title: Max and Moritz

text: Wilhelm Busch was an artist as well as a writer. He wrote a lot of stories in rhyme and made drawings to go with them. "Max and Moritz" are stories like these. The two boys get up to lots of naughty pranks. There are seven stories (seven pranks). In the final prank they are caught and come to a sad end. In the 19th century writers had to show that bad behaviour would be punished in the end. The seven stories are stories with a moral.


title: Max and Moritz

text: In the first story the boys tie pieces of bread onto pieces of string and put it down where an old woman, Widow Bolte, keeps her hens. The hens each try to swallow a piece of bread, which sticks in their throats and they end up hanging in the tree and die.


title: Max and Moritz

text: In the second story Widow Bolte, who is still crying, decides she might as well roast the hens. The boys take fishing rods, climb onto the roof and pull the frying chickens up with their rods. Widow Bolte finds the chickens gone, thinks her little dog has eaten them, and gives the poor dog a beating.


title: Max and Moritz

text: In the third story they take a saw and make a hole in the tiny wooden bridge outside the tailor’s house. They shout at the tailor, calling him names. He is furious and comes running out, the bridge breaks and he falls into the stream. Two flying geese save him. He has a terrible tummy ache but his wife puts a hot iron on his tummy and he feels better.


title: Max and Moritz

text: In the fourth story the boys put gunpowder in the pipe of the schoolmaster while he is in church. When he lights his pipe there is an explosion.


title: Max and Moritz

text: In the fifth story the boys collect beetles and put them under the mattress in their uncle’s bed. In the middle of the night, when the uncle is asleep, the beetles creep up on him. He wakes up and fights with them until he has killed them all.


title: Max and Moritz

text: In the sixth story the boys try to steal some pretzels (German rolls) from the bakery, but they fall into the tub of dough. The baker comes in and finds them. He bakes them in the oven, but when they are taken out they eat their way through the dough and escape.


title: Max and Moritz

text: In the seventh story the boys cut a hole in the farmer’s sacks. When the miller picks one of these sacks up he realizes the grain is spilling. He sees the boys, puts them in the sack and takes them to the mill, where the miller grinds them into corn and feeds them to his ducks.


title: Libreville

text: Libreville is the capital city of Gabon. It is the largest city in that country. The city has a population of 578,156 people. Libreville is a port on the Gabon River, near the Gulf of Guinea. It is a trade center for a timber region.


title: Libreville

text: The Mpongwé tribe lived in the area long before the French took control of the land in 1839. The city was founded (as Gabon) in 1843 as a trading station. Freed slaves were sent there from the ship L'Elizia. In 1848 it was named Libreville (French for "Freetown"). It was the chief port of French Equatorial Africa from 1934 to 1946.


title: Libreville

text: Libreville was named in after Freetown. It grew slowly as a trading post and a minor administrative centre. It had a population of 31,000 when it became independent in 1960. Since independence, the city has grown more quickly. Nearly half the of the people of Gabon live in the city.


title: Libreville

text: Sights in Libreville include the National Museum of Arts and Traditions, the French cultural centre, St Marie’s Cathedral, the carved wood church of St Michael, Nkembo, the Arboretum de Sibang and two cultural villages. Gabon's school of administration and school of law are in Libreville. The Omar Bongo University is also in Libreville.


title: Libreville

text: The city is home to a shipbuilding industry, brewing industry and sawmills. The city exports raw materials such as wood, rubber and cocoa from the city's main port, and the deepwater port at Owendo.


title: Fava bean

text: Vicia fava is a plant in the family of the pea and bean family Fabaceae. It is commonly cultivated as a crop. Its English common names include fava bean, faba bean, broad bean, tick bean and horse bean.


title: Fava bean

text: Favism is a hereditary disease: People with this condition who eat fava beans will get problems with their red blood cells.


title: Cicada

text: The noisy buzz they make is the male calling to the female using his vibrating panels, called "tymbals", on his sides. When the female, who cannot buzz, hears the buzz of a male, she searches for him. After they mate, the female will use her ovipositor to cut a line into the branch of a tree and lay her eggs there. Adult cicadas don't usually bite. They are usually green or black. Cicadas can also be eaten. It is eaten in countries like China.


title: Cicada

text: Cicadas live in temperate to tropical climates where their large size and unique sound makes them well known. Cicadas are often colloquially called locusts, although they are unrelated to true locusts, which are a kind of grasshopper. Cicadas are related to leafhoppers and spittlebugs.


title: Cicada

text: Cicadas are arranged into two families: Tettigarctidae and Cicadidae. There are two living species of Tettigarctidae, one in southern Australia, and the other in Tasmania.


title: Cicada

text: The largest cicadas are in the genera "Pomponia" and "Tacua". There are some 200 species in 38 genera in Australia, about 450 in Africa, about 100 in the Palaearctic, and exactly one species in England, the New Forest cicada, "Melampsalta montana", widely distributed throughout Europe. There are about 150 species in South Africa.


title: Cicada

text: Most of the North American species are in the genus "Tibicen": the "annual" or "jar fly" or "dog-day cicadas" (so named because they emerge in late July and August).


title: Cicada

text: The best-known North American genus is "Magicicada". These periodical cicadas have an extremely long life cycle of 13 to 17 years and then emerge in large numbers. The advantage of this arrangement is that the predators are swamped by their numbers, and so most of them survive. There are three species of 17-year periodical cicadas.


title: Cicada

text: Australian cicadas differ from many other types because of that continent's diversity of climate and terrain. In Australia, cicadas are found on tropical islands and cold coastal beaches around Tasmania; in tropical wetlands; high and low deserts; alpine areas of New South Wales and Victoria; large cities like Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane; and Tasmanian highlands and snowfields.


title: Cicada

text: Forty-two species from five genera populate New Zealand, and all are endemic to New Zealand and the surrounding islands (Norfolk Island, New Caledonia). Many New Zealand cicada species differ from those of other countries by living high up on mountain tops.


title: Human settlement

text: In archaeology, geography, and history, a human settlement is a place where people live, either permanently (all the time) or temporarily (only some of the time). When people go to an area to live there, it is called settling an area. When they come from far away it is sometimes called a colony. The term may include hamlets, suburbs, towns and cities. Nomadic people do not settle.


title: Angles

text: The Angles were Germanic peoples from Northern Germany and Denmark who invaded Britain from around 410 CE. Their name seems to be connected with Angeln, a modern district in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The Angles, together with the Jutes, Saxons and Frisians, were among the tribes who sailed across the North Sea in the 5th century to invade Britain. The various tribes were later called "Anglo-Saxon"..


title: Jenna Jameson

text: Jenna Jameson (born Jenna Marie Massoli on April 9, 1974) is a former American porn star. She grew up in Montana. She started making pornographic movies in 1993. Within three years, she had won the three awards in the adult movie industry. She has since won more than 20 adult movie awards, and has been inducted into both the X-Rated Critics Organization and Adult Video News Halls of Fame.


title: Penang

text: Penang (also known Pulau Pinang) is a state in Malaysia. It is on the northwestern part of Malaysia. The capital city of Penang is George Town. by the Strait of Malacca. A resident of Penang is known as a Penangite. It has two parts – Penang Island and Butterworth on the mainland. The state of Penang is next to Kedah to the north and east, and Perak to the south.


title: Jenna Jameson

text: In 2004, she wrote an autobiography, "How to Make Love Like a Porn Star: A Cautionary Tale". The book was at the top of the "New York Times" Best Seller list for six weeks.


title: Penang

text: From the 14th century Portuguese traders set foot on the island of Penang. They were looking for spices to sell.


title: Jenna Jameson

text: Born a Roman Catholic she officially converted to Orthodox Judaism in 2016, so she could marry her Israeli boyfriend.


title: Penang

text: Then, many years later Chinese traders arrived and it was then the island was first put onto a map. On 17 July 1786, Captain Francis Light, an English sailor landed on the island. He built a fort called Fort Cornwallis, On 12 August 1786, Light renamed the island Prince of Wales Island after the Prince of Wales. He named the new town George Town in honour of King George III of England.


title: Penang

text: The geography of Seberang Perai is mostly flat. It has a long coastline, the majority of which is lined with mangrove.


title: Penang

text: The highest temperature ever recorded in Penang was 40.0°C (104.0°F) on 22 January 1976 and the lowest was 15.0°C (59.0°F) on 24 November 1979.


title: Penang

text: As in the rest of Malaysia, Penang has a tropical rainforest climate bordering on a tropical monsoon climate, although the state does experience slightly drier conditions from December to February of the following year. The climate is very much dictated by the surrounding sea and the prevailing wind system.


title: Penang

text: Penang's proximity with the island of Sumatra makes it susceptible to dust particles carried by wind from perennial but transient forest fires, creating a phenomenon known as the Southeast Asian haze.


title: Penang

text: The Penang Meteorological Office in Bayan Lepas is the primary weather forecast facility for northern Malaysia.


title: Penang

text: In 2012 artist Ernest Zacharevic created a series of 6 wall paintings. Since these paintings, the street art scene has grown.


title: Penang

text: The population of Penang is 1,902,116 as of 2016.[3] It is very crowded with lots of construction going on.


title: Penang

text: Malays, Chinese, Indian (Malaysian Indian), Europeans, Australians, Americans, Indonesians, Myanmar, Vietnam, Thailand, and South Asian nations.


title: Penang

text: Because of this, Penang is very famous for its delicious food! Other clues that tell us where people moved here from include the buildings and the languages spoken.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Clinical psychology is the study in psychology of mental disorders. It is about learning, understanding, diagnosing, treating or preventing these types of illnesses. Clinical psychologists examine the mental functioning of a person and use psychotherapy to treat the disorder. Psychotherapy uses talking instead of medical or physical treatments.


title: Clinical psychology

text: The first psychological clinic opened in 1896 at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer.In the first half of the 20th century, clinical psychology mainly about psychological assessment, not treatment. After World War II, there was a big increase in the numbers of trained clinical psychologists. There are two main educational models - the Ph.D. scientist-practitioner model which looks at research, and the Psy.D. practitioner-scholar model which looks at treatment. Clinical psychologists are now regarded as experts in psychotherapy.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Clinical psychologists generally train in one of four primary academic areas – psychodynamic, humanistic, behavior therapy/cognitive behavioral, and systems or family therapy.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Sigmund Freud's ideas led to the development of psychodynamic psychotherapy. Its goal is to help the patient, or client, to understand the meaning of the unconscious desires and conflicts that have caused their problems.


