title: File system

text: The underlying storage mechanism usually has no concept of a file. A hard disk knows of disk blocks, which are numbered in a certain way. These disk blocks contain binary data (usually: large numbers).


title: File system

text: The file system does the "translation" between the large numbers, and the view the users see, that is that of files, organized in a certain way.


title: File system

text: More recently, concepts from databases have been used to develop file systems. That way, there are two different kinds of data:


title: File system

text: It then becomes possible to always keep the file system in a consistent state. With databases, this is known as ACID. That way, an operation on a file is either done, or it is not done. There are however, no states in between. The file being written to the filesystem is no longer visible. This is usually done using transactions. But with filesystems, it is called "journaling".


title: Relief

text: Relief is a type of sculpture or carving. The worker creating the piece starts with a flat base, usually stone or wood, and takes small parts of the surface away until the desired image has been made.


title: Relief

text: Reliefs are found around the world. They can be used to decorate buildings, such as temples. Usually the artist makes reliefs of figures, such as people or animals.


title: Relief

text: In bas-relief, only a bit of the base is taken away. The figure is quite flat and this is especially common in friezes. An alto-relief is where the artist takes away a lot of the base material. This can be very detailed.


title: Negrito

text: Negrito is the name for several ethnic groups from South and Southeast Asia. The name is the diminutive form of Negro. Like the term negro, many people consider it to be offensive. Usually, Negritos have a dark skin, curly hair, Asiatic facial features, and do not grow to be very tall. Traditionally, the term 'Negrito' has been used for the following groups:


title: Negrito

text: The Island Negros, which is part of the Philippines today, was named after the Negritos. Because the term 'Negrito' doesn't allow a precise scientific definition, most scientists (ethnologues) no longer use the term either.


title: Negrito

text: Genetic research found them to be more closely related to non-Negrito local populations than to each other. Many Negrito people share genetic ancestry with East Asians. Their physical and morphological features were found to be local adaptions to tropical rainforests of Southeast Asia, rather than a remnant of a shared common ancestor, as suggested previously.


title: Pashtun people

text: Pashtuns, sometimes spelled "Pushtuns", or "Pakhtuns", or "Pukhtuns", (, ) historically known as Afghans are an Iranian ethnic group and the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan and the second largest in Pakistan. Their native language is Pashto, but many of them also speak neighboring Dari, Hindko and Urdu languages. They are the original or native people of the area south of the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan and west of the Indus River in Pakistan. However, in the modern period, they have spread to cities outside their native land. According to researchers, the total population of the group is estimated to be around 50 million.


title: Pashtun people

text: Many Pashtuns believe that their ancestors were ancient Hebrews who arrived to what is now Afghanistan over 2,000 years ago and settled there however this claim has no basis and the likely origins of the Pashtuns are that their ancestors were ancient Iranian farmers who settled down in the region from Central Asia. They were first mentioned by a Greek historian in 500 BC, then by Alexander the Great, and in the 3rd century they are called "Abgans" ("Afghans") by the Persian rulers. In the army of the Ghaznavids and Ghurids, thousands of Afghans were reported to be serving. They ruled Delhi Sultanate in the past and also Persia between 1725 to 1729 until they established the last Afghan empire that became what is now Afghanistan.


title: Pashtun people

text: The Pashtun people follow a strict code of honor, known as "Pakhtunwali", that requires them to support the poor, the weak, and the challenged; to fight evil; to provide shelter to anyone who needs it and many more. Pashtun are also strict with obedience in their families and society. They are also known as the best at welcoming guests and taking good care of them. They really love to see respectful people in society, with great manners and obedience.


title: Pashtun people

text: The Pashtuns are mostly farmers, herdsmen, and warriors but many of them are also businessmen and politicians. Most tribesmen are sedentary farmers, combining cultivation with animal husbandry; some are migratory herdsmen and caravaners. Large numbers of them have always been attracted to military service.


title: Pashtun people

text: In Afghanistan, Pashtun make up around 50% of the total population. They form about 60 tribes of different size and importance, each of which occupies a different territory. In Afghanistan, where Pashtun are the major ethnic group, the main tribes are the Durrani, who mostly live in the south and west, and the Ghilzai, who live in northern and eastern parts of the country.


title: Pashtun people

text: They are over 15% of Pakistan's population, with Peshawar and Quetta being their principal cities. They predominate north of Quetta between the Sulaiman Range and the Indus River. Significant number of Pashtuns also live in most other major Pakistani cities, particularly Karachi, Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and Lahore. In the hill areas the main tribes are, from south to north: the Tarin, Kakaṛ, Sherani, and Ustarana south of the Gumal River; the Maḥsud, Darwesh Khel, Waziri, and Biṭani between the Gumal River and Thal; the Turi, Bangash, Orakzay, Afridi, and Shinwari from Thal to the Khyber Pass; and the Mahmand, Utman Khel, Tarklani, and Yusufzay to the north and northeast of the Khyber.


title: Dollar sign

text: The dollar or peso sign ($) is a symbol that is for either the peso or dollar. These are types of money around the world. Sometimes it is an S with one line through it. Sometimes it is an S with two lines through it. When there are two lines it is called a cifrão. There are many stories about why this symbol is used to mean money.


title: Doctor Who

text: Doctor Who is a BBC science fiction television series. The series is about an alien time-traveller known as "the Doctor". In his space-time ship, the TARDIS (Time and Relative Dimension in Space), the Doctor and his companions travel through space and time.


title: Doctor Who

text: The television series ran from 1963 to 1989 and started running again in 2005. It is the longest running science fiction television series in the world.


title: Doctor Who

text: There were two "Doctor Who" movies made in the 1960s. Peter Cushing played the Doctor in these movies, but he was not the Doctor in the television series. In 1996, there was also a television movie starring Paul McGann. There have been many other versions of "Doctor Who" in books, comics, games, other shows, music videos, remixes, fan fiction, documentaries, the news, in magazines, toys, cosplay, decorations, on the internet, on radios, on DVDs, on Blu-ray, On other disc formats and other forms of entertainment.


title: Doctor Who

text: The story is about a person who calls themselves "The Doctor". They travel in their space-time-ship TARDIS ("Time And Relative Dimension In Space"), with which he can go anywhere in time and space. Because of an error in its "chameleon circuit", the outside of the TARDIS always looks like a 1960s-style British police public call box (similar to a blue telephone box), but on the inside the TARDIS is much bigger.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Doctor is an alien, a "Time Lord" from the planet Gallifrey. At first, they travelled only with their granddaughter Susan Foreman. Later, the Doctor took other people with them. They are usually called "companions" or "assistants". The Doctor and their companions travel through space and time, have a lot of adventures, and often save many people.


title: Doctor Who

text: Some people think that the Doctor's name is not actually "Doctor Who", but other people think there is no mistake. The character was named Doctor Who in the titles until the Fifth Doctor, and after the 2005 restart the Ninth Doctor, played by Christopher Eccleston, is called Doctor Who in the titles too. The Second Doctor once signed a letter as "Dr W.".


title: Doctor Who

text: "Doctor Who" was first shown in 1963, with William Hartnell as the Doctor. When Hartnell left the show in 1966, the writers came up with the idea that the Doctor would "regenerate" (at the time called "renewal") and transform into the Second Doctor, who was played by Patrick Troughton. In 1970, when Jon Pertwee took over as the Third Doctor, the series switched from black-and-white to colour.


title: Doctor Who

text: Before 1978, the BBC would sometimes throw away episodes they did not need. This was because they did not usually show episodes on television more than once, and they needed to reuse video tape to record new broadcasts. Some of the episodes that were thrown away have been found since then, but 97 of the 851 episodes are still missing. However, audio recordings of all missing episodes exist, and some of these have been released on home video with animations.


title: Doctor Who

text: Seven actors played the Doctor from 1963 until 1989, when the series stopped. In 1996, the BBC teamed with Fox Broadcasting Company and Universal Pictures to create a film version, in which Paul McGann played the Eighth Doctor. It was hoped that the film would lead to a new series, but this did not happen.


title: Doctor Who

text: Instead, the series started again in 2005, with Christopher Eccleston as the Ninth Doctor. He was replaced by David Tennant at the end of the series. The latest actor to play the Doctor is Jodie Whittaker, who joined the show in the 2017 Christmas episode. In May 2022, it was announced that Ncuti Gatwa will play the Doctor from 2023.


title: Doctor Who

text: In the "Guinness World Records", "Doctor Who" is listed as the longest running science fiction television series in the world. In 2013, it celebrated its 50th birthday with a special episode.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Doctor is the central character of "Doctor Who". They are an alien, a "Time Lord" from the planet Gallifrey. The Doctor often takes other people with them, who are usually called "companions", "assistants" or "friends" (or, due to a misunderstanding, "partners"). They are most often human. The current companions are Yasmin Khan (as played by Mandip Gill), Ryan Sinclair (Tosin Cole) and Graham O'Brien (Bradley Walsh).


title: Doctor Who

text: As a Gallifreyan, the Doctor looks human on the surface. However, there are differences. For example, they have two hearts. Also, if badly injured or dying, they can "regenerate". During the "regeneration", their body heals and renews itself. Then, they take on a different appearance and personality. They are the same person (sort of) with the same memories and knowledge. But, they look different and has a new personality. Because of this, the Doctor can be played by different actors. And in over fifty years, this is why the character has not actually "changed".


title: Doctor Who

text: Up until now, the Doctor has regenerated fourteen times, and each "incarnation" was played by a different actor (except for the Tenth Doctor, who used up two regenerations by channeling excess regeneration energy after healing to his old hand that had been chopped of in The Christmas Invasion). (Numbers refer to incarnations that used up regenerations).


title: Doctor Who

text: The Doctor has been played by other actors in other media: theatre plays, parodies, etc. These are not officially part of the "Doctor Who" story.


title: Doctor Who

text: The movies "Dr. Who & the Daleks" and "Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D." star Peter Cushing as a human scientist named "Doctor Who". Shortly after it was announced that the series would return from its nineties hiatus, Richard E. Grant voiced The Doctor in an animated serial. The BBC issued press releases identifying Grant as the "ninth Doctor" but this was later disregarded by the revived BBC television series.


title: Doctor Who

text: Sometimes different incarnations of the Doctor meet each other. Usually episodes with several Doctors are made when the program celebrates an anniversary. In 1973, when the show was 10 years old, the episode "The Three Doctors" was shown. It had the first three Doctors.


