title: Utah

text: Much of the population lives in cities and towns along the Wasatch Front, a region that runs north-south with the Wasatch Mountains rising on the eastern side. Growth outside the Wasatch Front is also increasing. The St. George metropolitan area is right now the second-fastest growing in the country after the Las Vegas metropolitan area, while the Heber metropolitan area is also the second-fastest growing in the country (right in front of Palm Coast, Florida).


title: Utah

text: The University of Utah says that the gross state product of Utah in 2005 was $92 billion, or 0.74% of the total United States GDP of $12.4 trillion for the same year. The per capital personal income was $24,977 in 2005. Major companies of Utah are: mining, cattle ranching, salt production, and government services.


title: Utah

text: In eastern Utah petroleum making is a big industry. Near Salt Lake City, petroleum refining is done by a number of oil companies. In central Utah, coal mining accounts for much of the mining activity.


title: Utah

text: Utah has a high total birth rate, and the youngest population of any U.S. state. It is also one of the few non-Southern states that has more males than females.


title: Utah

text: Most of the state's people are members of "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints", commonly referred to as the Mormons or the LDS Church. As of 2007, 60.7 percent of everyone in the state are members of "The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints". Mormons are not as common as they used to be in Salt Lake City. Usually, rural areas are almost all Mormon. Though the LDS Church does not support or oppose any political parties, the church's doctrine has a strong connection with politics. In the past, many of Utah's lawmakers have been church members; the effect has contributed to the state's towards alcohol (sales and content) and gambling. Another effect can be seen in Utah's high birth rate (25 percent higher than the national normal; the highest for a state in the U.S.). The Mormons in Utah normally have conservative views when it comes to most political . Most voter-age Utahns do not belong to a political party (60%), but vote mostly for Republicans. John McCain got 62.5% of the vote in the 2008 Presidential Election while 70.9% of people of Utah chose George W. Bush in 2004.


title: Utah

text: Utah's population is concentrated in two areas, the Wasatch Front in the North-Central part of the state, with a population of over 2 million; and southwestern Utah, locally known as "Dixie", with nearly 150,000 people who live there.


title: Utah

text: According to the 2000 Census, Utah was the fourth fastest growing state (at 29.6 percent) in the United States between 1990 and 2000. St. George, in the southwest, is the second-fastest growing area in the United States, right behind Greeley, Colorado.


title: Utah

text: The state's two fastest growing counties are: "Summit" (at 91.6 percent; ranking it 8th in the country) and "Washington" (at 86.1 percent; ranking it 12th). The cities (defined as having at least 9,000 people living there in 2000) that saw the greatest increases between 1990 and 2000 were: "Draper" (248 percent), "South Jordan" (141 percent), "Lehi" (125 percent), "Riverton" (122 percent), and "Syracuse" (102 percent). Between 1990 and 2000 the five fastest-growing cities of any size were "Cedar Hills" (302 percent), "Draper" (248 percent), "Woodland Hills" (213 percent), "Ivins" (173 percent), and "South Jordan" (141 percent). The U.S. Census Bureau estimates, the five fastest-growing cities of any size between 2000 and 2008 were "Saratoga Springs" (1,501%), "Herriman" (1,061%), "Eagle Mountain" (934%), "Cedar Hills" (209%), and "Lehi" (146%).


title: Elephant

text: Elephants are large grey animals with big ears, long noses and white tusks. They are the largest living land mammals. The largest elephant recorded was one shot in Angola, 1974. It weighed 27,060 pounds (12.25 tonnes) and stood 13 feet 8 inches (4.17 m) tall.


title: Elephant

text: At birth, an elephant calf may weigh as much as 100 kg (225 pounds). The baby elephant develops for 20 to 22 months inside its mother. No other land animal takes this long to develop before being born.


title: Elephant

text: In the wild, elephants have strong family relationship. Their ways of acting toward other elephants are hard for people to understand. They "talk" to each other with very low sounds. Most elephants sounds are so low, people cannot hear them. But elephants can hear these sounds far away. Elephants have strong, leathery skin to protect themselves.


title: Elephant

text: There are two living genera of elephants. These are the African "Loxodonta africanus", and the Asian elephants "Elephas maximus".


title: Elephant

text: An elephant's most obvious part is the trunk. The trunk is a very long nose, made from the upper lip. An elephant uses its trunk to grab objects such as food. Though the rest of an elephant's skin is strong and thick, its trunk is very soft and sensitive. Elephants avoid Acacia trees with ants because they can bite the inside of an elephant's trunk. The trunk is also used when it trumpets. The elephant usually stands still, raises its trunk, and blows. This is a signal to other elephants and wildlife.