title: Clinical psychology

text: Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviourism (the belief that conditioning is the main cause of human behavior) and psychoanalysis (the belief that the unconscious is the main cause of human behavior).


title: George Washington Bridge

text: The George Washington Bridge is a suspension bridge over the Hudson River. It connects part of New York City, New York to Fort Lee, New Jersey. It is long. It was designed by Othmar H. Ammann. Building began on October 21, 1927. The bridge was opened on October 25, 1931. It cost $59 million. A second level was added below the main level and opened to traffic on August 29, 1962. There are also walkways for pedestrians and bicyclists on the north and south sides of the bridge.


title: George Washington Bridge

text: The main span of the bridge is long. It is wide. It is suspended by four cables. Each cable weighs 28,450 tons and is made from 26,474 individual wires. The total length of all the wire in the four cables is .


title: George Washington Bridge

text: Ammann chose the location for the bridge because the river was narrower at this point. The banks on either side were high. That meant the bridge could be tall enough for ships to pass underneath, without having to build long rising bridge approaches.


title: Foster care

text: Foster care is a term used to describe when a child is living and looked after by a family which is not their own. The child may be put into foster care because their own parents are not able to look after them. When it comes to making sure that your foster child feels welcomed into their new home, you would need to do more than just open the front door for them. Welcoming a foster child into your home is like a balancing act.


title: Foster care

text: There may be several reasons why this may happen. The parents may be very ill or unable to control their own lives, perhaps because of alcoholism or drug addiction. They may be in prison or the children may be threatened with violence in their own home. Children are put into foster care so that they are safe and can live a more normal life in someone else's home.


title: Foster care

text: When a child is fostered there has to be a legal agreement. The person who looks after them instead of their own parents is called a “foster parent”. The child is made a “ward” of court, which means that power is given through the court of law to the foster parent to look after them. The foster parent(s) is "“in loco parentis”", meaning: “in the place of the parent”. They can make decisions about the child because the real parent(s) are not able to do this.


title: Foster care

text: The laws about fostering children are, of course, not the same in different countries around the world.


title: Foster care

text: In most Western countries fostering can sometimes be a long-term arrangement, perhaps until the child has become an adult. However, in many cases the child may be able to return to their own family later if their family life has changed.


title: Foster care

text: Adoption is different from foster care. Adoption is taking into one's family (a child of other parents), especially by a formal legal act.


title: Foster care

text: Fosterage is not the same as foster care. Some societies have arrangements whereby children are brought up in other families. This is a social matter, not a legal matter. This can be described as "fosterage".


title: Statute of Kilkenny

text: The Statute of Kilkenny were a set of laws made by the English in 1367 to try and save the English colony in Ireland. The laws were made by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence. They were passed at a meeting of the Irish parliament held at Kilkenny.


title: Statute of Kilkenny

text: The English had difficulty in taking over Ireland. The first English settlers, the Anglo-Irish, began to become Irish in the way they viewed the world. They began to put their own interests ahead of those of the English royalty. The government of Ireland had become weak after the battles with Edward Bruce, and the arrival of the Black Death weakened the country even more. Edward III of England became concerned that the Anglo-Irish were becoming too powerful and threatened his rights and interests in Ireland. He attempted three times to control their increasing independence.


title: Statute of Kilkenny

text: Edward III finally sent his third son, Lionel of Antwerp, to Ireland to try and get back control. He was very concerned that the Anglo-Irish had become more Irish than the Irish themselves. The Statute of Kilkenny were laws designed to bring Ireland back under the control of English born nobles, not English descendants in Ireland. These laws were serious, to break one was seen as treason and could be punished by death.


title: Statute of Kilkenny

text: The Statute of Kilkenny had a lot of laws made to separate the English from the Irish. It was against the law for the English in Ireland to:


title: Statute of Kilkenny

text: Because of the weak government, they were not able to make people obey the new laws, and the Anglo-Irish ignored them.


title: Jack London

text: John Griffith "Jack" London (born John Griffith Chaney, January 12, 1876 – November 22, 1916) was an American writer. He wrote many books. He lived in the U.S. state of California but also spent a lot of time in Hawaii and Alaska.


title: Jack London

text: His most famous book was "The Call of the Wild". "The Call of the Wild" is about a dog named Buck who is taken to Alaska to work with a pack of dogs pulling a sled. This book took place during the Klondike Gold Rush. Many people bought "The Call of the Wild" and Jack London became a famous writer. He also wrote other books about dogs and wolves. Another one of his famous books is "White Fang".


title: Jack London

text: Jack London was also a hobo at one time. He wrote a book about this called "The Road". Jack London had political beliefs. He was a socialist. One of his famous books is "The Iron Heel", which is the story of the government using force against the socialist movement.


title: Jack London

text: He also spent some time at sea and making a living as an "oyster pirate". He wrote many books about sailing and boats. One of his best-known books about life at sea was "The Sea Wolf".


title: Jack London

text: He married Charmian London born Kittredge (second wife). She was an athletic woman and an intellectual companion that broke the mold of Victorian womanhood—though they grew apart when she turned to socialite circles. His feminism was matched by models of sensitive "virility" and he sorted out the master-slave model of government in order to find alternatives.[3] He was on the vanguard of animal welfare and attempted a model pig farm, and experimented with early ecological agriculture, but Wolf House (his dream home) burnt to the ground in what could have been arson.[4] He died in a state of depression.


title: Jack London

text: 3. Cf. Saiz, Peter Ralph, "Political Tyranny and the Master-Slave Paradigm in Selected Sea-Tales of Herman Melville and Jack London", PhD thesis Purdue University 2003. https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI3113867/ Cf. also, Huebert, David, "Species Panic: Interspecies Erotics in Post-1900 American literature", PhD thesis University of Western Ontario 2018. 4. Cf. http://santarosahistory.com/wordpress/2016/11/the-case-for-arson-at-wolf-house/. Cf.Fresneau-Woodward, Servanne, "Nature animale et paysages naturels dans l'oeuvre de Jack London" Doctorat, Université de Paris X https://www.theses.fr/1987PA100174


title: Flensburg

text: Flensburg (Danish and Low Saxon: "Flensborg", Frisian: "Flensburch", North Frisian: "Flansborj") is a city in Germany. It is next to the border with Denmark. About 90,164 people live in Flensburg. The city has a university. A very well known part of Flensburg is Mürwik. There lies a small navy harbour. Flensburg lives on tourism, students and the German navy forces.


title: Flensburg

text: There was a first settlement about 1200 A.D., which became a city in 1284. In the following century, Flensburg became the economic centre of the Duchy of Schleswig. In 1409 there were battles between people of the Duchy of Holstein and the Danish crown about the control of Schleswig. In 1412 and 1500 there were bad plagues in Flensburg. In 1485, there was a big fire in the city.


title: Flensburg

text: Between 1460 and 1864 Flensburg was the second most important harbour in Denmark after Copenhagen. Since the 16th century Flensburg was an important place for trade. Flensburg became part of Prussia in 1864, after the Danish-Prussian War.


title: Flensburg

text: In 1920, there was an election in Schleswig. The vote was to decide whether people wanted to belong to Denmark or Germany. Flensburg and regions south of the city decided to stay German, while regions north of the city chose to become Danish.


title: Flensburg

text: In 1945, many Germans were driven out of their homes in the eastern German provinces. These people went to Flensburg. The city had more than 100,000 inhabitants for a couple of years. Nowadays Flensburg has about 85,000 inhabitants.


The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a group of scientists chosen by governments and other large groups from around the world who study the way that humans are making the Earth heat up unnaturally. The group was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), two organizations of the United Nations.


title: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

text: The IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former Vice President of the United States Al Gore who won for working on the same problems.


text: A lot of IPCC work is publishing reports about the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an international agreement that human inventions and chemistry may make the Earth too hot to live on. The UNFCCC was the beginning of the Kyoto Protocol. Members of the IPCC read, write, and calculate as much as they can. Only member states of the WMO and UNEP may be members of IPCC.


text: The first IPCC report was published in 1990. More was added to that report in 1992. The second report was published in 1995, the third was published in 2001, and a fourth in 2007. Each report is in three books called Working Groups 1, 2 and 3. Most times "the IPCC report" means the Working Group I report, which is about basic climate change.


text: The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) was completed in early 2007. Like earlier IPCC reports, it contains four reports, three of them from its working groups.


text: The Working Group 1 report was published on February 2 2007 and revised on February 2007. There was also a February 2 2007 press release. The full Working Group 1 report was published in March. The main report says:


text: The Summary for Policymakers for the Working Group 2 (IPCC wg2 ) report was published on April 6, 2007.


text: The estimate for the climate sensitivity was 1.5 to 4.5 °C; and the average temperature was predicted to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees between 1990 and 2100, and the sea level was predicted to rise between 0.1 and 0.9 meters. The range of predictions is based on different levels of human carbon dioxide production. Each perdiction has different possible outcomes.


text: MIT professor Richard Lindzen, who works for the IPCC Working Group 1, claims some of the IPCC reports are wrong. He told the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation that he was unhappy about the Executive Summary based on his work in May 2001. He said that he told the IPCC they were making mistakes and the Working Group 1 report said that meant they were "making improvements".


text: The summary does not reflect the full document... For example, I worked on Chapter 7, Physical Processes. This chapter dealt with the nature of the basic processes which determine the response of climate, and found numerous problems with model treatments – including those of clouds and water vapor. The chapter was summarized with the following sentence: 'Understanding of climate processes and their incorporation in climate models have improved, including water vapor, sea-ice dynamics, and ocean heat transport.'


text: "Climate Change 1995", the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR), was finished in 1996. It was made in four parts:


text: Each of the working groups was made by its own working group, and each has a Summary for Policymakers (SPM) that is a list of agreements by governments. The Summary for Policy Makers of the Working Group 1 report says:


text: Three scientists involved in climate research believe that the IPCC reports do not accurately summarize the state of knowledge.