title: Doctor Who

text: In 1983, there was the 20th anniversary special. "The Five Doctors". Patrick Troughton, John Pertwee, Peter Davison and Richard Hurndall (replacing William Hartnell) played The Doctor. Tom Baker refused to play in it, so they used the old footage of the incomplete "Shada" episode to show him.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Tenth, Eleventh, and War Doctors met each other in the 50th anniversary special on November 23, 2013. That was the first time the War Doctor was seen. That special had short appearances by all the other Doctors with the use of old, recycled footage. It also had a mysterious version of the Doctor from the far off future played by Tom Baker. The Eighth Doctor also made a return in 2013 for a 50th anniversary special mini-episode.


title: Doctor Who

text: The 12th doctor Peter Capaldi met the 1st doctor just before each doctor's regeneration in the last episode of Capaldi's series.


title: Doctor Who

text: On July 16, 2017, it was revealed that Jodie Whittaker would replace Capaldi as the Doctor. She is the first female Doctor.


title: Doctor Who

text: In the 2020 episode "Fugitive of the Judoon", Jo Martin was introduced in a surprise twist as the Fugitive Doctor. She is the first black actor to play the Doctor. It is suggested that the Fugitive Doctor is from the Thirteenth Doctor's past.


title: Doctor Who

text: Another episode from the same year, "The Timeless Children", revealed that there were many incarnations of the Doctor before William Hartnell. The Thirteenth Doctor had forgotten them because the Time Lords had erased her memory.


title: Doctor Who

text: The TARDIS (Time And Relative Dimension In Space) is the Doctor's time machine. It can travel to any point in time and space, but the Doctor can never fully control it. The Doctor explains that TARDISes are not built, but they are grown like plants. The TARDIS is alive and has a mind of its own. In the episode "The Doctor's Wife" when the Doctor is able to communicate directly with its mind, the TARDIS explains that it did not always take him where he wanted to go but that "I always took you where you needed to go."


title: Doctor Who

text: The TARDIS is bigger on the inside than the outside, which is commented on by almost everyone who enters. On the inside, the TARDIS looks like a giant spaceship, but on the outside it looks like a police telephone box. These telephone boxes were still a common sight in many British cities when the series first began in 1963, but after the walkie-talkie was invented they were no longer needed. They were used by the police as workstations - and people could also use them to call the police.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Doctor stole the TARDIS from a Time Lord museum when he began his travels. It was described as being a rather old "Type 40" model, whereas the best version is the "Type 70" used by the upper class Time Lords. The TARDIS has a device called the "chameleon circuit" which is supposed to change its shape on the outside to allow it to disguise it. In the very first story, this device stopped working and left the TARDIS stuck in the shape of a police box.


title: Doctor Who

text: The farthest the Doctor has ever travelled in the TARDIS is to the Big Bang (the beginning of the Universe) and 100 trillion years into the future (the end of the Universe) (in the episode "Utopia"). The inside of the TARDIS is much bigger than its outside (it is "dimensionally transcendental"). It has a lot of different rooms. The most important of which is the "console room" where the Doctor pilots the TARDIS.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Doctor usually takes other people with them, who are usually called "companions" or "assistants". The Doctor and their companions travel through space and time, have a lot of adventures, and often save many people. The character of the companion was there so that the people watching the series could identify and feel close to a character. The companions were often present-time humans, so people could feel close to them, and they knew as much as the viewers. Because of this, the Doctor could explain things to their companions, and at the same time to the viewers. Almost all the Doctor's companions have been human, or human-looking aliens. Two companions were robots.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Master is a renegade Time Lord. He is the Doctor's nemesis. He was conceived as "Professor Moriarty to the Doctor's Sherlock Holmes". The character first appeared in 1971, played by Roger Delgado. He continued in the role until his death in 1973. The Master was briefly played by Peter Pratt and Geoffrey Beevers until Anthony Ainley took over. He continued to play the character until Doctor Who's "hiatus" in 1989. The Master returned in the 1996 television movie of "Doctor Who", played by Gordon Tipple in the ultimately unused pre-credits voiceover, then Eric Roberts. The Master was in the three-part finale of the 2007 series, portrayed by Derek Jacobi. He regenerated into John Simm at the end of the episode "Utopia". Simm next appeared in the last (and two-part) episode of the Tenth Doctor in 2009/2010. He then regenerated off-screen into a "Time Lady" (Michelle Gomez), who returned for the Twelfth Doctor's first series in 2014.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Daleks are one of the most powerful races in the Doctor Who history. They are the Doctor's worst enemies. They are alien mutants that live inside metal machines that look like pepper pots. Each Dalek casing has an eyesalk, a gunstick and a sucker arm that looks like a plunger. Daleks believe that they should conquer the universe and "exterminate" all other lifeforms that they believe are lesser than them. They can not be easily hurt by guns because their casing reflects or destroys the bullets. They were created on the planet Skaro by an evil scientist named Davros.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Daleks first appeared in the very first season of Doctor Who, in a serial called "The Daleks" shown between 1963 and 1964. They most recently appeared in the episode "Revolution of the Daleks" in 2021.


title: Doctor Who

text: Cybermen are another enemy of the Doctor. They are one of their worst enemies. In the original series, they come from the planet Mondas. In the new series, some of them come from a parallel universe. Cybermen travel across the universe taking people and turning them into machines. They stomp around saying "DELETE!". They kill by electrocution. They are partially vulnerable to the metal gold, and can be killed by gold bullets. They change their look over time, but stay recognizable by "handlebars" on their heads, and tear drops in their eyes.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Doctor has faced them many times. The first was in "The Tenth Planet" (William Hartnell's last episode). A more recent episode was "World Enough and Time/The Doctor Falls" (the last two episodes of Peter Capaldi's last season).


title: Doctor Who

text: The Sontarans are a group of aliens, bred in clone batches, that believe in war over anything else. They must face their enemy in combat because of their weak spot on the back of their neck, the probic vent. They have been said to look like baked potatoes.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Doctor first met them in "The Time Warrior" (Jon Pertwee). They have been on the show and its spinoffs repeatedly.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Sea Devils and the Silurians lived in the time of the dinosaurs until the catastrophe of the Moon's approach drove them into hibernation. They slept longer than planned and emerged late in the 20th century. The human scientist who discovered the Silurians estimated their era incorrectly. A later "Doctor Who" story said that they should have been classified as the Eocenes. A second species of hibernating Earth reptiles lived primarily underwater. They were labeled "sea devils" by a frightened, superstitious construction worker who encountered them.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Ice Warriors are a species of war-like alien who come from the planet Mars. They are human-like green reptiles who can only live in cold climates. The Doctor had to stop them from invading the planet Earth when their home planet became too hot for them to live in. However, they later became a more peaceful species when they joined a group of planets called the Galactic Federation. Other planets in the Federation include Earth and Peladon.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Weeping Angels are creatures who have existed since the beginning of the universe. Most of them look like stone statues of angels. They can send people back in time by touching them, which they use to feed off energy. They cannot move if someone is looking at them, unless that person looks away or blinks. Anything that looks like an angel can become a Weeping Angel, such as video footage of a Weeping Angel or even the Statue of Liberty.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Time Lords are the alien race which the Doctor belongs to. They have two hearts. They can avoid dying by "regeneration" (transforming their bodies). The Time Lords were in some episodes in the classic series. Sometimes they were allies of the Doctor (at one point he became their president). Other times they were enemies. The Time Lords came from the planet Gallifrey.


title: Doctor Who

text: Time Lords have the power to travel in time, but they choose not to use it to change the history of other planets. The Doctor disagrees with this, because they want to use time travel to fight on the side of good against evil. However, sometimes the Time Lords give the Doctor missions to change history for them. For example, in "Genesis of the Daleks" the Time Lords send the Doctor back in time to stop Davros from creating the Daleks.


title: Doctor Who

text: Some Time Lords choose to break the rules of Time Lord society and become renegades. The Doctor and the Master are both renegade Time Lords. Other renegade Time Lords include the Meddling Monk and the Rani.


title: Doctor Who

text: When the series returned in 2005, the Time Lords had disappeared in the "Time War". This was a very big war with the Daleks. The Doctor explained that he stopped the war by destroying Gallifrey, killing all of the Time Lords and Daleks. He believed he was the last of the Time Lords, until he discovered that the Master had also survived. Jenny, who was created artificially in "The Doctor's Daughter," is not a true Time Lord. For many years, the Doctor felt sorry for destroying Gallifrey. In the 2013 episode "The Day of the Doctor", the Doctor learns that he did not actually destroy his planet, but that he had moved it to another universe.


title: Doctor Who

text: In the 2020 episode "The Timeless Children", the Doctor learns that she was not originally a Time Lord. Instead she came from another reality, and was adopted by someone from Gallifrey named Tecteun. Tecteun did experiments on the Doctor to take her power to regenerate and transplant it in other Gallifreyans. This is how the Time Lord race was created.


title: Doctor Who

text: As of 2022, the Doctor has been played by fourteen actors. They are William Hartnell, Patrick Troughton, John Pertwee, Tom Baker, Peter Davison, Colin Baker, Sylvester McCoy, Paul McGann, John Hurt, Christopher Eccleston, David Tennant, Matt Smith, Peter Capaldi and Jodie Whittaker.


title: Doctor Who

text: When Time Lords are dying, they "regenerate." This causes a Time Lord's body to completely change, healing itself at the same time. Each time this happens, Time Lords have a different appearance and a different personality. Even with such big changes, Time Lords do not become different people, and will keep their memories each time they "regenerate." This periodic change makes them live a very long time.


title: Doctor Who

text: A Time Lord is believed to only be able to regenerate 12 times. This means that Time Lords can have a total of 13 different incarnations. This line became stuck in the public consciousness despite not often being repeated, and was recognised by producers of the show as a plot obstacle for when the show finally had to regenerate the Doctor a thirteenth time. The episode "The Time of the Doctor" depicted the Doctor acquiring a new cycle of regenerations, starting from the Twelfth Doctor, due to the Eleventh Doctor being the product of the Doctor's twelfth regeneration from his original set.


title: Doctor Who

text: A criminal incarnation of the Doctor was somehow spawned between his 12th and final lives - the 'Valeyard'. It tried to sacrifice the sixth Doctor so that he could obtain more "regenerations," allowing himself to live even longer.


