title: Elevator

text: Statistically speaking, elevators are extremely safe. Their safety record is unsurpassed by any other vehicle system. In 1998, it was estimated that approximately eight 100-millionths of one percent (1 in 12 million) of elevator rides resulted in an anomaly, and the vast majority of these were minor things such as the doors failing to open. For all practical purposes, there are no cases of elevators simply free-falling and killing the passengers inside; of the 20 to 30 elevator-related deaths each year, most of them are maintenance-related - for example, technicians leaning too far into the shaft or getting caught between moving parts, and most of the rest are attributed to easily avoidable accidents, such as people stepping blindly through doors that open into empty shafts or being strangled by scarves caught in the doors. In fact, prior to the September 11th terrorist attacks, the only known free-fall incident in a modern cable-borne elevator happened in 1945 when a B-25 bomber struck the Empire State Building in fog, severing the cables of an elevator cab, which fell from the 75th floor all the way to the bottom of the building, seriously injuring (though not killing) the sole occupant - the female elevator operator. While it is possible (though extraordinarily unlikely) for an elevator's cable to snap, all elevators in the modern era have been fitted with several safety devices which prevent the elevator from simply free-falling and crashing. An elevator cab is typically borne by six or eight hoist cables, each of which is capable on its own of supporting the full load of the elevator plus twenty-five per cent more weight. In addition, there is a device which detects whether the elevator is moving faster than its maximum designed speed; if this happens, the device causes bronze brake shoes to clamp down along the vertical rails in the shaft, stopping the elevator quickly, but not so abruptly as to cause injury. In addition, a hydraulic buffer is installed at the bottom of the shaft to cushion any impact somewhat.


title: Elevator

text: Most recently, there was an incident in a modern cable-borne elevator that took place in a children's hospital in Seattle, Washington on October 9, 2007. The elevator involved was a ThyssenKrupp ISIS machine room-less elevator; The ISIS used Kevlar fiberglass ropes instead of conventional braided-steel ropes all other traction elevators use. One of the ISIS elevators broke free from its cables, slipping between the 6th and 4th floors; the Kevlar ropes were the cause of this incident. After the incident, ThyssenKrupp discontinued production of the ISIS and, the following year, replaced it with the Synergy machine room-less elevator, which uses conventional braided-steel ropes, making it much safer.


title: Elevator

text: Past problems with early hydraulic elevators meant those built prior to a code change in 1972 were subject to possible catastrophic failure. The code had previously required only single-bottom hydraulic cylinders. In the event of a cylinder breach, an uncontrolled fall of the elevator might result. Because it is impossible to verify the system completely without a pressurized casing (as described below), it is necessary to remove the piston to inspect it. The cost of removing the piston is such that it makes no economic sense to re-install the old cylinder; therefore it is necessary to replace the cylinder and install a new piston. Another solution to protect against a cylinder blowout is to install a "life jacket." This is a device which, in the event of an excessive downward speed, clamps onto the cylinder and stops the car. This device is also known as a Rupture Valve in some parts of the world.


title: Elevator

text: In addition to the safety concerns for older hydraulic elevators, there is risk of leaking hydraulic oil into the aquifer and causing potential environmental contamination. This has led to the introduction of PVC liners (casings) around hydraulic cylinders which can be monitored for integrity.


title: Elevator

text: In the past decade, recent innovations in inverted hydraulic jacks have eliminated the costly process of drilling the ground to install a borehole jack. This also eliminates the threat of corrosion to the system and increases safety.


title: Elevator

text: Geared traction machines are driven by AC or DC electric motors. Geared machines use worm gears to control mechanical movement of elevator cars by "rolling" steel hoist ropes over a drive sheave which is attached to a gearbox driven by a high speed motor. These machines are generally the best option for basement or overhead traction use for speeds up to 500 ft/min (2.5 m/s).


title: Elevator

text: A climbing elevator is a self-ascending elevator with its own propulsion. The propulsion can be done by an electric or a combustion engine. Climbing elevators are used in guyed masts or towers, in order to make easy access to parts of these constructions, such as flight safety lamps for maintenance. An example would be the Moonlight Towers in Austin, Texas, where the elevator holds only one person and equipment for maintenance.


title: Elevator

text: Many elevator installations now feature emergency power systems which allow elevator use in blackout situations and prevent people from becoming trapped in elevators.


title: Elevator

text: When power is lost in a traction elevator system, all elevators will initially come to a halt. One by one, each car in the group will return to the lobby floor, open its doors and shut down. People in the remaining elevators may see an indicator light or hear a voice announcement informing them that the elevator will return to the lobby shortly. Once all cars have successfully returned, the system will then automatically select one or more cars to be used for normal operations and these cars will return to service. The car(s) selected to run under emergency power can be manually overridden by a key or strip switch in the lobby. In order to help prevent entrapment, when the system detects that it is running low on power, it will bring the running cars to the lobby or nearest floor, open the doors and shut down.


title: Elevator

text: In hydraulic elevator systems, emergency power will lower the elevators to the lowest landing and open the doors to allow passengers to exit. The doors then close after an adjustable time period and the car remains unusable until reset, usually by cycling the elevator main power switch. Typically, due to the high current draw when starting the pump motor, hydraulic elevators are not run using standard emergency power systems. Buildings like hospitals and nursing homes usually size their emergency generators to accommodate this draw. However, the increasing use of current limiting motor starters, commonly known as "Soft-Start" contactors, avoid much of this problem and the current draw of the pump motor is less of a limiting concern.


title: Elevator

text: Elevators may feature talking devices as an accessibility aid for the blind. In addition to floor arrival notifications, the computer announces the direction of travel, and notifies the passengers before the doors are to close.


title: Elevator

text: In addition to the call buttons, elevators usually have floor indicators (often illuminated by LED) and direction lanterns. The former are almost universal in cab interiors with more than two stops and may be found outside the elevators as well on one or more of the floors. Floor indicators can consist of a dial with a rotating needle, but the most common types are those with successively illuminated floor indications or LCDs. Likewise, a change of floors or an arrival at a floor is indicated by a sound, depending on the elevator.


title: Elevator

text: Direction lanterns are also found both inside and outside elevator cars, but they should always be visible from outside because their primary purpose is to help people decide whether or not to get on the elevator. If somebody waiting for the elevator wants to go up, but a car comes first that indicates that it is going down, then the person may decide not to get on the elevator. If the person waits, then one will still stop going up. Direction indicators are sometimes etched with arrows or shaped like arrows and/or use the convention that one that lights up red means "down" and green means "up". Since the color convention is often undermined or overrided by systems that do not invoke it, it is usually used only in conjunction with other differentiating factors. An example of a place whose elevators use only the color convention to differentiate between directions is the Museum of Contemporary Art in Chicago, where a single circle can be made to light up green for "up" and red for "down." Sometimes directions must be inferred by the position of the indicators relative to one another.


title: Elevator

text: In addition to lanterns, most elevators have a chime to indicate if the elevator is going up or down either before or after the doors open, usually in conjunction with the lanterns lighting up. Universally, one chime is for up, two is for down, and none indicates an elevator that is 'free'.


title: Elevator

text: Observatory service elevators often convey other facts of interest, including elevator speed, stopwatch, and current position (altitude), as with the case for Taipei 101's service elevators.


title: Elevator

text: The mechanical and electrical design of elevators is dictated according to various standards (aka elevator codes), which may be international, national, state, regional or city based. Whereas once many standards were prescriptive, specifying exact criteria which must be complied with, there has recently been a shift towards more performance-based standards where the onus falls on the designer to ensure that the elevator meets or exceeds the standard..


title: Elevator

text: Because an elevator is part of a building, it must also comply with standards relating to earthquake resilience, fire standards, electrical wiring rules and so forth.


title: Elevator

text: The American National Elevator Standards Group (ANESG) sets an elevator weight standard to be 2200 lbs.


title: Elevator

text: Additional requirements relating to access by disabled persons, may be mandated by laws or regulations such as the Americans with Disabilities Act.


title: Ben Hall

text: Ben Hall (9 May 1837 — 5 May 1865) was a famous Australian bushranger. A bushranger is a thief who roamed the countryside and country towns of Australia, usually escaping on horseback, like a highwayman. Most bushrangers were simply criminals and thieves. Ben Hall is one of the few bushrangers, like Ned Kelly, who were thought of as outlaw heroes.


title: Ben Hall

text: Ben Hall lived at a time when gold had been discovered in New South Wales and Victoria. Thousands of people went out to the places where gold had been discovered to "seek their fortunes" and hoping to get rich. Like many bushrangers, Ben Hall and his gang robbed coaches that were carrying gold from the goldfields. Ben Hall was able to avoid being arrested by the police for many years because he had many friends and relatives to help him.


title: Ben Hall

text: In folklore, a typical outlaw hero is a farmer or other innocent person who is forced into crime by cruel police or government actions. Ben Hall is part of a long history of outlaw heroes that includes people like Robin Hood in England and Jesse James in the United States. The outlaw hero is said to be a friend of the poor, kind to women and children, and an enemy of the rich. He is said to have died bravely in a battle against the more powerful forces of the law. Ben Hall has been seen by people in Australia as such a hero; others see him as a very clever criminal who stole a lot of money.


title: Ben Hall

text: Ben Hall was born on 9 May 1837, at Wallis Plains, near Maitland, in the Hunter Valley of New South Wales. His parents were Benjamin Hall (born in Bristol, England, 1802) and Eliza Somers (born in Dublin, Ireland, 1807). Both of his parents were convicts and sent to gaol in New South Wales. They married in 1834. Ben was their fourth child. After they were let out of gaol, they moved to the Hunter Valley. Benjamin worked for Samuel Clift on a farm called the "Doona Run". Around 1839, Benjamin moved to a remote valley, north of Murrurundi. He built a hut and began farming cattle. He also found wild cattle and horses in the nearby hills. In 1842, he bought a small block of land at Haydonton, near Murrurundi, and started a butcher shop. The family worked hard, but there were problems with the police over stolen cattle and horses. Near the end of 1860, Benjamin moved down to the Lachlan River area, taking his children, Ben, William, and Mary, and his stepson, Thomas Wade.