text: On December 20, 1995, Reuters news agency claimed a British scientist Keith Shine, one of IPCC's most important authors, talking about the Policymakers' Summary, said: "We produce a draft, and then the policymakers go through it line by line and change the way it is presented... It's peculiar that they have the final say in what goes into a scientists' report". Keith Shine did not say what differences the changes make.


text: Frederick Seitz, a physicist of Rockefeller University, said the IPCC report was not good, writing "I have never witnessed a more disturbing corruption of the peer-review process than the events that led to this IPCC report". He opposed it in the Leipzig Declaration of S. Fred Singer's Science and Environmental Policy Project.


text: Professor Seitzs comments were opposed by the presidents of the American Meteorological Society and University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, who wrote about an effort by some people make it seem that humans had not changed the climate. Special insert .


text: The Second Assessment Report was the only one with a chapter on the economic effect of climate change. This part of the report was thought to be unfair because the value of life in poorer countries was less.


text: The 1992 supplementary report was an update of the 1990 report, requested for the Framework Convention on Climate Change at the Earth Summit (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.


text: It did not make any important changes to the 1990 report. It claimed the prediction methods in the First Assessment Report, were now improved, but did not include aerosol or ozone changes.


text: The IPCC first assessment report was completed in 1990, and used to make the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).


text: The Chairperson of the IPCC is Rajendra K. Pachauri, elected in May 2002; before that Robert Watson headed the IPCC. The chairperson is helped by an elected Bureau including vice-chairpersons, Working Group co-chairpersons and a Secretariat (see below).


text: The IPCC Panel is made of people from governments and other groups. Scientific experts are preferred. Meetings of the IPCC and IPCC Working Groups are held by members of governments. Non-Governmental and Intergovernmenta Organizations may be allowed to attend as observers. Meetings of the IPCC Bureau, workshops, experts and lead authors are by invitation only. 350 government officials and climate change experts visited the 2003 meeting. The meeting report says there were 322 persons in attendance at meetings with about seven-eighths of visitors being from governments.


text: People from over 130 countries contributed to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report over 6 years. These people included more than 2500 scientific expert reviewers, more than 800 contributing authors, and more than 450 lead authors.


text: The Working Group 1 report of 2007 (including the summary for policy makers) included contributions by 600 authors from 40 countries, over 620 expert reviewers, a large number of government reviewers, and representatives from 113 governments.


text: The IPCC activities are controlled by the WMO Executive Council and UNEP Governing Council to support the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.


text: In April 2006, the IPCC released the "IPCC Fourth Assessment Report" or AR4. Reports of the workshops held so far are available at the IPCC website.


text: The AR4 Synthesis Report (SYR) was finalized in November 2007. Documentation on the meetings for the AR4 are available , the outlines for the Working Group 1 report and a provisional author list .


text: The IPCC also supports other activities, such as the Data Distribution Centre Welcome to the IPCC Data Distribution Centre and the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme IPCC - Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. This involves estimating greenhouse gas based on the levels of fuel used, industrial production and so on.


text: The IPCC also answers questions from the UNFCCC Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA).


text: The IPCC reports are a collection of peer reviewed and published science. Each IPCC report explains improvements to the previous report and also explains where more research is needed.


text: The Panel controls what the IPCC agrees on to meet standards. The Panel's "approval" process has been criticized for changing what the experts put in the Reports.


text: Each chapter has a lot of authors who are responsible for writing and editing the material. A chapter usually has two "Coordinating" Lead Authors who control what words go in their chapter, ten to fifteen Lead Authors, and a larger number of Contributing Authors. The Lead Authors put together the work of the other authors and report to the Working Group chairs. Lead Authors write sections of chapters. Contributing Authors prepare text, graphs and data.


text: Authors are chosen from a list of researchers prepared by governments, other important groups, the Working Group/Task Force Bureaux, and other experts (, 4.2.1,2). The group of Coordinating Lead Authors and Lead Authors for a section or chapter of a Report is expected to have many different views and to have people from different parts of the world.


text: In December 2007, the IPCC was awarded The Nobel Peace Prize 2007 "for their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change, and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change." The award is shared with Former U.S. Vice-President Al Gore for his work on climate change and the documentary "An Inconvenient Truth".


text: In January 2005 Christopher Landsea resigned from work on the IPCC AR4, saying that it was "both being motivated by pre-conceived agendas and being scientifically unsound" because of Kevin Trenberth of the National Center for Atmospheric Research's idea that global warming was contributing to recent hurricane activity. Roger A. Pielke who published Landsea's letter writes: "How anyone can deny that political factors were everpresent in the negotiations isn't paying attention", but says that "Despite the pressures, on tropical cyclones they figured out a way to maintain consistency with the actual balance of opinion(s) in the community of relevant experts." He continues "So there might be a human contribution (and presumably this is just to the observed upwards trends observed in some basins, and not to downward trends observed in others, but this is unclear) but the human contribution itself has not been quantitatively assessed, yet the experts, using their judgment, expect it to be there. In plain English this is what is called a 'hypothesis' and not a 'conclusion.' And it is a fair representation of the issue."


text: The IPCC Third Assessment Report showed a graph labeled "Millennial Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction" from a paper by Mann, Bradley and Hughes (MBH98) often called the "Hockey Stick Graph". This graph was different to the IPCC First assessment report which showed global temperature for the past 1000 years, and higher temperatures during the Medieval Warm Period. The graph was thought to show that temperatures between 1000 and 1900 were very different. This was criticized in an article by Stephen McIntyre and Ross McKitrick. In a 2006 letter to "Nature", Bradley, Hughes and Mann claimed the original article had said that they could not be exact.


text: Some critics say the IPCC reports underestimate dangers, understate risks, and report only the lowest risks.


text: On February 1, 2007, the night before publication of IPCCs report on climate, a study was published saying that temperatures and sea levels have been rising at or above the speed the IPCC reported in 2001. The study compared IPCC 2001 predictions of temperature and sea level change with what actually happened. Over the six years, the actual temperature rise was near the top end of the range given by IPCC's 2001 prediction and the actual rise was more than the top of the range the IPCC predicted.


text: An example of scientific research which has indicated that predictions by the IPCC have uderstated risks is a study on rises in sea levels.


text: Political influence on the IPCC has been shown by the release of a memo by ExxonMobil to the Bush administration, and its effects on the IPCCs leadership. The Bush administration, at the request of ExxonMobil, wanted rid of Robert Watson, a climate scientist and IPCC chairperson, and to have him replaced by Pachauri, who was seen at the time as more friendly to industry.


text: In 2005, the UK House of Lords Select Committee on Economic Affairs produced a report on the economics of climate change. It commented on the IPCC process:


text: "We have some concerns about the objectivity of the IPCC process, with some of its emissions scenarios and summary documentation apparently influenced by political considerations. There are significant doubts about some aspects of the IPCCs emissions scenario exercise, in particular, the high emissions scenarios. The Government should press the IPCC to change their approach. There are some positive aspects to global warming and these appear to have been played down in the IPCC reports; the Government should press the IPCC to reflect in a more balanced way the costs and benefits of climate change. The Government should press the IPCC for better estimates of the monetary costs of global warming damage and for explicit monetary comparisons between the costs of measures to control warming and their benefits. Since warming will continue, regardless of action now, due to the lengthy time lags.


title: Miss Universe

text: Miss Universe is an international beauty contest. It was started in 1952 and today has over 190 countries taking part. About one billion people watch it on television every year.


title: Miss Universe

text: The competition was first shown on American national television in 1955. In 1960, the show moved from California to Florida. Until 1971, the competition was held in the United States, and since 1972 - every year in a new country.


title: Miss Universe

text: The pageant is owned by WME and IMG, with Fox owning the rights to broadcast the pageant on television. Until 2015, it was owned by NBC and Donald Trump. In 2015, Trump started his campaign for President of the United States and said he wanted to stop illegal immigrants from Mexico from coming into the US. NBC then stopped working with him, and so Trump bought Miss Universe out, and sold it to its current owners a few days later.


title: Miss Universe

text: After winning the 1951 Miss America competition, Yolanda Betbese refused to pose in Catalina swimwear from Pacific Mills, sponsor of the competition. Because of this, in 1952 the company left the Miss America competition and organized an alternative national Miss USA competition, as well as an international Miss Universe competition.


title: Miss Universe

text: Sponsored by the American airline Pan Am and the Universal Film Studio The Miss Universe pageant was first held on June 28, 1952 in Long Beach, California. At the beginning of its existence, it was intended to promote beach fashion: for a month, applicants advertised beach products.


title: Miss Universe

text: The first winner of the Miss Universe title was 17-year-old Armi Kuusela from Finland. She was crowned with the wedding tiara of the Romanov dynasty. The competition was attended by girls from 30 countries.


title: Limb

text: A limb is a part of the body of a living creature, which extends from its trunk. Examples are the branches of a tree, and the legs of a man.


title: Limb

text: In normal human body, there are four limbs: two "upper limbs" (arms) and two "lower limbs" (legs). Each limb has several joints.


title: Leshy

text: Leshy (, in English sometimes spelled Leshii or Leszi) is a mythical creature that appears in Slavic mythology. It is also the subject in “The Witcher” Saga written by Andrzej Sapkowski.


title: Leshy

text: A Leshy is male and human in shape and can assume any form. A Leshy can change in size and height. In some accounts, the leshy is described as having a wife ("leshachikha/leszachka/lesovikha") and children ("leshonki/leszonky"). Because he is known to lead travelers astray and abduct children, which he shares with Chort, or "The Black One," the Leshy is believed by some to be evil. Others view him as more of a temperamental being like a fairy.


title: Leshy

text: In beliefs of Slavic people, Leshy appears in forests. He’s kind of a protector of the forest and everything that lives in it. His natural form looks like a human but he can easily shapeshift into any plant or animal. A Leshy has long hair and beard made of grass. It can appear in human shape or can change in size from a tall tree to a single blade of grass.


title: Leshy

text: In Sapkowski's "The Witcher" (Polish: Wiedźmin), a leshy is a monster that lives in the forest. It has been described as something that "lives only to kill". When they kill something or a human, they do not leave much for the carrion eaters.


