title: Ken Livingstone

text: Livingstone introduced the London congestion charge with the purpose of reducing traffic congestion in central London. Since being introduced the charge has proved to be controversial, though Transport for London maintains that traffic has fallen by 20% within the charge zone since the scheme began. One reason for the controversy is that whilst the scheme has been lucrative for its private-sector operator, Capita, some people argue it has not made enough money for public transport because the money has been spent on other things.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: However, its apparent success in reducing congestion has led to similar schemes being proposed in other major cities such as New York.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In November 2003, Livingstone was named 'Politician of the Year' by the Political Studies Association, which said his scheme was 'bold and imaginative'.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: The United States Embassy for many years has refused to pay the charge because they argue it is a tax and not a charge on congestion.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Ken Livingstone has been called “an environmentalist, a leftist, a lover of newts," and has made a significant effort to reduce London’s impact on the environment. He began by creating the London Hydrogen Partnership and the London Energy Partnership in his first term as Mayor of London. The Mayor’s Energy Strategy , “green light to clean power,” commits London to reducing its emissions of carbon dioxide by 20%, relative to the 1990 level, by 2010. However, he does support the Thames Gateway Bridge in East London that Friends of the Earth say "would bring few benefits to the local people and lead to more traffic, more noise and air pollution and an increase in climate-changing emissions". In October 2007, London Councils stated Livingstone had gone back on his promise to help chair the developing London Waste and Recycling Board, and to provide £6 million of funding for the project, because "the government had failed to provide him with absolute control of the Board."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In June 2007, Livingstone criticised a planned £200 million desalination plant at Beckton, which would be the United Kingdom's first, calling it "misguided and a retrograde step in UK environmental policy", and that "we should be encouraging people to use less water, not more."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In 2001 Livingstone set up Britain's first register for same-sex couples; while falling short of legal marriage rights, the register was seen as a "step towards" such rights. Legal status was later passed by the government through the Civil Partnership Act 2004.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: After rejecting the idea for a couple of years, Livingstone hosted a Jewish Hanukkah ceremony at City Hall in December 2005. He said he intended this to be an annual occurrence. On 17 March 2002 Livingstone introduced an annual Saint Patrick's Day festival to London to celebrate the contributions of the Irish to London, with around 250,000 people annually turning out for this. On 28 October 2006 he helped organise the first ever ""Eid in the Square"" in Trafalgar Square, in commemoration of the Eid ul-Fitr festival which marks the end of Ramadan, the Muslim month of fasting.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: After the 7 July 2005 London bombings Livingstone, from the 117th IOC Session in Singapore, where it had recently been announced London would host the 2012 Olympic Games, delivered a speech.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Finally, I wish to speak directly to those who came to London today to take life. I know that you personally do not fear giving up your own life in order to take others - that is why you are so dangerous. But I know you fear that you may fail in your long-term objective to destroy our free society and I can show you why you will fail. In the days that follow, look at our airports, look at our sea ports and look at our railway stations and, even after your cowardly attack, you will see that people from the rest of Britain, people from around the world will arrive in London to become Londoners and to fulfill their dreams and achieve their potential. They choose to come to London, as so many have come before because they come to be free, they come to live the life they choose, they come to be able to be themselves. They flee you because you tell them how they should live. They do not want that and nothing you do, however many of us you kill, will stop that flight to our city where freedom is strong and where people can live in harmony with one another. Whatever you do, however many you kill, you will fail.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Livingstone defended the police after the mistaken killing of a Brazilian man, Jean Charles de Menezes, who police believed was a suicide bomber.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In 2001 Livingstone revived the free anti-racism Music festival now called . He believes that this, along with other anti-racist policies, is why London has seen a 35% decrease in racist attacks.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In September 2005 Livingstone came out in support of placing a statue of Nelson Mandela, the former President of South Africa, on the north terrace of Trafalgar Square. Livingstone said "There can be no better place than our greatest square to place a statue of Nelson Mandela so that every generation can remind the next of the fight against racism." He was highly critical of the Planning and City Development Committee of Westminster City Council who refused planning permission.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In 2008 Livingstone's race advisor Lee Jasper resigned after being accused of corruption and inappropriate behaviour. Simon Woolley of Operation Black Vote has said the 2008 Mayoral campaign has seen a "wholly disproportionate" focus on Jasper, Doreen Lawrence (Livingstone supporter and mother of Stephen Lawrence), and others.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: On 23 August 2007, at 12pm, Mayor Ken Livingstone formally apologised for London's role in the transatlantic slave trade. In a bicentennial day memorial event, he also called for the 23 August to be named as a national day for remembrance in the UK for the "horrific crime against humanity of the transatlantic slave trade." He went on to make the following tearful speech and formal apology:


title: Ken Livingstone

text: "It is because it is the anniversary of the biggest slave revolt in history, that UNESCO officially marks this day, the 23 August, the anniversary of that outbreak in Haiti, as slavery's official remembrance day. This is why we, in London, call for it to be the annual slave memorial day. We are therefore here to initiate London's annual slavery memorial day, and call for the establishment of a national, annual memorial day. In 1999, Liverpool became the first major British slaving city to formally apologise. The Church of England soon followed suit. In March I invited representatives of London's institutions to join the City of Liverpool and the Church of England for formally apologising for London's role in this monstrous crime. As Mayor, I offer an apology on behalf of London and its institutions for their role in the transatlantic slave trade."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Rejecting the idea that it is not possible to "meaningfully apologise for something a former generation did," Livingstone emphasised that London and by implication the rest of the developed world still profited enormously from the assets accumulated in the slave era, adding "It was the racial murder of not just those who were transported but generations of enslaved African men, women and children. To justify this murder and torture black people had to be declared inferior or not human. We live with the consequences today."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In March 2002, while still independent, Livingstone was accused of "cronyism" by some Labour party members in the London Assembly after he had appointed six officials as special advisers at a salary level which seemed to them excessive, and a manoeuvre to help his chances of being re-elected. Livingstone denied the allegations and stated the appointments were a "necessary efficiency drive."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In December 2007, the "Evening Standard" published news of an investigation into grants worth £2.5 million paid to organisations in which Ken Livingstone's adviser Lee Jasper was involved. It is confirmed that some of these grants were paid directly by the mayor's office.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Following Mr. Livingstone’s defeat in the 2008 Mayoral Elections, "The Daily Mail" reported that “Eight 'cronies' of Ken Livingstone are to receive £1.6 million in pay-offs following his defeat in the London mayoral elections.” Mr. Livingstone changed the rules for political appointees who would otherwise not have been eligible for severance packages, which paved the way for the eight City Hall advisors to receive an average of £200,000. Liberal Democrat Leader Dee Doocey stated that the payments were “completely inexcusable” and added that “It seems like there's one law for the ordinary working person and one law for the political class.” Tony Travers, local government expert at the London School of Economics, said: “I think most people will be shocked. You could do quite a lot about knife crime with £1.6 million. It is odd indeed that the full benefits of labour laws designed to protect the vulnerable are being claimed by courtiers who knew they would lose their jobs if their master lost the election.”


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Mr Livinstone refuted the comments by stating that 'It's a question of what the law requires. Either there's a legal responsibility or there is not.'


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Ken Livingstone was publicly criticised in February 2005 for remarks made to an "Evening Standard" reporter, comparing him to a Nazi concentration camp guard, after the reporter had tried to interview him following a reception marking the 20th anniversary of Chris Smith's coming out as gay. The reporter, Oliver Finegold, was in fact Jewish and said he took offence at the remarks, but Livingstone refused to withdraw the remark and was subsequently accused of antisemitism. Finegold had an audio recorder running. "The Evening Standard" decided not to run the story at first but the following transcript of the conversation was published by "guardian.co.uk":


title: Ken Livingstone

text: The epithet "German war criminal" and Livingstone's subsequent jibes refer to the Standard's owners, the Daily Mail and General Trust, which endorsed Oswald Mosley's Fascists in 1934 and supported Nazism until 1939. Livingstone also claimed the "Standard" was guilty of "harassment of a predominantly lesbian and gay event". Gay rights campaigner Peter Tatchell suggested in the Evening Standard that this explanation "came across as patronising. Gay people don't need the Mayor's protection to fend off a journalist asking simple questions."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: After listening to the recording supplied by Finegold, the London Assembly voted unanimously to ask Livingstone to apologise. Livingstone responded by saying "the form of words I have used are right. I have nothing to apologise for." Deputy Mayor Nicky Gavron, herself the daughter of a Holocaust survivor, said of Livingstone: "These were inappropriate words and very offensive, both to the individual and to Jews in London." Some two dozen complaints were referred to the Standards Board for England, the body responsible for English local government standards, which passed it to the Adjudication Panel for England, which has the power to ban individuals from public office for five years.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: The Adjudication Panel addressed the case over two days on the 13 & 14 December 2005 and adjourned the hearing for two months. On 24 February 2006, Ken Livingstone was found guilty of bringing his office into disrepute and suspended from office for four weeks, stating that he seemed "to have failed... to have appreciated that his conduct was unacceptable". Livingstone attacked the decision on the grounds that the Adjudication Panel members ought not to suspend a democratically elected official from power, describing their actions as "striking at the heart of democracy". The ban was due to begin on 1 March 2006, but on 28 February, a High Court judge postponed it pending an appeal by Livingstone.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: The decision was later quashed by the High Court of Justice when on 5 October, Mr Justice Collins overturned the suspension, regardless of the outcome of Livingstone's appeal concerning the breach of standards. The final judgment upheld Livingstone's appeal and stated that the Adjudication Panel had misdirected itself, although the judge stated that the Mayor should have apologised.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: On 7 December 2006, at a City Hall reception marking the launch of the London Jewish Forum, Livingstone apologised for any offence that he had caused the Jewish community.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Criticism of Livingstone by the Evening Standard intensified during the 2008 campaign, with daily front page articles attacking him, under the direction of editor Veronica Wadley who originally urged Johnson to stand and who is closely linked to Tory leadership. According to articles in The Guardian and Time Out London, she is strongly influenced by the need to renew Associated Newspaper's multi-million pound contract to deliver the Metro free paper in London Underground stations in 2010, a decision within the gift of the Mayor.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In 2004 Livingstone said "I just long for the day I wake up and find that the Saudi Royal Family are swinging from lamp-posts and they've got a proper government that represents the people of Saudi Arabia."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In a March 2005 commentary in "The Guardian" he accused Israel's prime minister Ariel Sharon of being a "war criminal", citing his alleged personal responsibility for the Sabra and Shatila massacre in 1982 and accusations of ethnic cleansing. Accusations that Sharon was implicated are frequently made by other organisations and leading politicians including the official Israeli Kahan Commission investigation into the massacres in 1982.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: On 20 July 2005, Livingstone made the following comments in a BBC interview about the role of foreign policy as a motivation for the London bombings of two weeks earlier:


title: Ken Livingstone

text: "I think you've just had 80 years of western intervention into predominantly Arab lands because of the western need for oil. We've propped up unsavoury governments, we've overthrown ones we didn't consider sympathetic. And I think the particular problem we have at the moment is that in the 1980s ... the Americans recruited and trained Osama Bin Laden, taught him how to kill, to make bombs, and set him off to kill the Russians and drive them out of Afghanistan. They didn't give any thought to the fact that once he'd done that he might turn on his creators. A lot of young people see the double standards, they see what happens in Guantanamo Bay, and they just think that there isn't a just foreign policy."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: "Under foreign occupation and denied the right to vote, denied the right to run your own affairs, often denied the right to work for three generations, I suspect that if it had happened here in England, we would have produced a lot of suicide bombers ourselves."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Commentator Mark Steyn described the interview as Livingstone "artfully" attempting "to draw a distinction between Muslim terrorists blowing up his own public transit (which he didn't approve of) and Muslim terrorists blowing up Israeli public transit (which he was inclined to be sympathetic to)."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In November 2003, Livingstone made headlines for referring to US President George W. Bush as 'the greatest threat to life on this planet,' just before Bush's official visit to the UK. Livingstone also organised an alternative 'Peace Reception' at City Hall 'for everybody who is not George Bush,' with anti-war Vietnam veteran Ron Kovic as the guest of honour. In 2004 he referred to Bush as "the most corrupt American president since Harding in the Twenties". In July 2007 Livingstone suggested that Prime Minister Gordon Brown needed to explain to Bush "that US governments need to return to a realistic view of the world. The US is the world's single most powerful country, but much weaker than the rest of the world put together. The attempt by one country to unilaterally impose itself on the rest of the world is not only undesirable but simply won't work."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: In February 2007, Ken Livingstone signed a deal with Venezuela to provide cheaper oil for London buses. In return, the Greater London Authority advises Venezuela on recycling, waste management, traffic and reducing carbon emissions. This deal came under criticism from the London Assembly Conservatives including Richard Barnes, who stated that the "money would be better directed at the poor of Venezuela," and journalist Martin Bright, who said that the deal "effectively takes from the poor of Latin America to give to one of the richest cities in the world." Prices have been slashed by 20%; following this, half-price bus travel became available to Londoners on income support. Livingstone stated the plan "rises on the suggestion of President Hugo Chávez and builds on the work his government is doing around the world in tackling the problems of poverty," and also said, "This will make it cheaper and easier for people to go about their lives and get the most out of London. The agreement... will also benefit the people of Venezuela, by providing expertise in areas of city management in which London is a world leader."


title: Ken Livingstone

text: The deal was discontinued by incoming mayor Boris Johnson (effective from September 2008), a decision criticized by Livingstone.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: A dispute with the US Embassy in London over payment of the London Congestion Charge escalated on 27 March 2006 when Livingstone criticised the Embassy's decision not to pay. The Embassy argued that the charge is a form of taxation, not a charge for a service, and diplomats and their staff are therefore exempt under the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations. Embassy officials have never paid the charge, which was instituted in 2003. Livingstone, however, alleged that the decision was made by Robert Tuttle, who took up the post of Ambassador in July 2005. Livingstone described Tuttle as "one of George Bush's closest cronies and a big funder of his election campaign" and said he was trying to "skive out of [paying] like some chiselling little crook". The group Liberty and Law reported this remark to the Standards Board for England as a breach of its code, but the board chose not to investigate it.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Germany stopped paying the charge in 2005, Japan followed in 2006, and in 2007 France, Russia, Belgium, and 50 other missions followed suit when the zone extended to their missions' locations (Iran, Sweden and Syria continue to pay the charge). Asked about Japan's refusal to pay in a March 2007 interview on LBC Radio, Livingstone responded, "I think there are several problems with Japan that we could go on about here. Admitting their guilt for all the war crimes would be one thing. So if they've not got round to doing that, I doubt they're too worried about the congestion charge." London's Japanese embassy responded that their government had already apologised for previous war crimes.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: Livingstone acted as a stand-in presenter on London talk radio station LBC 97.3's Jeni Barnett for a week beginning on 30 June 2008. In July 2008 he announced his intention to run again for the office of Mayor of London at the next mayoral elections and signalled his intent to organise a "progressive alliance" of political parties (such as the Labour Party and the Green Party), trade unions and interest groups to defend the progress which was made during his terms as Mayor and to prepare for the next mayoral elections.


title: Ken Livingstone

text: On 28 August 2008, it was announced that Livingstone will be an adviser on urban planning to Caracas, Venezuela. He will act as a consultant on the capital's policing, transport and other municipal issues. As a friend of Hugo Chávez, Livingstone was appointed personally by him to advise officials and mayoral candidates in Caracas, in order to help transform the city, which journalist Rory Carroll described as suffering from, "Gridlocked traffic, a crumbling centre, hillside slums, horrific murder rates, corrupt police and inept local government". Livingstone reckoned that in twenty years a "first-world city" can be made out of Caracas, stating, "I have a very extensive network of contacts both domestically and internationally which I will be calling on to assist in this." No decision on a salary for the ex-mayor has been made, although he mentioned that, "The whole cost of this trip has been paid for by the government of Venezuela and as an unemployed citizen I would not be able to pay for my own fare otherwise." The appointment follows on from the controversy surrounding the deal brokered by Livingstone in February 2007 for the Greater London Authority and Transport for London to provide advice to Venezuela in exchange for cheap fuel to help with bus subsidies. The deal was later overturned by new mayor Boris Johnson, and Livingstone offered his services to Chávez so that Venezuela gets the "advice that we promised". Livingstone played down any accusations that his close relationship with the Venezuelan President was controversial, "unless you believe American propaganda", while a spokesperson for Johnson said, "Ken Livingstone is free, as a private individual, to offer his advice and services to whomever he wants." Livingstone is now being touted as a key asset for Chávez in the upcoming November elections in the country.


title: The Importance of Being Earnest

text: The Importance of being Earnest, A Trivial Comedy for Serious People is a play by Oscar Wilde. It was first performed on 14 February 1895 at St. James's Theatre in London. In the play, the protagonists make up people who are not real to try to make their lives easier. The play's most important themes are the light humourous way it treats serious things like marriages and the satire of Victorian ways. At the time the play came out, reviews all praised the play's humour. However, some people wanted better social messages, while others thought that it was the best play Wilde had ever written. It is Wilde's most popular play.


title: The Importance of Being Earnest

text: The plot is about two men who try to woo their respective lovers by convincing each that their name is Ernest. The play includes many puns and plays on words. Even the title is a pun, because "Ernest" is a man's name and "earnest" is a word that means "serious, honest, and sincere." The play is about morality, style, and hypocrisy, among others, but it is noted for being humorous and lighthearted.


title: The Importance of Being Earnest

text: The successful opening night marked the climax of Wilde's career but also heralded his downfall. The Marquess of Queensberry, father of Lord Alfred Douglas, Wilde's lover, planned to present Wilde a bouquet of spoiling vegetables and disrupt the show. Wilde was tipped off, and Queensberry was refused admission. Soon afterwards the feud came to a climax in court, and Wilde's new notoriety caused the play, despite its success, to be closed after just 86 performances. After imprisonment, he wrote no further comic or dramatic work. "The Importance of Being Earnest" has been revived many times since its premiere and adapted for the cinema on three occasions, in 1952, 1992 and 2002.


title: The Importance of Being Earnest

text: Unlike many other plays at this time, "The Importance of Being Earnest"'s light story was not about serious social or political issues. This was something that reviewers at that time were not sure what to think about. Though they were not sure of how serious Wilde was, they agreed that the play was clever, funny, and popular. George Bernard Shaw, for example, reviewed the play in the "Saturday Review". He said that comedy plays should not only be funny but touching, saying, "I go to the theatre to be "moved" to laughter". Later in a letter he said that the play was "extremely funny" but "really heartless".


title: The Importance of Being Earnest

text: BBC Radio 4 made a radio adaptation on 13 February 1995. It was directed by Glyn Dearman. Dame Judi Dench was "Lady Bracknell", Sir Michael Hordern was "Lane", Michael Sheen was "Jack Worthing", Martin Clunes was "Algernon Moncrieff", John Moffatt was "Rev. Canon Chasuble", Miriam Margolyes was "Miss Prism", Samantha Bond was "Gwendolen" and Amanda Root was "Cecily". The production came out on audio cassette by Hodder Headline Audiobooks with BBC Enterprises ().


title: The Importance of Being Earnest

text: On 13 December 2000, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a new radio adaptation directed by Howard Davies. In this radio adaption, Geraldine McEwan was "Lady Bracknell", Simon Russell Beale was "Jack Worthing", Julian Wadham was "Algernon Moncrieff", Geoffrey Palmer was "Rev. Canon Chasuble", Celia Imrie was "Miss Prism", Victoria Hamilton was "Gwendolen" and Emma Fielding was "Cecily". The music was written by Dominic Muldowney. The production was released on audio cassette by the BBC Radio Collection ().


title: Univision

text: It was founded by the largest media company in Mexico (now known as Grupo Televisa) as a means to spread Spanish programming in the United States. Univision has grown to be the largest Spanish-language media outlet in the U.S. Its daily news program "Noticiero Univisión", co-anchored by Jorge Ramos and María Elena Salinas, has in several occasions outdone (in number of ratings) major English-language network evening news programming such as CBS, NBC, and ABC's World News Tonight.