title: Ben Hall

text: Ben left home and began work on many cattle farms along the Lachlan River. He was known as a hard-working and honest stockman.


title: Ben Hall

text: On 29 February 1856, at the age of 19, Hall married Bridget Walsh (1841–1923), a farmer's daughter, at Bathurst. On 7 August 1859, they had a son, whom they named Henry. One of Bridget's sisters was the mistress (lover) of bushranger Frank Gardiner; another sister married John Maguire. In 1860, Ben Hall and John Maguire leased the "Sandy Creek" farm of about south of Forbes. Hall built a house, sheds and stockyards. He raised cattle and sold them at the Lambing Flat goldfield. He met Frank Gardiner who had a butchers shop at Lambing Flat.


title: Ben Hall

text: Historians are unsure why. By early 1862, his marriage was in trouble. Biddy left Ben and moved in with a neighbour, Jim Taylor, taking young Henry with her. There were many criminals living and working in the area where Hall lived. He became friends with Frank Gardiner. Gardiner was already wanted for robbery and had shot two policemen before escaping. On 14 April 1862 Gardiner and Hall robbed three bullock wagon drivers. One week later the drivers saw him at the Forbes horse races. Police Inspector Sir Frederick Pottinger, who was also at the races, told the police to arrest Ben for using guns in a robbery with Gardiner. The jury at the courthouse at Orange did not think there was enough evidence to show that Hall had been one of the robbers. After he was released, the police kept a close watch on Ben Hall, to see where he went and what he was doing.


title: Ben Hall

text: On 15 June 1862, Gardiner and a group of ten men, including Hall, robbed the Forbes gold coach near Eugowra. This coach carrying gold from the gold fields had an escort of police to guard it. The gang stole more than £14,000 in gold and money. This is about US$4 million in 2003 money value. This was definitely Australia's biggest gold robbery. Hall and several others were arrested in July. Once again the police were unable find proof that Hall was one of the robbers. The police let him go at the end of August. When Hall went back to his farm he found his house burned down. His cattle had been left in the stockyards and had died from starvation (not having enough to eat). There are claims that this was done by Pottinger to punish Hall, but not all historians agree. Hall and John Maguire needed money to pay their legal costs. They were forced to sell the lease of their farm at "Sandy Creek" to a Forbes hotel owner called John Wilson.


title: Ben Hall

text: With his wife, young son, and his farm gone, Ben Hall slowly moved into a life of crime as a bushranger. On 1 March 1863, Hall and bushrangers Patrick Daley (Patsy) and John O'Meally, were nearly captured in the Weddin mountains by Police Inspector Norton and black tracker Billy Dargin. Black trackers were aboriginals used by the police for their skills in following people in the bush. After shooting at each other, Norton was captured and robbed. Dargin managed to escape into the bush. Hall and Daley chased Dargin through the bush for . When they caught him they told him they admired his bravery. They let him go and told him they would rob the police camp that night. While the police were out looking for them, the gang stole guns and ammunition from the police camp. The police chased them but the gang had stolen better and faster horses and easily escaped.


title: Ben Hall

text: Frank Gardiner went to Queensland to hide from the police after the Eugowra robbery. Hall took over as leader of the gang. For three years Hall carried out well-planned and daring crimes. They robbed mainly farmhouses, stagecoaches carrying mail and gold, and country hotels. Hall's gang included John Gilbert as his lieutenant, his main helper. In 1863 the other three members were John O'Meally, John Vane and Michael Burke. Burke was only 20 years old. He was killed on 24 October 1863, during a robbery at Henry Keightley's house at Dunn's Plains. Vane wanted to shoot Keightley for killing Burke, but Ben Hall stopped him. Instead he asked for a £500 ransom. Mrs Keightley had to ride to Bathurst at night to get the money from the bank. A few weeks later on 19 November, O'Meally was killed during an attempted robbery on Goimbla Station (farm). Vane gave himself up and was sent to gaol. Two other men, James Gordon, alias James Mount (known as "The Old Man") and John Dunleavy, joined the gang but Gordon was captured trying to flee in Victoria and Dunleavy surrendered after being badly wounded in a gunfight. sometime around October 1864, Hall and Gilbert were joined by John Dunn who had a warrant out for his arrest after failing to appear in court over a robbery-under-arms charge.


title: Ben Hall

text: The police seemed powerless to stop the Ben Hall gang. The gang were very busy in the district during 1864. For example:


title: Ben Hall

text: Hall's gang robbed Robinson's Hotel in Canowindra and held all the people of the town hostage for three days. Nobody was hurt and Hall even got the people to play music and dance. The local policeman was locked in his own cell. When the people were set free, Hall paid them money. The gang paid the hotel owner for the food and drink that they had used. The capture of the town is made famous in a song called "John Gilbert".


title: Ben Hall

text: The gang was regularly robbing people and holding up the mail coaches, south of Goulburn on the main Sydney to Melbourne Road. On 15 November 1864, the gang tried to rob the Gundagai-Yass mail coach near Jugiong. While waiting for the coach, the gang captured and robbed over 60 people, who were traveling along the road. One of those captured was policeman James McLaughlin. He fired six shots at the gang, but he did not have any more ammunition and gave himself up. The policeman on the coach, William Roche, was ordered by Police Magistrate Alfred Rose, who was riding inside, not to shoot and draw fire. The driver, Bill Geoghegan, ordered him to get off the coach or he would kick him off. Hall and Dunn began firing at two other policemen who were riding behind the coach. Sub-Inspector William O'Neill was quickly captured. John Gilbert and Sergeant Edmund Parry were shooting at each other from a close distance. Gilbert killed Sergeant Parry. Constable Roche escaped into the bush. The gang quickly took all the money and valuable items and rode away. Parry is buried at Gundagai. On his headstone it says ""Edmund Parry, Sergeant of the N.S.W. Police, who lost his life in the execution (doing) of his duty whilst courageously (bravely) endeavouring (trying) to capture the bushranger Gilbert by whom he was killed by near Jugiong."" Two days later the gang robbed the mail coach between Yass and Lambing Flat. On 5 December, they robbed the mail coach between Binalong and Burrowa.


title: Ben Hall

text: On Boxing Day, 1864, Hall, Gilbert, and John Dunn, rode into the town of Binda with three local girls. The girls were Christina McKinnon (aged 25), believed to be Hall's lover, Ellen Monks (aged 17), and her sister Margaret Monks (aged 19). Together with the girls the gang robbed a shop owned by Edward Morriss. They locked all the local people into the Flag Hotel. They made everyone dance to celebrate Boxing Day. Morriss got out of the hotel through a back window at 2.00 a.m. and set off to tell the police. Gilbert fired several shots at him. Hall got angry and so he set fire to Morriss's shop and burned it down. The gang and the girls left the town. Christina McKinnon, along with Margaret and Ellen Monks were arrested by Detective James Pye for helping the bushrangers and were sent to Sydney for trial. Morriss joined the police force. Margaret was released before being sent to trial.


title: Ben Hall

text: The police were under a lot of pressure to catch the Ben Hall gang. The gang had been able to travel around the country and go anywhere they liked. They made the police look like fools. Sir Frederick Pottinger came up with an unusual plan. He knew the gang liked race horses and horse racing; they had been seen at many country race meetings. Pottinger planned to ride in the races at Wowingragong, near Forbes, on 5 January 1865. He thought this would bring the gang out into the open where his men would be able to capture them. The Ben Hall gang did not appear and Pottinger lost his job. The Inspector-General of Police thought that Pottinger had disgraced the police force by riding in races while he was supposed to be working. Pottinger decided to go to Sydney to make the police force change its mind. On the way he accidentally shot himself and later died.


title: Ben Hall

text: On 26 January 1865, the gang held up ten people on the road near Goulburn. They were chased into the bush by a group of policemen. A couple of hours later the gang rode into the town of Collector. Hall and Gilbert robbed the Commercial Hotel. John Dunn stayed outside. When the local policeman, Constable Nelson, arrived, Dunn shot him at close range. Two of Nelson's nine children saw the shooting, as one was a hostage at the hotel and the other was following his father. Gilbert robbed Nelson's body of money and other valuables and took his gun. They left the town quickly and went into hiding.


title: Ben Hall

text: The police put more effort into the hunt for the bushrangers. In February, they went to a house near Queanbeyan and found the gang had only just left. The police thought that the gang might be with a friend, Thomas Byrne. They went to the Breadalbane Hotel and arrested four men that were known to be friends of the gang. This would stop them giving the bushrangers any warnings. The police surrounded Byrne's farm. As they moved passed the open door of the barn, the bushrangers began shooting. The bushrangers escaped into the bush when Hall was shot as he ran away.


title: Ben Hall

text: On 4 March 1865, the gang robbed the mail coach at between Goulburn and Gundaroo. A couple of days later they stole horses from two farms. On 13 March, the gang tried to hold up the Araluen gold coach. Gold had been found at Araluen in the 1860s. The gold coach had a policeman with a gun sitting next to the driver. There were two more policemen on the back of the carriage. Four more policemen rode on horses in front and behind the coach. The gold was kept in a safe which was bolted to floor of the coach. (The coach has survived and is being restored). The bushrangers began shooting at the coach and Constable Kelly was shot. He was badly hurt, but he crawled to side of the road and began shooting at the bushrangers. The police were able to keep the bushrangers away from the coach. Another policeman, Trooper Byrne, was also shot.The bushrangers quickly left when miners with guns arrived from the town.


title: Ben Hall

text: In two years Ben Hall's gang, as well as killing two policemen, had reportedly robbed ten mail coaches, held up 21 properties, stole 23 racing horses, and taken over the village of Canowindra three times.


title: Ben Hall

text: In early 1865, the government made a new law to help capture Ben Hall, John Gilbert and John Dunn. The "Felons Apprehension Act" was rushed quickly through the New South Wales Parliament. This would make Hall and his friends "outlaws" if they did not surrender within thirty days. This meant that they could be killed by anyone at any time without warning. They also put a reward of £1000 for the capture of Ben Hall.