title: Leshy

text: In the "Witcher" video game, a Leshy is a highly intelligent monster that lives in forest. Common people thinks that he is like a friendly sentinel of the forest. That is not true. This is a very dangerous creature that hunts down whatever lives and moves. It can polymorph. In its primary form the creature looks like a bear and wildcat combined. It has long fangs and sharp claws. When it hunts it lurks among the tree branches and then jumps on its victims. Usually it eats its victim whole.


title: António Guterres

text: António Manuel de Oliveira Guterres, (; born 30 April 1949) is a Portuguese politician and diplomat. He became the Secretary-General of the United Nations in 2017. Guterres was Prime Minister of Portugal from 1995 to 2002, as leader of the Socialist Party. He also served as President of the Socialist International from 1999 to 2005.


title: António Guterres

text: He was the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees from June 2005 to December 2015, and in October 2016 the United Nations General Assembly elected him by acclamation to become the next United Nations secretary-general. He replaced Ban Ki-moon.


title: António Guterres

text: Guterres was born and raised in Lisbon, Portugal. He studied Physics and Electrical Engineering at Instituto Superior Técnico in Lisbon. He graduated in 1971.


title: António Guterres

text: He was Assistant Professor teaching Systems Theory and Telecommunications Signals, before leaving academic life to start a political career.


title: António Guterres

text: Guterres' political career began in 1974. He became a member of the Socialist Party. He served as the Head of Office of the Secretary of State of Industry (1974 and 1975), Deputy for Castelo Branco in the Portuguese National Parliament (1976–1995) and Leader of the parliamentary bench of the Socialist Party, succeeding Jorge Sampaio (1988).


title: António Guterres

text: The Socialist Party won the 1995 parliamentary election. President Mario Soares appointed Guterres as prime minister and his Cabinet took the oath of office on 28 October that year.


title: António Guterres

text: Guterres was a popular prime minister in the first years of his office. Portugal had a strong economic expansion which allowed the Socialists to reduce budget deficits while increasing welfare spending and creating new conditional cash transfer programs. Guterres was against homosexuality during his term as Prime Minister. He supported United Nations intervention in East Timor in 1999.


title: António Guterres

text: After the 1999 parliamentary election, Guterres was re-appointed for the office and from January to July 2000. This second term in government was not as successful. The Hintze Ribeiro Bridge disaster damaged his authority and popularity. In October 2000, the Parliament approved the decriminalization of drug use (effective from 1 July 2001) and in March 2001, same-sex marriage were legalized.


title: António Guterres

text: Guterres was elected President of Socialist International in November 1999. He remained President of the Socialist International until June 2005.


title: António Guterres

text: As High Commissioner, Guterres had more than 10,000 staff working in 126 countries providing protection and helping over 60 million refugees, returnees, internally displaced people and stateless persons.


title: António Guterres

text: His time in office was known by a huge organizational reform, cutting staff and administrative costs in the UNHCR's Geneva head office and expanding UNHCR's emergency response capacity during the worst displacement crisis since the World War II.


title: António Guterres

text: Guterres appointed American actress Angelina Jolie as his Special Envoy to represent UNHCR and himself at the diplomatic level in 2012.


title: António Guterres

text: In early 2015, the General Assembly voted to extend Guterres' mandate by 6½ months to 31 December, on recommendation of United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. Guterres left office on 31 December 2015.


title: António Guterres

text: Guterres became United Nations Secretary-General on 1 January 2017, following his formal election by the UN General Assembly on 13 October 2016.


title: António Guterres

text: During his first year, Guterres made world peace a first priority. In June 2017, he criticized the Trump administration and said the United States would be replaced from the United Nations if they do not take action on any international issues. Guterres criticized the intervention of Yemen and said a war from this would be "stupid".


title: António Guterres

text: In 2018, he called Syria a "living hell" in response to the Bashar al-Assad regime. He praised Trump and Kim Jong-un's summit and called it a "crucial milestone" for nuclear disarmament. In August 2018, Guterres wanted an independent investigation into a Saudi Arabian air strike in Yemen that killed 51 people.


title: António Guterres

text: In 1972, Guterres married Luísa Amélia Guimarães e Melo. They had had two children. She died at a London hospital from cancer in 1998.


title: Nattō

text: Natto ( (hiragana), 納豆 (kanji); "nattō" or "nattou") is a traditional Japanese food made by fermenting soybeans. Natto is known for its strong musty smell and unusual slimy texture, which yields mucous-like (or sticky) strings when stirred and eaten. In order to mediate some of the strong flavors, it is usually eaten on top of rice with , a soy sauce-based condiment, or Japanese mustard to their liking. Eating Natto as a custom is not so popular in Kansai area. Whether it is popular or not depends on regions in Japan.


title: Nattō

text: There are many kinds of Natto. First, Natto is classified under two types of Natto, Itohiki Natto and Ji Natto. Also Itohiki Natto has three kinds of Natto, Marudaizu Natto, Hikiwari Natto, and Goto Natto. We usually eat Marudaizu Natto and Hikiwari Natto.


title: Nattō

text: Natto may be bought in stores in Styrofoam boxes. Sometimes, they come with a mustard packet and a packet of "tsuyu" to eat with the natto.


title: Nattō

text: Although it is not customary to cook natto, natto may be prepared in food items like sushi or "donburi". "Donburi" is any Japanese dish served with rice in a bowl. Natto can be made into a donburi by adding natto and other items like tuna or egg to rice inside a bowl. "Nattojiru" is what people add natto to miso soup as a seasoning. Also Natto is used for topping when we eat Soba, Udon, Spaghetti, Okonomiyaki and so on.


title: Nattō

text: In general, soy sauce, tsuyu, karashi mustard is used, but some people use egg, leek, Japanese ginger, Grated radish, laver, okra, and etc.


title: Mehmet Oz

text: Mehmet Cengiz Öz (born June 11, 1960, called Dr. Oz) is a Turkish-American doctor, writer, educator, and television personality. He has a television show, "The Dr. Oz Show". He helps people with health and weight. He won two Emmy Awards, in 2010 and in 2011.


title: Mehmet Oz

text: In November 2021, Oz announced that he was running in the 2022 U.S. Senate election in Pennsylvania as a Republican. He won the nomination in June 2022, becoming the first Muslim to be nominated by either major party for U.S. Senate. He was defeated in the general election by John Fetterman.


title: Mehmet Oz

text: Öz was born on June 11, 1960 in Cleveland, Ohio to a Turkish family. He studied at Tower Hill School, at Harvard University, at Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, and at University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. Öz married his wife Lisa Lemole in 1985. They have four children. He now lives in Bryn Athyn, Pennsylvania.


title: Parliament of Australia

text: The Parliament of Australia is the federal governing system in Australia. It was formed on May 9, 1901. The parliament is bicameral, which means it has two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate. It was copied mainly from the way the United Kingdom's Parliament was run, the Westminster system, but it also has some ideas from the United States Congress. The laws which control the way the parliament is set up and its powers are part of the Australian Constitution. The Parliament meets in a special building, Parliament House, in Canberra.


title: Parliament of Australia

text: The Australian Parliament first met in the Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne in 1901. It then took over the Victorian Parliament in Melbourne until it moved to Canberra in 1927. A new building for the Parliament was finished in 1988 to celebrate 200 years of European settlement in Australia.


title: Parliament of Australia

text: There are 151 members of the House of Representatives, each one elected for a three year term. Each member represents about 150,000 people living in an electorate. The boundaries of each electorate are often changed to keep the number of people in each electorate is the same. The size of each electorate can be very different. The electorate of Durack, in Western Australia, covers an area of 1.3 million square kilometres, while Wentworth in New South Wales is only 26 square kilometres.


title: Parliament of Australia

text: The government is formed by the political party (or group of political parties) who have the most members in the House. The House is set out in the British style, even using the green colours of the House of Commons. The Speaker sits at the front; the members of the government sit on the seats to his right, and the opposition sits on the seats to his left. The Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, government ministers, and the shadow ministers, sit at a large table in the centre.


title: Parliament of Australia

text: The Senate is the upper house of the Australian Parliament. There are 76 members in the Senate. There are 12 senators for each Australian state, and 2 for each territory. The Senate makes and changes legislation. To become law, legislation must be passed by both houses and then be signed by the Governor-General.


title: Parliament of Australia

text: The colours in the Australian Senate are red, as in the British House of Lords. The senators sit in a U shape around a central table. The head of the Senate, known as the President, sits at the head of the table. On their right are the government senators, and on their left the opposition. Senators from minor political parties and Independent senators sit at the bottom of the U shape.


title: Formula

text: In mathematics and science, a formula is a rule or statement written in algebraic symbols. The plural of formula can be written in two ways: formulae or formulas - the choice is based on personal preference.


title: Formula

text: Formulas use letters instead of words. A simple example of a formula is y = x. If x=1, the formula y=x would make the statement that x is the same thing as y, therefore, y=1.


title: Formula

text: In mathematics, a formula can also be an identity which equates two mathematical expressions together. Some key formulas under this category include the Pythagorean theorem, binomial theorem, Euler's formula and De Moivre's formula. The expression ""V"="lwh"", which relates the volume "V" to the length "l", width "w" and height "h" of a rectangular box, is another example of a formula in geometry.


title: Formula

text: In science, one of the most well known formulas is the formula for energy, "e" = "mc", created by Albert Einstein. Here, "e" represents energy, "m" represents mass and "c" is the speed of light. Thus, energy = mass × speed of light .


title: Formula

text: The "formula" e = mc is also an equation. Every equation is a formula, but not every formula is an equation. For instance, the formula x≡y (x "is defined as" y) is not an equation, because no "=" sign is used.


title: Mickie James

text: She worked for World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) on its SmackDown and Raw brands. She also worked for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling from 2010 to 2013.


title: Mickie James

text: James started wrestling in 1999 as a valet on the independent circuit using the name Alexis Laree. She trained in several places to get better at wrestling before working for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) in June 2002. She first became well known while she was while working at TNA. Soon after she started working for TNA, she joined a stable called The Gathering. She is also the only woman to be a part of Clockwork Orange House of Fun matches.