title: Venom

text: Venom is a kind of poison used by animals. It is made in an animal's body. It is injected into the body of another animal by a bite or sting. Animals that use venom include some kinds of insects, fish, reptiles, and even mammals.


title: Univision

text: Univisión and Telemundo USA have been competing for the top spot among Hispanic viewers for many years, often imitating each other's programming.


title: Venom

text: Some animals use venom to kill another animal that they are going to eat. One animal that does that is the rattlesnake. Some animals use venom to protect themselves. Some animals that do that are bees, ants and stingrays. Some animals use venom for both of these things.


title: Univision

text: Univisión headquarters are based in Los Angeles, although much of its programming is filmed in Miami. Among its shows are "El Show De Cristina" (talkshow hosted by Cristina Saralegui), Don Francisco's "Sábado Gigante", "Despierta América" (morning show), "Primer Impacto" (newsmagazine), "Aquí y Ahora" (premier investigative nightly newsmagazine), and "Noticiero Univisión" (news program conducted by Jorge Ramos and Maria Elena Salinas).


title: Univision

text: In 2013, Univision and ABC News announced that they were to become partners and will form a new channel called Fusion. Fusion will show English news for Hispanic audiences. The channel began broadcasting on October 28, 2013.


title: Mark Salling

text: Mark Wayne Salling (August 17, 1982 – January 30, 2018) was an American actor, singer-songwriter, composer, musician and convicted sex offender. He was known for his role as Noah "Puck" Puckerman on the television series "Glee". He was born in Dallas, Texas.


title: Tom Cotton

text: Tom Cotton (born May 13, 1977) is the junior United States Senator from Arkansas. He is a member of the U.S. Republican Party. Cotton has been in Senate since January 3, 2015. He was in the United States House of Representatives from 2013 to 2015.


title: Mark Salling

text: In December 2015, Salling was arrested for having several thousand photos and videos showing child pornography. In October 2017, Salling pleaded guilty and faced four to seven years in prison. His sentencing hearing was set in March 2018.


title: Tom Cotton

text: Cotton was born on May 13, 1977 in Dardanelle, Arkansas. He graduated from the Harvard University and attended, but did not graduate from, Claremont Graduate University. He is married to Jaime Gardner. They have one child.


title: Mark Salling

text: Salling committed suicide by hanging at his home in Los Angeles, California on January 30, 2018 at the age of 35.


title: Tom Cotton

text: In January 2016, Cotton became the first sitting United States senator to support Bernie Sanders for President of the United States.


title: Reward

text: A reward is getting something good for doing a given task. It needs someone who has the power to give the good thing. It is the opposite of punishment.


title: Auburn University

text: Auburn University is a university in the U.S. state of Alabama. Auburn University is in the city of Auburn, Alabama. People can usually just say "Auburn" for short when they are talking about the University. There are about 24,000 students in school at Auburn.


title: Control unit

text: The control unit is a circuit inside of a computer's central processing unit (CPU). It controls the activity of all other units in the computer system, giving them directions. Its main job is to get the code from the program, decode it and operate the arithmetic logic unit and other units to run the code. The control unit manages all the computer resources. It directs the flow of data between the CPU and the other devices.


title: Reward

text: Ideas like risk and reward, reward and punishment are based on the idea that people do things, or avoid doing things, to get rewards. In psychology there is another idea that this is not true. This other idea says that training (conditioning) and emotions (affective factors) are much more important than the rewards or punishments given by others.


title: Auburn University

text: Auburn opened February 1, 1856 but was named the East Alabama Male College. The university changed the name many times until 1960 when it was named Auburn University. Auburn is one of three large universities in Alabama. The University of Alabama in Tuscaloosa, Alabama has the same number of students and the University of Alabama at Birmingham in Birmingham, Alabama is the third largest. Auburn University has 12 colleges on campus, including agriculture, architecture, business, education, engineering, forestry, human sciences, liberal arts, nursing, pharmacy, mathematics, and medicine.


title: Reward

text: In trying to catch criminals and other bad people, the government often offers money to people. This money is given to people who may capture the criminal, or give information that helps the police catch them. For example, after the Eureka Stockade rebellion in Ballarat, Victoria in 1854, the government offered a big reward of 400 pounds for the capture of the people who had started it.


title: Auburn University

text: The Auburn University sports teams are named the Auburn Tigers and the mascot is a tiger named Aubie.


title: Reward

text: In 2001, the US government offered a big reward of 2.5 million dollars for help in capturing the person who had sent anthrax in letters to a newspaper journalist and 2 senators. Anthrax is a disease which can kill people.


title: Incitatus

text: Incitatus was Emperor Caligula's favorite horse. He lived in Ancient Rome around 40 CE. His name means "fast-moving" in Latin.


title: Incitatus

text: There is a story that Caligula made his horse a senator, but it is probably not true. According to historian Mary Beard, no ancient historian who was alive at the same time as Caligula ever said Caligula really made Incitatus a senator, and it is likely that he only told a joke about doing it.


title: Incitatus

text: Ancient historians do say Caligula gave his horse many gifts. In 121 c.e., in his book "The Twelve Caesars", the historian Suetonius says of Incitatus: "Besides a stall of marble, a manger of ivory, purple blankets and a collar of precious stones, he even gave this horse a house, a troop of slaves and furniture, for the more elegant entertainment of the guests invited in his name; and it is also said that he planned to make him consul."


title: Incitatus

text: In Robert Graves' 1934 book "I, Claudius", the fictional Caligula does make the fictional Incitatus a senator and gives him an ivory trough to eat out of. This is one of the ways Graves shows that Caligula has become mentally unstable. After Caligula dies, Claudius treats Incitatus like a normal horse again.


title: Incitatus

text: A talking version of Incitatus appears as a villain in Rick Riordan's 2018 young adult novel "The Burning Maze".


title: Eddie Fatu

text: Edward "Eddie" S. Fatu (March 28, 1973 - December 4 2009) was a Samoan professional wrestler best known for working with the WWF/WWE under the ring names Jamal, Ekmo, and Umaga.


title: Tornado Alley

text: Tornado Alley is a colloquial term most often used to refer to the area of the United States in which tornadoes happen more than in any other part of the country. The 1974 super tornado outbreak with 148 tornadoes, took place in Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan, Mississippi, North Carolina, Ohio, South Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia.


title: Eddie Fatu

text: He worked closely with Matt Anoaʻi of the Anoa'i wrestling family which he was also a part of. With Anoaʻi, they formed the tag teams The Island Boyz, the Samoan Gangstas, and 3-Minute Warning. He also wrestled for All Japan Pro Wrestling and wrestled a short time in TNA Wrestling from 2003 to 2004.


title: Tornado Alley

text: States such as Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio are sometimes included in Tornado Alley. Research suggests that tornadoes are happening more often in the northern parts of Tornado Alley where it reaches the Canadian prairies.


title: Eddie Fatu

text: Eddie Fatu died on December 4, 2009 of a heart attack. The official cause of his death was from acute toxicity from the combined effects of hydrocodone, carisoprodol, and diazepam.


title: Tornado Alley

text: Over the years, the location(s) of Tornado Alley have not been clearly defined. No definition of tornado alley has ever been officially chosen by the National Weather Service (NWS). Thus, differences in the place are because of the different criteria used.


title: Tornado Alley

text: The National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) FAQ says that "Tornado Alley" is a term used by the media as a reference to areas that have mroe tornadoes. A study of 1921–1995 tornadoes concluded almost one-fourth of all significant tornadoes happen in this area.


title: Tornado Alley

text: No state has no tornadoes; however, they happen more often in the Central United States, between the Rocky Mountains and Appalachian Mountains.


title: Tornado Alley

text: Another criterion for the location of Tornado Alley (or Tornado Alleys) can be where the strongest tornadoes happen more often.


title: Tornado Alley

text: The term "tornado alley" was first used in 1952 by U.S. Air Force meteorologists Major Ernest J. Fawbush (1915–1982) and Captain Robert C. Miller (1920–1998). They used it as the title of a research project to study severe weather in parts of Texas and Oklahoma.


title: Tornado Alley

text: The average tornado stays on ground for only 5 minutes. These figures, reported by the National Climatic Data Center for the period between 1991 and 2010, show the seventeen U.S. states with the most average number of tornadoes per per year.


title: Tornado Alley

text: About half of all Canadian tornadoes hit the Canadian prairies and Northern Ontario as far east as Lake Superior. Together, these areas make up the northernmost border of the U.S. Tornado Alley. Tornadoes up to EF5 in strength have been found in this region.


title: Tornado Alley

text: Schools in Tornado Alley often have tornado drills, and many homes may have tornado shelters where people can go for safety.


title: David Otunga

text: David Daniel Otunga, Sr. (born April 7, 1980) is an American professional wrestler, lawyer, and actor. He is currently signed to the WWE. He is a two-time WWE Tag Team Champion; winning it once with John Cena and once with Michael McGillicutty. He was a member of NXT season 1 and was a member of the professional wrestling stable "The Nexus".


title: David Otunga

text: Otunga is the son of a Kenyan father, Moses, and white American mother, Billie, both of whom were educators. He is the youngest of three children. He grew up in Elgin, Illinois. Otunga graduated from Larkin High School, with mostly A-grades. Otunga holds a Bachelor's degree in psychology from the University of Illinois. Following his graduation, he moved to New York, where he worked at Columbia University as a lab manager in a cognitive neuroscience center. He later attended Harvard Law School, and passed the bar exam in Illinois . Following his graduation, he worked for the Sidley Austin LLP law firm.


title: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity

text: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity (EHS) is a condition where a person feels unwell, which people who have it believe it to be due to being near electromagnetic fields. Other names for it include electrohypersensitivity, electro-sensitivity, and electrical sensitivity (ES). Wi-Fi allergy is a form of EHS.


title: Billa (supermarket)

text: Billa (stylised BILLA) is an Austrian supermarket chain. It has over 1,600 locations in Europe with over a thousand in Austria alone. They also operate in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Russia, Croatia and Ukraine. Billa was founded by Karl Wlaschek in 1953, and are owned by Germany's REWE Group.