title: Elephant

text: A lot of ivory comes from elephant tusks. Ivory traders killed many elephants, so now hunting them is illegal.


title: Elephant

text: In total, they have 24 teeth: 12 front teeth, called premolars, and 12 back teeth, called molars. When the last molar wears out, the elephant dies because it cannot eat. They can live for about 70 years. But in a zoo or circus, people can keep elephants alive by feeding them soft food.


title: Elephant

text: Grass wears down their teeth because it has a high concentration of silica and is very abrasive. Elephants use their teeth in sequence, not all at once. This means that, at any time, they only have one tooth in each jaw, a total of four.


title: Elephant

text: African elephants are larger and have bigger ears. They are grazers who still do quite a lot of browsing: they eat leaves, branches and grass. These big ears have many "veins", which carry blood throughout the body. Biologists think that the blood going through their ears helps African elephants to cool off. The weather is hotter in Africa than in Asia, so cooling is important for African elephants. Female African elephants have tusks, but female Asian elephants do not. African elephants have a low place in their back. African elephants have two "fingers" at the end of their trunks, but Asian elephants only have one. Indian elephants eat mainly grass.


title: Elephant

text: Some African elephants live on the savanna while others live in the forest. Today, many people think these are different species. Scientists named the forest group Loxodonta cyclotis and the savanna group Loxodonta africanus.


title: Elephant

text: Elephants are distantly related to sea cows, which are large aquatic mammals. Early ancestors in the Palaeocene and Eocene were small, semi-aquatic animals. By the Miocene several groups of large mainly forest-dwelling elephants evolved, the gomphotheres and deinotheres. Their teeth show little wear, indicating a diet of soft, nongritty, forest vegetation.


title: Elephant

text: Modern elephants – the actual family Elephantidae – evolved from gomphotheres as the climate became cooler and drier in the Pliocene and Pleistocene. This includes the mammoth and mastodon as well as modern elephants.


title: Elephant

text: The gomphotheres lasted a long time, and were hunted by modern man. There was a change in plant resources, with the reduced forests and extended grassland. This favoured specialist grass feeders over generalist eaters. This change in the dietary supply was one of the factors which forced gomphotheres toward extinction in the late Pleistocene in South America. The remaining population probably succumbed to climatic change and/or human predation around the time of the Holocene margin.


title: Elephant

text: The significant thing about modern elephants (especially Indian elephants) is that they eat grass: they are primarily grazers, rather than browsers. Compared with gomphotheres, the teeth of modern elephants are quite different.


title: Elephant

text: Humans have used elephants for different things. The Carthaginian general Hannibal took some elephants across the Alps when he fought the Romans. He probably used the North African elephant, a kind of elephant that does not live today. It was smaller than other African elephants. Elephants are used by tourists as rides.


title: Elephant

text: People have used Indian elephants to move around and to have fun. Many circuses have them. Siamese, Indians, and other South Asians used them for several things. They fought in armies, and they crushed criminals. They also did heavy work like lifting trees and moving logs.


title: Elephant

text: However, people have never "domesticated" elephants. Domesticated animals are tame and have babies under human control. The male elephant in heat is dangerous and hard to control. This state is called musth. Most elephants used by people are female, except those used in war. In a battle, female elephants run from males, so armies needed males. Elephants are used by tourists for riding.


title: Elephant

text: Both African and Asian elephants are endangered species. Elephants in captivity do not make many babies, and some captive elephants are abused and mistreated.


title: Elephant

text: African elephants receive some legal protection in every country where they are found. However, 70% of their range exists outside protected areas. Conservation efforts in some areas have led to more elephants. Local numbers may be controlled by contraception or moving the elephants to other places. Large-scale culling (legal killing) ceased in 1988, when Zimbabwe stopped doing it. In 1989, trade in elephants and their products (ivory, meat) was made illegal. Appendix II status (which allows restricted trade) was given to elephants in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe in 1997 and South Africa in 2000. In some countries, sport hunting of the animals is legal: Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe have export quotas for elephant trophies. The IUCN estimates a total of around 440,000 individuals for 2012.


title: Elephant

text: The total population of Asian elephants is about 40,000–50,000 (a rough estimate). Around half of the population is in India. Although Asian elephants are declining in numbers overall, particularly in Southeast Asia, the population in the Western Ghats may be increasing.


title: Elephant

text: A female elephant will have a single baby (called a "calf") every four or five years. Calves are born tall and weigh around . An elephant's gestation lasts about 22 months. Another female elephant often stays with the new mother until its baby is born. The newborn elephant can often stand within a half hour after it is born. Mother elephants touch their babies gently with their trunks. It takes a baby a year or more to control its trunk and learn its many uses.