title: Mickie James

text: James started working with WWE in October 2005. She was a part of a storyline with Trish Stratus. James' gimmick was that she was Stratus' biggest fan and later became Stratus' stalker. This storyline lasted almost a year. The person at WWE believed she was doing good work. Because of this, she won her first WWE Women's Championship at WrestleMania 22. She has held the championship a total of four times.


title: Mickie James

text: Outside of wrestling, James has an associate of arts degree in business administration. She is studying for her Bachelor of Arts degree in operations management. James grew up on a farm and has an interest in horses. She owns three Morgan horses. James has been riding since she was 11 years old.


title: Mickie James

text: She released her debut album "Strangers & Angels" on May 18, 2010 on iTunes. Her second album "Somebody's Gonna Pay" was released on May 18, 2010 and reached #15 on the Billboards Heatseekers charts. The album contains the song "Hardcore Country" which James uses as her current theme song in TNA.


title: Mickie James

text: Mickie James was raised on a farm with her sister Latoya in Montpelier, Virginia. She is of Native American heritage. As a child, she watched weekend horse shows. James started riding horses when she was eleven years old after her grandmother bought her a horse. James was a fan of professional wrestling as a child. She used to watch wrestling with her father. Her favorite wrestlers were Randy Savage, Ricky Steamboat and Ric Flair.


title: Mickie James

text: James started her training at a professional wrestling school in the Washington, D.C. area. She started her wrestling career on the independent circuit in 1999. Her first work was as a valet for KYDA Pro Wrestling using the ring name Alexis Laree. The name is a combination of her stage name from when she was a dancer and her middle name. As Laree, she managed several male wrestlers. This included managing Tommy Dreamer to win the KYDA Pro Heavyweight Championship. In March, she wrestled in her first match. It was an intergender tag team match with Jake Damian against American Mike Brown and Candie. James trained to get better at wrestling at many places. These places include the Funking Conservatory run by Dory Funk, Jr. and an Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) dojo. She also started wrestling for Maryland Championship Wrestling. While there, she was trained by Ricky Morton and Bobby Eaton. Because the independent circuit did not pay enough, James worked as a waitress at an Olive Garden restaurant. Trish Stratus, a former WWE wrestler, was and still is Mickie James' role model


title: Mickie James

text: James worked in Ring of Honor for a year. During this time, she also started wrestling in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling. As Alexis Laree, she was a part of a lingerie battle royal. On March 26, 2003, she teamed with Amazing Red against Kid Kash—the X Division Champion—and Trinity. Weeks later, she became the first member of the Gathering, a stable led by Raven. On April 16, Laree became the first (and currently, only) woman to wrestle in a Clockwork Orange House of Fun match. This match involve the Gathering and Jeff Jarrett. She continued to wrestle with the Gathering when they feuded with the Disciples of The New Church. During this feud, James was kayfabe burned with a fireball by Father James Mitchell. She also wrestled in another Clockwork Orange House of Fun match.


title: Mickie James

text: James tried for two years to work for World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). In August 2003, she was began to work for the WWE. They sent her to train at Ohio Valley Wrestling (OVW). James still used the name Alexis Laree at this time. She began making wresting on television for OVW on January 29, 2004. She wrestled in several tag team matches during the year. She won a Halloween Costume Contest on October 30 and defeated Jillian Hall in a $1,000 match on November 12.


title: Mickie James

text: Laree began a feud with Beth Phoenix on July 20. This feud started after Phoenix interrupted Laree during an interview. A match took place on July 29. Laree lost to Phoenix. The feud continued into September. Shelly Martinez was added to the storyline to side with Phoenix against Laree. On October 12, she appeared in OVW under her real name. She finished the year losing matches against Martinez and Jillian Hall.


title: Mickie James

text: James was first used on television in WWE on the October 10 2005 episode of "Raw". She used her real name. James used the gimmick of WWE Women's Champion Trish Stratus' biggest fan. The storyline had the two WWE Divas wrestling together in tag team matches. James' character became more obsessed with Stratus as time went on. A Halloween Costume Contest was part of the story line. James was dressed like Stratus. She even started using Stratus' personal finishing moves as her own during matches. On December 12, James wrestled and defeated Victoria. The match was to decide who would wrestle Stratus at New Year's Revolution for the championship. Lesbian themes were added to the story line with James kissing Stratus under mistletoe and saying nice things to her about her breasts. In the championship match, James lost to Stratus but still showed romantic fellings towards her the next night on "Raw". She told Stratus that she loved her at the Royal Rumble.


title: Mickie James

text: On March 6 2006 the storyline had Stratus telling James that they needed time apart from each other. They wrestled as a team at the March 18, 2006 Saturday Night's Main Event. James and Stratus defeated Candice Michelle and Victoria in the match. After the match, James tried to kiss Stratus. Stratus pushed her away and James' character made a complete heel turn. She attacked Stratus in the ring. James' character later said she would destroy Stratus. The two women wrestled each other at WrestleMania 22. James won the match to become the Women's Champion for her first time. During the match, even though James was playing the heel character, the fans liked her more than Stratus. The storyline ended at Backlash with a rematch after Stratus legitimately dislocated her shoulder when James threw her out of the ring. James lost the Women's Title on August 14 to Lita. During the match, Lita hit James with the title belt when Edge distracted the referee. This causes a face turn for James' on-screen character. When Stratus retired as champion, there was no longer a Women's Championship. WWE held a tournament to name a new champion. James was a part of that tournament. She defeated Victoria and Melina in the early parts of the tournament. She made it to the finals at Cyber Sunday. In the final match, she lost to Lita. At the 2006 Survivor Series James defeated Lita to win her second Women's Championship.


title: Mickie James

text: A new feud began between James and Melina on January 29 2007. Melina was the number one contender for the Women's Title at the time. James defeated Melina on February 5 to keep the championship. After this, she teamed with Super Crazy in a mixed tag team match against Melina and Johnny Nitro. Melina defeated James and challenged her to a rematch for the title. James lost the Women's Championship to Melina on February 19. The two wrestled in the first ever Women's Falls Count Anywhere match in WWE history. James lost to Melina. Near the end of the match, James fell from the turnbuckle. She landed on her neck but was not badly injured.


title: Mickie James

text: At a house show in Paris, France on April 24, James won her third Women's Championship. In a Triple Threat Match with Malina and Victoria, James pinned Victoria. However, she did not pin Melina, Jonathan Coachman said that a rematch would take place immediately. James lost the title back to Melina. This gave her the shortest Women’s Championship reign in WWE history.


title: Mickie James

text: On the November 26 edition of "Raw", James defeated Melina in a number one contenders match for Beth Phoenix's Women's Championship. This led to a title match between James and Phoenix at Armageddon 2007. James lost the match to Phoenix. On the April 14, 2008 edition of "Raw", held in London, James defeated Phoenix to win her fourth Women's Championship. At Judgment Day James successfully defended the Women's Championship against Phoenix and Melina in a Triple Threat match. James lost the championship back to Phoenix at SummerSlam 2008. She lost it in an intergender tag team match at SummerSlam. In that match, Her partner Kofi Kingston also lost the Intercontinental Title to Phoenix's partner Santino Marella. Mickie James was released from her WWE contract on April 22, 2010.


title: Mickie James

text: James owns three Morgan horses called Rhapsody, Bunny and Casanova. After she has finished her wrestling career, James plans to own a farm and train horses. James also owns a dog named Butch.


title: Mickie James

text: She was at one time engaged to WWE wrestler Ken Doane, better known by his ring name "Kenny Dykstra". She has also been in a relationship with Adam Birch, better known by his ring name "Joey Mercury". James has two tattoos. She has an Asian symbol meaning 'love' on her ankle and a dragon that wraps around it.


title: Mickie James

text: James posed nude in the May 2000 issue of "Leg Show" magazine. On April 13, 2008, James, along with Layla, Melina and Kelly Kelly, appeared in an episode of "Celebrity Fit Club Boot Camp". On September 5 of that same year, James appeared on the USA Network series "Psych". She played a roller derby girl called Rita "Lethal Weapon" Westwood.


title: Mickie James

text: The WWE sent James, Mr. Kennedy and Josh Matthews to the 2008 Republican National Convention to try and get fans to register to vote in the 2008 Presidential election.


title: Mickie James

text: James made an appearance on "Redemption Song". The program is hosted by WWE wrestler Chris Jericho. James appeared on the program along with Candice Michelle, Maryse, and Eve Torres. The episode was first aired on November 12, 2008.


title: George Stephanopoulos

text: George Robert Stephanopoulos (; born February 10, 1961) is an American television journalist and a former political advisor.


title: George Stephanopoulos

text: Stephanopoulos is the chief political correspondent for the news division at ABC-TV– and a co-anchor of ABC-TVs morning news program, "Good Morning America" ("GMA"). He returned as host of ABC-TV's "This Week" in January 2012, a Sunday morning news program produced by ABC-TV's news division. He is the main replacement anchor for ABC-TV's newscast program, "World News with Diane Sawyer".


title: George Stephanopoulos

text: In recent years, he has co-hosted ABC Newss special live coverage of political events with Charles Gibson and Diane Sawyer. He and has often been on "GMA" and "World News". He launched "George's Bottom Line", an ABCNews.com blog.


title: George Stephanopoulos

text: Before he started working for ABC News, he was a senior political adviser to the 1992 U.S. presidential campaign of Bill Clinton. He later became the White House Communications Director for two years. He was replaced by David Gergen. This change came after the Republican party getting control of the U.S. House and Senate in the mid-term elections of 1994.


title: Creative Commons

text: American non-profit organisation that tries to make creative work available for others to use and share.


title: Creative Commons

text: Their website allows copyright holders to give some of their rights to any other people. They still keep some other rights. They do this through licenses and contracts. Some of these make the work public domain or open content. They do this because copyright law can stop people sharing information.


title: Creative Commons

text: The project has different free licenses. A person who has copyright can choose which one they want to use when they publish their work. They also provide RDF/XML metadata. These say what the licenses are and make it easier to automatically sort out and find work that has these licenses. They also provide a 'Founder's Copyright' contract. This aims to give the same effects as the original US Copyright did.