title: Ben Hall

text: The bushrangers still kept busy robbing people. They robbed a farm, Wallendbeen Station, and wanted to know where the police were. A group of Chinese gold miners were robbed. The next day, 18 March, the police found the gang trying to take horses from Wallendbeen. The gang escaped into the bush. They made their way to a shepherd's hut and forced the shepherd to put a bandage on Gilbert's arm. Hall and Dunn walked to a nearby farm, Beggan Beggan station. They held up the 16 farm workers and took horses, saddles and bridles. They went back to get Gilbert and then robbed the farm again, taking guns, ammunition, and food.


title: Ben Hall

text: Hall, Gilbert and Dunn robbed the bank in Forbes and took £81 on 25 March. More police were sent to the area, and they were given better guns. A month later the gang were seen near Marengo. Two days later they took horses and food from another farm, Yamma station. This was the gang's last robbery.


title: Ben Hall

text: By May 1865, Hall decided to leave New South Wales. But a man, Mick 'Goobang' Coneley, who had once given the gang help, told the police where Hall was hiding. During the night a group of eight policemen found Hall sleeping under a tree at Billabong Creek, near Forbes. The police were armed with double-barrelled shotguns and rifles. Led by Sub-Inspector Davidson, the police placed themselves in a large circle around Ben Hall's camp. When he woke up at dawn on 5 May 1865, Hall was shot 30 times as he tried to run away. A newspaper report said his body was "riddled" with bullets. He did not shoot his pistol once. The first rifle shots of the police cut his belt in two, and his guns fell to the ground. Goobang Mick was given a £500 reward. The police were given another £500 reward.


title: Ben Hall

text: Ben Hall's body was wrapped in his poncho, tied to a horse and taken back to Forbes. An official inquest was held in the court house to find out how he died, and both Davidson and Condell submitted reports. Ben Hall was buried in Forbes Cemetery on Sunday, 7 May 1865. A lot of people went to see him buried. The first wooden grave marker and fence were burnt in a bushfire. Two brothers from Forbes, the Pengilly brothers, put a headstone on the grave in the 1920s. The tree that Hall slept under before he was killed became an attraction. People in the 1920s were still able to see bullets in the tree trunk. The tree was destroyed in a bushfire in 1926. His grave is well looked after and many people still come to look at it. Ben Hall's gun, a Colt pistol, is now in the National Library of Australia.


title: Ben Hall

text: Gilbert and Dunn were nearly caught by the police a week later at Binalong. Gilbert was killed as he tried to run away. Dunn got away, but six months later a friend told the police where Dunn was hiding. He was captured, tried for murder and hanged in Sydney on 19 March 1866.


title: Ben Hall

text: In 2007, Peter Bradley, a descendant of Hall's younger brother Henry, said he wanted to reopen the inquest into the bushranger's death. Bradley said that the "Felon Apprehension Act" was not yet law when Hall was killed. The first inquest found that Hall was deliberately killed, but this was allowed because the new law meant Hall was an outlaw. The parliament had passed the law on 12 April, but it did not become law until 10 May. This was five days after Hall was shot to death by police.


title: Ben Hall

text: There is memorial called "Ben Hall's Wall" at Breeza, south of Gunnedah, New South Wales. "Ben Halls Gap National Park" is a small section of State Forest south of Nundle, New South Wales. It is not named after the bushranger, but after his father, Benjamin Hall.


title: Battle of Baghdad (1258)

text: The Battle of Baghdad in 1258 was a victory for the Mongol leader Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan. Baghdad was captured, sacked, and over time burned.


title: Battle of Baghdad (1258)

text: Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Empire. This was an Islamic empire in what is now Iraq. The Abbasid caliphs were the second of the Islamic dynasties.


title: Battle of Baghdad (1258)

text: The Mongol army, led by Hulagu (also spelled as Hulegu) Khan and the Chinese commander Guo Kan in vice-command, set out for Baghdad in November of 1257. Hulagu marched with what was probably the largest army ever fielded by the Mongols. By order of Mongke Khan, one in ten fighting men in the entire Mongol Empire were gathered for Hulagu's army (Saunders 1971). The attacking army also had a large contingent of Christian forces and of Chinese military engineering troops.


title: Battle of Baghdad (1258)

text: Hulagu demanded surrender; the caliph refused. Many accounts say that the caliph failed to prepare for the fight; he neither gathered armies nor strengthened the walls of Baghdad.


title: Battle of Baghdad (1258)

text: Hulagu divided his forces, so that they threatened both sides of the city, on the east and west banks of the Tigris. The attacking Mongols broke some dikes and flooded the ground behind the caliph’s army, trapping them. Much of the army was slaughtered or drowned.


title: Battle of Baghdad (1258)

text: Under Guo Kan's order, the Chinese counterparts in the Mongolian army then laid siege to the city, constructing a palisade and ditch, wheeling up siege engines and catapults. The siege started on January 29. The battle was swift, by siege standards. By February 5 the Mongols controlled a stretch of the wall. Al-Musta'sim tried to negotiate, but was refused.


title: Battle of Baghdad (1258)

text: On February 10 Baghdad surrendered. The Mongols swept into the city on February 13 and began a week of massacre, looting, rape, and destruction.


title: Ibrahim Lodi

text: Ibrahim Lodi (d. 21 April 1526) was the last sultan of Delhi. He was an ethnic Pashtun. He became sultan in 1517 after Sikandar Lodi died. Sikandar was his father and Ibrahim was soon challenged by his younger brother, Jalal Kahn. Ibrahim had military skills. But unlike his father he lacked tact.


title: Ibrahim Lodi

text: He faced a number of rebellions. The Mewar ruler Rana Sangram Singh extended his empire right up to western Uttar Pradesh and threatened to attack Agra. There was rebellion in the East also. Ibrahim Lodi also displeased the nobility when he replaced old and senior commanders by younger ones who were loyal to him. He further alienated them by throwing some of the older noblemen in prison. His Afghan nobility eventually invited Babur to invade India. In 1526, the Mughal forces of Babur, the king of Kabulistan, defeated Ibrahim's much larger army in the 1st Battle of Panipat. Ibrahim was killed during the battle. It is estimated that Babur's forces numbered around 12,000 men. His army had between 20 to 24 pieces of field artillery. Ibrahim Lodi had around 30,000-40,000 men along with at least 100 war elephants. After Ibrahim Lodi was overthrown, the mughals invaded India.


title: Madurai

text: Meenakshi Amman Temple, Ayiram Kal Mandabam (Hall of Thousand Pillars) are some of the important tourist places in Madurai.


title: Madurai

text: Madurai is always considered to be a good pilgrim center. Tourists from various part of the country and world are coming to madurai and enjoying a historical excellence.


title: Madurai

text: The main attraction of the city is meenakshi amman temple. Various other tourist and pilgrimage places also there such as Alagar Koil, Thiruparangkundram, Palarmuthir solai (means garden with fruits), Thirumalai naicker Mahal (palace of Naickers), Teppakulam (a square tank almost half a kilometer length as one side length), gandi museum (where we can find blood spotted final dress of Gandiji), etc.


title: Madurai

text: The city is said to be as City of Festivals almost all the days in year is having at least a small festival. The city is also called 'thoonganagaram' which means Non-sleeping city.


title: Madurai

text: Road side shops are very famous in Madurai where all can get good foods in cheaper costs. Jigardhanda, a typical Muslim cool drink is one of the famous drink from madurai. Madurai is very famous for jasmine flowers and Alanganallur located near Madurai is famous for Jallikattu.


title: Sumer

text: Sumer is the earliest known civilization in southern Mesopotamia (in modern-day southern Iraq). They may have been one of the first civilizations in the world, as were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley.


title: Sumer

text: Sumer started around 3500 BC. The Sumerian civilization grew along the Tigris and Euphrates. This land was good for growing food. Sumerian culture is famous for its written cuneiform script - where letters were formed by pressing a triangle shaped reed into wet-clay tiles. They are also credited with creating the wheel, and dividing a day into 24 hours, and each hour into 60 minutes.


title: Sumer

text: The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr and date back to 3300 BC. Early cuneiform script writing emerged in 3000 BC.


title: Sumer

text: Sumerian communities were organized into city-states, each ruled by a priest or king, until Akkad conquered them in the third millennium BC. One of the most famous Sumerian cities was Ur (not the same city as Uruk, but near it).


title: Sumer

text: During the 3rd millennium BC, a close cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke a language isolate, and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism.


title: Sumer

text: The Sumerians lost their identity with their language around 2000 BC, because a large group of different people, the Amorites, moved into their region. The Sumerian language continued as a religious language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, for as long as cuneiform was used.


title: Sumer

text: The Sumerians made their clothing by using the natural resources that were available to them. Clothing was made from wool or flax which Sumerians could raise and harvest. How thick or how coarse the clothing was related to the season in which it was worn. Heavier clothing was worn in the winter, lighter clothing in the summer.


title: Sumer

text: Men were bare-chested and wore skirt-like clothes that tied at the waist. Women usually wore dresses that covered them from their shoulders to their ankles. The right arm and shoulder were left uncovered. Men were either clean shaven or had long hair and beards. Women wore their hair long, but they usually braided it and wrapped it around their heads. When entertaining guests, women placed headdresses in their hair.


title: Sumer

text: Although both rich and poor Sumerians wore the same style of clothing, the richer Sumerians wore clothing that was made out of expensive and luxurious materials. Rich women and princesses also wore clothing that was colorful and bright.


title: Sumer

text: Both men and women wore earrings and necklaces. During celebrations, even more jewelry was worn. The wealthier Sumerians often wore beautiful gold and silver bracelets and earrings. Sumerians also wore necklaces with bright, precious stones. Some of these stones were lapis lazuli and carnelian.


title: Khloé Kardashian

text: Khloé Alexandra Kardashian (born June 27, 1984) is an American television personality. She is the sister of Kim and Kourtney Kardashian. Kardashian is the daughter of Kris and Robert Kardashian Sr., who is known for representing O. J. Simpson during his infamous 1995 trial. She has one younger brother, Rob Kardashian Jr. She has had her own reality television series, "Kourtney and Khloé Take Miami" and "Khloé & Lamar". She and her sisters own the fashion store DASH and formerly owned the children's store Smooch, both run by her family.


title: Khloé Kardashian

text: In 2017, calling herself the "fat, funny sister" during her childhood, Kardashian introduced the new E! TV series "Revenge Body with Khloé Kardashian", focused on helping contestants lose weight and improve physically and mentally over 12 weeks before making a reveal of their new body. The show was picked up for a second season.


