland, its builders had to float the tracks on a mattress of tree roots, brushwood and thousands of tons of earth and ashes.


title: Germanwings Flight 9525

text: Germanwings Flight 9525 (4U9525/GWI9525) was a scheduled international passenger flight flying from Barcelona, Spain to Düsseldorf, Germany, operated by the Lufthansa-owned low-cost airline Germanwings.


title: Germanwings Flight 9525

text: On 24 March 2015, the Airbus A320-200 jetliner crashed around northwest of Nice, in the French Alps. All 144 passengers and six crew members were killed.


title: Germanwings Flight 9525

text: The plane, which had taken off at 10:01 a.m. from the Barcelona-El Prat airport, disappeared from the radars at 10:39 a.m., when it was at an altitude of 2,000 meters above the department of Alpes de Alta. Provence, in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region.


title: Germanwings Flight 9525

text: Telemetry data indicated that, before disappearing from radar, the A320 would have started to fall at 10:31 a.m. and would have lost about 4,000 meters of altitude in four minutes. At first it was thought that the pilots had issued an emergency signal at 10:47, when the plane was at an altitude of 1,500 feet and in an abnormal situation, but it was actually sent by the controllers. In the words of the President of the French Republic, François Hollande, the conditions of the incident suggest that there would be no survivors. Hollande also initially stated that the plane was carrying German, Spanish and Turkish passengers, without specifying whether there were more victims of other nationalities.


title: Germanwings Flight 9525

text: The main hypothesis for the cause of the aircraft crash is that co-pilot Andreas Lubitz deliberately caused it to crash. The recording of one of the black boxes of the destroyed Airbus allows us to verify that Lubitz activated the closing of the cockpit door and deliberately began the descent of the plane over the mountains. His breathing at the time of descent was normal and he ignored the captain's instructions to open the door, even when the latter tried to knock it down with an ax to regain control of the aircraft.


title: Continuous function

text: A mathematical function is called continuous if, roughly said, a "small change" in the input only causes a "small change" in the output. If this is not the case, the function is discontinuous. Functions defined on the real numbers, with one input and one output variable, will show as an "uninterrupted line (or curve)". They can be drawn "without lifting the pen off of the page". The definition given above was made by Augustin-Louis Cauchy.


title: Continuous function

text: Karl Weierstraß gave another definition of continuity: Imagine a function "f", defined on the real numbers. At the point formula_1 the function will have the value formula_2. If the function is continuous at formula_1, then for every value of formula_4 no matter how small it is, there is a value of formula_5, so that formula_6, means that formula_7. We can put this another way, given a point close to formula_1 (called x), the "absolute value" of the difference between the two values of the function can be made increasingly small, if the point x is "close enough" to formula_1.


title: Continuous function

text: There are also special forms of continuous, such as "Lipschitz-continuous". A function is Lipschitz-continuous if there is a formula_10 with formula_11 for all x,y ∈ (a,b).


title: Continuous function

text: A basic way to know if a function is continuous is to use a pencil or your finger. Then, start at the left of the function. Then, move your finger along the path of the function. If you ever need to lift your finger or pencil to keep following the function, then you know it is not continuous. This is because, by lifting your finger, you have "jumped" from one section of the function to another. That means you made a very small movement but the function changed very much. This is what the first sentence of this article is talking about.


title: Islamic philosophy

text: Islamic philosophy is philosophy that is practiced in countries where Islam has a strong influence on society. The product of Islamic philosophy is an Islamic society. Philosophy, as a "project of independent philosophical inquiry", began in Baghdad in the middle of the eighth century.


title: Islamic philosophy

text: Early Islamic philosophy refers to the time period of the 8th to the 12th century. This time is often called the Islamic Golden Age. There are two main branches of philosophy, Kalam, and Falsafa. Falsafa is a word that comes from Greek; it refers to the kind of philosophy much like it was done in Ancient Greece. Kalam literally means "speech": it uses dialectic in philosophy. One of the first "discussions" was about free will, a school called "Qadar" said there was free will, another school called the Jabarites said there was not.