title: Creative Commons

text: Lawrence Lessig is the founder and chairman of Creative Commons. Lessig started it as a way of reaching the goals of his Supreme Court case, Eldred v. Ashcroft.


title: Creative Commons

text: The "iCommons" (International Commons) is one of the Creative Commons projects. They improve the wording of the licenses and make them usable in other countries. The first ones dealt with US law only. As of February 4, 2004, Canada, the People's Republic of China, Finland, France, Italy, Japan, the Republic of China (Taiwan), the Republic of Ireland, and the United Kingdom have joined this project.


title: Creative Commons

text: Projects that use Creative Commons licenses include LOCA Records, Magnatune, Opsound, Opcopy, Wikitravel, iRATE radio and the fiction of Cory Doctorow.


title: Hollywood Walk of Fame

text: The Hollywood Walk of Fame is a sidewalk along Hollywood Boulevard and Vine Street in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, USA, that is like an entertainment museum. There are over 2500 stars on the sidewalk. The names of famous entertainers and famous fictional characters are written on the stars.


title: Airline hub

text: An airline hub is an airport that an airline uses as a transfer point to get passengers to their intended destination.


title: 3rd millennium BC

text: This was a period of time in which the desire to conquer was common. Expansion occurred throughout the Middle East and throughout Eurasia, with Indo-European expansion to Anatolia, Europe and Central Asia. The civilization of Ancient Egypt rose to a peak with the Old Kingdom. World population is estimated to have doubled in the course of the millennium to 30 million people.


title: B-flat major

text: B-flat major is a good key for most wind instruments, especially those for which it is their home key, such as clarinets, trumpets, saxophones, and the flutes in B-flat. Because of this, many works for concert bands (those you might have played in while you were at school) are written in this or a closely related key such as F major or E-flat major.


title: B-flat major

text: Haydn's Symphony No. 98, which had both trumpet and timpani, is known as the first symphony that anyone had written in that key. Actually, his brother Michael Haydn had written one earlier. However, Joseph Haydn still gets credit for writing the timpani part at actual pitch with an F major key signature (instead of transposing with a C major key signature), something that made things easier and made more sense.


title: Reims

text: Reims is a commune in France, in the Marne department in the Grand Est region. NEOMA Business School is in the city.


title: Reims

text: Reims Cathedral (Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Reims) is famous for coronation of almost every king of France. The cathedral was destroyed by fire in 1914 (after an attack by the German army).


title: Michael Keaton

text: Michael John Douglas (born September 5, 1951), better known by the artistic name Michael Keaton, is an American actor who became popular for his early comedic film roles, most notably his performance as the title character of Tim Burton's "Beetlejuice", and later gained international fame for his dramatic portrayal of Bruce Wayne / Batman in Tim Burton's "Batman" (1989), "Batman Returns" (1992) and will play the role again in "The Flash" (2023). He won a Golden Globe Award and was nominated for an Academy Award in 2015 for his role in "Birdman". In 2016, he played Ray Kroc in "The Founder".


title: Michael Keaton

text: Keaton was born in Kennedy Township, Pennsylvania. He lived in Robinson Township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. His father, George A. Douglas, worked as a civil engineer and surveyor, and his mother, Leona Elizabeth (nee Loftus), a homemaker, came from McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania. Keaton was raised in a Catholic family. He is of Irish and Scots-Irish ancestry. He attended Montour High School in Pennsylvania. Douglas studied speech for two years at Kent State, before dropping out and moving to Pittsburgh.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Charlotte Corday (Marie-Anne Charlotte de Corday d'Armont, 27 July 1768 – 17 July 1793), was a figure of the French Revolution. In 1793, she was sent to the guillotine for the assassination of Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat. She blamed Marat for the more extreme course the Revolution had taken. He played a large role in the takedown of the Girondins. Corday believed in the Girondins' cause. In 1847, writer Alphonse de Lamartine gave Corday the nickname " (the Angel of Assassination).


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Charlotte Corday was born in Saint-Saturnin-des-Ligneries, Orne in Normandy, France in 1768. Corday was from a family of minor aristocrats.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: When Corday was a girl, her older sister and their mother, Charlotte Marie Jacqueline Gaultier de Mesnival died. Her father sent Corday and her younger sister to a convent in Caen. In the convent's library, Corday read the writing of Plutarch, Rousseau, and Voltaire After 1791, Corday lived in Caen with her cousin, Madame Le Coustellier de Bretteville-Gouville. They were very close. Corday was going to inherit her cousin's estate.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: As the French Revolution became more and more extreme, Corday began to support the even more. She loved their speeches and liked many of the Girondins she met in Caen very much. She decided that she needed to do what the Girondins were doing. She thought that they were the party that would save France from the radicalism of the Jacobins. The Jacobins believed that France would be saved only by terrifying the people into obedience. They believed that violence was the only way. Corday and the Girondins did not agree with this approach. Corday decided to kill Marat, because she believed he was the most radical. She believed this because she blamed him for the September Massacres.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Jean-Paul Marat was a member of the radical Jacobin party that led the Reign of Terror. He wrote an important and widely read newspaper called " (the Friend of the People). Corday also blamed Marat for the civil war she thought would happen in France. She believed that Marat was bad for the future of France and that his death would stop the violence in France. She also believed that Louis XVI should not have been executed.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: On July 9th, 1793, Corday left her cousin's estate and went to Paris, where she bought a knife. At her hotel, she wrote a letter to the French people. In the letter, she explained why she had killed Marat. She called it "" ("Address to the French people, friends of law and peace").


title: Charlotte Corday

text: At first, she planned to assassinate Marat in front of the entire National Convention. However, Marat did not attend meetings anymore, because of a skin disease. She changed her plan and went to his home. The first time she came, Marat's wife, Simonne Evrard, did not let her come in. When she came back in the evening, Marat let her in. She gave him the names of Girondins in Caen, and he wrote them down. Then, she stabbed him with the knife she had bought. Marat called "" ("help me, my dear friend!") to his wife and died.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Corday said that she had planned to kill Marat alone. There was no evidence against this. Corday said that she "killed one man to save a hundred thousand" at her trial.


title: Charlotte Corday

text: Corday's plan worked, but it also failed. The violence in France did not stop. Marat became a martyr.


title: Evgeni Malkin

text: Evgeni Vladimirovich Malkin (born July 31, 1986) is a Russian professional ice hockey centre. He currently plays for the Pittsburgh Penguins of the National Hockey League (NHL) and serves as their alternative captain. He was selected 2nd overall by the Penguins in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft.


title: Yo Gabba Gabba!

text: Yo Gabba Gabba! is an American-Canadian children's television show. It aired on Nickelodeon. The show follows a musician named DJ Lance Rock, and 5 toy monsters, who live in Gabbaland. They are ready to sing, dance, learn and play.


title: Bayreuth

text: Bayreuth ( ] or ]; ]; Bavarian "Bareid"; East Franconian: "Baraid") is a town in northern Bavaria, Germany. It is the capital of Upper Franconia. About 74,000 people live there. Bayreuth is internationally famous for the Bayreuth Festival (), a festival for the music of Richard Wagner. Nearby bigger cities are Coburg, Bamberg, Hof and Nuremberg. Bayreuth has a university, the University of Bayreuth.


title: Bayreuth

text: Bayreuth has a lot of sights and historical buildings which are usually visited by many tourists, especially at the time of the Bayreuth Festival. You can find sights such as the New Palace ("Neues Schloss"), Bayreuth Festspielhaus, Eremitage, Spitalkirche, The Old Castle, Margravial Opera House, and Wahnfried. Most of the sights have been built in the 18th century and the 19th century. The most popular sight in Bayreuth is the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, which is a major opera building located north of Bayreuth.


title: Dennis Rodman

text: Dennis Keith Rodman (born May 13, 1961) played basketball in the National Basketball Association (NBA) from 1986 to 2000. He won two championships with the Detroit Pistons and three more with the Chicago Bulls. Even though he was only 6'7" tall, many people think he was the best rebounder in NBA history. He led the NBA in rebounding for a record seven straight seasons. Only Wilt Chamberlain led the NBA in rebounding for more total seasons in a career. Rodman has the highest rebound rate since the statistic began in 1970-71. Although Rodman began his career as a bench player, he holds the highest rebounds per game average since offensive and defensive rebounds began in 1973-74. When he became a full-time starter, Rodman often got more rebounds than the other team's starting players got combined. He could predict where missed shots would go and knew how to tip the ball to himself for a rebound. Rodman watched film of player's shots to become a better rebounder. Rodman is also known as one of the greatest defensive players of all time, and not just for his defensive rebounds, but his hustle defense. During his time with the Detroit Pistons, Rodman was considered by many to be the best defensive basketball player in the world (Hakeem Olajuwon was the other main contender for the title), as highlighted by his back-to-back NBA Defensive Player of the Year Awards in 1990 and 1991.


title: Dennis Rodman

text: Rodman was famous for dyeing his hair different colors and having many tattoos and body piercings, which he began to have after being traded by the Detroit Pistons. He has been in a few movies and television programs.


title: Dennis Rodman

text: His nicknames are Worm (later called The Worm), Dennis the Menace, D-Rod, Rodzilla (which he named himself towards the end of the Bulls championship dynasty), Demolition Man, and El Loco (given to him by Spanish-language announcers, which translates as "The Madman").


title: Electromagnet

text: Electromagnets are temporary and artificial magnets. They are magnets that are only magnetic when there is a coil of wire with electricity running through it. The coil of wire is called a solenoid. The strength of the magnet is proportional to the current flowing in the circuit. The electricity running through the wire is called a current. The current is the flow of electrons, which are negatively charged particles. Electromagnets are used for a variety of purposes. In a simple example, an electromagnet can pick up pieces of iron, nickel, and cobalt.


title: Electromagnet

text: Electromagnets can be made stronger by adding more coils to the copper wire, or adding an iron core through the coils (for example a nail). The current can also be increased to make the magnetism stronger. British electrician William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1825.


title: Electromagnet

text: An electromagnet is useful because it can be turned on and off easily (using an electric current), whereas a permanent magnet cannot be turned off and will continue to affect its immediate environment.