title: Doctor Who

text: The Master was already in his 13th life when he was introduced to the series. His 14th and 15th (and possibly later) incarnations were obtained by taking over the bodies of innocent victims. When the character returned to the show in 2007, the Master was in his 16th (or later) incarnation. Soon, he regenerates into his (~)17th incarnation. Later, he explains that the Time Lords resurrected him to be a great soldier when the Time Lords were fighting the Daleks in the Time War. It is likely that, having been resurrected, he had 12 more regenerations available to him.


title: Doctor Who

text: A Time Lord can choose not to regenerate. It appears that the process happens all on its own when a Time Lord is dying. But, it can be stopped if the Time Lord does not want to regenerate. This was seen when the (~)17th incarnation of the Master chose to die from a gunshot wound instead of living on as a prisoner in the Doctor's TARDIS.


title: Doctor Who

text: A Time Lord's body makes a huge amount of energy when regenerating. There is so much of this "regeneration energy" that a Time Lord can regrow a body part that gets removed, as long as it happens soon enough after regenerating. When the Doctor regenerated into his 10th incarnation, his hand was cut off in a sword fight. Because it had been less than 15 hours since he had regenerated into this incarnation, he was able to quickly grow a new hand.


title: Doctor Who

text: If a Time Lord has kept a part of his or her body that had been removed (like the 10th Doctor's hand, from before), it can be used to keep a Time Lord from changing during regeneration. The 10th incarnation of the Doctor kept the hand that was cut off in the sword fight in a jar on board the TARDIS. Eventually, he was shot by a Dalek, and his body began the regeneration process. After his body had finished healing, but before his body could change into a new one, the Doctor sent all of the extra energy into the hand in the jar.


title: Doctor Who

text: Just like any other TV program, Doctor Who has a theme tune that is well known. The theme tune has had many people composed and re-arranged the theme with people like Dick Mills, Delia Derbyshire, Peter Howell, Dominic Glynn, Keff Mcculloch, John Debney, Murray Gold and Segun Akinola who is the current composer for the current series. With current audio technology, several special 5.1 audios have been released which allows audio experts to isolate and reconstruct the theme.


title: Flag of Pakistan

text: The national flag of Pakistan was designed by Syed Amir uddin Kedwaii and was based on the original flag of the Muslim League. It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan on August 11, 1947, just days before independence. The flag is referred to in the national anthem as "" in Urdu (lit. Flag of the Crescent and Star). The flag comprises a dark green field, representing the Muslim majority of Pakistan, with a vertical white stripe in the hoist, that represents the Christians and other multi-faith communities of the country. In the centre is a white crescent moon, representing progress, and a white five-pointed star, representing light and knowledge.


title: Hassium

text: Hassium is a very radioactive and unstable chemical element. It has the symbol Hs and it has the atomic number 108. It is a superheavy transuranium element.


title: Hassium

text: Hassium was first made in 1984. and eka-osmium. It was made at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany. The element was named from the Latin name for the German state of Hessen. Hessen is the state that the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung is in. Before it was named Hassium, scientists could not decide what the name should be and there was an element naming controversy. The temporary IUPAC systematic element name was "unniloctium" meaning "one-zero-eight-ium" refering to its atomic number. The symbol with the name was "Uno". In 1994 a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 108 be named "hahnium". The name hassium was adopted internationally in 1997.


title: Hassium

text: Isotope 270 of Hassium was found in December 2006. An international team of scientists led by the Technical University of Munich discovered it. It is a doubly magic isotope and it has a long half-life of 22 seconds. Scientists had thought that heavy and stable isotopes should exist. Some theories said Hassium-270 may be part of an island of stability. Hassium can oxidise like osmium, the element above it in the periodic table, into hassium tetroxide. Chemists found that is less volatile than osmium tetroxide.


title: Arab world

text: The Arab world (; pronounced: al-`alam al-`arabi) are the Arabic language-speaking countries stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, and from the Mediterranean Sea in the north to the Horn of Africa and the Indian Ocean in the southeast. It consists of 24 countries and territories with a combined population of some 325 million people spanning at least 2 billion acres across two continents.


title: G.H. Hardy

text: Geff Harold Hardy FRS (7 February 1877 Cranleigh, Surrey – 1 December 1947 Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) was a famous English mathematician. He investigated number theory and mathematical analysis.


title: G.H. Hardy

text: Hardy's classic text "A course of pure mathematics" was first published in 1908 and has been in print ever since. He wrote "A Mathematician's Apology" in 1940.


title: G.H. Hardy

text: In 1908, unable to explain how a dominant gene would not become ubiquitous in a population, Reginald Punnett introduced his problem to Hardy, with whom he played cricket. Hardy went on to formulate what became known as the Hardy–Weinberg law.


title: G.H. Hardy

text: Hardy had a long collaboration with J.E. Littlewood, which resulted in a partial solution to a famous unsolved problem in number theory:


title: G.H. Hardy

text: Hardy discovered the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan, who was a brilliant student. Hardy saw his extraordinary intelligence and they worked together on many mathematical subjects. In an interview given to Paul Erdős, Hardy said that the discovery of Ramanujan was his (Hardy's) greatest contribution to mathematics and that their collaboration was "the one romantic incident in my life".


title: Möbius strip

text: The Möbius strip or Möbius band ,sometimes called a Mobius strip is a looped surface with only one side and only one edge. It can be made using a strip of paper by gluing the two ends together with a half-twist. The twisting is possible in two directions; so there are two different (mirror-image) Möbius strips.


title: Möbius strip

text: The Mobius strip is known for its unusual properties. A bug crawling along the center line of the loop would go around twice before coming back to its starting point. Cutting along the center line of the loop creates one longer band, not two. Cutting one third of the way in from the edge (and parallel to it) produces two Möbius strips, looped together.


title: Möbius strip

text: The Möbius strip was discovered independently by the German mathematicians August Ferdinand Möbius and Johann Benedict Listing in 1858.


title: Möbius strip

text: One way to represent the Möbius strip as a subset of formula_1 can be done using the parametrization:


title: Möbius strip

text: Where 0 ≤ α < 2π and −1 ≤ "r" ≤ 1. This creates a Möbius strip of width 1 whose center circle has radius 1, lies in the "xy" plane and is centered at The parameter "u" runs around the strip while "v" moves from one edge to the other.


title: Möbius strip

text: In cylindrical polar coordinates ("r", θ, "z"), an unbounded version of the Möbius strip can be represented by the equation:


title: Möbius strip

text: Topologically, the Möbius strip can be defined as the square [0,1] × [0,1] with its top and bottom sides identified by the relation for as in the diagram on the right.


title: Möbius strip

text: The Möbius strip is a two-dimensional compact manifold (i.e. a surface) with boundary. It is a standard example of a surface which is not orientable. The Möbius strip is also a standard example used to show the mathematical idea of a fiber bundle. Specifically, it is a nontrivial bundle over the circle "S" with a fiber the unit interval, "I" = [0,1]. Looking only at the edge of the Möbius strip gives a nontrivial two point (or Z) bundle over "S".


title: Möbius strip

text: A simple construction of the Möbius strip, which can be used to show it in computer graphics or modeling packages, is as follows:


title: Möbius strip

text: There have been several technical applications for the Möbius strip. Giant Möbius strips have been used as conveyor belts. Such belts last longer because the entire surface area of the belt gets the same amount of wear. Möbius bands have also been used as continuous-loop recording tapes (to double the playing time). Möbius strips are common in the making of fabric computer printer and typewriter ribbons. There, they allow the ribbon to be twice as wide as the print head while using both half-edges evenly.


title: Möbius strip

text: A device called a Möbius resistor is an electronic circuit element which has the property of canceling its own inductive reactance. Nikola Tesla patented similar technology in the early 1900s: "Coil for Electro Magnets" was intended for use with his system of global transmission of electricity without wires.


title: Möbius strip

text: The Möbius strip is the configuration space of two unordered points on a circle. Consequently, in music theory, the space of all two note chords, known as dyads, takes the shape of a Möbius strip.


title: Olympe de Gouges

text: Olympe de Gouges (; born Marie Gouze; 7 May 17483 November 1793) was a French activist, feminist, playwright, and political writer.


title: Olympe de Gouges

text: She was born in Montauban, France. De Gouges never went to school. She had strong opinions about politics, and she liked to write about her opinions.


title: Olympe de Gouges

text: In 1765, when de Gouges was 17, she married a French officer, named Louis Aubrey, who was older than her. They had one child together. Three years later, Louis died in a flood. De Gouges was relieved, and never married again.


title: Olympe de Gouges

text: De Gouges wanted to be a writer. So, she moved to Paris, and left her son behind. She made a writer name out of her parents names mixed together.


title: Olympe de Gouges

text: She used high ranking men to gain power. When she started writing, she wrote plays, political documents, and novels. Some of her work was: "Le Mariage inattendu de Cheacute;rubin and Zamore et Mirza ou l'Heureux naufrage."


title: Olympe de Gouges

text: She started to write documents about human rights, mostly for women.  At the time, France was divided about rights. De Gouges may not have saved her country, but she did give her opinion to this debate.


title: Test tube

text: A test tube is a kind of laboratory glassware, composed of a fingerlike length of glass tubing, open at the top, usually with a rounded lip at the top, and a rounded 'U' shaped bottom.


title: Test tube

text: They range in size from a couple inches to several inches long, from a few millimeters to a couple centimeters in diameter. They are designed to allow easy heating of samples, to be held in a flame, and often are made of expansion-resistant glasses, such as borosilicate glass (known by brand-names such as Pyrex and Kimax).


title: Test tube

text: Tests tubes are often preferred above beakers when multiple small chemical or biological samples have to be handled and/or stored.


title: Birth certificate

text: A birth certificate is a vital record that documents the birth of a child. The certificate itself usually includes some or all of the following information:


title: Birth certificate

text: Most countries have statutes and laws that regulate the registration of births. In the United States, it is the responsibility of the mother's physician, midwife, or a hospital administrator to prepare the official birth certificate.


title: Birth certificate

text: The birth certificate itself is not proof of a person's identity, but only a record stating that a birth occurred at the time, date, and place stated on the certificate.