title: Natural History Museum

text: The Natural History Museum (NHM) is a museum in London. It is the largest natural history museum in Britain. It includes the nation's main collections of specimens of life, rocks and minerals. The museum employs scientific staff, conducts research, stores specimens, and manages the public galleries.


title: Natural History Museum

text: The NHM is one of the four large institutions on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, London. The others are the Science Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum and Imperial College London.


title: Natural History Museum

text: The NHM was at first a department of the famous British Museum. When the present NHM building was opened in 1881, it was then called the "British Museum (Natural History)" or BMNH. Its head reported to the Director of the British Museum. Not until 1963 did the NHM become fully independent, with its own Board of Trustees, and not until 1992 was it permitted to use its present name.


title: Natural History Museum

text: In 1986, the museum absorbed the adjacent Geological Museum of the British Geological Survey, which is to just to the north of the NHM. The museum's galleries were completely rebuilt and relaunched in 1996 as "The Earth Galleries", with the exhibitions in the Waterhouse building retitled "The Life Galleries". The Natural History Museum's own Mineralogy displays remain largely unchanged as an example of the 19th-century display techniques of the Waterhouse building.


title: Natural History Museum

text: The newly developed "Darwin Centre" (named after Charles Darwin) is designed as a new home for the museum's collection of tens of millions of preserved specimens, and new work spaces for the museum's scientific staff. Built in two phases, with two new buildings adjacent to the main Waterhouse building, it is the most important new project in the museum's history.


title: Natural History Museum

text: The museum employs 300 scientific staff, and has huge collections of fossils, rocks and minerals, as well as the preserved specimens of present-day plants and animals. There are over 70 million specimens in the collections. Data bases of the collections are being developed.


title: Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery

text: Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery (7 May 184721 May 1929) was a British Liberal politician and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, also known as Archibald Primrose (1847–1851), Lord Dalmeny (1851–1868).


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: Tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC, is the chemical or drug made in the cannabis that causes a person to feel different. It is similar to at least 113 other chemicals in cannabis, known as cannabinoids, but not all of them will make you feel different or high after using it. There are about 540 chemicals in cannabis total. THC is a very fatty chemical and doesn't interact with water very well. THC is thought to be used by the plant for protection from bugs, light, and other harm from its environment. The THC chemical structure was discovered in 1964 by Dr. Raphael Mechoulam and Dr. Y. Gaoni at the Weizmann Institute in Israel.


text: After an education at Eton and Oxford, Dalmeny succeeded to his grandfather's Scottish earldom in 1868.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: THC is used in medicine as a treatment for many physical and psychological problems. It can be used to help people with pain or are sick from getting chemotherapy for cancer. There are some medications which have THC and can be ordered by a doctor depending on where and what country you live in.


text: Becoming involved in politics, he became a Liberal, and was involved in Gladstone's Midlothian campaign, which brought the Liberals back into power in 1880. In the Liberal administration that followed, Rosebery served in junior offices, including that of Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, before entering the Cabinet as Lord Privy Seal in March 1885.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: Cannabis works by sticking to special receptors in the brain and body, which is known as the endocannabinoid system or ECS. There are 2 kinds of receptors, CB and CB. Over time, a person will need more THC to feel the same effects as before. This is known as tolerance. A person may also experience withdrawal, which can be uncomfortable and is a result of stopping THC use quickly after using it for some time. People usually do not get addicted to using THC.