title: Khloé Kardashian

text: Kardashian married Los Angeles Lakers basketball player Lamar Odom in 2009. She filed for divorce in December 2013, and it was finalized in 2016. She previously dated NBA player James Harden and music producer French Montana.


title: Khloé Kardashian

text: Kardashian was in an on-off relationship with Canadian basketball player Tristan Thompson. On September 26, 2017, it was revealed that they are expecting a child together. This announcement came after Kardashian's half-sister Kylie Jenner announced her own pregnancy with rapper Travis Scott.


title: Khloé Kardashian

text: On April 12, 2018, Kardashian gave birth to her first child (and Thompson's second), a daughter named True Thompson. In 2022, Kardashian and Thompson welcomed a son via surrogacy.


title: Voltaire

text: François-Marie Arouet (also known as Voltaire) was a French philosopher. He was born in 1694 and grew up in Poitou. He died in Paris in 1778.


title: Voltaire

text: Voltaire did not like France at the time because he thought that it was old fashioned. He also did not like the Church and thought that people should be allowed to believe what they want. However he did not like democracy either and thought that a country needed to be led by a wise and strong king. Voltaire had to live in exile in England for three years from 1726 to 1729 where these ideas were more common. He liked the philosophy of John Locke.


title: Voltaire

text: Voltaire was also a writer. He wrote many books, poems and plays, some of which are still liked today. A lot of his work was against France and the Church. This meant that he was unpopular at first but became more popular towards the time of the French Revolution. He also studied science and wrote a lot about people and places he knew. His writings later led to the Terror of the French revolution, where there was no liberty and the population was condemned on a whim of the political leaders.


title: Voltaire

text: Voltaire believed in a God but did not believe in a God personally involved in people's lives, like the Christian God. This is called Deism. When he died in Paris, Voltaire was not allowed to be buried in a church because he did not believe in the Christian God.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: Matilda is a classic children’s novel by author Roald Dahl, published in 1998 by Jonathan Cape and adapted into a movie in 1996. The story is about a brilliant nine-year-old girl with extraordinary powers, who uses her genius to take revenge on her abusive parents, and later to fight back against the tyrannical principal of her school. The majority of the novel focuses on the latter half of her story.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: Matilda is born to Mr. and Mrs. Wormwood, two willfully cruel, neglectful, simple-minded, and selfish parents that revel in tyranny and resent their daughter’s intelligence, abusing her when not ignoring her. Matilda is raised by the books she reads, and survives by cleverly plotting pranks on her parents they can’t trace back to her.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: Matilda’s first day of school is when she first meets her teacher, Miss Jennifer Honey, a maternal figure whom she forms a close bond with. Miss Honey recognizes Matilda is a prodigy, but is unable to place her in a higher class due to the orders of the school headmistress and main antagonist, Miss Agatha Trunchbull. The only reason Miss Trunchbull refuses to move Matilda up is her disdain for young girls and refusal to acknowledge any child’s brightness.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: Miss Trunchbull, Matilda learns, is a tyrant of a headmistress who attacks and punishes the students and faculty at any excuse, and her behavior is so extreme that no parents will believe anything their children tell them about her. Matilda and her friends are treated to an example of this when they see Miss Trunchbull target a girl on the playground, telling her that her pigtails are disgusting to look at and she’d better chop them off by tomorrow. When the girl protests that her mother likes them, Miss Trunchbull grabs her by her braids, lifts her into the air, begins whirling her around like a discus, then throws her far into the air and over the schoolyard fence.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: Miss Honey’s class is soon given a routine visit by the headmistress, who comes to test the children on their knowledge. Miss Trunchbull singles out Matilda, having heard terrible things about the girl from her parents, and grows slowly frustrated by the fact that Matilda is unshaken and can correctly answer every question the headmistress asks. Then, when attempting to pour a glass of water for herself, Miss Trunchbull suddenly discovers a newt some student snuck into her pitcher, and instantly blames Matilda, threatening to expel her. Matilda is shouted down when she tries to argue, and, simmering with silent fury, stares at the glass with the newt still inside, wishing with all her might for it to tip over and spill onto the headmistress. The glass does appear to move slightly, so Matilda concentrates harder. The glass tips all the way over and the water and newt fly onto Miss Trunchbull, who howls with fear and fury. She tries to blame Matilda again, but the class suddenly rises against her, shouting that Matilda never moved or even got up. Miss Trunchbull shouts back that she is fed up with the lot of them and storms angrily out of the classroom.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: Matilda, stunned by her newly discovered powers, immediately tries to explain it to Miss Honey. Miss Honey doesn’t believe her at first, but when Matilda succeeds in proving it by repeating the trick, Miss Honey is almost too stunned to speak. She eventually suggests that Matilda go home with her after school to discuss this, and Matilda eagerly agrees.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: When the two arrive at Miss Honey’s house, Matilda is taken aback by how small and poor the residence is. Miss Honey is coaxed into revealing that Miss Trunchbull is the cause of her poverty. Miss Trunchbull is revealed to be Miss Honey’s aunt, who took charge of Miss Honey as a young girl after her father died. Miss Honey’s father’s will was mysteriously lost, so Miss Trunchbull was named the owner of his and Miss Honey’s house and inheritance. Miss Trunchbull forced Miss Honey to live like a slave in her own home as a child. When Miss Honey came of age, Miss Trunchbull forced her to sign over half of all her wages to Miss Trunchbull, causing Miss Honey to have to live with barely enough money to buy groceries. Miss Honey finally managed to find a place of her own that would allow her to pay a very cheap rent, but the house is tiny and has no furniture or bed, and she is forced to go without food for most of her day to pay for it all.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: Miss Honey tells Matilda that she shouldn’t worry about her and tries to reassure her that she is really managing all right, but Matilda becomes determined to find a way to save Miss Honey from the situation. When she goes home, she practices every day with her mysterious mental powers, slowly getting better at making more and more things move on their own by sitting still and concentrating, and preparing a plan.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: When Miss Trunchbull returns to the class for another testing, Matilda enacts her plan right in the middle of one of Miss Trunchbull’s punishments, stopping her dead in her tracks. A piece of chalk, with Matilda’s help, is writing a threatening message to Miss Trunchbull on the board, a message that appears to be from Miss Honey’s dead father. The message tells Miss Trunchbull to give Miss Honey back her house and her wages, or Miss Honey’s father will come for her. Miss Trunchbull goes white, faints on the spot, and has to be carried to the sick-room by school officials. The class never hears from her again, because Miss Trunchbull never comes back to school. Miss Honey later tells Matilda that her father’s will was found, declaring her the owner of his house, and that Miss Trunchbull had signed Miss Honey’s wages back to her before disappearing mysteriously.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: Matilda is moved into a higher class, and Miss Trunchbull is eventually replaced as headmistress. Matilda is happy with the challenge, but soon finds that she’s lost the power to move things with her mind. Miss Honey guesses that the cause could be that Matilda had nothing to use the strength of her mind on when stuck in a first grade class, which allowed her to use that extra mental power to move objects. But now that Matilda’s brilliant mind is being challenged every day in her new class, she has no extra power left over to affect the physical world.


title: Matilda (novel)

text: In the last chapter, Matilda finds her parents and younger brother hurriedly packing their things. Mr. Wormwood tells Matilda that he’s been caught by the police for scamming people by selling broken cars, and that they have to move immediately. Matilda flies to Miss Honey’s house, begging her to adopt her instead so they can stay together. Miss Honey runs to ask Matilda’s parents for permission, and the Wormwoods both agree, carelessly. The story ends with Matilda jumping into Miss Honey’s arms as they watch the Wormwoods’ car drive off and disappear forever into the distance.


title: Police officer

text: A police officer is a serving member of a police force. Police officers arrest criminals, prevent crime, protect and help the public, and keep public order. Officers have legally authorised powers, which in Britain is called a "warrant".


title: Police officer

text: A police officer's job is to protect the public, make sure people obey the law and make people feel safe. Not all police officers wear a uniform and patrol. Some police officers have specialist jobs, such as being a detective, a traffic officer or a police dog handler. In some countries, not all police carry guns, so a police officer could choose to become an armed police officer after a lot of experience.


title: Police officer

text: As a part of their job, police officers have rights that other people do not have. This might include the power to arrest a person who they think has committed a crime, the power to search a person, the power to stop cars and direct traffic, the power to ask for a person's name and address, the power to give out tickets or fines or the power to make a person come to court. Without these powers the police would not be able to gain any sort of control over society.


title: Police officer

text: Being a police officer can be dangerous. Police officers are sometimes killed or hurt by criminals when they are sent to incidents, so that is why the police have to carry the equipment needed to defend themselves. Police officers have the right to carry weapons, such as a gun or a baton in order to stop crime even if the weapon laws are strict and limited to the general public.


title: Police officer

text: In different countries, police officers are given different equipment to deal with the crime that is in their country. Police officers are armed with weapons that they can use to defend themselves or other people that need help. Most police officers carry these things:


title: Police officer

text: Police officers have to patrol and respond to emergencies as quickly as possible. Some police officers will walk on foot patrol, but often police officers will patrol in a police car. This is so that they can get to emergencies faster and carry more equipment. Sometimes officers patrol on bicycles, motorbikes or on horses if they are in a unit that does this.


title: Month

text: A month is an amount of time used with calendars. It is about 1/12th of a year. It is a little longer than a natural synodic orbital period of the moon, ca. 29.5 days. Lunar calendars use the natural synodic month. For some purposes astronomers use the sidereal month of 27.3 days.


title: Month

text: Other calendars, called "solar calendars", ignore the moon, and depend entirely on the Sun — for example, the Gregorian calendar of 365 or 366 days (12 months) used in much of the world today.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa () is a province in northwest Pakistan. The capital is Peshawar and it has a population of 14 million people and an area of 28,773 mi² or (74,521 km²). The province was created in 1901 during British rule when it was separated from a Punjab province of the British India Empire. A referendum was held in the North West Frontier Province on 2 July 1947. The majority of voters wanted to join with Pakistan, with only a very small number voting to join with India. The province became a part of Pakistan, because of this referendum.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is divided into 26 districts. There are 21 Settled Area Districts and 5 Provincially Administered Tribal Areas (PATA) Districts. The administration of the PATA districts is the responsibility the President of Pakistan and the Governor of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: For over a hundred years from its founding as a province of British India in 1901, it was known as the North-West Frontier Province. Afghania is another name long considered as a replacement for North-West Frontier Province. It was proposed first by the founding leaders of the Muslim League in 1933 and was at least partly chosen to represent the first "a" in "Pakistan. In 2010 it was renamed.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: "Pakhtunkhwa" (and the other transliteration variants) is derived from "Pakhtun" and "khwa", the former refers to the ethnic group and the latter literally means "heart".