title: Gerund

text: In English, the gerund is formed by adding -ing to a verb root. It is identical in form to the present participle (ending in "-ing") and can behave as a verb within a clause (so that it may be modified by an adverb or have an object), but the clause as a whole (sometimes consisting of only one word, the gerund itself) acts as a noun within the larger sentence. For example: "Eating this cake is easy."


title: Gerund

text: In "Eating this cake is easy", "eating this cake", although traditionally known as a phrase, is referred to as a non-finite clause in modern linguistics. "Eating" is the verb in the clause, while "this cake" is the object of the verb. "Eating this cake" acts as a noun phrase within the sentence as a whole, though; the subject of the sentence is the non-finite clause, specifically "eating".


title: Gerund

text: Not all nouns that are identical in form to the present participle are gerunds. The formal distinction is that a gerund is a "verbal" noun – a noun derived from a verb that retains verb characteristics, that functions "simultaneously" as a noun and a verb, while other nouns in the form of the present participle (ending in "-ing") are "de"verbal nouns, which function as common nouns, not as verbs at all. Compare:


title: Gerund

text: As the result of its origin and development, the gerund has nominal and verbal properties. The "nominal" characteristics of the gerund are as follows:


title: Gerund

text: Verbs that are often followed by a gerund include "admit, adore, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, contemplate, delay, deny, describe, detest, dislike, enjoy, escape, fancy, feel, finish, give, hear, imagine, include, justify, listen to, mention, mind, miss, notice, observe, perceive, postpone, practice, quit, recall, report, resent, resume, risk, see, sense, sleep, stop, suggest, tolerate" and "watch".


title: Ground

text: Ground is a commonly used word for the surface of the Earth. It is the dirt, soil and rock that we walk on. Ground in electrical language is the electrical charge of the earth. Voltages are compared to the ground to measure voltage.


title: Duluth, Minnesota

text: Duluth is a city in northeast Minnesota next to Lake Superior and next to Superior, Wisconsin. It is the westernmost U.S. city on the Great Lakes. The harbor at Duluth is accessible to ocean-going vessels from the Atlantic Ocean away via the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence Seaway.


title: Duluth, Minnesota

text: Duluth is the county seat of Saint Louis County. It is the fourth largest city in Minnesota. At the 2010 census, Duluth had 86,265 people. Duluth is the second largest city on Lake Superior after Thunder Bay, Ontario. It has the largest metropolitan area on Lake Superior. The Duluth MSA had 279,771 people in 2010.


title: Duluth, Minnesota

text: Duluth forms a metropolitan area with Superior, Wisconsin called the "Twin Ports". These two cities share the Duluth–Superior harbor and together are the Great Lakes' largest port transporting coal, iron ore (taconite), and grain.


title: Duluth, Minnesota

text: As a tourist destination for the Midwest, Duluth has America's only all-freshwater aquarium, the Great Lakes Aquarium. Duluth is known for the Aerial Lift Bridge, which spans the Duluth Ship Canal into the Duluth-Superior Harbor. People also visit Minnesota Point (known as Park Point locally), one of the world's longest freshwater sand spits, that is long. People come to the city to start vehicle trips along Minnesota's famous North Shore. Each year, 16,000 people come to Duluth to run the "Grandma's Marathon". The 610' long William A Irvin is a museum ship that used to be the flagship of the United States Steel ore carrier fleet.


title: Duluth, Minnesota

text: The city is named after Daniel Greysolon, Le Sieur du Luth, the first known European explorer of the area.


title: Partial derivative

text: In calculus (particularly in multivariate calculus, the study of rate of change on functions with multiple variables), the partial derivative of a function is the derivative of one named variable, where all other unnamed variables of the function are held constant. In other words, the partial derivative takes the derivative of certain indicated variables of a function, and does not differentiate the other variable(s).


title: Partial derivative

text: are usually used, although other notations are valid. Usually, although not always, the partial derivative is taken in a multivariable function (a function which takes two or more variables as input).


title: Partial derivative

text: If we have a function formula_4, then there are several partial derivatives of "f(x, y)" that are all equally valid. For example,


title: Anguish

text: Anguish is an emotion. It is a feeling of severe pain, mental suffering, distress and sadness. Anguish is related to misery, dread, despair, and depression.


title: Anguish

text: Many things can cause a person to feel anguish. Abuse can cause anguish. Child abuse can cause anguish. Elder abuse can cause anguish. Bullying can cause anguish. Neglect can cause anguish. Shame can lead to feelings of anguish. A person may feel anguish when their life is not going as they hoped and there is little they can do to change it.


title: Anguish

text: Mental anguish is a concept of law. It is sometimes written into a legal code. In tort law, a person can receive compensation when someone hurts them. This is known as a personal injury case. This kind of legal case is handled by a personal injury lawyer.


title: Anguish

text: In the United States, personal injury lawsuits account for less than 5% of all civil cases. That number is declining. Between 1999 and 2008, there was a 25% decrease in personal injury lawsuits filed in the United States.


title: Anguish

text: In the judicial system, mental anguish is also called "pain and suffering". This may include feelings of fear, distress, anxiety, depression, trauma, or grief.


title: Anguish

text: When Jimmy Carter was President of the United States, he issued a proclamation about human rights. He said that we must defend the victims of anguish, not the culprits (the people who cause it).


title: Anguish

text: In medicine, anguish is similar to anxiety. It is a type of neurosis. According to Sigmund Freud, the symptoms of anguish are irritability, anxiety, crisis, nightmares, phobias and obsessions. Anguish can also cause insomnia.


title: Anguish

text: People with mental illnesses like melancholia or depression may feel anguish. Anguish may be a factor in a mental breakdown.


title: Anguish

text: In dying patients, anguish may be physical, emotional, or spiritual. They symptoms of physical anguish are severe pain and anxiety. The symptoms of emotional and spiritual anguish are crying, moaning, wailing, or talking about fears or regrets.


title: Anguish

text: Anguish is sometimes a cause of suicide or homicide. People who experience psychological distress like anguish can have greater risk of premature death.


title: Anguish

text: Researchers found a potential treatment for the pain of anguish: a non-prescription medication (or over-the-counter drug) called paracetamol (or acetaminophen).


title: Anguish

text: Mental anguish can have significant as physical symptoms. Psychological suffering from anguish can be just as significant as physical pain. Psychological symptoms like anxiety, panic attacks and existential crisis can cause suffering.


title: Anguish

text: Sigmund Freud is considered the inventor of psychoanalysis. Freud said that anguish is one of the feelings that brings together and tears apart people, families, and societies.


title: Anguish

text: Anguish is an important concept in existentialism. Existentialists believe that freedom causes anguish.


title: Anguish

text: French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre talked about anguish in his book "L'Être et le Néant" (1943) (in English: "Being and Nothingness") (1956).


title: Anguish

text: Another French philosopher, Gilles Deleuze, said that anguish is a basic human emotion. He said that people feel anguish when they understand that they cannot escape from evil and pain in the world.


title: Anguish

text: Anguish is an important concept in nihilism. Nihilists believe that life is meaningless. That belief is a source of anguish.


title: Anguish

text: German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer wrote about "anguish of conscience." He said that consciousness is anguish and anguish is pain.


title: Anguish

text: Søren Kierkegaard was a Danish philosopher. He wrote about religion, or theology. Kierkegaard talked about anguish in several of his books: "Fear and Trembling" (1843), "Either/Or" (1843), "The Sickness Unto Death" (1849), and "Two Discourses of God and Man" (1938). In the book "Eighteen Upbuilding Discourses" (1843), Kierkegaard talked about Paul the Apostle. Paul felt anguish because he persecuted Christians.


title: Anguish

text: Anguish is feeling common for characters in Woody Allen's movies. Marion feels anguish in "Another Woman". Alvy feels anguish in "Annie Hall". Mary fakes feelings of anguish in "Manhattan". Elliot causes anguish for others when he falls in love with one of his wife's sisters in "Hannah and Her Sisters".


title: Patricia Healey

text: She appeared in the UK films The White Bus (1964), Wuthering Heights (1968) and in the R3 television show between 1963 and 1964. Her last appearance was in the 1994 television mini-series Middlemarch.


title: Patricia Healey

text: Healey, who had Alzheimer's disease, died on 4 February 2021 at 85, due to complications from COVID-19 during the COVID-19 pandemic in England.


title: Smog

text: Smoke and fog, also referred to as simply smoke fog or smog, is a type of air pollutant; the word "smog" is a combination of "smoke" and "fog". Classic smog results from large amounts of coal burning in an area and is caused by a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide.


title: Smog

text: London is where it first happened. Coal fires are now illegal in London, and trains are driven by other fuels. In cities like Los Angeles it is the exhaust fumes of cars which cause the smog.


title: Smog

text: Delhi is supposed to be the most polluted city on Earth. Smogs cause lung diseases and increase the death rate. According to one estimate, air pollution causes the death of about 10,500 people in Delhi every year.


title: Smog

text: Peking (Beijing) is another city where air pollution is serious. Car emissions and coal burning are the main reasons for their pollution. They also get pollution from some neighbouring regions, due to the pattern of air movement in the area.


title: Robert Palmer

text: Robert Allen Palmer (January 19, 1949 – September 26, 2003) was a British musician, singer-songwriter and recording artist who released many hits during the 1970s and the 1980s. His hits include "Addicted to Love" and "Bad Case of Loving You (Doctor, Doctor)".


title: Robert Palmer

text: Palmer received a number of awards throughout his career, including two Grammy Awards for Best Male Rock Vocal Performance, an MTV Video Music Award, and was twice nominated for the BRIT Award for Best British Male.


title: Robert Palmer

text: Robert Palmer married Susan Eileen Thatcher in 1971. They had two children together, James and Jane. They divorced in 1999. In 1993, Palmer moved from the Bahamas to Lugano, Switzerland. He thought the islands were overrun with drugs and guns and were no longer safe. Palmer's companion at the time of his death was Mary Ambrose.


title: Robert Palmer

text: Palmer moved to Lugano, Switzerland, in 1986. He became a naturalized citizen of Switzerland in 1993. He lived there until his death.


title: Robert Palmer

text: A heavy smoker, he died in Paris, France, from a heart attack on 26 September 2003 at the age of 54. He was holidaying with his close friend, Jack Bruce, and conducting publicity appearances for his most recent release "Drive" prior to his death.


title: Robert Palmer

text: He was survived by his parents, Leslie and Anna Palmer, his brother, Mark Palmer, and his children, James and Jane.