text: Rosebery became a leader of the Liberal Imperialist faction of the Liberal Party, and in Gladstone's third (1886) and fourth (1892–1894) administrations, Rosebery served as Foreign Secretary. When Gladstone retired in 1894, Rosebery became his successor as Prime Minister, much to the disgust of the more left-wing Liberals. Rosebery's government was largely unsuccessful—his designs in foreign policy, such as expansion of the fleet, were defeated by disagreements within the Liberal Party, while the Tory-dominated House of Lords stopped the whole of the Liberals' domestic legislation. In 1895, Rosebery resigned, and a Conservative government under Lord Salisbury took his place.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: THC is very fatty (fat soluble) and binds to fat cells in our body and causes it to leave the body slowly, even if the effects of the drug or high has already ended. The amount still in the body depends on how often THC is used. The minimum time for a person to pass a drug test would be about 1 week. It is not possible for humans or animals to realistically die from taking too much THC or marijuana and no person has ever died from it.


text: Rosebery resigned as leader of the Liberal Party in 1896, and gradually moved further and further from the mainstream of the party, supporting the Boer War and opposing Irish Home Rule, a position which prevented him from taking part in the Liberal government that returned to power in 1905. In his later years, Rosebery turned to writing, including biographies of Lord Chatham, Pitt the Younger, Napoleon, and Lord Randolph Churchill. He was also famous for his champion racehorses.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: Many places in the world do not see THC or cannabis as legal and can have very harsh penalties from having, producing, or using it. Some countries allow it for use only in medical treatment while others allow it for recreational use by adults, usually older than 18 or 21 years old. Children may be permitted to use it if they're very sick.


text: Roseberry was extremely wealthy, even by the standards of the aristocracy before the First World War. He owned 12 houses, all of them grand, and some of huge size.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: In North America, Canada and Mexico have taken action to allow marijuana use in some way. In the United States, the federal government sees marijuana as illegal and very addictive and cannot be used as a medicine. Individual states with in the U.S.A. allows people to use marijuana to help with sickness or recreationally.


text: It was rumoured that Rosebery was homosexual or bisexual. Like Oscar Wilde, he was hounded by Queensbury for his association with one of Queensberry's sons. It was Francis Douglas, who was Roseberry's private secretary. The suggestion was that Queensberry had threatened to expose the Prime Minister if his government did not vigorously prosecute Wilde for Wilde's relationship with Francis Douglas's younger brother, Lord Alfred Douglas. Queensberry believed, as he put it in a letter, that "Snob Queers like Rosebery" had corrupted his sons, and he held Rosebery indirectly responsible for Drumlanrig's death.


title: Tetrahydrocannabinol

text: Employers or people who work in a government agency, like the police or FBI, may test someone to see if they used any drugs recently. This is called a drug test. Police may do this if they think you have used marijuana before or while you are driving a car. THC lasts a long time in the body and can be found in body fluids, like urine or saliva, or hair and sweat. Since it lasts so long in the body, it can be a problem being sure if someone is high.


title: Year 2038 problem

text: The Year 2038 problem could affect computers that store time as the number of seconds since 1st January 1970 at 00:00 UTC, using a 32-bit number.


title: Year 2038 problem

text: The biggest number you can store this way is 2,147,483,647 seconds after 1 January 1970. This means 19th January 2038 at 03:14:07 UTC. The problem begins one second after this time. The computer will add 1 to this 32-bit number, and the computer will set the value to "negative" 2,147,483,648 seconds. This means 13th December 1901 at 20:45:52 UTC. Depending on how the computer has been programmed, the computer could behave incorrectly or even stop running.


title: Year 2038 problem

text: A solution to this problem is to store the time in a 64-bit value, which will work for billions of years. Many computers already store the time in a 64-bit number. Computers that store time in a 32-bit number will need to be reprogrammed before 2038.


title: Morgan le Fay

text: Morgan le Fay (, meaning "Morgan the Fairy"), also called Morgaine, Morgan or Morgana, is a powerful sorceress in the Arthurian legend. She was King Arthur’s half-sister and enemy. In some legends she is said to have borne Arthur's child, Mordred.