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa sits primarily on the Iranian plateau and comprises the junction where the slopes of the Hindu Kush mountains on the Eurasian plate give way to the Indus-watered hills approaching South-central Asia. This situation has led to seismic activity in the past. The famous Khyber Pass links the province to Afghanistan, while the Kohalla Bridge in Circle Bakote Abbottabad is a major crossing point over the Jhelum River in the east.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: The province has an area of 28,773 mi² or (74,521 km²) — comparable in size to New England in North America.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: Peshawar, Mardan, Kohat, Abbottabad, Dera Ismail Khan and Hangu are the main cities. It borders on Afghanistan.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: The region varies in topography from dry rocky areas in the south to forests and green plains in the north. The climate can be extreme with intensely hot summers to freezing cold winters. Despite these extremes in weather, agriculture remains important and viable in the area.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: The hilly terrain of Kalam, Upper Dir, Swat, Naran and Kaghan is renowned for its beauty and attracts a great many tourists from neighboring regions and from around the world. Swat is popular among tourists as the "Switzerland of South Asia" as there are many landscape similarities between it and the mountainous terrain of Switzerland.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: Geographically the province could be divided into two zones: the northern one extending from the ranges of the Hindu Kush to the borders of Peshawar basin and the southern one extending from Peshawar to the Derajat basin.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: The northern zone is cold and snowy in winters with heavy rainfall and pleasant summers with the exception of Peshawar basin, which is hot in summer and cold in winter. It has moderate rainfall. The southern zone is arid with hot summers and relatively cold winters and scanty rainfall.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: The major rivers that cross through the province are the Kabul, Swat, Chitral, Kunar, Siran, Panjgora, Bara, Kurram, Dor, Haroo, Gomal and Zhob.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: According to the 1998 census, the population of the province was approximately 17 million, of whom 52% are males and 48% are females. The density of population is 187 per km² and the intercensal change of population is of about 30%.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: In KPK about 67% of the people are Pashtuns and they speak Pashto as a regional language. Other widely spoken languages are Erina, Kalami, Khowar, Kohistani, and Yidgha. Urdu is understood by majority of the people.


title: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

text: The President of Pakistan appoints a Governor as head of the provincial government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. There is a directly-elected Provincial Assembly, which has 124 elected members (including 22 seats reserved for women and 3 seats for non-Muslims). The Provincial Assembly elects a Chief Minister to act as the chief executive of the province, assisted by a cabinet of ministers.


title: Absolute zero

text: Absolute zero is the temperature at which the particles of matter (molecules and atoms) are at their lowest energy points. Some might think that at absolute zero particles lose all energy and stop moving. This is not correct. In quantum physics there is something called zero point energy, which means that even after all the energy from particles has been removed, the particles still have some energy. This is due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which states that the more that is known about a particle's position, the less that can be known about its momentum, and vice versa. Therefore, a particle cannot be completely stopped because then its exact position and momentum would be known.


title: Absolute zero

text: Some people have created temperatures very close to absolute zero: the record temperature was 100 pK (one hundred picokelvin, equal to 10 kelvin) above absolute zero. Even getting close to absolute zero is difficult because anything that touches an object being cooled near absolute zero would give heat to the objects. Scientists use lasers to slow atoms when cooling objects to very low temperatures.


title: Absolute zero

text: The kelvin and Rankine temperature scales are defined so that absolute zero is 0 kelvin (K) or 0 degrees Rankine (°R). The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are defined so that absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F.


title: Absolute zero

text: At this stage the pressure of the particles is zero. If we plot a graph to it, we can see that the temperature of the particles is zero. The temperature cannot go down any further. Also, the particles cannot move in "reverse" either because as the movement of particles is vibration, vibrating in reverse would be nothing but simply vibrating again. The closer the temperature of an object gets to absolute zero, the less resistive the material is to electricity therefore it will conduct electricity almost perfectly, with no measurable resistance.


title: Absolute zero

text: The Second Law of Thermodynamics says that all engines that are powered by heat (like car engines and steam train engines) must release waste heat and can not be 100% efficient. This is because the efficiency (percent of energy the engine uses up that is actually used to do the engine's job) is 100%×(1-T/T), which only is 100% if the outside temperature is absolute zero which it cannot be. So, an engine cannot be 100% efficient, but you can make its efficiency closer to 100% by making the inside temperature hotter and/or the outside temperature colder.


title: DJ Khaled

text: Khaled Mohammed Khaled (born 26 November 1975), known professionally as DJ Khaled, is an American DJ, record producer, record executive and author. Born in New Orleans, Louisiana, he is a member of the hip hop group Terror Squad. He released his first album "Listennn... the Album" in June 2006. He has worked with other artists like Birdman, Jay-Z, Jeremih, Lil Wayne, and Rick Ross.


title: DJ Khaled

text: He was a radio host on the radio station 99 Jamz in the 1990s before becoming a DJ and producer for Terror Squad.


title: Strasbourg

text: Strasbourg is a city in eastern France, the prefecture of Grand Est. Today, about 275,000 people live there (with around 780,000 in the metropolitan area). It lies on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite the German city of Kehl.


title: Strasbourg

text: Strasbourg is the seat Council of Europe, of the European Court of Human Rights and of the European Parliament. A lot of people also consider Strasbourg to be the capital of the European Union.


title: Strasbourg

text: The city was founded in 12 BC by Drusus, the brother of Tiberius. Its Celtic name was "Argentorate" (which the Romans called "Argentoratum"). People think this name is linked to the river Ill (that flows into the Rhine near Strasbourg).


title: Strasbourg

text: At that time, it was on the Limes, a fortification the Romans built across Europe (to keep out the Germanic tribes). There was a fortification (named "castella drusi", "drusus fort") at that spot. Soldiers need to live from something, so a local civilian settlement developed there. Later, the Limes was pushed farther east.


title: Mumtaz Mahal

text: Arjumand Banu Begum (also called Mumtaz Mahal) was the second wife of Shah Jahan, the Mughal emperor. Mumtaz Mahal (meaning "Jewel of the palace" in Persian) was the nickname her husband gave to her.


title: Mumtaz Mahal

text: Mumtaz Mahal was born in April 1593 in Agra, India. Her father was the Persian noble Abdul Hasan Asaf Khan, the brother of Nur Jahan, the Mughal Empress wife of Jahangir.


title: Mumtaz Mahal

text: Mumtaz betrothed (nikah) with shah jahan at the age of 14 in 1607 when Shah Jahan was 15, Shah Jahan, later married two other women.May 10, 1612 at the age of 19 the official marriage ceremony was held.


title: Mumtaz Mahal

text: Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal were married for 19 years. They had thirteen children together. 7 of the children died at birth or at a very young age. Mumtaz travelled with Shah Jahan and his army as he carried out military campaigns. Mumtaz Mahal supported Shah Jahan and they respected each other very much. Mumtaz Mahal died on June 17, 1631 in Burhanpur in the Deccan (now in Madhya Pradesh) during the birth of their fourteenth child, a daughter named Gauhara Begum.


title: Mumtaz Mahal

text: She had been with her husband as he was fighting a campaign in the Deccan Plateau. Her body was kept at Burhanpur in a walled pleasure garden known as Zainabad. A popular story says that on her deathbed, her last wish to the emperor was for a symbol or a monument to their love. She also asked her husband not to marry anyone else. The emperor promised immediately. Her body was buried in the Taj Mahal in Agra. It is also belived that Mumtaz Mahal died, aged 40, while giving birth to Gauhara Begum in Burhanpur, the cause of death being Postpartum hemorrhage, which caused considerable blood-loss after a painful labour of thirty hours. Contemporary historians note that Princess Jahanara, aged 17, was so distressed by her mother's pain that she started distributing gems to the poor, hoping for divine intervention and Shah Jahan, himself, was noted as being "paralysed by grief" and weeping fits.


title: Mumtaz Mahal

text: After she died, Shah Jahan went into mourning for 2 years. When he appeared again, his hair had turned white, his back was bent, and his face worn. Jahan's eldest daughter, Jahanara Begum, slowly brought him out of mourning and took the place of Mumtaz at court.


title: Calabarzon

text: Calabarzon is an administrative region in the Philippines. It is also known as Southern Tagalog Mainland or Region IV-A. It is on Luzon island. The capital is Calamba.


title: Calabarzon

text: The region has five provinces: Cavite, Laguna, Batangas, Rizal, and Quezon. There is also one independent city: Lucena.


title: Old age

text: Old age is when a person is near or beyond the usual life expectancy, usually from the age of 65 onwards. Old people are usually retired from work and spend their time in other ways like helping take care of small children who are kin to them in some way. Often people of old age have wrinkly skin. They will move slower, and become constantly cold.


title: Old age

text: Old people have more health problems than young adults, and many of them take medicine. The reason for this is that their bodies are slowly deteriorating, so they have more problems, especially with moving. Osteoporosis weakens the bones, and is one of the problems that become more common with age. Others include blindness and deafness. Gerontology is the part of medicine that deals with these things.


title: Old age

text: Old people are also called "senior citizens" or "elders". Elders are considered to be wise because they have had much experience in their long lives. Many cultures view elders with respect and kindness, and depend upon them to pass down knowledge to the younger generations of people.