title: Stereo

text: Stereophonic sound, also simply called stereo, is the reproduction of sound using two or more audio loudspeakers. This creates a pleasant and natural sound heard from various directions, as in natural hearing.


title: Stereo

text: The word "stereophonic" comes from Greek "stereos" = "solid" and "phōnē" = "sound". It was coined by Western Electric.


title: Stereo

text: In popular usage, stereo usually means two-channel sound recording and sound reproduction using data from two speakers. The electronic device for playing back stereo sound is often called "a stereo".


title: Territories of the United States

text: Territories of the United States are sub-national administrative divisions supervised by the United States government. The U.S. currently has fourteen territories in the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Two other territories (Bajo Nuevo Bank and Serranilla Bank) are claimed by the United States but ruled by Colombia — if these two territories are counted, the total number of U.S. territories is sixteen.


title: Lal Khan

text: Lal Khan (born Tanveer Gondal; June 1956 – 21 February 2020) was a Pakistani political activist and Marxist political theorist.


title: Lal Khan

text: He was a physician by profession but ceased practicing medicine. He was the leader of the Pakistani Marxist organisation "The Struggle", and editor of its newspaper. He also wrote regular articles for Daily Times and the Dunya.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Eid ul-Fitr begins the day after Ramadan is over and lasts three days. As soon as the Sun sets from the last day of Ramadan, Eid ul-Fitr starts and the Muslims feast. Muslims also say a special prayer called the Eid prayer and food and drink are passed around in Mosques.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Eid Al-Adha means "The Feast of Sacrifice" and is to celebrate when a prophet called Abraham had to sacrifice his son to show that he was loyal to God. At the last moment, God said to Abraham that this was simply a test, and he did not have to sacrifice his son to Him. Muslims in this holiday sacrifice a goat or cow in His honour to show their gratitude for God saving Abraham's son's life.


title: Muslim occasions

text: The meat of the sacrificed animal is split up into three portions. One for the man who sacrificed the animal, one for the man's poor relatives and one for poor people in general, whatever their race or religion is.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Muslims believe that on any Friday, at the end of the week, a good deed is worth more than if you did that same good deed on a different day. Muslims go to the Mosque to pray on that day, for they believe that it was on this day that Adam was created. They reject the idea that God rested after creating the world ("And on the seventh day, God rested", Genesis 2:2) and so this day should not be related to a Sabbath.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Ashura in Arabic means ten and is celebrated on the ninth and tenth day of Muharram. Muslims can choose to fast on this day (see fasting above).


title: Muslim occasions

text: Mawlid an-Nabi means "The Birth of the Prophet" in Arabic, and celebrated the Prophet Muhammad's birthday on the twelfth day of the month of Rabi Al-Awwal. Poetry and prayer to both God and Muhammed are chanted on this day.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Laylat ul Isra and Miraj means "The Night of Power and Ascension". It is when Muhammad was taken to "the farthest Mosque" (it was in Jerusalem) and was taken to see God. It was here that Muhammad and God talked about how many prayers should be said a day. God said there should be fifty prayers a day, but Moses and Muhammad asked for less, since fifty was hard to do every day. Eventually, fifty was lowered to five prayers a day. If the prayers were done well, they were worth fifty prayers.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Laylat al-Qadr means "The night of Power" in Arabic and is celebrated near the end of Ramadan. It is a sacred and important holiday since it is when the Qur'an was first shown to the population.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Laylat ul Bara'ah means "The Night of Freedom from Fire" and is celebrated on the 14th and 15th of the month of Sha'ban. Here, Muslims pray and read the Qur'an all night.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Eid al-Ghadeer is celebrated by Shi'a Muslims and is when Muhammad gave his last sermon at Ghadir Khumm during the month of Dhul-Hijjah.


title: Muslim occasions

text: The first day of Muharram is the new year for Islam. It is not an official Islamic event but most Muslims have a ritual or celebration of some kind for it this is one of their favourite holidays


title: Muslim occasions

text: Some mosques are organizing “Open mosque days” with special program, Muslim culture, video show, discussion and finger foods for the visitors. In many western cities this is becoming a cultural social event.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Ramadan is celebrated in the month of Ramadan (the 9th month in the Islam calendar). Prayers are chanted all day and Muslims are forbidden to eat or drink after the sun has risen. When the sun goes down in the evenings they are allowed to eat and drink again. This is called fasting and breakfast comes from this word (break-fast or breaking your fast). This holiday is to teach Muslims patience.


title: Muslim occasions

text: The month of Ramadan changes every year because the Muslims follow the lunar calendar rather than the Christians' solar calendar.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Hajj is the annual pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia. It is currently the largest annual pilgrimage in the world, and is the fifth pillar of Islam. A religious duty that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so. The Hajj is a demonstration of the solidarity of the Muslim people, and their submission to Allah.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Umrah is a pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, performed by Muslims that can be undertaken at any time of the year. In Arabic Umrah means “to visit a populated place”. It is sometimes called the 'minor pilgrimage' or 'lesser pilgrimage', the Hajj being the 'major' pilgrimage and which is compulsory for every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it. The Umrah is not compulsory but highly recommended.


title: Muslim occasions

text: Here is an example calendar taken from the Islamic lunar calendar and put into a solar calendar. In this case it is from 2000 to 2001 in years of the Christian era.


title: Varaha

text: Hindus believe that Vishnu had many important Avatars, and the Varaha avatar was the third avatar of Vishnu. In this avatar, Vishnu took the form of a black varaha. Varaha is a Sanskrit language word that means a boar. The Hindu scriptures tell a story about this avatar. There was a daitya (a demon) named Hiranyaksha. He threw the Earth (called Prithivi by the Hindus) into the waters of the ocean. The earth was about to sink in the ocean. At this point, Vishnu took the form of a black boar. He entered the water and carried the earth on its body and brought the earth safely to where it should be. Thus, Vishnu as a varaha saved the earth from being destroyed.


title: American Staffordshire Terrier

text: It was first bred in British colonies of North America in the nineteenth century. Its early ancestors are the bulldog and the terrier, and used to be called the Blue Paul terrier. In the 1930s, dogbreeders bred it with the Pit bull terrier. Its name was changed to the American Staffordshire Terrier in 1972.


title: Post hoc fallacy

text: The post hoc fallacy means "after this, therefore because of this". Its Latin name is Post hoc ergo propter hoc. It is a logical fallacy. When event B happens after event A, a person might think "event A must have caused event B".


title: Post hoc fallacy

text: It is a tempting error because sequence in time does sometimes suggest causality. When I press the light switch, the light comes on, and that is a cause and effect sequence. The difference is that it can be explained why the light comes on when the switch is pressed. On the other hand, no-one can explain why a rooster's crowing might affect the Sun.


title: Post hoc fallacy

text: The phrase is used by the character Sheldon Cooper in the third season of The Big Bang Theory. Sheldon mentions the logical fallacy in disputing his mother's claim that her prayer group did ensure his safety during his North Pole expedition.


title: Mimicry

text: In biology, mimicry is when a species evolves features similar to another. Either one or both are protected when a third species cannot tell them apart. Often, these features are visual; one species looks like another; but similarities of sound, smell and behaviour may also make the fraud seem more real.


title: Mimicry

text: Mimicry is related to camouflage, and to warning signals, in which species manipulate or deceive other species which might do them harm. Although mimicry is mainly a defence against predators, sometimes predators also use mimicry, and fool their prey into feeling safe.


title: Mimicry

text: Mimicry happens in both animal and plant species. The "mimic" is the species which looks like the "model". The model may be living, or not. Whole groups of animals go in for mimicry as a life style, such as mantids, leaf insects or stick insects. Camouflage, in which a species looks similar to its surroundings, is a form of visual mimicry.


title: Mimicry

text: There are far more insect mimics than any other class of animal, but then there are far more insects than other types of animals. Indeed, 75% of all animals which have been described and named, are insects. Many other kinds of animal mimics are known, including fish, plants and even fungi, though less research has been done on these.


title: Mimicry

text: Mimicry evolves because the species that are better at mimicking survive to produce more offspring than the species that are worse at mimicking. The genes of the better mimics become more common in the species. Over time, mimic species get closer to their models. This is the process of evolution by natural selection.


title: Mimicry

text: Since most higher animals have relatively good eyesight, they use it to find what they want. Both herbivores (animals which eat plants), and predators (animals which hunt and eat other animals), use sight to find their food. Prey need to avoid being eaten by predators. Their best chance is to avoid being seen. Usually, they need camouflage. With camouflage, an animal looks like its background, and so is more difficult to see. This is achieved in various ways:


title: Mimicry

text: Both camouflage and mimicry work best when a predator is searching from a distance. When the predator gets close to the prey, and they are sure to be found, some prey switch methods, and flee (run away) or fight back. This behaviour is almost always instinctive. In any event, whether cryptic (hidden) or not, the prey's behaviour must match its mimicry. If it looks like a leaf twisting in the wind, then it has to twist in the wind. Almost all forms of mimicry involve appropriate behaviour to reinforce the visual impression.


title: Mimicry

text: Not all animals use camouflage because there are situations where it is good to show themselves off. One case is the need to find and keep a mate. Many male animals have some bright colours during the mating season, or change their behaviour and come out into the open. Without this, they might not succeed in mating. Their females, on the other hand, are usually dowdy and camouflaged. This pattern occurs in almost all animals where the male displays and the female chooses. There is at least one good reason the female stays camouflaged. The moment she is fertilized she carries the precious cargo: the eggs that will form part of the next generation.


title: Mimicry

text: Animals that are dangerous, or foul to eat, usually advertise the fact. This is called warning or "aposematic colouration". It is the exact opposite of camouflage. Warning colours are vivid, often some of black, white, red, yellow.


title: Mimicry

text: Some individual animals will die or receive damage while birds or mammals on the attack learn about the connection between colour and taste. However, if warning costs less than hiding, the animal benefits. And the advertising traits such as colours may serve other functions as well. The patterns may help mate identification within the species, for instance.


title: Mimicry

text: The fact that some animals are genuinely dangerous or noxious (disgusting) to eat gives the opportunity for mimicry based on warning colouration: Müllerian and Batesian mimicry.