title: Electromagnet

text: Different alloys act differently. Iron stops being an electromagnet very quickly, but steel takes time to wear off. To make an electromagnet, copper wire is wound around an iron rod. The two ends of the wire are connected to the + (positive) and - (negative) side of the battery.


title: Electromagnet

text: Electromagnets are used in everyday items such as burglar alarms, electric relays and fire bells. Electric motors are basically electromagnets. Their ability to change from the state of non-magnetic to magnetic just by passing an electric current through it allows it to be used in many different items. This ability is used in relays.


title: Electromagnet

text: Electromagnets can also be used to make electricity. Movement of a magnet back and forth in front of the electromagnet will make an electric current.


title: Electromagnet

text: Electromagnets work because when electricity flows through a wire it makes a magnetic field around the wire. The direction of the magnetic field can be found by using the "right-hand rule". This means that if a person points the thumb of their right hand in the direction of the current, the magnetic field would go around the wire the same way their fingers would wrap around the wire.


title: Electromagnet

text: The magnetic field made by a single wire is not usually very strong. To make an electromagnet normally the wire is wrapped in many loops to make the fields of each piece of wire add together into one stronger magnetic field.


title: Montpelier, Vermont

text: is a city in the U.S. state of Vermont that serves as the state capital. It is also the shire town (county seat) of Washington County. As the capital of Vermont, Montpelier is the site of the Vermont State House, the seat of the legislative branch of Vermont government. The Vermont State House has a golden dome. The population was 7,855 at the 2010 census. By population, it is the smallest state capital in the United States. The Vermont History Museum and Vermont College of Fine Arts are in Montpelier.


title: Infrastructure

text: These are the main items: water supply, sewage plants, housing, roads, cable networks, food supply facilities, schools, hospitals, airports, community meeting places, business and government buildings, bridges, railways. In fact, everything that modern life needs in the way of built facilities.


title: Infrastructure

text: Infrastructure is closely connected with standard of living and overpopulation. More people will want more roads, water pipes and other infrastructure. Poor countries tend to have fast population growth and cannot provide the needed infrastructure. Standard of living drops and this may lead to other problems like worsening health, exposure to plague and difficult access of emergency units to those that need it.


title: Winnie the Pooh

text: Winnie the Pooh, also called Pooh Bear, is a fictional anthropomorphic teddy bear. He was created by A. A. Milne. He is based on a stuffed toy that belonged to Milne's son, Christopher Robin Milne. The toy was named after "Winnipeg" ("Winnie" for short), who was a black bear at the London Zoo, and "Pooh", which was a nickname Milne and his son had given to a swan. The first book was published in 1926. Other books were published later. Walt Disney made a series of cartoons based on the books. The Walt Disney Company still owns the character.


title: Winnie the Pooh

text: Pooh is a small yellow bear. He is nearly tall. He wears an old red t-shirt. His favorite food is honey. The first thing he says when he gets up in the morning is "What's for breakfast?". He invented the game "Poohsticks".


title: Winnie the Pooh

text: Pooh has several friends. Their names are Piglet, Eeyore, Tigger, Rabbit, Kanga and Roo, Owl, Gopher, and Christopher Robin. Piglet is a small timid pig. Eeyore is an old grey donkey. Tigger is an energetic tiger. Rabbit is a kind-hearted rabbit. Kanga is a female kangaroo. Roo is Kanga's son.


title: Winnie the Pooh

text: The first book, "Winnie-the-Pooh", was published on October 15, 1926 by Methuen & Company. The second book was "The House at Pooh Corner", which was published on October 11, 1928. The poetry book "When We Were Very Young" was published in 1924 and "Now We Are Six" was published in 1927. "Return to Hundred Acre Wood" was written by David Benedictus and published on October 5, 2009. "" was published in 2016 to mark the 90th anniversary of the first Winnie-the-Pooh book.


title: Winnie the Pooh

text: There have been quite a few series created by Walt Disney based on these books. The stories are translated into many languages.


title: Winnie the Pooh

text: A Disney movie about Pooh, "The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh", was made in March 1977. "Winnie the Pooh" was made in July 2011. A live-action movie directed by Marc Forster and based on A. A. Milne's books, entitled "Christopher Robin", was released in 2018.


title: Seth MacFarlane

text: Seth Woodbury MacFarlane (born October 26, 1973) is an American actor, comedian and voice actor. He is best known for creating the animated television series, "Family Guy", "American Dad!" and "The Cleveland Show".


title: Seth MacFarlane

text: MacFarlane went to Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), a school in Rhode Island where he studied animation. He made a short cartoon movie named, "The Life of Larry" during his senior year. He worked at Hanna-Barbera writing and making episodes of "Johnny Bravo". FOX, a media network, saw "The Life of Larry" and offered him $50,000 to make a pilot.


title: Seth MacFarlane

text: MacFarlane is a supporter for the Democratic Party. In 2015, MacFarlane revealed support for Bernie Sanders on the 2016 U.S. presidential election, and he introduced Sanders on a Los Angeles rally.


title: Seth MacFarlane

text: On the morning of September 11, 2001, MacFarlane was scheduled to return to Los Angeles on American Airlines Flight 11 from Boston. After having a hangover from last night's celebrations, and after getting his departure time incorrectly (8:15 a.m. instead of 7:45 a.m.) from his travel agent, he arrived at Logan International Airport about ten minutes too late to board the flight as the gates had been closed. Fifteen minutes after departure, American Airlines Flight 11 was hijacked, and at 8:46 a.m. it was flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center, destroying the airplane, and killing everyone on board.


title: Seth MacFarlane

text: In August 2011, Fox ordered a 13-part updated series of "". MacFarlane will co-produce with Anne Druyan and Steven Soter. It will be hosted by Neil deGrasse Tyson. The series was broadcast on Fox in 2014.


title: Seth MacFarlane

text: Seth MacFarlane is on his fifth animated series "Bordertown" with Alex Borstein. Its broadcast date is on January 3, 2016. It shows a family and has a female lead role.


title: Baking powder

text: Baking powder is a dry chemical leavening agent used to make baked foods lighter and less dense. Baking powder works by making a reaction between an acid and a base. This produces carbon dioxide bubbles to make the mixture light. Baking powder was invented by the English chemist Alfred Bird (1811 – 15 December 1878) in 1843.


title: Baking powder

text: It is used when the food should not taste of yeast, or when the mixture is not elastic enough to hold bubbles for very long. But sometimes, it has a metallic taste. Because carbon dioxide is made faster by baking powder than yeast, breads made with it are called quick breads.


title: Baking powder

text: Most baking powders are made up of an alkaline (usually baking soda), one or two acid salts, and a starch (cornstarch or sometimes potato starch). Baking soda is where the carbon dioxide comes from, and the acid releases it, like this:


title: Baking powder

text: Bird was quickly followed by Henry Jones (1812 – 12 July 1891) who invented self-rising flour in 1845.


title: Tat soi

text: Tatsoi is an Asian vegetable. It can also be called Spinach mustard, Spoon mustard or Rosette bok choy. It is green. It has become popular in North American cuisine. It is grown throughout the world.


title: Claymore

text: The claymore is a Scottish sword. It is double-edged. The word itself is of Gaelic origins and means “great sword”. The Claymore is indeed a big sword and was held only with two hands. In some sources the broad claymore sword is called “claidheamh da lamh”, which means “two-hand sword”. It was very popular in the 16th century when Scottish warriors (highlanders) used it against the Englishmen.


title: Claymore

text: The claymore sword was in average about - overall length, the blade was about long. It weighed around . It possessed a very broad blade and a slim channel, called a fuller, to slightly reduce its weight.


title: Claymore

text: There also existed a version of Claymore that had a single-edged blade and a basket-shaped handle. The basket of the handle was used as protection for the hand. The blade was very long, so the basket was designed for balance too. The making of these swords was widespread especially during the mid-1600s . The places where the claymore swords were made were: Edinburgh, Canongate, Stirling and Glasgow.


title: Claymore

text: Beginning around 1350, very long claymore swords were used. The handles and the blades became longer. This was because of the heavy armour, that was almost impossible to penetrate. The Scottish Claymore was one of the two swords which could cut through the armour. The second was the Germanic Landsknecht sword.


title: Lasagna

text: Lasagne (, , ; singular lasagna, ) are a type of wide, flat pasta. It is an Italian dish made of stacked layers of this flat pasta alternating with fillings such as ragù (a meat sauce or tomato sauce) and other vegetables, cheese (which may include ricotta and parmesan), and seasonings and spices such as garlic, oregano and basil.


title: Jay Leno

text: James Douglas Muir "Jay" Leno (; born April 28, 1950) is an American comedian, actor, screenwriter, producer, television host and television presenter.


title: Jay Leno

text: Leno was born James Douglas Muir Leno in New Rochelle, New York on April 28, 1950. His homemaker mother Catherine (née Muir; 1911–1993) was born in Greenock, Scotland and came to the United States at the age of 11. Leno's father, Angelo (1910–1994), who worked as an insurance salesman, was born in New York, to immigrants from Flumeri, Italy. Leno grew up in Andover, Massachusetts and even though his high school guidance counselor recommended that he drop out of school, he later obtained a Bachelor's degree in speech therapy from Emerson College, where he started a comedy club in 1973. Leno's only sibling was his late older brother Patrick, who was a Vietnam veteran and a lawyer.


title: Jay Leno

text: Leno worked on late night television. He became host of "The Tonight Show" in 1992 when Johnny Carson retired. In 2007, during the writer's strike, Leno sided with the writers, even though he returned to his show after two months (without the writers besides himself) so that his staff would not be out of work. Despite leading the late-night ratings, he was forced out as host of the Tonight Show in 2009 to make way for Conan O'Brien. On March 1, 2010, became "The Tonight Show" host once again, because of poor ratings with both himself and Conan O'Brien. Leno hosted his last episode of the Tonight Show on February 6, 2014.


title: Jay Leno

text: He now stars in his own prime-time comedy show "The Jay Leno Show", which debuted on September 14, 2009.


title: Jay Leno

text: He guest-starred twice on the "Nickelodeon" TV series "The Fairly OddParents" as the "Crimson Chin". His character's name uses the fact that Leno has a large and square chin.