title: Morgan le Fay

text: Morgan le Fay is said to have been quite powerful. She hated King Arthur even though he was her half-brother. (She is also said to have wiped out most of the Templar Knights). She is one of the main antagonistss of the Grey Griffins book series.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Pulmonary hypertension or PH is a condition where there is high blood pressure in the lungs. This condition makes it hard to breathe. Some people with the condition need extra oxygen. This condition can also make a person dizzy and become easily tired. Some people with the condition faint easily. The symptoms get worse when exercising or working hard. Pulmonary hypertension is a serious condition, and it can be fatal. The condition makes it harder for the heart to pump blood. Because the heart has to work harder, it can also become sick. Some people who are very sick may need a lung transplant or a heart-lung transplant to live. Pulmonary hypertensions full name is pulmonary arterial hypertension even though most people call it pah, ph or pha.


title: Faye Wong

text: Faye Wong, or Wang Fei (, born August 8, 1969) is a Chinese singer and actress. Wong was born in Beijing. She moved to Hong Kong in 1987 and has had great success since the early 1990s.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: People with pulmonary hypertension have difficulty breathing. They also tire easily. Some of them faint easily too. They might have chest pain. Some patients have swelling of the feet and ankles. These symptoms get worse during exercise or hard work.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Because many diseases can make it hard to breathe, a doctor must learn about the patient's background. This helps the doctor to treat the patient, even if the patient has another disease. The doctor also does several tests. Pulmonary hypertension makes the heart sound different. One test is to measure the blood pressure inside the "pulmonary artery", the blood vessel that goes from the heart to the lungs.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: In order to establish the cause, the physician will generally conduct a thorough medical history. A detailed family history is taken to determine whether the disease might be familial. A history of exposure to cocaine, methamphetamine, alcohol leading to cirrhosis, and smoking leading to emphysema are considered significant. Physical examination is performed to look for typical signs of pulmonary hypertension including a loud P2 (pulmonic valve closure sound), (para)sternal heave, jugular venous distension, pedal edema, ascites, hepatojugular reflux, clubbing etc.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: In pulmonary hypertension, the blood vessels in the lungs become too narrow. The blood pressure in the lungs becomes high. The heart works very hard to pump blood through the narrow blood vessels. Later on, the blood vessels in the lungs become hard and thick. The heart must work harder.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: The heart can work so hard that it becomes sick. This is called heart failure. The sick heart cannot pump blood well. Less blood goes to the lungs, so the blood gets less oxygen. This makes it hard to breathe. This gets worse when exercising or working hard.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: The most common cause of pulmonary hypertension is left heart failure. This causes pulmonary "venous" hypertension. This leads to pulmonary edema, or fluid build-up in the lungs.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: When a person has pulmonary hypertension without any other cause, this is called "idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension" or IPAH.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: When a family history exists, the disease is termed "familial pulmonary arterial hypertension", (FPAH). IPAH and FPAH are now considered to be genetic disorders linked to mutations in the "BMPR2" gene, which encodes a receptor for bone morphogenetic proteins, as well as the "5-HT(2B)" gene, which codes for a serotonin receptor.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: In medicine, pulmonary hypertension (PH) is an increase in blood pressure in the pulmonary artery or lung vasculature, leading to shortness of breath, dizziness, fainting, and other symptoms, all of which are exacerbated by exertion. Depending on the cause, pulmonary hypertension can be a severe disease with a markedly decreased exercise tolerance and right-sided heart failure. It was first identified by Dr Ernst von Romberg in 1891. It can be one of five different types, "arterial, venous, hypoxic, thromboembolic," or "miscellaneous".