title: Pond

text: A pond is a body of water smaller than a lake. Ponds support wide range of wildlife: ducks, turtles, swans, small fish, and frogs can live in a pond. Usually, in most ponds sunlight can reach to bottom. In some cases ponds do not last all year round. This type of pond is called a vernal pond, or ephemeral, seasonal, or temporary wetlands. These types of ponds do not have any fish. Some ponds are now getting polluted because of humans.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Ancient Roman culture grew through the almost 1200 years of Rome's civilization. The Romans conquered many people and brought back from their wars many things from each land. Their way of life was a mix of many cultures, influences, and religions. Starting in the 2nd century BC, Greek influence became very important. Architecture, painting, sculpture, laws, and literature grew to a high level. Slaves, and Christians were treated differently by different rulers. Rome was a trading nation which kept military control over a wide range of peoples, mostly around the Mediterranean.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: There were four classes of people in Rome: the aristocrats, the equestrians, the common citizens, and the slaves. The aristocrat class had about 300 families, mostly senators. The aristocrat class was very powerful. The equestrians or “equites” were merchants, government builders, and bankers who were usually less rich. The common citizens were farmers, industrial workers, and the city mob. Slaves had to work hard and were usually released when they became old. Some slaves were trained to be gladiators for people to watch. Other slaves worked in rich homes as doorkeepers, litter-bearers, messengers, or servants. Some Greek slaves were teachers who taught their language, or doctors.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: At the time of the birth of Jesus, the Roman Empire ruled the entire Mediterranean area. Jesus taught to worship God only. Because Christians worshiped only God and did not join in the festivals to other gods, Romans thought they were unpatriotic. Many Christians were crucified. Romans persecuted them for many years. Sometimes they were killed by animals for a show.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: However, Christianity still spread in the Roman Empire. A great change took place when Constantine I became emperor. He moved the capital of the empire to Byzantium, converted to Christianity, and protected Christians from harm. Many Romans continued to worship the old gods.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: In the Imperial Age, the poorer Roman houses were built of sun-dried brick. These houses only had one room. In this one room the family slept, ate, and had visitors. Richer people had mansions. Statues and paintings were shown. Small rooms were used as living and dining places. In the center there was a court with a garden. It was decorated with fountains, plants, and flowers. Floors were often made of mosaics, tiles, or marble with lots of different colors. Some walls were painted. Dishes were made of pottery or glass. There was plumbing in some houses and in the public baths, and a sewer system was used. Hot air warmed the house from a heating system. Many rich Romans had two houses, one in the town and one in the country.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Poor people lived in buildings where the top floors were for the poorest. Sometimes they could have as many as 200 steps to reach them. Many fires happened. Buckets of water were used to put out fires, though many times it did not work.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Poor people ate vegetables, fish, salt, cheese, fruits, nuts, and olive oil. Meat, especially beef, was usually not eaten. Breakfast was usually not eaten and, for lunch, leftovers were used. Rich people ate dinner before four in the afternoon. They usually ate from three to ten hours. Hands were washed between the courses. One emperor served 22 courses at his dinner parties. If visitors were invited to dinner, slaves were sent to bring them on time, because water clocks did not always work the same. People enjoyed eating grapes for dessert. At first, cold clams and oysters were eaten for dessert, but later people ate them at the beginning of a meal instead.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The public baths were used not only for bathing. Besides the hot water rooms and cold water rooms, there were gardens, stadiums, art galleries, libraries, and places to eat. There were even underground passageways to get to places more easily. Aqueducts fed water for the baths. They were so well built that some are still used.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The Romans were very proud of their aqueducts. They thought they were better than the "useless" Egyptian pyramids. They also used these for drinking water.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Big ships called "quinqueremes" had 300 people to row with oars. They could travel 100 miles (160 km) a day. Trade paths were protected from pirates. Many ships carried food; others carried pearls, pepper, cotton, cinnamon, and silk. A pound of silk, at that time, cost a pound of gold.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The native language of the Romans was Latin. Its alphabet was based on the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet. The Romans wrote plays. The Romans were usually practical, and kept the Grecian culture alive.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The surviving Latin literature is in Classical Latin from the 1st century BC. The spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation. Out of Latin came Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Italian. Latin was used for medicine and science words.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire. Greek became the language spoken by the well-educated elite, because most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. Roman literature was much influenced by Greek literature. Some of the best known examples are the "Aeneid" by Virgil, Plutarch's "Lives of Famous Men", and "Odes" by Horace.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the Byzantine Empire, Latin did not replace Greek at all. After the death of Justinian, Greek became the official language of the Byzantine government. The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe. Vulgar Latin evolved into dialects in different locations, gradually changing into the distinct Romance languages.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The Romans built great roads and bridges. Many of the aqueducts they made are still there and used. Rome also had the first hospitals in the Western World. They also had the first system of state medicine for poor people. Their buildings were decorated by mosaics on the floors, and mural paintings done directly on the walls.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: The Romans' music was an important part of their lives. Song (known as "carmen") was part of almost every social occasion. Music accompanied spectacles and events in the arena. It was part of the performing arts form called "pantomimus", an early form of story ballet that combined expressive dancing, instrumental music and a sung libretto.


title: Culture of ancient Rome

text: They were influenced by Etruscan and Greek music. What the Romans sang simply followed the natural melody of the song..


title: Union councils of Pakistan

text: A Union Council or Village Council in Pakistan is an elected local government body that has 21 councillors. They are elected by the people. Each Union Council is headed by a Nazim, which is similar to a mayor, and a Naib Nazim (similar to a deputy mayor).


title: Union councils of Pakistan

text: Union Councils are the fifth level (the lowest level) of government in Pakistan. Union Councils are often known as "Village Councils" in rural areas, the area represented by a Village Council usually comprises a large village and surrounding areas, often including nearby small villages. The term "Union Council" may be used for areas that are part of cities.


title: Union councils of Pakistan

text: Each Union Council is governed by a Union Nazim (similar to a mayor), each union council has 13 elected members known as councillors. As well as four male and two female members elected directly, there are two male and two female representatives of the labour, a minority member, a Union Nazim and his deputy known as Union Naib Nazim.


title: Union councils of Pakistan

text: Also as well as the elected members, there are several government employees and functionaries in every union council, who report to the Secretary of the Union Council. The last one is a civil servant appointed by the state.


title: Union councils of Pakistan

text: The territory of a Union Council or Village Council is usually part of a tehsil, (a tehsil is a district subdivision). Less commonly, a Union Council may be part of a City District.


title: Sandwich

text: A sandwich is a food prepared by placing different kinds of foods between two pieces of bread. The pieces of bread in a sandwich are referred to as slices or sheets of bread. Between the slices of bread, people often add in vegetables, meat, or cheese. The sandwich is thought to have been made first for the Earl of Sandwich, hence the name.


title: Sandwich

text: Many people enjoy the sandwich as it is easy and quick to make in a hurry. Also, the sandwich can be easily eaten with one hand without utensils which allows consumers to have a hand free to do other things. Some people prefer to eat a sandwich with both hands.


title: Sandwich

text: In many countries, children eat sandwiches for lunch at school. The sandwiches are put in a lunchbox and often wrapped in cling film to keep them fresh.


title: Sandwich

text: A sandwich is not limited to a single layer of filling between two pieces of bread. It can have more than one layer of filling and bread. Each layer of filling is commonly referred to as a "deck". For instance, a single decker sandwich would be the standard two slices of bread and one layer of filling. A double decker sandwich will have three slices of bread with two layers of fillings. Generally one piece, is one piece of bread cut in two with a filling between each piece.


title: Sandwich

text: The double decker sandwich is so called because each layer of filling forms a deck, much like a double decker bus. A club sandwich is a double decker sandwich with chicken, bacon and salad. A triple decker sandwich would consist of four slices of bread with three layers of fillings. The BLT is a common type of sandwich filled with bacon, lettuce and tomato.


title: Sandwich

text: If there is only one piece of bread it is sometimes called an open sandwich. Open sandwiches are very common in Scandinavian countries, e.g. in Denmark "smørrebrød" is an open sandwich.


title: Sandwich

text: Another form of sandwich is the toasted sandwich. The toasted sandwich can be made from slices of toast instead of bread or the sandwich is toasted whole in an oven or a sandwich presser.


title: Sandwich

text: Sandwiches made with different types of bread might be given unique names. A panini, for example, is usually a sandwich on a small roll or loaf which is pressed between two heavy, heated grill plates. Sandwiches are commonly made of white bread, brown bread or French bread, but can also be made of other types (e.g. a panini uses ciabatta).


title: Sandwich

text: Sandwiches can also be called by many other names in different parts of the world such as 'grinder', 'sub', 'hoagie' and 'wedge'.


title: Sandwich

text: In one episode of "The Apprentice", the apprentices were required to make sandwiches for Donald Trump.


title: Sandwich

text: In the French film "Taxi" the protagonist is made a special sandwich with half Bayonne ham, half Paris. This later sparks the jealousy of another character.


title: Sandwich

text: In the Warner Brothers cartoon "Scooby Doo", Scooby was well known to love making sandwiches with Shaggy having many layers, often with a great variety of fillings.


title: Sandwich

text: In the television series "Buffy", during episode 61, Buffy eyes a classmate eating a sandwich, snatches it and hungrily scarfs it down.


title: Sandwich

text: In the television series "Star Trek", Scotty used the word sandwich to refer to the makeup of a piece of technology which was made of three layers of two materials, which caused the food synthesizer in the galley of the USS Enterprise to believe that he was requesting a meal. Scotty canceled the process by kicking the offending unit.


title: Sandwich

text: The largest sandwich ever made was made by Wild Woody's Chill and Grill, Roseville, Michigan. It weighed 5,440 lbs.


title: Angela Merkel

text: Angela Dorothea Merkel (born "Angela Dorothea Kasner" on 17 July 1954 in Hamburg) is a German politician, and was Chancellor of Germany from 22 November 2005 to 8 December 2021.


title: Angela Merkel

text: She was born in Hamburg, at the time part of West Germany, and grew up in the former German Democratic Republic, where she lived until the reuniting of Germany in 1990. Merkel is now married to Joachim Sauer, a professor of chemistry. From 2000 to 2018, she was the chairperson (was in charge of) the German conservative party, the Christian Democratic Union of Germany (CDU).


title: Angela Merkel

text: Merkel became Germany's first female chancellor on 22 November 2005 in a coalition of the two biggest German political parties, the CDU/CSU and SPD. After the next election in 2009, she formed a coalition with the German liberal party FDP. After the 2013 and 2017 Federal Elections, she again emerged as chancellor of a coalition government.