title: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity

text: According to the World Health Organization, EHS is described by vague symptoms that are different in each person. The symptoms are real and can be weak or strong and can make some disabled. There is no specific list of features to diagnose someone, and there is no scientific link between electromagnetic fields and how people feel. EHS is not a medical diagnosis. People who claim to have EHS blame it for headaches, fatigue, stress, sleep disturbances, skin symptoms like prickling, burning sensations and rashes, pain and ache in muscles and many other health problems. Although electromagnetic fields can make the body hot, people who say they have EHS say they feel sick at very low levels.


title: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity

text: Most experiments show that people who claim to have EHS can't correctly tell if they are near EM radiation or not, and the medical and scientific communities don't think its a real illness. Several double-blind experiments suggest that people who say they have EHS can't detect if electromagnetic fields are present, and are just as likely to report feeling sick after a phony exposure as they are after real exposure, making scientists think it is the nocebo effect.


title: Electromagnetic hypersensitivity

text: In the TV show "Better Call Saul", Jimmy McGill's brother Chuck stays at home and believes he suffers from electromagnetic hypersensitivity.


title: JLS

text: JLS (short for Jack the Lad Swing) are an English boy band, which consists of members Aston Merrygold, Oritsé Williams, Marvin Humes, and JB Gill, originally formed by Williams. They initially signed to Tracklacers production company New Track City and then went on to become runners-up of the fifth series of the ITV reality talent show "The X Factor" in 2008, coming second to Alexandra Burke. During their initial stint as as boy band, they have sold over 3 million records worldwide. They were runners-up in the 2008 UK series of "The X Factor". JLS signed a record deal with Epic records in 2009. Their debut album peaked at number-one on the UK Albums Chart and sold more than 1 million copies.


title: Kimbanguism

text: Kimbanguism is an African religion practiced by the "Church of Jesus Christ on Earth through his prophet" Simon Kimbangu. It has roots in Christianity and has its headquarters in N'kamba in the Democratic Republic of Congo.


title: Kimbanguism

text: In April 1921, during the Belgian colonization in Congo, Simon Kimbangu started preaching to people and using the powers that he believed he had received from God in visions to heal people. During his ministry, he attracted a large group of people. Under pressure from the Catholic Church, who was afraid of the popularity of the movement, the Belgian authorities tried to arrest Kimbangu on June 09, 1921. They failed in arresting him, and Kimbangu escaped. He continued his ministry in secret before turning himself in on September 12, 1921. He was sentenced to death, but the sentence was changed to life imprisonment. He died in prison in 1951.


title: Kimbanguism

text: During Kimbangu’s imprisonment, Kimbanguism was prohibited, but the followers continued to practice it. It grew through the leadership of Kimbangu’s wife, Muile Marie, and his son, Joseph Diangenda. After Kimbangu’s death, the movement was recognized as a religion by the Belgian authorities in 1959 and became a member of the World Council of Churches in 1969. The church was led by Kimbangu’s youngest son, Joseph Diangenda Kuntima, until his death in 2001. Since 2001, Kimbangu’s grandson, Simon Kimbangu Kiangani, has become the spiritual leader.


title: Kimbanguism

text: Three dates are important in Kimbanguist beliefs: April 6 (the start of the ministry of healing), May 25 (Christmas), and October 12 (Kimbangu’s death anniversary). Kimbanguism has roots in Christianity and the Bible. However, it has developed its own beliefs.


title: Kimbanguism

text: The basic principles of the Kimbanguist church are Bolingo (Love in English), Mibeko (Laws in English), and Misala (Works in English). According to Kimbanguist beliefs, Simon Kimbangu is God the Holy Spirit. Charles Kisolokele, his first son, is God the Father. Salomon Dialungana, his second son, is believed to be Jesus Christ who has come back in our times. Joseph Diangenda, his third son, is the reincarnation of his Father, the Holy Spirit.


title: Kimbanguism

text: According to  Kimbanguist rules, polygamy, smoking, drugs, alcohol, eating pork, sleeping naked, and trading on Sundays are all forbidden. During the Sunday services, believers do not wear shoes in the church. Green and white are the colors used in Kimbanguism. Green represents hope and white represents integrity. The churches are painted in these colors, and the believers wear them almost every day. The Kimbanguist has its headquarters in N'kamba, the hometown of Simon Kimbangu, which is considered “the New Jerusalem.”


title: Kimbanguism

text: Kimbanguism has expanded outside of the Congo. Some smaller communities are in other central African countries, as well as Belgium, France, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States.


title: Kimbanguism

text: The spiritual leader is the supreme authority of the church. He is followed by the elders, who are the highest level of the Kimbanguist clergy. National and regional representatives make the second level of the leadership of the church. Decisions are made by the elders during meetings of representatives from the congregations. The Kimbanguist Church has its headquarters in N'kamba, the hometown of Simon Kimbangu, which is considered “the New Jerusalem.” Baptism is required to become a member of the church.


title: Game port

text: The Game port is a port that is present on some PC hardware, and hardware similar to it. This port lets the connection of analog devices used to control computer games, such as joysticks. In most relevant hardware designs for personal computers in 2010, the port is an integrated component on the sound card, another I/O card, or the motherboard itself. Starting with Windows Vista Microsoft no longer supports this port with drivers from the Operating System, but third party drivers are still available. There are also drivers that allow to map the game port to an USB device.


title: Parable of the Barren Fig Tree

text: The Parable of the Barren Fig Tree (Luke 13:6–9) written in the New Testament is a parable of Jesus. It is a parable about a fig tree which does not produce fruit, unlike the parable of the budding fig tree.


title: Ski Mask the Slump God

text: Stokeley Clevon Goulbourne (born April 18, 1996), known professionally as Ski Mask the Slump God (formerly stylized as $ki Mask "The Slump God"), is an American rapper and songwriter. He first became known for his work with XXXTentacion and their hip hop collective Members Only. His 2017 songs "Catch Me Outside" and "Babywipe" were certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). His first album, "Stokeley", was released in November 2018.


title: Call of Duty: Finest Hour

text: Call Of Duty: Finest Hour is a WW2 war shooter. The game launched on November 16, 2004, it was a spin-off of the first Call of Duty, which sets the stage for World War II. It is the third video game in the series and the first to make the release to PlayStation 2, GameCube, and Xbox consoles. There is not a PC version.


title: Michael Bisping

text: Michael Bisping (born 28 February 1979) is an English retired mixed martial artist and current commentator and actor. He competed in the middleweight and light heavyweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). He was the UFC middleweight champion from 2016 to 2017. He had 39 professional fights, winning 30 and losing nine.


title: Game port

text: Unlike most other ports present on the PC, the Game port is an analog port. This means that signal first needs to be changed to digital form, a task which is usually done by an analog-to-digital converter. In the early days, most joystick designs were digital, which made them easier to build and cheaper. The game port has a 15-pin DSUB interface, most home computers that used digital joysticks had a 9-pin one. This made existing joysticks incompatible with the new interface.


title: Parable of the Barren Fig Tree

text: The owner of the vineyard represents God. The fig tree is a symbol for Jerusalem (and also for Jesus's church). The vineyard where the tree was planted is the earth. The tree was meant to bear the good fruit of the Holy Spirit and the gardener (vinedresser) is Jesus. Fig trees are often planted in vineyards.


title: Ski Mask the Slump God

text: Goulbourne was born in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. He is of Jamaican ancestry/descent. His father was a rapper who used the stage name "Sin City".


title: Michael Bisping

text: Bisping was born on a British military base in Nicosia, Cyprus. He grew up in Clitheroe, Lancashire. His father was in the British Army and is of Polish ancestry. His mother is Irish. He has three children with his Australian wife Rebecca.


title: Game port

text: Digital joysticks are easy for programmers to access. The signal is already digital, and only gets transferred to the PC. Analog signals are much harder to use, they need careful software interrupt driven programming (to get a useful signal). Interrupts use the main CPU of the system. Digital circuits can use Transistor–transistor logic, which does not use the CPU.


title: Parable of the Barren Fig Tree

text: The parable indicates Jesus is giving his hearers one last chance to repent their sins. "These three years" refers to the period of his ministry on earth. The parable is connected to the miracle of cursing the fig tree. Richard Whately commented that this parable "is one which our Lord may be said to have put before his hearers twice; once in words, once in action."


title: Game port

text: The usual implementation of a game port uses a capacitor and a simple voltage comparator. Both together form a sort of simple ramp-compare ADC. This system is polled periodically and reset at precise moments to read an input. This must be done more than 30 times every second to provide a responsive game input. The actual acquisition frequency and value usually depend on the joystick's resistance inside, noise, CPU speed and the total joystick-capacitor's RC time constant.


title: Game port

text: Its analog nature has also been the cause of a great number of problems. One problem was that all kinds of joysticks needed "calibration". This was true even for arcade-style ones. The reason for this was that no game controller and no joystick produced the same measurements each time. These depended on the exact way acquisition was made. Some of the worse designs even depended on the speed of the CPU. Also, all kinds of PC game ports suffer from electrical noise.


title: Game port

text: The calibration procedure is still needed at some point, even under modern operating systems such as Windows XP. Usually, it consists of moving the joystick around all of its axes to measure the maximum axis excursion values, no matter if the joystick uses analog signals (from potentiometers) or digital signals (using microswitches or contacts). USB joysticks, on the other hand, do not need calibration. This is because USB sends digital signals.


title: Game port

text: In the days of DOS, every game using the game port(s) had to do its own calibration, often each time the game started, and some poorly coded calibration routines even failed to work consistently and properly, rendering some joysticks unusable with some games. With Windows XP, only one calibration per joystick is enough, which is thought "valid" until the joystick is unplugged.


title: Game port

text: Certain applications and games are able to use some analog joysticks even without explicit calibration, under certain restricted conditions. A system of a joystic and game port that is not calibrated can give a "direction", at best. It can not give an intensity. For this setup, an analog joystick can be "self calibrated" just by leaving the joystick in the middle position and taking a measurement, and then using some arbitrary or adaptive threshold to detect movement and excursion from the middle position. The limitation of this method is that the reading of the same joystick over the same game port can change over time, and some joysticks cannot work at all with this method. Also, the joystick must be in the middle position at least once when the implicit "self calibration" takes place, even if this is not directly stated.