title: Mimicry

text: In Müllerian mimicry, some species with warning colouration come to look like each other. English naturalist Henry Walter Bates first noticed that some distasteful butterflies resembled one another, which he wrote about in 1862. However, he did not give a good explanation; that was left to German naturalist Fritz Müller in 1878. Müller's explanation was simple: "Both species benefit from a common pattern". They share the cost of predators learning of their foul taste. Only one learning experience per predator might well be enough to deter it from eating both species.


title: Mimicry

text: The butterflies Bates, Wallace and Müller watched and collected were brightly coloured and slow-moving. They often flew in groups which were highly visible. Despite this, they were avoided by birds. This is typical of aposematic (warning) colouration. The colouring of some species from the same area was so perfect that even experienced naturalists could not tell them apart on the wing.


title: Mimicry

text: Once they were collected, and set out on a board so the details could be seen, it became clear they were not all of the same species, and often not from the same biological families. The similar warning colours of hornets, wasps and some bees is Müllerian if they live in the same geographical region, so that a predator might, before learning, choose any of them.


title: Mimicry

text: Tests show that birds do learn what to eat by sampling when they are young. All aspects of this situation have been the subject of research. Field and experimental work on these ideas continues to this day.


title: Mimicry

text: In Batesian mimicry, the mimic is a "sheep in wolf's clothing": it looks like something dangerous or which tastes disgusting, but in reality it is good to eat. As he was exploring the Amazon valley in the 1850s, Bates collected butterflies. He saw how some harmless butterflies looked like other species which were toxic. Birds avoided them, so "the mimics survived even though they were good food". This was the first scientific account of mimicry.


title: Mimicry

text: Hoverflies often visit flowers to feed on nectar. They are harmless insects which often mimic wasps and bees. They also fly in a slow, erratic fashion, rather like wasps and bees. Often their mimicry is not perfect, and you can easily tell them apart once they have settled. However, even an imperfect mimic might cause a bird to hesitate, and that may save their life.


title: Mimicry

text: Biologists still do research on Batesian and Müllerian mimicry. They study how the models differ in their foul taste; and what happens when the ratio of mimics to models varies. Quite often, it is only the female which is a mimic; the male carries the normal appearance of its genus. The females need more protection, while the males need to mate. A more subtle reason is that it halves the number of mimics, and so bolsters the effectiveness of the mimicry. Batesian mimicry might damage the warning effect if the frequency of mimics became high, because more young birds would taste them and be encouraged to try again. "The benefit of warning declines if there are more mimics".


title: Mimicry

text: This may explain cases such as "Papilio dardanus", an African swallowtail, whose females mimic a number of unpalatable species from the Danaidae: survival is higher when each mimetic form is rare relative to its model. The advantage is probably greater for the females, because males do not show the mimetic patterns; sexual selection probably helps to maintain this difference. These, and other issues, have been researched for many years.


title: Mimicry

text: With this type of insect the life is split into stages (see complete metamorphosis). The larva is the growth stage, the adult is the reproductive stage. The larvae, too, show camouflage, aposematic colour and mimicry. It is the larvae that pick up the offensive chemicals from the plants they feed on. However, larvae do not show differences between male and female, because reproduction is not their function.


title: Mimicry

text: In tropical countries, field research has shown that there are large numbers of species involved in mimicry. 54 species of "Heliconius" are recognised, with over 700 named colour forms. There are four (or perhaps five) assemblages of butterflies, which include the heliconiines and their mimics. These 'mimicry rings' are called "tiger", "red", "blue" and "orange" for short. Members of each ring tend to roost together at night, fly to similar habitats and at the same time of year. Mimicry rings include both Müllerian and Batesian mimicry.


title: Mimicry

text: Vavilovian mimicry occurs in plants where a weed comes to look like a crop plant. It is named after Nikolai Vavilov, a Russian plant breeder who discovered the idea. Before herbicides, weeds were plucked by hand. This has been done for thousands of years. The weeds come to look like the crop because the weeders pick those weeds which look most different. Vavilovian mimicry is caused by unintentional selection by humans. The weeds that survive pass on their genes. Gradually, all the weeds look more like the crop plant.


title: Mimicry

text: An example is rye, a common Mediterranean species. Rye was originally just a weed growing with wheat and barley. Weeding made it like the crop. Like wheat, it came to have larger seeds and more rigid spindles to which the seeds are attached. Rye is a tougher plant than wheat: it survives in harsher conditions. Having become a crop like the wheat, rye was able to become a crop plant in harsh areas, such as hills and mountains.


title: Mimicry

text: This type of mimicry is quite common. It is the bible metaphor of the "wolf in sheep's clothing". The mimicry works to entice a victim, who is then eaten, or otherwise taken advantage of. Angler fish, insectivorous plants and the cuckoo are all examples. All these groups are widespread, and there is no doubt that the aggressive mimicry is a successful life-style.


title: Mimicry

text: The next two examples introduce another metaphor, that of the "siren". The Australian katydid "Chlorobalius leucoviridis" can attract male cicadas by imitating the species-specific reply clicks of sexually receptive female cicadas. Playback experiments show that "C. leucoviridis" is able to attract males of many cicada species, even though cicada mating signals are species-specific.


title: Mimicry

text: Female fireflies of the genus "Photuris" emit the same light signals that females of other genera use as a mating signal. Further research showed male fireflies from several different genera are attracted to these mimics, and are subsequently captured and eaten. Female signals are based on that received from the male, each female having a repertoire of signals matching the delay and duration of the female of the corresponding species.


title: Mimicry

text: Luring is not a necessary condition however, as the predator may have a significant advantage by not being identified as such. They may resemble a mutualistic symbiont or a species of little relevance to the prey.


title: Mimicry

text: Aggressive mimicry may be used by some parasites as a means of getting to their next host. A parasitic trematode (flatworm) lives in the gut of songbirds. Their eggs pass out, and are then eaten by a snail which lives in moist environments. The eggs develop into larvae inside this second host. Unlike related species, these larvae are brightly coloured and able to pulsate. A sac full of spores forces its way into the snail's eye stalks, and pulsates at high speed. This causes the tentacle to enlarge. It also affects the host's behaviour: the snail moves towards light, which it usually avoids. These factors make the sporocysts highly conspicuous, and they are soon eaten by a hungry songbird. The snail then regenerates its eye stalks, and carries on with its life cycle.


title: Mimicry

text: Cleaner fish are the allies of many other species, which allow them to eat their parasites and dead skin. Some allow the cleaner to go inside their mouth to hunt these parasites. One species of cleaner, the bluestreak cleaner wrasse ("Labroides dimidiatus"), shown to the right cleaning a grouper, lives in coral reefs in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is recognized by other fish who allow it to clean them.


title: Mimicry

text: Its imposter, the mimetic sabre-toothed blenny ("Aspidontus taeniatus"), also lives in the Indian Ocean. It not only looks like the wrasse in terms of size and colour, but even mimics the cleaner's 'dance'. After fooling its prey into letting its guard down, the blenny then bites it, tearing off a piece of its fin before fleeing the scene. Fish attacked in this manner soon learn to distinguish mimic from model, but because the similarity is close they become much more cautious of the model as well. Due to victim's ability to discriminate between foe and helper, the blennies have evolved close similarity, right down to the regional level.


title: Mimicry

text: A phenomenon sometimes called "auto-mimicry" is when the model belongs to the same species as the mimic. An example is the monarch butterfly "Danaus plexippus", which feeds on milkweed plants. The butterflies store toxins from the plant, which they maintain even in their adult forms. As the levels of toxin vary depending on diet during the larval stage, some monarchs will be more toxic than others.


title: Mimicry

text: Less palatable individuals can be thought of as mimics of the more dangerous individuals. They carry exactly the same warning colours as the more toxic individuals, but their punishment for predators is weaker. In species where one sex may be more of a threat than the other, if the two sexes look alike one can protect the other. Evidence came from a monkey from Gabon, which regularly ate male moths of the genus "Anaphe", but promptly stopped after it tasted a noxious female.


title: Mimicry

text: It is common for small prey animals to make their head less visible. Some also make the least vital part of their body look like a head. This, like the eye-spots on some butterflies, is a deflection technique. A peck or bite on the false head will just be an inconvenience, whereas a peck on the head would be fatal.


title: Mimicry

text: Many animals use more than one type of mimicry. This is seen in butterflies, who usually rest with wings folded upwards. They usually have different patterns on the underside of wings. The underside may be cryptic, while the upper side has some warning pattern. Moths, which rest with wings horizontal, may have different patterns on the rear wings. The rear wings are normally covered by the front wings at rest, but can be revealed if the moth is disturbed. This tactic occurs in moths which are active in daytime or twilight. The scarlet tiger moth uses both camouflage and warning colour according to its situation. It is a fine example of how behaviour and mimicry work together.


title: Mimicry

text: The earliest known example of leaf mimicry among insects has been found in the Middle Jurassic of 165 million years ago. The insects are lacewings (Neuroptera), and the leaves are from cycads or related gymnosperms. This is interesting because it shows this type of mimicry evolved long before flowering plants arose.


title: Piracy

text: Piracy can mean different things; it can be a crime that is committed. A human on a ship at sea is called a pirate and usually has small, fast boats. Pirates use such boats to attack other ships, which are usually large cargo ships.


title: Piracy

text: For as long as ships have sailed the sea, there have been pirates.Piracy still happens often in the Gulf of Aden, mostly by Somali pirates. Ancient Egypt and the Romans, Medieval kings, and the British Empire dealt with pirates. Fighting pirates has sometimes been one of the most important roles of a navy.


title: Piracy

text: Modern pirates usually climb onto ships to get money. In the process, they may kill the crew or hold it for ransom. In a very few cases, they may also take over the ship and sell its cargo.


title: Piracy

text: The cargo ships that travel the oceans are huge, but they usually have very few crew members working on them. Their size often makes the ships carry a lot of money in the safe. The money is used to pay the crew, to pay for the taxes to stay at a port, or to pass through a channel.


title: Édgar Vivar

text: Dr. Édgar Ángel Vivar Villanueva (born December 28, 1944) is a Mexican actor. He is best remembered as "Señor Barriga" and his son "Ñoño" from "El Chavo del Ocho", and as "El Botija" from "El Chapulín Colorado" and in "Chespirito".


title: Jack Grealish

text: Jack Peter Grealish (born 10 September 1995) is an English footballer who plays for as a winger or attacking midfielder for Manchester City and the English national team.