title: Angela Merkel

text: Her father was a Lutheran pastor and her mother was a school teacher. Before becoming a politician, she worked as a researcher in Physical Chemistry. In December 2015, she was named as "Time" magazine's Person of the Year.


title: Angela Merkel

text: In October 2018, Merkel announced her permanent retirement from politics, as she said she would not seek reelection as leader of the CDU at the party convention in December 2018 and as Chancellor in 2021. After this, another female politician, Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer, replaced her as CDU leader.


title: Penicillin

text: Penicillin is a group of common antibiotic, used to treat bacterial infections. It was one of the first to be discovered, and worked well against staphylococci and streptococci. Many strains of bacteria are now resistant. Chemists keep changing part of its structure in the effort to keep it working against the bacteria.


title: Penicillin

text: Penicillin was discovered by Scottish scientist Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928, but it was not mass-produced until 1940. The antibiotic is naturally produced by fungi of the genus "Penicillium". There is now a whole group of antibiotics derived from "Penicillium" including penicillin G, procaine penicillin, benzathine penicillin, and penicillin V.


title: Penicillin

text: Penicillin is sometimes used to treat syphilis, tonsillitis, meningitis, and pneumonia as well as other diseases. It was first used widely during World War II.


title: Penicillin

text: Penicillin was discovered when Fleming noticed a mold that was stopping bacteria from growing in a petri dish. Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey made the penicillin mold into a medicine. Together with another scientist Ernst Boris Chain, Fleming and Florey were given the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1945.


title: Penicillin

text: Some people are allergic to penicillin. Symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, or rash. Rarely, patients who are allergic to penicillin get a fever, vomit, or have serious skin irritation. Because it is such a popular antibiotic, penicillin is the most common cause of serious allergic reactions to a drug. They are now used regularly in hospitals.


title: Penicillin

text: Chemist John C. Sheehan at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) did the first chemical synthesis of penicillin in 1957.


title: Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum

text: Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum (; ; born 15 July 1949) was the acting President of the United Arab Emirates, Vice President and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and ruler of the Emirate of Dubai.


title: Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum

text: He is responsible for the growth of Dubai into a global city, as well as the launch of a number of major enterprises including Emirates Airline, DP World, and the Jumeirah Group. Many of these are held by Dubai Holding, a company with multi-diversified businesses and investments. Sheikh Mohammed has overseen the development of numerous projects in Dubai including the creation of a technology park and a free economic zone, Dubai Internet City, Dubai Media City, the Dubai International Finance Centre, the Palm Islands and the Burj Al Arab hotel. He also drove the construction of Burj Khalifa, the tallest building in the world.


title: Mudskipper

text: Mudskippers are a type of fish. They are part of a fish family known as the gobies. They are amphibious fish: they can use their pectoral fins to "walk" on land. They are adapted to intertidal habitats. These are places where the tide of the ocean comes in and out. Most fish that live in these habitats hide under wet seaweed or in tidal pools to stay moist or wet when the tide goes out. Mudskippers are active when they are out of the water. They eat and interact with each other. They defend their territories.


title: Mudskipper

text: Mudskippers are found in places that are tropical, subtropical and temperate. They live near the shores of in the Indo-Pacific and the Atlantic coast of Africa.


title: Mudskipper

text: Mudskippers are different from their relatives, the gobies, in many ways. Gobies live only in the sea, but mudskippers live both on land and in water. They have made many adaptations to live on the land. These include:


title: Mudskipper

text: This way of breathing is like how amphibians breathe. It is known as cutaneous air breathing. Another important adaptation that helps breathing while out of the water are their enlarged gill chambers. They keep a bubble of air there. These large gill chambers close tightly when the fish is above water. This keeps the gills moist and lets them to function. They act like a scuba diver's cylinders. They give oxygen for breathing also while on land.


title: Mudskipper

text: Even when their burrow is underwater, mudskippers have an air pocket inside it. This lets them to breathe where there is little oxygen in the water.


title: Mudskipper

text: The genus (a group of closely related species) "Periophthalmus" is by far the most diverse and widespread group of mudskipper. There are eighteen different types. "Periophthalmus argentilineatus" is one of the most widespread and well known species. It can be found in mangrove ecosystems and mudflats of East Africa and Madagascar east through the Sundarbans of Bengal, South East Asia to northern Australia, southeast China and southern Japan, up to Samoa and Tonga Islands.


title: Mudskipper

text: It grows to a length of about 9.5 cm and is a carnivorous opportunist feeder, which means it will eat anything it comes upon. It feeds on small prey such as small crabs and other arthropods. Another species, "Periophthalmus barbarus", is the only goby that lives in the coastal areas of western Africa.


title: Everton F.C.

text: Everton Football Club are an English football club from the city of Liverpool. The club currently competes in the Premier League and have played more seasons in the top league of English football than any other team.


title: Everton F.C.

text: Everton were founded in 1878. They have a long rivalry with Liverpool, mostly because both clubs have their home grounds in the same city. When they play each other, the match is known as the "Merseyside derby".


title: Everton F.C.

text: In the 1890s Everton played at Anfield, which later became Liverpool's stadium. However, the owner of the stadium increased the rent by a lot, so the club decided to stop paying and leave and build their own instead. Everton were then moved to a new stadium called Goodison Park.


title: Everton F.C.

text: Everton started out in 1878 with the name St Domingo's FC. At first it was only for people who went to St Domingo's church, but so many people were interested they let people from the local area join as well. A year later the club was renamed Everton Football Club, after the area. Everton's first ever match was against a team called St Peter's in 1879. Everton won 6-0.


title: Everton F.C.

text: Everton entered the FA Cup in the 1886/87 season. They were beaten 1-0 by Rangers in the first round. As football became more and more popular around England, the clubs realised they needed an organised league. In 1888 the Football League was founded. Everton were one of the 12 founding members. Preston North End won the first two leagues and Everton won the third in 1891. They won their second ever trophy, the FA Cup, in 1905 but did not win another until 1916. It was not until 1927 that Everton had their first period of long success. In 1925 they signed Dixie Dean and in 1927 he scored 60 goals in 39 games, setting a new world record and taking Everton to another league title. Everton were relegated to the second division in 1930/1931. Within a year they were promoted again, and remained in the first division until they were relegated again in 1950/51 (which resulted in three seasons in the second tier). This makes them the English football team with the second most consecutive seasons in the top league of English football, behind Arsenal who have been in the top flight continuously since 1919/20.


title: Everton F.C.

text: Everton's second successful period came after 1961 when Harry Catterick was appointed manager. With Catterick in charge Everton won two league titles and four cups between 1961 and 1970. This success did not last however, and after three years of low league finishes Catterick quit his job. The club finished in mid-table positions for the rest of the 1970s with a line of unsuccessful managers. In 1981 the club appointed Howard Kendall to be the new manager. He turned Everton around and eventually became the most successful manager in the clubs history, winning two league titles and three cups between 1981 and 1987. This era also brought Everton's one and only European title, the Cup Winners Cup in 1985. They won the final 3-1 against Rapid Vienna of Austria. The semi final saw Everton beat German champions Bayern Munich 3-1, a match voted the greatest of all time at Goodison Park.


title: Everton F.C.

text: In 1985 several Liverpool and Juventus fans died when the crowd started fighting at a stadium in Heysel, Belgium. UEFA decided that Liverpool fans were mainly to blame. Because of this all English clubs were not allowed to play against European teams until 1991. This denied Everton the chance to defend their European title and the team gradually broke up. Many of their best players left to other European clubs.


title: Everton F.C.

text: The club did not do very well in the early 90s. They nearly got relegated twice and went through lots of money problems. However they still became one of the first members of the new English Premier League when it started in 1992. They were quite successful under manager Joe Royle, who took over in 1994. In his second season in charge he kept Everton clear of relegation and won the FA cup, the club's first trophy in seven years. The club had steady improvement under Royle, finishing 6th and 7th in the 1996 and 1997 seasons.


title: Everton F.C.

text: After two seasons however the club's performance went downhill and Kendall was sacked after barely avoiding relegation in the 1998-99 season. Former player Walter Smith took over for three seasons, but failed to perform well. He spent a lot of money on players but didn't lead the team to good league positions. David Moyes took over in 2002 and has been one of the club's most successful managers to date. Under his management Wayne Rooney was brought into the first team and he was quickly sold to Manchester United for £28 million, a club record fee. Moyes later broke the transfer record again in 2008 with the signing of Marouane Fellaini.


title: Everton F.C.

text: Moyes led Everton to a 4th place finish in the 2004–05 season, their best finish ever. Since 2006 Everton have enjoyed regular top 10 finishes and reached the last 16 of the UEFA Cup in 2007 and were runner-ups in the 2009 FA Cup final. From the 2006-07 season until the 2012–13 season, which was the last season that Moyes was in charge, Everton placed in the top 8 positions.


title: Everton F.C.

text: At the end of the 2012–13 season Moyes left the club for Manchester United. He had managed Everton for 11 years. Moyes was replaced by Roberto Martínez. Martinez led Everton to the semi-finals of the EFL Cup and the FA Cup in 2015–16. However, he was sacked with two games left in the season due to poor performances.


title: Everton F.C.

text: He was replaced in the summer of 2016 by Ronald Koeman. In his first season at the club, he guided them to the group stages of the Europa League, after finishing 7th in the previous Premier League season. He was sacked the following season after leaving the club in the relegation zone.


title: Everton F.C.

text: They wore many different kit colours in their first few years. At first, they wore white shorts and white shirts with blue stripes. However, many players who moved to Everton still wore the shirts of their old team, so things were confusing. To solve this the club introduced an all black kit to the club, as black dye was cheap and easily available. However many fans thought this was boring and morbid so a red band was added across the chest.


title: Everton F.C.

text: It was not until the 1901/02 season that the colours of royal blue and white were first introduced. This kit has stayed, with a few small changes, almost exactly the same from then until the present day. In 1986, a white hoop was added to the chest, but the fans did not like this at all and it was quickly changed back again.


title: Everton F.C.