title: Game port

text: Microsoft declared it would no longer include support for game ports in operating systems beginning with MS-Windows XP Professional x64 edition, reasoning that USB-based gaming equipment had become more common. This leaves game port support up to the manufacturer of the device (i.e. Sound card or USB converters) the game port ships on.


title: Game port

text: Some advanced game port joysticks supports more than 4 buttons (e.g. 6 or 8) but typically require a special device driver for the additional buttons to work properly, since the game port does not have actual hardware support for more than 4 distinct buttons.


title: Game port

text: This can be overcome by using pins and input meant for the second joystick (i.e. button 5 through 8 are mapped to the signals to the axis pins meant for the second joystick - resulting in the issue of the two buttons mapped to the same axis being not simultaneously usable), using some normally "unused" pins, or changing the joystick's circuits (and related software) to read a 4-bit state code from the four button inputs, thus giving up to 16 button combinations (albeit with some limitations e.g. some buttons may not be held down) or a combination of both techniques.


title: Game port

text: High-end game port joysticks such as the Microsoft SideWinder rely on multiplexing a proprietary data stream through the 4 standard button inputs and sometimes through the "unused" pins, achieving full support for a rather high number of buttons (e.g. 16 or 20) while special features such as daisy-chaining multiple joysticks, force feedback or joystick programming become possible in some cases.


title: Game port

text: The obvious drawback is the need for a special device driver to interpret the joystick input, and making its use time consuming and operating system-dependent, while the joystick is usually unusable without a special driver (unless multiple operating modes are supported).


title: Game port

text: Some hardware and DIY enthusiasts have found ways to connect a wide array of input devices to the game port and even found other applications for it, such as voltage or current measurement or simple interfacing and data acquisition.


title: Game port

text: The original game port design by IBM (released in 1981 as a separate expansion card for the first IBM PC) initially allowed four analog axes and four buttons on one port, allowing two joysticks or four paddles to be connected, although this required a special "Y-splitter" cable and is not fully supported by some combined midi/game ports usually found on sound cards.


title: Game port

text: Some poorly implemented game ports (usually built-in on old motherboards and I/O cards) did not fully support either 4 axes or 4 buttons, making only the use of a single 2-axis and 2-button joystick possible.


title: Game port

text: The 15-pin game port is no longer provided on presently manufactured PCs, though adapters exist that allow older joysticks and controllers to connect via USB. However, Microsoft's Vista operating system natively lacks all game port support, even for USB adapters.


title: Game port

text: Game ports use DA-15 connectors (also incorrectly called DB-15). Since the game port moved from dedicated expansion cards to sound cards about 1990, these connectors usually double as connectors for MIDI instruments; two of the redundant +5V and GND pins of the original standard were rededicated to MIDI input and output to make this possible. To use a game port with MIDI instruments, one requires a cable with a male and a female DA-15 and two male 5-pin DIN connectors. The drivers and hardware for the game port midi capabilities are based around the now standard Roland MPU-401 MIDI interface (in UART mode only), and support most MPU-401 standard applications for Windows and DOS. The official "proper design" for a game port-MIDI adapter can be found at midi.org.


The United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs is the head of the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, the department in charge of taking care of the affairs of war veterans. The Secretary is a member of the Cabinet and second to last at 17th in the line of succession to the presidency (the position was last until the United States Department of Homeland Security was added in 2006). To date, all appointees and acting appointees to the post have been United States military veterans, but that is not a requirement to fill the position.


title: Princess Amelia of the United Kingdom

text: Amelia was the youngest daughter of King George III and Queen Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. She was her father's favorite daughter. After her death at the age of 27 in 1810 George III had his final dissent into madness.


title: Inventions and Sinfonias (Bach)

text: The Inventions and Sinfonias (1720; revised 1723) are 30 pieces of keyboard music (15 each in sinfonia and invention) composed by Johann Sebastian Bach. They are sometimes known as the Two and Three Part Inventions. Bach arranged the two groups of pieces in order of ascending key. Each group covers the eight major and seven minor keys. Bach wrote them as exercises and study pieces for his 12 year old son, Wilhelm Friedemann Bach. The 1720 versions are found in the boy's "Little Keyboard Book" of 1722. The invention and sinfonias are often used as preparation for two volumes of Bach's "The Well-Tempered Clavier".


title: United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs

text: When the position of Secretary is vacant, the United States Deputy Secretary of Veterans Affairs or another person picked by the President serves as Acting Secretary until the President picks and the United States Senate confirms a new Secretary.


title: Inventions and Sinfonias (Bach)

text: Bach wrote in the preface to the printed edition of the "Inventions and Sinfonias": "Honest method, by which the amateurs of the keyboard – especially, however, those desirous of learning – are shown a clear way not only (1) to learn to play cleanly in two parts, but also, after further progress, (2) to handle three obligate parts correctly and well; and along with this not only to obtain good inventions (ideas) but to develop the same well; above all, however, to achieve a cantabile style in playing and at the same time acquire a strong foretaste of composition."


title: Ivory (color)

text: Ivory is a color that is mostly white, but with a small amount of yellow. It looks like ivory, the material from which the teeth and tusks of animals (such as, notably, the elephant and the walrus) is made. It has a very slight tint of yellow.


title: Katherine Schwarzenegger

text: Katherine Eunice Schwarzenegger Pratt (born December 13, 1989) is an American author. She is the oldest child of actor and former Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger and broadcast journalist Maria Shriver.


title: Katherine Schwarzenegger

text: Her granduncles were President John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy and Ted Kennedy because her grandmother Eunice Kennedy was their sister.


title: Katherine Schwarzenegger

text: She started dating actor Chris Pratt in June 2018. Schwarzenegger and Pratt announced their engagement on January 13, 2019. On June 8, 2019, they were married in Montecito, California.


title: Mistletoe

text: Mistletoe is the common name for a group of semi-parasitic plants in the order Santalales. They grow attached by a haustorium to the branches of trees or shrubs.


title: Bangladesh Standard Time

text: Bangladesh Standard Time (BST) is the time zone for Bangladesh. It is six hours ahead of UTC (UTC+6). Bangladesh does not observe any daylight saving time.


title: Tony Snow

text: Robert Anthony Snow, better known as Tony Snow (June 1, 1955 - July 12, 2008), was an American journalist, television personality, commentator and radio host who made contributions for Fox News very regularly beginning in 1996. He was born in Berea, Kentucky and raised in Cincinnati, Ohio. He was host of "Fox News Sunday, "before working for President Bush the second, but he briefly performed switched to CNN during 2008. However, he was merely an analyst at CNN, not a journalist. He was strongly associated with George W. Bush (when he was the President). Before Fox News, Snow was often a guest for "The Rush Limbaugh Show". Snow died from colon cancer in Georgetown, Washington, D.C.


title: Mistletoe

text: The name was first given to "Viscum album" (European mistletoe, Santalaceae), the only species native in Great Britain and much of Europe. Later the name was given to other related species, including "Phoradendron serotinum" (the eastern mistletoe of eastern North America, also Santalaceae).


title: Bangladesh Standard Time

text: Bangladesh used summer time, making it Bangladesh Daylight Time (BDT). This was used from June 19 until December 31, 2009. The measure has not been used since.


title: Mistletoe

text: European mistletoe played a large role in Greek mythology, and is believed to be The Golden Bough of Aeneas, ancestor of the Romans. The Norse god Baldr was killed with mistletoe.


title: Mistletoe

text: William Shakespeare mentions it in "Titus Andronicus", Act II, Scene I: "Overcome with moss and baleful mistletoe".


title: Mistletoe

text: Mistletoe is often used as a Christmas decoration. "Viscum album" is used in Europe and "Phoradendron serotinum" is used in North America. According to custom, the mistletoe must not touch the ground between its cutting and its removal as the last of Christmas greens at Candlemas; it may remain hanging through the year, often to preserve the house from lightning or fire, until it was replaced the following Christmas Eve.


title: Mistletoe

text: According to a custom during Christmas, any two people who meet under a hanging of mistletoe are urged to kiss. The custom started in Scandinavia.


title: Punjab Province (British India)

text: Punjab was a province of British India, it was one of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to fall under British rule. With the end of British rule in 1947 the province was split between India and Pakistan. The area that made up British Punjab streched from Himachal Pradesh in the east to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the west, which itself was separated in 1909; has today been split into the following areas:


title: Pernell Roberts

text: Early in his career, Roberts got a small role in the film "Desire Under the Elms" (1958) with Sophia Loren and Anthony Perkins.


title: Punjab Province (British India)

text: The word Punjab is named from the "five rivers" which flow through it: the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, all tributaries of the Indus.


title: Pernell Roberts

text: In 1959, he contracted with Lorne Greene, Michael Landon and Dan Blocker to star in the NBC television series "Bonanza". Roberts played Adam Cartwright, the eldest son of Ben Cartwright (Lorne Greene).


title: Punjab Province (British India)

text: The Punjab province of British India was a triangular area of country bordered by the Indus and the Sutlej rivers.


title: Pernell Roberts

text: In the 1970s he starred in westerns such as "Four Rode Out" (1970) and TV Western "The Bravos" (1972) with George Peppard.


title: Punjab Province (British India)

text: In 1947, the province of Punjab was divided between the new republics of India and Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan's Punjab Province; the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became India's Punjab state in 1966. Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and so the partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. Lahore and Amritsar were at the center of the problem, the British were not sure where to place them - make them part of India or Pakistan. The British decided to hand both cities to India, but because of a lack of control and regulation for the border, Amritsar became part of India while Lahore became part of Pakistan. Areas in west Punjab such as Lahore, Rawalpindi, Multan, Gujrat, had a large Sikh population and many of the residents were attacked or killed by radical Muslims. On the other side in East Punjab cities such as Amritsar, Ludhiana, and Gurdaspur had a majority Muslim population in which many of them were wiped out by Sikh guerrillas who launched an all out war against the Muslims.


title: Pernell Roberts

text: He also starred in the television western "High Noon, Part II: The Return of Will Kane" (1980) with Lee Majors.


title: Pernell Roberts

text: His other success in television was in the series "Trapper John, M.D." (1979-1986). He played the doctor John McIntyre.