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Although the terms primary pulmonary hypertension (meaning of unknown cause) and secondary pulmonary hypertension (meaning due to another medical condition) still persist in materials disseminated to patients and the general public, these terms have largely been abandoned in the medical literature. This change has occurred because the older dichotomous classification did not reflect pathophysiology or outcome. It led to erroneous therapeutic decisions, i.e. treat "primary" pulmonary hypertension only. This in turn led to therapeutic nihilism for many patients labeled "secondary" pulmonary hypertension, and could have contributed to their deaths. The term "primary pulmonary hypertension" has now been replaced with "idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension". The terms "primary" and "secondary" pulmonary hypertension should not be used any longer. Further details are in the Classification section below.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: The most common cause of pulmonary hypertension is left heart failure leading to pulmonary "venous" hypertension. This may be due to systolic or diastolic malfunction of the left ventricle or due to valvular dysfunction such as mitral regurgitation or mitral stenosis. It usually manifests as pulmonary edema.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Common causes of pulmonary "arterial" hypertension (PAH) include HIV, scleroderma and other autoimmune disorders, cirrhosis and portal hypertension, sickle cell disease, congenital heart disease, thyroid diseases, and others. Use of weight loss pills such as Fen-Phen, Aminorex, fenfluramine (Pondimin), and phentermine led to the development of PAH in the past.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Whatever the initial cause, pulmonary hypertension involves the tightening of blood vessels connected to and within the lungs. This makes it harder for the heart to pump blood through the lungs, much as it is harder to make water flow through a narrow pipe as opposed to a wide one. Over time, the affected blood vessels become both stiffer and thicker, further increasing the blood pressure within the lungs and impairing blood flow. In addition, the increased workload of the heart causes thickening and enlargement of the right ventricle, making the heart less able to pump blood through the lungs, causing right heart failure. As the blood flowing through the lungs decreases, the left side of the heart receives less blood. This blood may also carry less oxygen than normal. Therefore, it becomes harder and harder for the left side of the heart to pump to supply sufficient oxygen to the rest of the body, especially during physical activity.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Because pulmonary hypertension can be of 5 major types, a series of tests must be performed to distinguish pulmonary "arterial" hypertension from "venous, hypoxic, thomboembolic," or "miscellaneous" varieties.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: A physical examination is performed to look for typical signs of pulmonary hypertension. These include altered heart sounds, such as a widely split S or second heart sound, a loud P or pulmonic valve closure sound (part of the second heart sound), (para)sternal heave, possible S or third heart sound, and pulmonary regurgitation. Other signs include jugular venous distension (enlargement of the jugular veins), peripheral edema (swelling of the ankles and feet), ascites (abdominal swelling due to the accumulation of fluid), hepatojugular reflux, and clubbing.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Further procedures are required to confirm the presence of pulmonary hypertension and exclude other possible diagnoses. These generally include pulmonary function tests, blood tests, electrocardiography (ECG), arterial blood gas measurements, X-rays of the chest (followed by high-resolution CT scanning if interstitial lung disease is suspected), and ventilation-perfusion or V/Q scanning to exclude chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. Biopsy of the lung is usually not indicated unless the pulmonary hypertension is thought to be due to an underlying interstitial lung disease. But lung biopsies are fraught with risks of bleeding due to the high intrapulmonary blood pressure. Clinical improvement is often measured by a "six-minute walk test", i.e. the distance a patient can walk in six minutes. Stability and improvement in this measurement correlate with better survival.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Although pulmonary arterial pressure can be estimated on the basis of echocardiography, pressure sampling with a Swan-Ganz catheter provides the most definite measurement. PAOP and PVR can not be measured directly with echocardiography. Therefore, diagnosis of PAH requires a cardiac catheterization. A Swan-Ganz catheter can also measure the cardiac output, which is far more important in measuring disease severity than the pulmonary arterial pressure.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Normal pulmonary arterial pressure in a person living at sea level has a mean value of 12–16 mm Hg (1600–2100 Pa). Definite pulmonary hypertension is present when mean pressures at rest exceed 25 mm Hg (3300 Pa). If mean pulmonary artery pressure rises above 30 mm Hg (4000 Pa) with exercise, that is also considered pulmonary hypertension.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Diagnosis of PAH requires the presence of pulmonary hypertension with two other conditions. Pulmonary artery occlusion pressure (PAOP or PCWP) must be less than 15 mm Hg (2000 Pa) and pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) must be greater than 3 Wood units (240 dyn•s•cm or 2.4 mN•s•cm).