title: Jay Leno

text: Since 1980, Leno has been married to Mavis Leno; they have no children by mutual agreement. Leno is dyslexic.


title: Nick Cannon

text: Nicholas Scott "Nick" Cannon (born October 8, 1980) is an American actor, comedian, rapper and radio/television personality. He is known for his roles in "Drumline", "Love Don't Cost a Thing", and "Roll Bounce". He also hosted his own show "The Nick Cannon Show". He also hosted "America's Got Talent", "Lip Sync Battle Shorties," and "The Masked Singer".


title: Nick Cannon

text: Cannon was born on October 8, 1980 in San Diego, California. He was raised in San Diego, California and in Charlotte, North Carolina.


title: Nick Cannon

text: Cannon married Mariah Carey in April 30, 2008. On their third wedding anniversary, Carey gave birth to the couple's twins, a boy named Moroccan Scott and a girl, named Monroe. Cannon has lupus nephritis which can cause kidney problems. He divorced Carey in 2014 and then finalized two years later.


title: Nick Cannon

text: Cannon has two children with model Brittany Bell. In June 2021, his twin sons, Zion and Zillion, were born to DJ Abby De La Rosa. Later that month, his seventh child, a son named Zen, with model Alyssa Scott, was born. Zen died of brain cancer at five months old. In January 2022, Cannon announced he is expecting a boy with model Bre Tiesi. Cannon is reportedly expecting his ninth child with De La Rosa.


title: Value

text: Value is how much something is worth. Often the best way to find the value of something is to use the price that it can be sold for. However Oscar Wilde wrote that 'people know the price of everything but the value of nothing'- in other words true value does not depend on money alone.


title: Value

text: In math, a value is a number which is concrete, something everyone can agree upon. However people may disagree on the value of water, depending if you live in a desert or next to a river. Disagreements on the value of things can create fights between nations, political parties, religions, etc.


title: Slovene language

text: Experts estimate that 2.5 million people can understand and speak Slovene. It is a Slavic language, written for more than 1000 years. The earliest written records are the Freising manuscripts.


title: Slovene language

text: In 2004, it became an official language of the European Union (there are 24 official languages in total). The standard Slovene alphabet has 25 letters. The letters come from the Latin alphabet. Slovene words are usually pronounced how they are spelled.


title: Aeschylus

text: Aeschylus (525 BC – 456 BC) was an Ancient Greek poet and writer. He wrote about 70–90 plays. Only six of his tragedies have survived complete. Aeschylus was the earliest of the three greatest Greek writers of tragedians. The two others were Sophocles and Euripides.


title: Aeschylus

text: Aristotle said that Aeschylus added more characters into his plays. His characters spoke to each other and not just to the chorus. This made it easier to create drama between the characters.


title: Aeschylus

text: One of his plays, "The Persians", was about the Persian invasion of Greece. Aeschylus had fought in this war. People studying Greek history use his play as an important source of information. The war was so important to the Greeks and to Aeschylus, that the writing on his grave only talks about his part in the Greek victory at the Battle of Marathon. There is nothing about the plays he wrote.


title: Aeschylus

text: Aeschylus was born about the year 525 BC in a small town called Eleusis, which is about 27 kilometers northwest of Athens. The date is based on counting back forty years from his first victory in the Great Dionysia. His family was rich, and his father, Euphorion, was a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attica. Pausanias wrote that Aeschylus worked in a vineyard until the god Dionysus visited him in his sleep. The god ordered him to write the first tragedies. His first play was performed in 499 BC, when he was only 26 years old.


title: Aeschylus

text: In 490 BC the Persian army, led by Darius, landed in Greece and tried to take it over. Aeschylus, and his brother Cynegeirus, joined the army from Athens and fought against the Persians at the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians were able to defeat the much bigger Persian army. This battle, which stopped Darius, was celebrated across the city-states of Greece. Cynegeirus died in the battle. In 480 BC, Xerxes I of Persia tried to capture Greece. Aeschylus fought against them at the Battle of Salamis and at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. His oldest surviving play "The Persians", performed in 472 BC, is set during the Battle of Salamis. This play won first prize at the Dionysia.


title: Aeschylus

text: Aeschylus was one of many Greeks who joined the Eleusinian Mysteries. This was the religious cult of Demeter, and based in his home town of Eleusis. Members of the group learned mystical and secret knowledge. Members were sworn under the penalty of death not to say anything about the Mysteries to anyone. Aristotle wrote that some people thought that Aeschylus had shown some of the cult's secrets on stage. Other writers said that an angry mob tried to kill Aeschylus on the spot, but he ran away. Later, Aeschylus said he did not know that he had shown any of the secrets. He was saved from death only because of his brave service in the Persian Wars.


title: Aeschylus

text: Aeschylus made two trips to Sicily in the 470s BC. He was invited by Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, a big Greek city on the east side of the island. On one of these trips he wrote "The Women of Aetna", in honor of the city founded by Hieron. He also restaged his "Persians". By 473 BC, Aeschylus was the yearly favorite in the Dionysia, winning first prize in nearly every competition. In 458 BC, he returned to Sicily for the last time, visiting the city of Gela where he died in 456 or 455 BC. It is said that he was killed by a tortoise which fell out of the sky after it was dropped by an eagle. This story is probably only a legend. Aeschylus' work was so respected by the Athenians that after his death, his were the only tragedies allowed to be restaged in future competitions. His sons Euphorion and Euæon, and his nephew Philocles, all wrote plays as well.


title: Aeschylus

text: Greek drama began with festivals for the gods, mainly Dionysus, the god of wine. During Aeschylus' lifetime, dramatic competitions became part of the city's Dionysia in the spring. The festival began with an opening procession, then a competition of boys singing dithyrambs, and finally two dramatic competitions. The first competition was for three playwrights each presenting three tragic plays, followed by a shorter comedy. A second competition of five comedic playwrights followed, and winners of both competitions were chosen by a group of judges.


title: Aeschylus

text: Aeschylus took part in many of these competitions in his lifetime. Only six tragedies have survived intact: "The Persians", "Seven against Thebes", "The Suppliants", and the trilogy known as "The Oresteia", consisting of the three tragedies "Agamemnon", "The Libation Bearers" and "The Eumenides". There is also the play "Prometheus Bound", but this was probably written by someone else. All of the surviving plays won first prize at the City Dionysia. One book, the Alexandrian "Life of Aeschylus", said that he won the first prize at the City Dionysia 13 times. Sophocles' won 18 times out of his 120 plays, and Euripides only had five wins out of about 90 plays.


title: Aeschylus

text: When Aeschylus first began writing, the theatre was new. Some playwrights like Thespis had made the cast bigger to include an actor who was able to talk with the chorus instead of just the chorus. Aeschylus added a second actor, called the deuteragonist allowing for more drama; and the chorus became less important. He is said to have been the first to use "skenographia", or scene-decoration, though Aristotle said the first person was Sophocles. Aeschylus also added more details to the costumes, and had his actors wear platform boots, called "cothurni", to help the audience see them better. When they walked on stage in the first performance of the "Eumenides", the chorus of Furies were so frightening in looks that they made young children faint, old men urinate, and pregnant women go into labor.


title: Aeschylus

text: His plays were written in the strict style of Greek drama. They were in verse and no violence could be performed on stage. The plays had to be set away from normal life in Athens, either by telling stories about the gods or by being set, like "The Persians", in a far-away place. Aeschylus' work has a strong moral and religious emphasis. The "Oresteia" plays were about man's position in the universe in relation to the gods, the laws of the gods, and punishment from the gods.


title: Aeschylus

text: Fifty years after Aeschylus' death, the comic playwright Aristophanes praised him in "The Frogs". Aeschylus is a character in the play and says that his "Seven against Thebes" "made everyone watching it to love being warlike" (line 1022); with his "Persians", he says he "taught the Athenians to desire always to defeat their enemies" (line 1026–7). He says that his plays helped the Athenians to be brave and virtuous (line 1039ff).


title: Boudica

text: Boudica (born about 25 AD, died 60/61 AD) was the queen of the Celtic Iceni people in Norfolk in the eastern part of Roman Britain. Her husband Prasutagus ruled an independent client state of Rome. When he died, he left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and the Roman emperor.


title: Boudica

text: It was normal Roman practice to allow allied kingdoms their independence only for the lifetime of their client king. For example, the provinces of Bithynia and Galatia, were made part of the Empire in just this way. Also, Roman law allowed inheritance only through the male line.


title: Boudica

text: When Prasutagus died, his will was ignored by the Governor, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, and his kingdom was annexed just as if it had been conquered. To make matters worse, Roman money-lenders called in the debts which Prasutagus had borrowed during his life. The Romans confiscated the lands and property of the Iceni and treated their nobles like slaves.


title: Boudica

text: When Boudica protested, Paulinus had her flogged, and her two daughters raped in public. Tacitus reports:


title: Boudica

text: Choosing a good moment, when the Governor was attacking Anglesey and another legion was in Bristol, Boudica led the Iceni and their associates, the Trinovantes, to war. They destroyed Camulodunum (modern Colchester), and moved towards Londinium. There was only the 9th legion (Legio IX Hispana) to defend it. The tribes burnt and destroyed both Verulamium (St Albans) and Londinium and massacred all they could lay their hands on. An estimated 70,000–80,000 Romans and British were killed in the three cities by those led by Boudica.


title: Boudica

text: The final battle took place near Watling Street in the English Midlands. Watling Street was an old trackway between Canterbury and St Albans. The Romans rebuilt it their way, and took it through the Midlands into Wales.


title: Boudica

text: While Boudica's army assaulted in Verulamium, Suetonius put together a force with his own Legio XIV Gemina, some detachments of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix, and any available auxiliaries. Down near Exeter, The Prefect of Legio II Augusta, Poenius Postumus, ignored the Governor's call to arms. Nonetheless, the Governor was able to call on almost ten thousand men.


title: Boudica

text: The Romans were heavily outnumbered. However, the tribes lacked manoeuvrability. They had no way to direct these numbers, which put them at a disadvantage to the Romans. The Romans were skilled at open combat, and had better equipment and discipline. Also, the narrowness of the field meant that Boudica could put forth only as many troops as the Romans at any given time.