title: Pernell Roberts

text: Roberts was a special guest star in many TV shows like "Tombstone Territory" (1958), "Zane Grey Theater" (1958), "The Detectives" starring Robert Taylor (1960), Jim West, "Gunsmoke" (1967), "Mission Impossible" (1967-1973), "Banacek" (1972), "Mannix" (1973), "Police Story" (1974-1975), "The Six Million Dollar Man" (1976), "Baretta" (1977), "Vega$" (1980) and "Diagnosis Murder" (1994-1997).


title: Oddanchatram

text: Oddanchtram is a city in the Dindigul District of Tamil Nadu. It is known as the vegetable city of Tamil Nadu. Plants grown here are onion,maize, tomato, chilli, cauliflower, beans and other vegetables. The vegetables are exported to nearby states. Also it is famous for its vegetable and curd market, which can sell up to 5,000 tons of produce a day. It has very good climatic conditions as it is surrounded by beautiful mountains. Palani Lord Murugan Temple is near Oddanchatram. It is an ancient temple built on top of the Palni Hills. It is one of the most visited temples in Tamil Nadu, where people have to climb 600 steps to reach the shrine.


title: Oddanchatram

text: It connected by road to major cities of Tamil Nadu including Madurai, Coimbatore, Erode, Trichy, Chennai, and also to other states such as Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.


title: Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland

text: Walter Stewart (1292–1327) a Scottish nobleman and knight, he was the 6th hereditary High Steward of Scotland. He was also the father of King Robert II of Scotland.


title: Android 18 (Dragon Ball)

text: Android 18 is a female character in the manga series Dragon Ball and the anime "Dragon Ball Z". She is an android created by Dr. Gero to kill Goku.


text: Walter was born in 1292. He was the son of James Stewart, 5th High Steward of Scotland and Gilles (or "Egidia") de Burgh. Walter was one of the Scottish leaders at the Battle of Bannockburn. Just before the battle began Walter along with his cousin James Douglas, Lord of Douglas were knighted by King Robert the Brucealong with many others. Both he and James Douglas were both leaders of the left battalion in the battle. He took part of all the Wars of Scottish Independence between Robert the Bruce and Edward II of England.


title: Android 18 (Dragon Ball)

text: Android 18 is a beautiful blonde woman of average height and build she has blue eyes, and wears golden hoop earrings in both ears when she first appeared in Dragon Ball Z she wears a blue demin and skirt with a RR (Red Ribbon) logo. She also wears dark blue tights, a brown belt, brown boots and a black skirt that has white and black striped long sleeve. After the defeat of Cell she wears pale blue buttoned up demin vest, white jeans, red hoop earrings along with a red bracelet on her left hand and black flip flops.


text: The king sent Walter to bring home his wife Queen Elizabeth and daughter princess Marjory from Berwick. They had been held prisoner by the English for eight years. Walter then married the princess Marjory.


title: Android 18 (Dragon Ball)

text: Android 18 was originally a human along with her twin brother Android 17. She and her brother 17 were delinquents until the scientist Dr. Gero kidnapped them and reconstruct them into superhumans (androids).


text: During the king's absence in Ireland the High Steward and Sir James Douglas managed government affairs and spent time defending the Scottish Borders. Upon the capture of Berwick-upon-Tweed from the English in 1318 he was placed in command of the town. On 24 July 1319 the town was attacked by King Edward II of England. Several of the siege engines were destroyed by the Scots' garrison and the Steward suddenly rushed in force from the town to drive off the enemy. In 1322, with Douglas and Thomas Randolph, he made an attempt to surprise the English King at Byland Abbey, near Malton, Yorkshire. Edward, however, escaped, pursued towards York by The Steward and 500 horsemen.


title: Android 18 (Dragon Ball)

text: Android 18's personally and behavior is calm, cool and confident and is somewhat sarcastic. During her early appearances in Dragon Ball Z she was somewhat arrogant usually getting annoyed by her brother Android 17's wild teen like behavior. She was also hotheaded when she refused to run away from her brother and Android 16 when Cell threatened to absorb her. After the defeat of Cell, Android 18 is calmer and is married to Krillin and they have a daughter named Marron and she is a good mother to her daughter. She was usually seen with Piccolo and other Z Fighters on Kami's lookout during the Majin Buu threat. Android 18 also appears in Dragon Ball GT and Super. In Dragon Ball GT she is seen with her husband Krillin and daughter Marron when one day her twin brother Android 17 arrives and attempt to control 18, 17 also kill Krillin which greatly infuriated Android 18 and she attacks her brother however Android 17 attacks her with an energy blast injuring 18. Android 18 is later seen in GT confronting now Super Android 17 about killing her husband and injuring her 18 then distracts Super 17 with multiple energy attacks which allows Goku to kill Super 17. After Super 17's defeat Android 18 is seen crying about her husband's death and then tells Goku that he a great friend and ally. Android 18 also appears in Dragon Ball Super as a side character when the God of Destruction Beerus threatens to destroy the Earth she and the Z Fighters attacks Beerus attempting to defeat Beerus but failed to defeat him by him overpowering them before Goku arrives to save them. Android 18 is in the Universal Survival Arc, she is on Team Universe 7 alongside her husband Krillin, her twin brother Android 17 and the other Z-Fighters.


text: Walter, Steward of Scotland, made a charter to John St. Clair, his valet, of the lands of Maxton, Roxburghshire, circa 1320/1326, one of the witnesses being "Roberto de Lauwedir (Robert de Lauder) tunc justiciario Laudonie" (Justiciar of Lothian).


title: Android 18 (Dragon Ball)

text: Android 18 appears in several Dragon Ball Z movies and videos games. She appears in Dragon Ball movies like Super Android 13 , Bio-Broly, Battle of Gods, Resurrection F and in video games like Dragon Ball Z Budokai Tenkaichi series, Dragon Ball Z Raging Blast 1 and 2 etc.


text: Walter married, in 1315, Marjorie, only daughter of Robert I of Scotland by his first wife Isabella of Mar. The Lordship of Largs, taken from John Balliol, was given to Walter by Robert the Bruce, who also gave him the Farme Castle lands in Rutherglen as well as other lands and the barony of Bathgate, Linlithgowshire. Walter and Marjorie had one son:


text: Walter later married Isabel de Graham, daughter of Sir John Graham of Abercorn and Mary of Strathearn. They had three children:


title: Xavier Rudd

text: Xavier Rudd (born 1978) is an Australian musician. He grew up in the small town of Torquay, Victoria, Australia. When Rudd was young, he learned to play the didgeridoo on a vacuum cleaner hose.


title: Xavier Rudd

text: Rudd is known for playing at music festivals and concerts in Australia and in North America. He has many fans in Australia, his home, as well as Canada, where he has recorded a few live albums.


title: Xavier Rudd

text: Some of his songs have political themes that deal with the father of 2 sons environment and the rights of Aboriginal Australians.


title: Xavier Rudd

text: Rudd also describes himself as a full-time "barefooter", which means that he does not own any shoes or other footwear. Rudd is also a vegetarian.


title: Contour integral

text: In complex analysis, contour integration is a way to calculate an integral around a contour on the complex plane. In other words, it is a way of integrating along the complex plane.


title: Contour integral

text: More specifically, given a complex-valued function formula_1 and a contour formula_2, the contour integral of formula_1 along formula_2 is written as formula_5 or formula_6.


title: Contour integral

text: For a standard contour integral, we can evaluate it by using the residue theorem. This theorem states that


title: Contour integral

text: where formula_8 is the residue of the function formula_9, formula_2 is the contour located on the complex plane. Here, formula_9 is the integrand of the function, or part of the integral to be integrated.


title: Contour integral

text: To solve multivariable contour integrals (contour integrals on functions of several variables), such as surface integrals, complex volume integrals and higher order integrals, we must use the divergence theorem. For right now, let formula_14 be interchangeable with formula_15. These will both serve as the divergence of the vector field written as formula_16. This theorem states that:


title: Contour integral

text: In addition, we also need to evaluate formula_18, where formula_19 is an alternate notation of formula_20. The divergence of any dimension can be described as


title: Contour integral

text: The following examples illustrate the use of divergence theorem in the calculation of multivariate contour integrals.


title: Contour integral

text: Given the vector field formula_27 and formula_28 being the fourth dimension. Let this vector field be bounded by the following:


title: Contour integral

text: To evaluate this, we use the divergence theorem as stated before, and evaluate formula_24 afterwards. Let formula_31, then:


title: Clarissa Eden

text: Anne Clarissa Eden, Dowager Countess of Avon ("née" Spencer-Churchill; 28 June 1920 – 15 November 2021) was the widow of Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of Avon (1897–1977), who was British Prime Minister from 1955 to 1957.


title: Clarissa Eden

text: She married Eden in 1952, becoming Lady Eden in 1954 when he was made a Knight of the Garter, and then becoming Countess of Avon in 1961 on her husband's elevation to the peerage. She is also the niece of the prime minister Winston Churchill.


title: Clarissa Eden

text: Her memoir, sub-titled "From Churchill to Eden", was published in 2007 under the name of Clarissa Eden.


title: Kill screen

text: A kill screen is a screen that prevents progress from the player. The screens in some games stop the game with gibberish or otherwise impossible figures. In "Pac-Man", at a certain level the screen overflows and spreads fruits and ghosts across the arcade machine's screen.


title: Arte Johnson

text: Arthur Stanton Eric "Arte" Johnson (January 20, 1929 – July 3, 2019) was an American comedian and television, movie, and voice actor. His career lasted for 50 years. His career started in 1954 up until his retirement in 2005. Johnson was a regular cast in "Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In". His well-known "character" was that of a German soldier with his famous the catchphrase: "Verrrry interesting, but...['stupid', 'not very funny', and other versions]". He won a Saturn Award.


title: Listening

text: Listening is not quite the same thing as hearing. Hearing is a biological process that can be scientifically explained, but listening is a psychological process of what happens to sounds as we interpret and use them. It is a cognitive activity.


title: Xiangsheng

text: Crosstalk, also known by its Chinese name xiangsheng (Simplified Chinese: 相声, Traditional Chinese: 相聲, pinyin: "xiàngsheng", literally, "looking at each other and speaking"), is a traditional Chinese comedy form. Crosstalk is a special kind of dialogue and a special kind of performance.