title: Period 3 element

text: A period 3 element is an element found on the third period (row) of the periodic table. The row has eight elements sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, and argon.


title: Period 3 element

text: Period 3 elements have electrons in the first three electron shells. The first and second electron shells are always full. The third electron shell (valence electrons) fills when atomic number gets bigger. Two electrons join the 3s orbital, and six electrons join the 3p orbitals.


title: Marrakesh

text: Marrakesh, or Marrakech (Berber: ; ) is an important city in the African country of Morocco. It is the fourth largest city in the country. Marrakesh is the capital of the economic region of Marrakesh-Tensift-El Haouz.


title: Marrakesh

text: Marrakesh is the most important city out of all of Morocco's cities that used to be imperial cities. Berber farmers lived in Marrakesh during Neolithic times. Abu Bakr ibn Umar, the chieftain and cousin of the king of the Almoravids Yusuf ibn Tashfin, founded Marrakesh in the year 1062. The Almoravids built many schools and mosques in Marrakesh. Marrakesh has the name "Red City" because a lot of it is made out of red sandstone.


title: Marrakesh

text: Marrakesh got bigger very quickly and became a cultural, religious, and trading center for sub-Saharan Africa. The mayor of Marrakesh Fatima Zahra Mansouri is the second woman mayor in Morocco.


title: Marrakesh

text: One of the things that most attract travellers to Morocco and, specifically, to the city of Marrakech, is the endless activities available and especially its variety.


title: Marrakesh

text: The most interesting and well-known are desert excursions from Marrakech, but in reality, you have many options: we are talking about excursions to the beach. There in the city itself, you do not have them, but there are many beaches near Marrakech that you can visit without much complication.


title: Vitamin A

text: Vitamin A is a vitamin, a group of organic chemicals including retinal and several carotenoids. The human body does not make these chemicals, and must take them from food. Egg yolks and liver are both rich in vitamin A. Many parts of the body need vitamin A. For example, vitamin A helps sight and is good for the immune system. It is also important for a growing embryo.


title: Vitamin A

text: β-carotene, a provitamin found in foods like carrots can be converted to vitamin A. The efficiency of the conversion depends on genetics and fat consumption.


title: Vitamin A

text: Too little vitamin A is dangerous to health. People who do not get enough of the vitamin may lose the ability to see in poor light and suffer from a weakened immune system. They may also have problems with memory, because vitamin A is important for the brain. People with malnutrition often have too little vitamin A. This is common in poor countries.


title: Vitamin A

text: Too much vitamin A is also dangerous to one's health. It is a condition known as hypervitaminosis. Vitamin A is not soluble in water, and the human body can not get rid of the excess vitamin A easily by urination. Too much vitamin A can make someone very sick. People may get too much vitamin A from taking too many vitamin pills or from eating too much A-rich food like liver.


title: Vitamin A

text: What applies to humans applies to all mammals at least. Some large predators, such as the big cats, seem not to eat their preys' livers. On the other hand, polar bears apparently do so, and they store vitamin A in their liver cells. However, they have long, sometimes very long, periods between kills. In contrast, African big cats kill about every three or four days, and they do seem to avoid eating the preys' livers.


title: Khan (title)

text: Khagan means 'Khan of Khans' but is often (incorrectly) 'shortened' to Khan. This is similar to how the Persian "Shahanshah," 'King of Kings', is usually simply called the Shah. Genghis was also called the 'Great Khan' like how Ottoman Padishah was called the 'Great Sultan'.


title: Khan (title)

text: Khan now has many equivalent meanings such as commander, leader, or ruler. It is sometimes translated as king or prince (but khan is a bit different). Originally khans led small tribes.


title: Khan (title)

text: There have been several variations on the title used in modern times. "Khan Bahadur" or "Khan Sahib" was a title of honor, granted by India to Muslims who had done major deeds of valor, or service to the nation or government. The Hindu counterpart for this title was "Rai Bahadur" or "Rai Sahib". This title was normally granted in addition to other awards and decorations and added either before or after a person's actual name as a prefix or suffix.


title: Khan (title)

text: The title "Khan" became well known when Mongol Temüjin conquered most of Eurasia and formed the Mongol Empire. It was the greatest land empire the world ever saw.


title: Kingdom of England

text: The Kingdom of England (French: Royaume d'Angleterre) was a country in Western Europe. It was the land in the south of the island of Great Britain. It is now two home nations. The present home nations that were part of the Kingdom of England are England and Wales.


title: Kingdom of England

text: Before the Romans arrived, what is now considered to be modern Britain consisted of around twenty two tribes. Following the collapse of the Roman Empire in Britain, seven tribes or kingdoms existed until in 827, Northumbria submitted to Egbert of Wessex at Dore, briefly making Egbert the first king to reign over a united England.


title: Kingdom of England

text: It ended on 1 May 1707 with the Acts of Union 1707, which added Scotland to the Kingdom to form the Kingdom of Great Britain.


title: Sudha Murty

text: Sudha Murty (' Kulkarni; born 19 August 1950) is an Indian educator, writer and philanthropist. She is the chairperson of the Infosys Foundation. She is married to the co-founder of Infosys, N. R. Narayana Murthy.


title: Sudha Murty

text: Murty was awarded the Padma Shri, the fourth highest civilian award in India, for social work by the Government of India in 2006.


title: Therapy

text: Therapy, in the medical field also called treatment, is what people do to try to solve or care for a health problem, physical or mental. When a person is ill or injured, a doctor may make a medical diagnosis and then recommend a therapy to try to make the person well. The therapy can be, for example, medications (drugs), surgery or a change of diet.


title: Therapy

text: A person who does therapy as a job is called a therapist. There are many kinds of therapists. for example:


title: Nanometre

text: The nanometre (symbol: nm) is a unit used to measure length in the metric system. It is equal to one billionth of a metre () and for kilometre, it is equal to one trillionth of a kilometre (1 km / 1,000,000,000,000). The name combines the SI prefix "nano-" (from the Ancient Greek , ', "dwarf") with the parent unit name "metre" (from Greek , ', "unit of measurement"). It can be written in scientific notation as 1×10 m.


title: Nanometre

text: The nanometre is often used to express very tiny dimensions, such as measuring atoms. The nanometre is also commonly used to measure the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation near the part of the spectrum that can be seen by humans. Visible light ranges from around 400 to 800 nm.


title: Nanometre

text: The nanometre was formerly called the millimicrometre (or the millimicron). This is because it is 1/1000 of a micrometre, and was written with the symbol mµ (or sometimes µµ).


title: Paprika

text: Paprika is a spice made from the grinding of dried sweet red bell peppers. The word comes from a Turkish word meaning "pepper". In many non-English speaking European countries, the word "paprika" also refers to bell peppers themselves. The seasoning is used in many cuisines to add color and flavor to cooked foods.


title: Om Birla

text: Om Birla (born 23 November 1962) is an Indian politician. He is the 17th and current Speaker of the Lok Sabha since 2019. He has been a Member of Parliament for the Kota-Bundi constituency in Rajasthan since 2014. He is a member of the Bharatiya Janata Party.


title: Second Boer War

text: The Second Boer War (, or "Tweede Boereoorlog") was a war. It lasted from 11 October 1899 until 31 May 1902. In the war, the British Empire fought against the Afrikaans-speaking Dutch settlers of two independent Boer republics, the South African Republic (Transvaal Republic) and the Orange Free State. Winston Churchill, who later became famous, was captured but escaped. At this time, the British made use of concentration camps. This weakened the Boers. It helped the British stop the war from lasting any longer.


title: Second Boer War

text: The British troops won the war. As a result, both republics were annexed to the British Empire. Later, both were eventually incorporated into the Union of South Africa, a dominion of the British Empire, in 1910. The conflict is commonly referred to as The Boer War but it is also known as the South African War outside South Africa, the Anglo-Boer War among most South Africans, and in Afrikaans as the "Anglo-Boereoorlog" or "Tweede Vryheidsoorlog" ("Second War of Liberation" or lit. "Second Freedom War") or the Engelse oorlog (English War).


title: Second Boer War

text: The Second Boer War is a part of what are known as the Boer Wars. These include the lesser known First Boer War that took place from December 1880 to March 1881.


title: Rockabilly

text: Rockabilly is an early type of rock and roll music. It developed in the 1950s in the United States. Rockabilly was very popular amongst teenagers. Many parents of teenagers did not like rockabilly music, because it had lyrics which talked about rebelling against rules, sex and drinking alcohol. Rockabilly musicians often wear slicked-back hair, jeans, and leather jackets.


title: Rockabilly

text: Rockabilly music has musical styles from blues music and country music. It uses the acoustic guitar, the electric guitar, the double bass, drums, and singing. Some Rockabilly songs also use the piano or the harmonica. Rockabilly music usually has a strong rhythm from the double bass being played in a "slap" style. Rockabilly singers often use a wide range, with high notes and many shouts like “go man go” and "yeah!"


title: Rockabilly

text: One of the earliest musicians who played rockabilly music was Elvis Presley. Another famous rockabilly musician was Carl Perkins, who wrote the popular song "Blue Suede Shoes". Jerry Lee Lewis was a piano player who sang. Jerry Lee Lewis was known for his crazy behavior on stage, which audiences liked. Lewis would play the piano with his feet, elbows and butt.


title: Rockabilly

text: Gene Vincent was a rockabilly musician who wore black leather and sang songs about sex and getting into trouble. Vincent's most popular song is “Be-Bop-A-Lula”. Eddie Cochran wrote songs about teen life, and had hit songs like “Summertime Blues” and “C’mon Everybody.”


title: Rockabilly

text: Rockabilly became popular again in the 1980s, when bands such as the Stray Cats became popular. In the 1990s and 2000s, there are still many bands playing rockabilly music or music influenced by rockabilly, such as Tiger Army.


title: Albuterol

text: Albuterol (also called salbutamol outside of the United States) is a type of medicine. It is a bronchodilator. This means it makes the bronchi - the tubes that bring oxygen to the lungs - get wider. This makes it easier for oxygen to get to the lungs. From the lungs, oxygen goes into the blood and travels to the rest of the body. In medicine, albuterol is called a "β2 adrenergic receptor agonist."


title: Albuterol

text: Albuterol is a generic medicine. In Canada and the United Kingdom, this generic drug is called salbutamol.