text: Everton's current shirt sponsor is Cazoo. They are a British online car retailer based in London, England . Previous shirt sponsors included: Chang Beer (2004-17), Kejian (2002-04), mobile network operator One2one (1997-2002), Printer company Danka (1995-97), and electronics company NEC (1985-95). Everton were the first Premier League team to take off shirt sponsors from their child shirts because they did not like advertising alcohol to children.


title: Everton F.C.

text: Everton's current kit manufacturers are Umbro. They have been the club's kit manufacturer three times previously (1974–83, 1986–2000, and 2004–09). Other previous manufacturers are Le Coq Sportif (1983–86, 2009–12), Puma (2000–04) and Nike (2012–14).


title: Everton F.C.

text: Everton's nickname is the "Toffees", or sometimes the "Toffeemen". This comes from one of two toffee shops that were located in Everton village at the time the club was founded. Both Ye Anciente Everton Toffee House and Old Mother Nobletts Toffee Shop claim to have started off the nickname. At first Ye Anciente Everton Toffee House was very popular with fans because it was near to their stadium in the Everton district. Old Mother Nobletts Toffee Shop sold sweets called 'Everton mints', which proved even more popular. Faced with going out of business, Ye Anciente Everton Toffee House got a licence to throw free toffees to the crowd inside the ground before the match. This tradition continues even today. A teenage girl is chosen from the crowd to throw mints to the crowd before the match.


title: Everton F.C.

text: At other times in their history Everton have also been known as 'The Black Watch', 'The Blues' and, in the 1980s, 'The School of Science'.


title: Everton F.C.

text: Like many Premier League football clubs, Everton's players walk out onto the pitch to a particular song at the beginning of every match. With Everton it is the theme tune to a 1960s television series called Z-Cars. Z-Cars was about police working in a made up town, which many people believed was based on real life Liverpool.


title: Everton F.C.

text: When Everton were first created, they played at Anfield. The owner of the stadium put the rent up by so much the club decided to stop paying and leave and build their own instead. Everton then moved to their new stadium called Goodison Park, which was opened in 1892. They still play there today.


title: Everton F.C.

text: Everton are currently planning a new stadium called , which is located at the Bramley-Moore Dock. It will have a capacity of 52,000, and will be completed in 2023 or 2024.


title: Stone (unit)

text: The stone is a unit for measuring mass in the Imperial system. It is equal to fourteen pounds. 160 stone make up a long ton. In the metric system, 1 stone = 6.35029318 kilograms.


title: Stone (unit)

text: The stone was outlawed in Ireland and the United Kingdom, in 1983 and 1985 respectively. However stones and pounds are both commonly used in non-official cases, most commonly when stating the weight of a person. Often in American-British boxing matches, the contenders  weight is stated in pounds then stones and pounds. The same in horse racing.


title: Gotham City

text: Gotham City is a fictional city which is the home of Batman, a DC Comics character. The city is based on New York City and Chicago, and became Batman's home in 1941. Gotham was a village in England, near Nottingham, where the people were all very foolish.


title: Gotham City

text: Author Washington Irving was the first person to describe New York as Gotham in his 1807 book, "Salamagundi".


title: Gotham City

text: In Christopher Nolan's "Batman Begins", and "The Dark Knight" Gotham City is based in Chicago. "The Dark Knight Rises" Gotham City is based in Pittsburgh, New York City, and Los Angeles.


title: Gotham City

text: Christopher Nolan based Gotham City on Chicago, New York City, and London. When Bob Kane first thought of a city he wanted it to be like New York City, London, and Chicago. Bill Finger was about to name the city "Civic City".


title: Gotham City

text: The first Mayor of Gotham seen in the comics was not named. He was drawn to look like Fiorello H. LaGuardia, who was mayor of New York City.


title: Gotham City

text: Some of the mayors listed above also appeared in television series and movies about Batman. There are some series and movies that have their own Mayors of Gotham City:


title: PPSh-41

text: The PPSh-41 ("Pistolet-Pulemyot Shpagina"; ; "Shpagin machine pistol") is a Soviet submachine gun. It was designed by Georgi Shpagin. The PPSh-41 was supposed to be a cheaper, simpler gun to use than the PPD-40. The PPD-40 was in Soviet service at that time. The PPSh-41 officially replaced the PPD-40 in 1941. The PPSh-41 was supposed to be used by conscripted soldiers with very little training. The PPSh-41 got its ammunition from a magazine. It was also a selective fire submachine gun. It was made mostly of stamped steel. It fired the 7.62×25mm pistol round. The PPSh-41 was used a lot during World War II and the Korean War, as it was the most produced SMG throughout the wars. It was still in use in Vietnam with the Viet Cong as late as 1970 as the Chinese Type 50 (a copy). There were even some PPSh-41's captured by US soldiers as late as the Iraq War.


title: PPSh-41

text: The idea for the development of the PPSh-41 came partly from the Winter War against Finland. It was found in this war that submachine guns were good weapons for close-quarters combat. The PPSh-41 was developed in mid-1941. It was made in many factories in Moscow. Local Party members were made responsible for making sure enough PPSh-41s were made.


title: PPSh-41

text: A few hundred weapons were made in November 1941. Another 155,000 were made over the next five months. By spring 1942, PPSh-41 factories were making around 3,000 weapons a day. The PPSh-41's design was good, as it allowed many weapons to be made in a short amount of time (mass production). Other examples of this kind of design were the M3 submachine gun, MP40 and the Sten. Its parts (except the barrel) could be made by unskilled workers. The PPSh-41 used 87 parts, and the PPD-40 used 95. The PPSh-41 could be made in 7.3 hours. However, the PPD-40 took 13.7 hours. The making of the barrel was often made simpler by using barrels made for the M1891 Mosin–Nagant rifle. The rifle barrel was cut in half. From this one rifle barrel, two PPSh-41 barrels were made. The barrel was then altered for the 7.62mm Soviet submachine gun cartridge.


title: PPSh-41

text: The PPSh-41 was popular in the German armies as well. Captured PPSh-41s were often used by the Germans against their enemies. It was so popular among German soldiers, in fact, that it was the second most used SMG among German forces in WWII.


title: PPSh-41

text: After the German Army captured a lot of PPSh-41s during World War II, a program was started. In this program, the weapons would be altered to fire the German submachine gun bullet, the 9mm Parabellum. The Wehrmacht officially called these PPSh-41s the MP41(r). PPSh-41s which were not altered were called the MP717(r). They were given 7.63x25mm Mauser ammunition instead of the Soviet 7.62x25mm bullet. The German military made German-language manuals to teach soldiers how to use the PPSh-41. These were printed and given out across the Wehrmacht.


title: PPSh-41

text: The Soviet Union also tried the PPSh-41 in close air support. They put dozens of PPSh-41s on some of their planes.


title: PPSh-41

text: Over 6 million PPSh-41s were made by the end of the war. After the Battle of Stalingrad, they became the most used small arms in the Red Army. The Soviets would often give whole regiments or even divisions the PPSh-41. This gave them excellent close-range power.


title: PPSh-41

text: After the war, a large number of PPSh-41s were given to Soviet client states. They were also handed out to communist guerillas. The North Korean People's Army (NKPA) and the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) fighting in Korea got huge amounts of PPSh-41s. They were also given the North Korean Type 49 and the Chinese Type 50. These were copies of the PPSh-41s with small changes. The PPSh-41 was used a lot during the entire Korean War. Though it was not very accurate, the PPSh-41 did well in close-range battles because of its extremely high rate of fire and its high ammo capacity. These often happened in the Korean War, especially at night. United Nations forces often had trouble with returning enough bullets when they were attacked by communists with the PPSh-41. Some U.S. infantry officers said that the PPSh-41 was the best gun of the war. It was not as accurate as the U.S. M1 Garand or M1 carbine. However, it gave more power at close range.


title: PPSh-41

text: The PPSh-41 fired the 7.62x25mm (Tokarev) bullet. The 7.62x25mm was the main Soviet pistol and submachine gun bullet. The PPSh-41 weighed around 12 pounds (5.45 kg) with a full 71-round magazine. It weighed 9.5 pounds (4.32 kg) with a loaded 35-round magazine. The PPSh-41 could fire 900 rounds per minute. This was very high compared to other submachine guns of World War II. The PPSh-41 did not have a grip on it. Because of this, the soldier usually had to hold the PPSh-41 behind the drum magazine. The soldier could also hold the bottom of the drum. 35-round box magazines could have been used from 1942. However, Soviet soldiers in World War II usually kept the 71-round drum magazine.


title: PPSh-41

text: The PPSh-41 drum magazine was a copy of the Finnish M31 Suomi magazine. It held 71 rounds. The drum magazine was slower and more difficult to load with ammunition than the box magazine. The box magazine began to be used more after 1942. Even though it had less bullets in it, the box magazine made it easier to hold the weapon. It was possible that the PPSh-41 would fire bullets if it was dropped on a hard surface. This was because of its open bolt design.


title: PPSh-41

text: Because the Germans had captured so many PPSh-41s, a program was started. In this program, the weapons would be altered to fire the German submachine gun bullet. This bullet was called the 9mm Parabellum. The Wehrmacht officially called these PPSh-41s the MP41(r). PPSh-41s which were not altered were called the MP717(r). They were given 7.63x25mm Mauser ammunition instead of the Soviet 7.62x25mm bullet. The German military made German-language manuals to teach soldiers how to use the PPSh-41. These were printed and given out across the Wehrmacht.


title: PPSh-41

text: During World War II, an even simpler submachine gun was brought in to service. It was called the PPS-43. However, it did not replace the PPSh-41 during the war.


title: Amethyst (color)

text: The color amethyst is a moderate, transparent purple. It is also known as a deep shade of lavender. Its name is from the stone amethyst. This stone is a form of quartz but it is not always purple. It was a very prized stone before more of it was found.


title: Amethyst (color)

text: In a RGB color space, hex #9966cc (also known as Amethyst) is composed of 60% red, 40% green and 80% blue. Whereas in a CMYK color space, it is composed of 25% cyan, 50% magenta, 0% yellow and 20% black. It has a hue angle of 270 degrees, a saturation of 50% and a lightness of 60%.


title: Volume

text: The volume of an object is a measure of the amount of space occupied by that object, and is not to be confused with mass. The volume of a mountain is much larger than the volume of a rock, for instance.