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: In 2003, the 3rd World Symposium on Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension was convened in Venice to modify the classification based on the new understanding of disease mechanisms. The revised system developed by this group provides the current framework for understanding pulmonary hypertension.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: The system includes several improvements over the former 1998 Evian Classification system. Risk factor descriptions were updated, and the classification of congenital systemic-to pulmonary shunts was revised. A new classification of genetic factors in PH was recommended, but not implemented because available data were judged to be inadequate.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: The terms primary and secondary pulmonary hypertension (PPH and SPH) were formerly used to classify the disease. This led to the assumption that only the primary disease should be treated, and the secondary variety should be ignored in favor of treating only the underlying illness. In fact all forms of pulmonary arterial hypertension are treatable. Unfortunately, this classification system still persists in the minds of many physicians, and probably leads to many patients with being denied treatment. This nihilistic approach to pulmonary arterial hypertension may also contribute to underdiagnosis. It is estimated that there are about 100,000 patients with PAH in the US, but only 15-20,000 have been diagnosed. Many others have been misdiagnosed as COPD, asthma, or congestive heart failure.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: The term primary pulmonary hypertension (PPH) has now been replaced with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) in much of the medical literature. However, some physicians continue to use the older classification inappropriately.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: IPAH is a rare disease with an incidence of about 2-3 per million per year and a prevalence of about 15 per million. Women are almost three times as likely to present with IPAH than men.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Other forms of PAH are far more common. In scleroderma the incidence has been estimated to be 6 to 60% of all patients, in rheumatoid arthritis up to 21%, in systemic lupus erythematosus 4 to 14%, in portal hypertension between 2 and 5%, in HIV about 0.5%, and in sickle cell disease ranging from 20 to 40%.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Treatment is determined by whether the PH is arterial, venous, hypoxic, thromboembolic, or miscellaneous. Since pulmonary "venous" hypertension is synonymous with congestive heart failure, the treatment is to optimize left ventricular function by the use of diuretics, beta blockers, ACE inhibitors, etc., or to repair/replace the mitral valve or aortic valve.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: In PAH, lifestyle changes, digoxin, diuretics, oral anticoagulants, and oxygen therapy are considered "conventional" therapy, but have never been proven to be beneficial in a randomized, prospective manner.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: High dose calcium channel blockers are useful in only 5% of IPAH patients who are "vasoreactive" by Swan-Ganz catheter. Unfortunately, calcium channel blockers have been largely misused, being prescribed to many patients with non-vasoreactive PAH, leading to excess morbidity and mortality.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Three major pathways are involved in abnormal proliferation and contraction of the smooth-muscle cells of the pulmonary artery in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. These pathways correspond to important therapeutic targets in this condition and play a role in determining which of three classes of drugs—endothelin receptor antagonists, phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors, and prostacyclin derivatives—will be used.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Prostacyclin (prostaglandin I) is commonly considered the most effective treatment for PAH. Epoprostenol (synthetic prostacyclin, marketed as Flolan®) is given via continuous infusion that requires a semi-permanent central venous catheter. This delivery system can cause sepsis and thrombosis. Flolan® is unstable, and therefore has to be kept on ice during administration. Since it has a half-life of 3 to 5 minutes, the infusion has to be continuous (24/7), and interruption can be fatal. Other prostanoids have therefore been developed. Treprostinil (Remodulin®) can be given intravenously or subcutaneously, but the subcutaneous form can be very painful. Iloprost (Ilomedin®) is also used in Europe intravenously and has a longer half life. Iloprost (marketed as Ventavis®) is the only inhaled form of prostacyclin approved for use in the US and Europe. This form of administration has the advantage of selective deposition in the lungs with less systemic side effects.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: The dual (ET and ET) endothelin receptor antagonist bosentan (marketed as Tracleer®) was approved in 2001. Two selective endothelin receptor antagonists (ET only) are in the final stages of approval: sitaxsentan and ambrisentan. Sildenafil, a selective inhibitor of cGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5), was approved for the treatment of PAH in 2005. It is marketed for PAH as Revatio®. Tadalafil (currently marketed as Cialis® for erectile dysfunction) is currently is Phase III trials. Vasoactive intestinal peptide by inhalation should enter clinical trials for PAH in 2007. PRX-08066 is a serotonin antagonist currently being developed for hypoxic pulmonary hypertension.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Atrial septostomy is a surgical procedure that creates a communication between the right and left atria. It relieves pressure on the right side of the heart, but at the cost of lower oxygen levels in blood (hypoxia). It is best performed in experienced centers. Lung transplantation cures pulmonary arterial hypertension, but leaves the patient with the complications of transplantation, and a survival of about 5 years.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Pulmonary thromboendarterectomy (PTE) is a surgical procedure that is used for chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension. It is the surgical removal of an organized thrombus (clot) along with the lining of the pulmonary artery; it is a large and very difficult procedure that is currently performed in a few select centers. Case series show remarkable success in most patients.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: Treatment for hypoxic and miscellaneous varieties of pulmonary hypertension have not been established. However, studies of several agents are currently enrolling patients. Many physicians will treat these diseases with the same medications as for PAH, until better options become available.