title: Arte Johnson

text: Johnson was born in Benton Harbor, Michigan. He was educated at the University of Illinois. He was married to Gisela Johnson from 1968 until his death. Johnson died on July 3, 2019 in Los Angeles from bladder and prostate cancer at the age of 90.


title: Listening

text: In psychology, speech is part of pragmatics, a field which deals with signs and their interpretation. The signs in question are called "speech acts".


title: Xiangsheng

text: The comic language has many puns and allusions. The words are spoken in a fast, rushed manner. The comedy is a kind of banter.


title: Listening

text: To listen means to try and understand what has been said. Listening is often one side of a conversation. Asking questions helps one understand what has been said. A subject can be better understood by asking the correct questions.


title: Xiangsheng

text: According to Canadian crosstalk comedian Dashan (Mark Rowswell), the closest equivalent in English would be Abbott and Costello's "Who's on First?" sketch.


title: Listening

text: Listening differs from obeying. Parents often say to a disobedient child that he "didn't listen to me", meaning, he heard but didn't do as was suggested.


title: Xiangsheng

text: Modern crosstalk is made up of four skills–speaking (Simplified Chinese: 说, Traditional Chinese: 說, pinyin: "shuō"), imitating (Simplified Chinese: 学, Traditional Chinese: 學, pinyin: "xué"), teasing (Simplified and Traditional Chinese: 逗, pinyin: "dòu"), and singing (Simplified and Traditional chinese: 唱, pinyin: "chàng").


title: Listening

text: Listening also applies to sounds, not just language. It is "active" hearing. We hear a sound, and know what it means. This applies to animals as well. Cats list in the long grass for the little sounds that mice make. So perhaps a better description of listening is "deliberate hearing to get the meaning of sounds".


title: Xiangsheng

text: Crosstalk was popular during the Qing Dynasty. It is also a standard feature of CCTV's annual New Year's Gala.


title: Eephus pitch

text: An Eephus pitch is a kind of pitch in baseball. It is a kind of "junk pitch" (trick pitch). An Eephus pitch is very slow and is used to catch the batter off guard. The pitch was invented by Rip Sewell of the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1940s. The name "Eephus pitch" comes from the Hebrew word "", which means "nothing." Pirates manager Frankie Frisch claimed that the pitch was named by outfielder Maurice Van Robays. Van Robays explained that "Eephus ain't nothing, and that's a nothing pitch."


title: Eephus pitch

text: The Eephus pitch is thrown overhand, like other pitches in baseball. It is unusually slow, and has a high arc trajectory (the ball travels along a high curve.) The trajectory (the path the ball travels) looks more like a pitch from slow-pitch softball than baseball.


title: Eephus pitch

text: The Eephus pitch is unusually slow. It appears to move in slow motion. The ball travels or less. Baseball pitches in Major League Baseball usually travel between . The Eephus pitch is considered a trick pitch because it is so slow.


title: Eephus pitch

text: The Eephus pitch is sometimes called by other names. These names usually refer to an Eephus pitch thrown by a specific pitcher. Some of the most famous of these names are:


title: Eephus pitch

text: Some other nicknames are bloop curve and gravity curve. It is sometimes also called the Bugs Bunny curve. This name comes from a Bugs Bunny cartoon called "Baseball Bugs." In the cartoon, batters swing three times at a very slow pitch before it reaches home plate.


title: Kamal Haasan filmography

text: He is also a screenwriter, director, producer, playback singer and choreographer who works primarily in the Tamil film industry. He debuted as a child actor in the 1960 Tamil film "Kalathur Kannamma", which won him the President's Gold Medal. Since then he has acted in over 200 films in several languages including: Malayalam, Hindi, Telugu, Kannada and Bengali. After a few projects as a child artist he took a break to continue his education. He later concentrated on dance choreography and worked as an assistant choreographer. During this time, he made uncredited appearances in a few films which he worked on.


title: Kamal Haasan filmography

text: In 1973, Kamal landed his first adult role as Thiagu in the film by K. Balachander, whom the actor considers his mentor. He continued to act in minor roles in several films such as "Sollathaan Ninaikkiren" (1973) and "Naan Avanillai" (1974), most of which were directed by Balachander. His breakthrough as an independent lead actor came with the 1974 Malayalam film "Kanyakumari". His work in it won him the Filmfare Award for Best Actor (Malayalam). Following that, he starred in a series of films in both languagesTamil and Malayalam. His breakthrough in Tamil cinema came with Balachander's "Apoorva Raagangal" (1975); the film earned him a second Filmfare Award, his first in Tamil. Between 1974 and 1978, he won six Filmfare Awards including four consecutive wins for the Best Tamil Actor. Kamal turned producer for "Raja Paarvai" (1981), in which he played the lead role of a blind musician. The film was produced under the "Hasan Brothers" banner which was later renamed Raaj Kamal Films International.


title: Kamal Haasan filmography

text: Kamal debuted in Bollywood with Balachander's "Ek Duuje Ke Liye" (1981), which was a remake of his 1978 Telugu film "Maro Charitra". His role as a school teacher who looks after an amnesic girl in "Moondram Pirai" (1982) won him several accolades, including the Best Actor honours at the National Film Awards and Tamil Nadu State Film Awards. His work in Ramesh Sippy's Hindi film "Saagar" (1985), a triangular love story, was nominated in both Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor categories at the 33rd Filmfare Awards. Under Raaj Kamal Films International, he produced films such as: "Vikram" (1986), "Apoorva Sagodharargal" (1989), "Thevar Magan" (1992) and "Hey Ram" (2000). As a producer he won a Filmfare Award and National Film Award for "Apoorva Sagodharargal" and "Thevar Magan". Seven films featuring Kamal have been submitted by India to the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, the most for any actor in India. In 2009, he became one of the few actors in India to have completed 50 years working in cinema. His work "Vishwaroopam" (2013), which he also produced and directed, won two awards at the 60th National Film Awards.


title: History of Kansas

text: The first people who lived in Kansas were Native Americans who were nomadic (people who don't live in one place for very long). They hunted American bison. In the 1500s, Spanish conquistadores came to explore the place. Later, French fur trappers came to the area. They traded with the Native Americans. The United States added most of Kansas in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. In 1854, the Kansas-Nebraska Act opened the place for Americans to move there. A lot of fighting happened because the new residents had to decide if they wanted slavery. The new residents decided to make slavery illegal. The fighting helped start the American Civil War.


title: History of Kansas

text: After the Civil War, Kansas had many frontier towns. The railroads were stops for cattle drives from Texas. Many black people moved from the south to Kansas. These people were called "exodusters". Farmers tried growing corn and raising pigs, but there was little rain, so they were not able to. They started growing wheat. They became very good at growing wheat, and they had enough to trade with Europe. Many angry farmers joined the Populist and Progressive movement in the 1890s, and they supported it until the 1940s. Since the 1940s, Kansas has been a very conservative state. Since 1945, the number of farmers has lowered, and manufacturing has become more popular.


title: History of Kansas

text: In 12000 BCE, the first people came to Kansas. These people were paleolithic people who were related to Asians. Once they came, they never left. They saw mammoths, camels, ground sloths, and horses. They hunted these animals until they were extinct.


title: History of Kansas

text: Because the big game they had been hunting died out, the people had started eating more plants and small animals. They foraged during the season across the plains. In order to get more food, they started being less nomadic. This means that they decided to stay in one place for a longer time. The groups did not stop hunting, but they also ate wild plants and small animals. Their tools became different. Their tools started being able to grind and chop. This means that seeds, fruits, and plants became a bigger part of their diet. They would grind seeds into rough flour. Around 3500BCE, the people started making ceramics. Pottery-making societies started.


title: History of Kansas

text: For most of the Archaic period, people did not change the land in any big way. The groups outside the area, particularly in Mesoamerica, started major inventions. These inventions would include growing maize. Other groups in North America also started growing maize as well. Some archaic groups stopped being food gatherers (people who look for food). Instead, they started being food producers (people who grow food) around 3,000 years ago. They also had many of the cultural things that are seen with semi-sedentary agricultural life: storage containers, permanent housing, bigger settlements, and cemeteries or burial grounds. People in the northern part of Kansas lived in small buildings made out of dirt; they were shaped like a rectangle. People in the southern part of Kansas lived in houses with thatched grass all over them. There were more people being born, and they lived in villages. El Quartelejo was an Indian pueblo that was the farthest north. This settlement is the only pueblo in Kansas from which archaeologists have found anything.


title: History of Kansas

text: Even though the groups started farming, they still did not do much to change their environment. Wild food was still an important part of their diet even after the invention of pottery and the creation of irrigation. Agriculture never made them stop hunting and foraging, even in the biggest Archaic societies.


title: History of Kansas

text: In 1541, Francisco Vázquez de Coronado came to Kansas to explore. He turned around near Lindsborg, Kansas. He met some of the local Native Americans. He gave them horses. The Native Americans started changing their lifestyle because of the horses.


title: History of Kansas

text: In the 1600s, the Kansa people and the Osage Nation came to Kansas. The Kansa people lived near the Kansas River, and the Osage Nation lived near the Arkansas River. The Pawnee people lived in western Kansas. The Pawnee lived in western Kansas because there were a lot of bison. The French commander at Fort Orleans, Étienne de Bourgmont, visited the Kansas River in 1724. He built a trading post there. This was near the main Kansa village at the mouth of the river. Around the same time, the Otoe tribe of the Sioux also lived in areas around the northeast corner of Kansas.


title: History of Kansas

text: Other than short explorations, neither France nor Spain created any cities in Kansas. In 1763, Spain got all of the French land west of the Mississippi River. This was because France lost the Seven Years' War. Spain gave this land back to France in 1803.


title: History of Kansas

text: In 1803, Kansas was added to the United States as land from the Louisiana Purchase. The Lewis and Clark Expedition started in St. Louis. In 1804, they came to Kansas in what is today Kansas City, Kansas. They met French fur trappers who knew the land well. In 1806, explorer Zebulon Pike came to Kansas. He called it the "Great American Desert" because it had no trees or plants. The U.S. government saw Kansas as a desert too, so they sent Native Americans to it. They believed it was not good land, so they didn't care if Native Americans were sent there.