title: Albuterol

text: There are many different brand names for albuterol. The most common are Accuneb, ProAir, Proventil, and Ventolin.


title: Albuterol

text: Sometimes, diseases like asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) make the bronchi get narrower. This makes it harder for oxygen to get to the lungs. This can cause trouble breathing or even respiratory failure, which means the body is not getting enough oxygen to survive.


title: Albuterol

text: Every part of the body needs oxygen to live. Without enough oxygen, parts of the body - like the brain - will start to die. Finally, a person's heart can stop if they do not get enough oxygen for a long enough time.


title: Albuterol

text: Albuterol can often keep these things from happening. Often, people with diseases like asthma or COPD are prescribed albuterol inhalers. As soon as they start having trouble breathing, they can use the inhaler to breathe albuterol right into their lungs. The albuterol will stop the bronchi from getting narrower, and will make them wider again. This makes it possible for normal amounts of oxygen to get to the lungs.


title: Albuterol

text: Albuterol can also cause tachycardia (fast heart rate) and palpitations (feeling like the heart is pounding or fluttering). Because of this, albuterol is used carefully in people who have heart problems.


title: Albuterol

text: Albuterol is also used by some for weight loss. Albuterol can cause rapid heartbeat or tachycardia. It causes blood pressure to rise and causes irregular heartbeats called cardiac arrhythmia. Bodybuilders sometimes use albuterol before contests to lose body fat and retain muscle. Abuterol is not approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for weight loss. Any abuse of Albuterol by taking too much can lead to a stroke or heart attack.


title: Carl Friedrich Gauss

text: Carl Friedrich Gauss (pronunciation: , Latin: Carolus Fridericus Gauss) (30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a famous mathematician from Göttingen, Germany. Gauss contributed to many areas of learning. Most of his work was about number theory and astronomy.


title: Carl Friedrich Gauss

text: He was born in Braunschweig. That city was then part of the duchy of Braunschweig-Lüneburg. Today the city is part of Lower Saxony. As a child, he was a prodigy, meaning he was very clever. When he was 3 years old, he told his father that he had incorrectly measured something on his complicated payroll. Gauss was correct. Gauss also taught himself to read.


title: Carl Friedrich Gauss

text: When he was in elementary school, his teacher once tried to keep the children busy, telling them to add up all the numbers from 1 to 100. Gauss did it quickly, like this: 1 + 100 = 101, 2 + 99 = 101, 3 + 98 = 101, and so on. There were a total of 50 pairs, so 50 × 101 = 5,050. The formula is formula_1. According to this archived website, the problem given to Gauss was actually more difficult to do.


title: Carl Friedrich Gauss

text: The Duke of Brunswick gave Gauss a fellowship to the Collegium Carolinum, where he attended from 1792 to 1795. This meant that the Duke paid for the education of Carl Friedrich Gauss at the Collegium. After this, Gauss went to the University of Göttingen, from 1795 to 1798.


title: Carl Friedrich Gauss

text: When Gauss was 23, scientists spotted the asteroid Ceres but they did not see it for long enough to know its orbit. Gauss made calculations that let them locate it.


title: Carl Friedrich Gauss

text: Later in life Gauss stopped working on pure math and turned to physics. He did work in electromagnetism and made an early electrical telegraph.


title: Carl Friedrich Gauss

text: Gauss wrote Disquisitiones Arithmeticae which is a book about number theory. In that book he proved the law of Quadratic reciprocity. He also was the first mathematician to explain Modular arithmetic in a very detailed way. Before Gauss, mathematicians had used modular arithmetic in some cases but did not know much about using it broadly.


title: Brno

text: Brno (-Czech, German: "Brünn") is the second largest city in the Czech Republic. About 400,000 people live there. It is in the center of the historical region Moravia. Brno is the capital of the South Moravian Region.


title: Brno

text: There are many historical monuments in the city, for example the Špilberk Castle, Villa Tugendhat, or the St. Peter and Paul Cathedral.


title: Brno

text: Masaryk University, the second largest university in the Czech Republic, is there. Among other universities in the city are Janáček Academy of Music and Performing Arts or Brno University of Technology.


title: Angers

text: Angers is a city in the west of France. Around 160,000 inhabitants live inside the city and 300,000 live in the metropolitan area.


title: Angers

text: It is the capital of the historical province called Anjou. Today, the name of Anjou is Maine-et-Loire. The inhabitants of Angers and of Anjou are called 'angevins'.


title: Angers

text: The city existed before the Roman Empire. After the Roman conquest, the city was called Juliomagus. Angers was an important French city during the Middle-Ages. There is one of the bigger castles of Europe in the city.


title: Angers

text: It is now the 16th city of France (for its population). It is an economic center, a touristic and cultural town. Many festivals happen every year in the city (film festival 'Premiers plans', street festivals 'Tours de scène' and the famous 'Accroches-coeurs'). It has many museums. The museum of Beaux-Arts (a famous Art museum) and "Apocalypse Tapestry" (the oldest and largest collection of medieval tapestries in the world) are very famous.


title: Angers

text: There are two universities. More than 17,000 students go to the 'Université d'Angers' (a state university) and 12,000 go to the 'Université Catholique de l'Ouest' (a private catholic university). The 'École supérieure des sciences commerciales d'Angers' is one of the most prestigious business school in France.


title: Fasting

text: Fasting is a kind of abstinence. It is when someone does not eat or drink for some specified period of time. It is only the case if the person does so of his or her own will. It may also be that the person only eats and drinks certain kinds of food. Most often, fasting is done for religious reasons. Depending on the tradition, fasting practices may forbid sexual intercourse, (or any sexual desire), masturbation, as well as refraining from eating certain types or groups of food (e.g. meat).


title: Fasting

text: Fasting for religious and spiritual reasons has been a part of human custom since pre-history. It is mentioned in the Qur'an, in the Mahabharata, in the Upanishads, and in the Bible, in both the Old and New Testament. In Buddhism it is also taught as a way to getting Nirvana.


title: Fasting

text: In almost all cases, there are exceptions for observing the fasting. These are made for the following groups of people


title: Pizza Hut

text: Pizza Hut is an American pizza restaurant, or pizza parlor. Pizza Hut also serves salads, pastas and bread sticks. In 2008, Pizza Hut serves chicken wings as a part of the Wingstreet restaurant franchise logo. Pizza Hut is an American restaurant chain and international franchise founded in 1958 by Dan and Frank Carney. The company is known for its Italian-American cuisine menu, including pizza and pasta, as well as side dishes and desserts.


title: Pizza Hut

text: Pizza Hut was founded in 1958 in Wichita, Kansas, by Dan and Frank Carvey. The first Pizza Hut location was at a intersection in Wichita.


title: Knoxville, Tennessee

text: Knoxville is the third-largest city in the state of Tennessee, in the United States of America. The largest city in the state is Memphis, followed by Nashville, the capital of Tennessee. Knoxville is the county seat of Knox County. In 2010, it had a population of 178,874.


title: Knoxville, Tennessee

text: The city has been often called "The Streaking Capital of the World" and "The Underwear Capital of the World".


title: Knoxville, Tennessee

text: Knoxville was founded in 1786 and is the second oldest of Tennessee's four major cities, after Nashville which was founded in 1779. After Tennessee's admission into the Union in 1796, Knoxville was the state's first capital. In 1819, the capital was moved to Murfreesboro, prior to Nashville becoming the current capital. The city was named in honor of the first Secretary of War, Henry Knox.


title: Knoxville, Tennessee

text: Knoxville's economy is largely fueled by the regional location of the main campus of the University of Tennessee, the and other Department of Energy facilities in nearby , the National Transportation Research Center, and the Tennessee Valley Authority.


title: Knoxville, Tennessee

text: Knoxville's textile and manufacturing industries were hurt by foreign competition in the 1950s and 1960s. After the building of the Interstate Highway system in the 1960s, the railroad—which had been largely responsible for Knoxville's industrial growth—began to decline. Suburban shopping malls in the 1970s took retail revenues away from Knoxville's Downtown area. So, the city sought to recover the massive loss of revenue by trying to annex neighboring communities in Knox County. People fought these annexation attempts. Several efforts to combine all of the Knoxville and Knox County governments failed. But the city and county school boards merged on 1 July 1987.


title: Knoxville, Tennessee

text: Knoxville tried to improve its downtown. The 1982 World's Fair—the most successful of these projects—became one of the most popular world's fairs in U.S. history with 11 million visitors. The fair's energy theme was selected due to Knoxville being the headquarters of the Tennessee Valley Authority and for the city's proximity to the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The Sunsphere, a steel truss structure topped with a gold-colored glass sphere, was built for the fair and remains one of Knoxville's most prominent buildings, along with the adjacent amphitheater which underwent a renovation that was completed in 2008.


title: Knoxville, Tennessee

text: Ever since, Knoxville's downtown has been developing, with the opening of the Women's Basketball Hall of Fame and the Knoxville Convention Center, redevelopment of Market Square, a new visitors center, a regional history museum, a Regal Cinemas theater, several restaurants and bars, and many new and redeveloped condominiums. Since 2000 Knoxville has successfully brought business back to the downtown area. The arts in particular have begun to flourish, there are multiple venues for outdoor concerts. The Tennessee and Bijou Theaters were renovated.


title: Bacteriophage

text: Bacteriophages are among the most common and diverse entities in the biosphere. Like viruses that infect eukaryotes (plants, animals, and fungi) there are many different phage structures and functions.


title: Bacteriophage

text: The top of phages is made up of a dice-like shape which has 20 sides and 30 edges. Inside it contains the genetic information, which is its DNA. This dice-like shape often sits on a tail that has leg-like fibres.


title: Bacteriophage

text: Phages are typically made of an outer protein hull that has genetic material inside it. The genetic material may be single-stranded (ssRNA or ssDNA), or double-stranded (dsRNA or dsDNA). It may be between 5,000 to 500,000 base pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement. Bacteriophages are usually between 20 and 200 nanometers in size.


title: Bacteriophage

text: Phage genomes may code for as few as four genes, and as many as hundreds of genes. Phages have a life cycle that begins when the phage attaches to the bacterium. Then they inject their genome into the bacterium. The genome uses the parts of the bacterium to replicate inside it. When there are many phages inside the bacterium, they put enzymes in the bacterium that weaken the outer cell wall so they can burst through it to infect new bacterias.