title: Pulmonary hypertension

text: The NIH IPAH registry from the 1980s showed an "untreated" median survival of 2–3 years from time of diagnosis, with the cause of death usually being right ventricular failure (cor pulmonale). Although this figure is widely quoted, it is probably irrelevant today. Outcomes have changed dramatically over the last two decades. This may be because of newer drug therapy, better overall care, and earlier diagnosis (lead time bias). A recent outcome study of those patients who had started treatment with bosentan (Tracleer®) showed that 86% patients were alive at 3 years. With multiple agents now available, combination therapy is increasingly used. Impact of these agents on survival is not known, since many of them have been developed only recently. It would not be unreasonable to expect median survival to extend past 10 years in the near future.


title: Biltong

text: Biltong is an edible dried, cured meat snack that originates from South African countries. To be more specific, this high protein snack is from South Africa, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Namibia, Botswana, and Zambia. The word Biltong comes from the Dutch word ‘bil’ and ‘tong’ which respectively holds the meaning of ‘buttock” and “strip” or “tongue”. Biltong can be made of a variety of meats, though beef biltong is the most common one in modern times. Strip-cut beef fillets that are flat with muscle grains are used to make biltong. Due to this, biltong is usually slightly chewy. Biltong has traditionally been made of game meats such as kudu, springbok and wildebeest. You may also find biltong made of chicken, fish and ostrich meat.


title: Biltong

text: Biltong has actually been around for centuries with its roots tracing back to South Africa. In a time before refrigerators and freezers, indigenous people needed a way to preserve extra meat for future meals. To do this, they used the basic resources at hand — knives to cut the meat, salt to flavor and preserve, and tree branches to hang the meat until it was dry.


title: Biltong

text: The 17th century European settlers who arrived later saw the benefits of having a stock supply of food. They quickly adopted this method, adding their own ingredients of vinegar and saltpeter (potassium nitrate) to the meat-curing mix.


title: Biltong

text: Then, in the 19th century, came the Dutch. In a mass migration known as the , thousands of Dutch farmers hitched their wagons to avoid British rule in Cape Colony and moved into the inland of Southern Africa.


title: Biltong

text: For this long journey, they needed food — something portable, something non-perishable, and something with sustenance. Biltong was their perfect solution.


title: Biltong

text: They toted the preserved meat with them as they traveled, calling it “biltong”— a combination of the Dutch words “bille” (for buttock) and “tonghe” (for strip or tongue).