title: History of Kansas

text: From June 4, 1812 until August 10, 1821, the land was part of the Missouri Territory. Missouri became a state, so the land became unorganized. It had no people living in it except for Fort Leavenworth. The Fort was created in 1827 by Henry Leavenworth with the 3rd U.S Infantry from St. Louis, Missouri; it is the first permanent European settlement in Kansas. The fort was created as the westernmost outpost of the American military. It was created to protect trade along the Santa Fe Trail from Native Americans. The trade came from the East. It came either by land using the Boone's Lick Road, or by water using the Missouri River.


title: History of Kansas

text: In the 1820s, the U.S. government gave the land to the Native Americans as Indian Territory. They did not let white people come to the territory. On June 3, 1825, the U.S. government took 20 million acres of land (81000 km²) from the Kansa people. The Kansa people had to stay on a small amount of land in northeastern Kansas. The U.S. government also made the Osage Nation live in a small amount of land in southeastern Kansas.


title: History of Kansas

text: By a treaty on November 7, 1825, the Shawnee people were moved to Kansas. By a treaty on September 29, 1829, the Delaware people were moved to Kansas.


title: History of Kansas

text: The Indian Removal Act made this faster. By a treaty on August 30, 1831, the Ottawa people were moved to a small part of Kansas. On October 24, 1832, the Kickapoo people were moved to Kansas. On October 29, 1832, the Piankeshaw and Wea people were moved to Kansas. To their east was the western border of Missouri, and to their west was the Kaskaskia and Peoria people. On September 21, 1833, the Otoe people were moved to Kansas.


title: History of Kansas

text: By September 17, 1836, the Sac and Fox people moved to Kansas, north of the Kickapoo. By a treaty on February 11, 1837, the United States moved the Pottawatomi people to Kansas. They were moved to the Osage River, which is southwest of the Missouri River. The land was in the southwest part of what is now Miami County.


title: History of Kansas

text: After a treaty in 1842, the Wyandot people were moved to an area between the Kansas River and the Missouri River. They shared the land with the Delaware people until 1843.


title: History of Kansas

text: Even though there were plans made to settle Native Americans in Kansas, by 1850 white Americans were illegally squatting on their land. They really wanted the entire area to be opened for settlement. Several U.S. Army forts, including Fort Riley, were soon created deep in Indian Territory to guard travelers on the various Western trails.


title: History of Kansas

text: Although the Cheyenne and Arapahoes tribes were still discussing with the United States for land in western Kansas (the current state of Colorado), they signed a treaty on September 17, 1851. Momentum was already building to settle the land.


title: History of Kansas

text: Congress started the process of creating Kansas Territory in 1852. That year, petitions were given at the first session of the 32nd Congress to organize territory of the land west of Missouri and Iowa. Nothing happened at that time. However, during the next session, on December 13, 1852, a Representative from Missouri submitted to the House of Representatives a bill. This bill would organize the Territory of Platte: all the land west of Iowa and Missouri, and going west to the Rocky Mountains. The bill was given to the United States House Committee on Territories. It passed by the full U.S. House of Representatives on February 10, 1853. However, Southern Senators stopped the progress of the bill in the Senate. They did this to discuss how the bill would affect slavery and the Missouri Compromise. Arguments about the bill and other ideas would continue for a year. The Kansas–Nebraska Act was eventually created because of this. It became law on May 30, 1854, creating the Nebraska Territory and Kansas Territory.


title: History of Kansas

text: By the summer of 1853, it was clear that eastern Kansas would soon be opened to American settlers. The Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs created new treaties that would give new reservations with yearly federal money for the Native Americans.


title: History of Kansas

text: In the three months before the bill passed, treaties were written at Washington with the Delaware, Otoe, Kickapoo, Kaskaskia, Shawnee, Sac, Fox and other tribes, where the biggest part of eastern Kansas, which was within one or two hundred miles of the Missouri border, was suddenly opened to white settlement. (The Kansa reservation had already been made smaller by treaty in 1846.) On March 15, 1854, Otoe and Missouri Indians gave all their lands west of the Mississippi, except a small strip on the Big Blue River, to the United States. On May 6 and May 10, 1854, the Shawnees gave away , keeping only for homes. Also on May 6, 1854, the Delaware gave all their lands to the United States, except a reservation defined in the treaty. On May 17, the Iowa gave away their lands, keeping only a small reservation. On May 18, 1854, the Kickapoo also gave away their lands, except in the western part of the Territory. In 1854 lands were also given by the Kaskaskia, Peoria, Piankeshaw and Wea and by the Sac and Fox.


title: History of Kansas

text: The final step in making the Natives more American was taking land from tribes and giving it to Native households. This was so they could buy and sell as European Americans would. For example, in 1854, the Chippewa (Swan Creek and Black River bands) lived of land in Franklin County, but in 1859 the area was given to individual Chippewa families.


title: History of Kansas

text: The Kansas-Nebraska Act passed on May 30, 1854, and it created the Kansas Territory. It went from the western border of Missouri to the Rocky Mountains. The southern border was the 37th parallel north, and the northern border was the 40th parallel north. Anything north of the 40th parallel was part of the Nebraska Territory. When Congress set the southern border of the Kansas Territory as the 37th parallel, they thought that the Osage southern border was also the 37th parallel. The Cherokees disagreed. They said that it was not the correct border. They said that the border of Kansas should be moved north to make room for the actual border of the Cherokee land. This became known as the Cherokee Strip controversy.


title: History of Kansas

text: In the Kansas-Nebraska Act, it said that people living in the territories could vote on whether or not to have slavery. It undid the Missouri Compromise of 1820, which did not allow slavery in any new states created north of latitude 36°30'. This led to violence between people from the North and people from the South. They both tried to quickly move to Kansas to control it.


title: History of Kansas

text: In a few days after the law passed, hundreds of people from Missouri moved to Kansas. These people wanted slavery. They created a group called the "Squatter's Claim Association" on June 10, 1854. They said that they were going to make Kansas a slave state.


title: History of Kansas

text: The New England Emigrant Aid Company said they were going to make Kansas a free state. From 1854 to 1855, they sent many anti-slavery people (called "free-staters") to Kansas. They were important in creating Lawrence, Topeka, and Manhattan. Other anti-slavery people came from Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, and other states.


title: History of Kansas

text: For a while, there was not much violence. This changed on March 30, 1855. The elections happened this day. Many pro-slavery people from Missouri came to Kansas to vote for pro-slavery people. Pro-slavery people won many elections that day. Pro-slavery people controlled the Kansas government.


title: History of Kansas

text: From 1855 to 1858, there was a lot of fighting in Kansas. This was called "Bleeding Kansas," and it happened shortly before the American Civil War. Battles include the Wakarusa War, the Sacking of Lawrence, the Battle of Black Jack, the Battle of Osawatomie, and the Marais des Cygnes massacre.


title: History of Kansas

text: On December 1, 1855, many pro-slavery people came to Lawrence. These pro-slavery people were led by Samuel J. Jones. These people had guns. They wanted to destroy Lawrence because it was anti-slavery. The people of Lawrence were ready to defend the city. Before any fighting happened, Territorial Governor Wilson Shannon made a treaty to stop the fighting.


title: History of Kansas

text: On May 21, 1856, pro-slavery people came to Lawrence, and they attacked the city. They burned the Free-State Hotel to the ground, destroyed two printing presses, and robbed homes. Only one person died, but the city was destroyed.


title: History of Kansas

text: The Pottawatomie massacre happened during the night of May 24 to the morning of May 25, 1856. In what seems to be a reaction to the Sacking of Lawrence, John Brown and a group of abolitionists killed five settlers. They believed these settlers were pro-slavery. This happened north of Pottawatomie Creek in Franklin County, Kansas. Brown later said that he did not take part in the killings during the Pottawatomie massacre, but that he did approve of them. He went into hiding after the killings. Two of his sons, John Jr. and Jason, were arrested. While they were arrested, they were allegedly treated poorly. This made John Jr. mentally hurt. On June 2, Brown led a successful attack on a group of Missourians. The Missourians were led by Captain Henry Pate. This happened in the Battle of Black Jack. Pate and his men had went into Kansas to capture Brown and others. That Fall, Brown went back into hiding and did other guerrilla warfare activities.


title: History of Kansas

text: The anti-slavery and pro-slavery people tried to win by writing a constitution that would make the other side lose. Anti-slavery people would try to write a constitution that made slavery illegal, and pro-slavery people would try to write a constitution that would make slavery legal. Congress would decide which one to choose.


title: History of Kansas

text: On November 11, 1855, free-staters wrote the Topeka Constitution. The constitution made slavery illegal. They voted for the constitution on December 15, 1855, and they sent it to Congress in March 1856. It passed the House of Representatives, but it failed in the Senate. This was because the Senate had many pro-slavery people in it.


title: History of Kansas

text: On November 7, 1857, pro-slavery people wrote the Lecompton Constitution. The constitution allowed slavery, but there was a vote on it. Both pro-slavery and anti-slavery people tried to stop the votes and the constitution. Eventually, it was sent to Congress. It failed in Congress because they were not able to decide if the people actually liked it.


title: History of Kansas

text: A very anti-slavery legislature wrote the Leavenworth Constitution on April 3, 1858. On May 18, 1858, the people of Kansas voted for it. This constitution made slavery illegal, and it also gave more rights to women. It failed in Congress. All of this happened while the Lecompton Constitution was being written.


title: History of Kansas

text: On July 29, 1859, the Wyandotte Constitution was written. The people of Kansas voted for it on October 4, 1859. This constitution made slavery illegal, but it did not have the rights for women (unlike the Leavenworth Constitution). Kansas became a free state on January 29, 1861.


title: History of Kansas

text: When the Wyandotte Constitution was being written, pro-slavery people knew they had lost. When the pro-slavery people realized this and when John Brown left the state, the violence in Kansas stopped in 1859.


title: History of Kansas

text: There were many important events that happened in Kansas during the 1860s. Kansas was in the Civil War, there were cattle drives, early prohibition, and the start of the American Indian Wars in western Kansas.


title: History of Kansas

text: The Wyandotte Constitution made Kansas a free state. The people of Kansas liked the Union. Kansas stayed in the Union. Pro-slavery people still attacked Kansas. Many of these pro-slavery people were from Missouri.