title: Pacific Northwest tree octopus

text: The Pacific Northwest Tree Octopus is a fake animal created in 1998 by Lyle Zapato. Zapato's website says the tree octopus is real, and that it lives on both land and water. Zapato created this website about the fake tree octopus to show how important it is to think carefully about whether things on the Internet are true or not.


title: Pacific Northwest tree octopus

text: The original website that described the fake species is commonly used as an example in internet literacy classes to teach students to check more carefully if sources of information are reliable.


title: Pacific Northwest tree octopus

text: The text included other hoax species and organizations, mixed with links to pages about "real" species and organizations. Despite the falsehoods shown on the site, all 25 seventh-grade students involved in one well-publicized test believed the content. All but one of the 25 rated the site as "very credible".


title: Presidents' Trophy

text: The Presidents' Trophy is an award presented by the National Hockey League (NHL) to the team that finishes with the most points in the league during the regular season. If two teams tie for the most points, then the trophy goes to the team with the most wins. The winning team is also awarded $350,000 in cash bonuses. The Presidents' Trophy has been awarded 27 times to 15 different teams since first being awarded in 1985. The most recent winner is the Tampa Bay Lightning for the NHL season.


title: Presidents' Trophy

text: The trophy was introduced at the start of the 1985–86 NHL season by the league's Board of Governors. Before the 1985–86 NHL season, the best team in the league during the regular season was allowed to hang a banner stating "NHL League Champions". The winning team is also awarded 350,000 Canadian dollars, to be shared between the team and its players. The Presidents' Trophy winner is guaranteed home-ice advantage in all four rounds of the Stanley Cup playoffs, provided the team goes that far, so it remains the most likely position to produce the cup winner.


title: Presidents' Trophy

text: From 1937 to 1968, the same rules now used for winning the Presidents' Trophy were used to award the Prince of Wales Trophy. With the Modern Era expansion in the 1967–68 season and the start of the West Division, the Wales Trophy was awarded to the team that finished in first place in the East Division during the regular season. However, no trophy was awarded to the team that finished with the best overall record in the league during this period, and no trophy at all was awarded from the 1981–82 season through the 1984–85 season; the Wales and Campbell trophies were transferred to the playoff champions of those conferences in 1981–82. A cash bonus was given to each player on the team with the league's best regular-season record during these years, to which the Presidents' Trophy was added in 1985–86.


title: Presidents' Trophy

text: The only teams to have won the Presidents' Trophy more than twice are the Detroit Red Wings with six and the Washington Capitals with three. However, the Montreal Canadiens have finished first overall 21 times, the most times in league history, although they have yet to win the Presidents' Trophy. Detroit is second with 18 first-overall finishes.


title: Eurovision Song Contest

text: The Eurovision Song Contest is a song contest run by the European Broadcasting Union that started in 1956. Different singers representing countries in Europe compete every year.


title: Eurovision Song Contest

text: Past famous winners include ABBA (1974), Céline Dion (1988), Lordi (2006), Loreen (2012), Duncan Laurence (2019) and Måneskin (2021).


title: Eurovision Song Contest

text: The Eurovision Song Contest 2020 was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This is the first time the contest was cancelled. It was replaced by a replacement show called , It showed the selected entries in place of the Grand Final on 16 May 2020


title: Liaoning

text: Liaoning is a northeastern province of the People's Republic of China. The capital city of Liaoning province is Shenyang. From 1931 to 1945 Japan ruled Liaoning as part of Manchukuo.


title: Liaoning

text: Liaoning province is the southernmost province of Manchuria (the three northeastern most provinces of China), which together, along with the "Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region", form the entire northeastern part of China.


title: Liaoning

text: It is bordered on the northeast by Jilin province, and has a coastline along the Yellow Sea to the southeast. Hebei province and Beijing lie to the southwest.


title: Liaoning

text: Dalian is a major port city at the southern tip of a peninsula which juts about 100km south into the Yellow Sea.