title: Elephant

text: Baby elephants nurse for the first two years of their lives. After it is born, the first thing that the baby does is wobble in search of its mother's milk. It drinks about 10 liters of milk every day.


title: Elephant

text: The most famous fictional elephant is Dumbo. It is a flying elephant in a Disney movie. "The Elephant's Child" is one of Rudyard Kipling's "Just So Stories"


title: Elephant

text: The elephant is the symbol for the United States Republican Party. It is like the Democratic Party's donkey. The first person to use the elephant as a symbol for the Republican Party was Thomas Nast. He did that in a Harper's Weekly cartoon in 1874.


title: Blacksmith

text: A blacksmith is a person who works with iron and steel. The blacksmith hammers hot iron on an anvil to change its shape. Blacksmiths make iron and steel tools.


title: Blacksmith

text: A smith is a person who works in metal. A blacksmith works with iron and steel. A thousand years ago, people only knew about seven metals (iron, gold, silver, copper, tin, lead, and mercury). By color: gold is yellow; copper is red; and silver, tin, lead, and mercury are different gray colors. Iron is also a gray color if you shine it, but usually its surface is covered with a black oxide, which is a kind of rust. This black color forms very fast in a blacksmith's fire. The other metals have light colors, but iron is a dark color, so it is called the black metal in English. A smith who works the black metal is a blacksmith.


title: Blacksmith

text: Iron must be very hot to shape with a hammer. Hot iron becomes cold very soon. A blacksmith has only a few seconds to hammer a piece of iron, before it must be put back in the fire to become hot again.


title: Blacksmith

text: A forge is a special oven for metalworking. It burns coal or charcoal in a very hot fire. A bellows pushes air into the forge, to make the fire burn hotter. The blacksmith puts pieces of iron in the fire to make them hot and to keep them hot until they use it.


title: Blacksmith

text: There are a few ways to change a piece of iron's shape with hammer and heat. Here are the most important ways that a blacksmith uses:


title: Blacksmith

text: All metals get harder when a smith hammers or bends them. This is called "work-hardening". If a smith hammers or bends a piece of metal that is already work-hardened, it will crack and break. To make work-hardened metal soft again, so that a smith can hammer and bend it more, the smith anneals the metal.


title: Blacksmith

text: To "anneal" iron or steel, a blacksmith heats the metal until it no longer pulls a magnet, and then makes the metal become cold very slowly. Blacksmiths can cover the hot metal with sand, so that it takes hours to become cold. This makes iron or steel very soft.


title: Blacksmith

text: Steel acts just like iron, until a blacksmith "heat-treats" the steel. This is a special way to make the steel hot and then cold, so that the steel will become hard enough to keep a cutting edge (blade). A blade made from a piece of iron (instead of steel) will very soon become dull and will not cut. Good blades (for knives, chisels, axes, and other tools with cutting edges) are always made of steel, then heat-treated, and then sharpened.


title: Blacksmith

text: To heat-treat steel, a blacksmith heats the steel until it no longer pulls a magnet, then makes the steel become cold very quickly. A blacksmith does this by putting the hot steel into a bucket of water and moving it around until it is cold. This is called "quenching". When this is finished, the steel will be as hard as it can be. This hardness can make it brittle, so if someone hits or drops it, it can break like glass.


title: Blacksmith

text: The next step is to "draw the temper" or "temper" the steel, so that it will not break like glass. To temper steel, a blacksmith polishes a part of the steel so that it is smooth and shiny. The blacksmith then slowly heats the steel in the fire. When the steel is between , the polished steel will turn different colors. These colors do not glow in the dark; they look like dye on the polished steel. As the steel gets hotter from 300 to 650 degrees F, it will turn through the colors: yellow, then brown, then purple, then blue. Yellow means the steel will still be harder, blue means the steel will be softer (but still hard). When the steel turns the color that the blacksmith wants, he puts the steel into a bucket of water to stop the change. Different tools are tempered to different colors, but it also depends on how much carbon there is in the steel. Usually, stone chisels are tempered to yellow, and axes for trees are tempered to blue, but the blacksmith has to decide.


title: Blacksmith

text: A blacksmith does not hammer a blade edge thin. A blacksmith hammers the steel so that the edge stays thick. After the "heat-treat" and "temper", stones are used to grind the blade edge to make it sharp.


title: Blacksmith

text: If a blacksmith has a piece of iron or steel, but does not know which one it is, the blacksmith can heat-treat it like steel. If it does not become hard, then it is not steel. Iron will show the same temper colors as steel, but it will not be hard.


title: Blacksmith

text: If a blacksmith has an old steel tool, and wants to hammer it into a new different tool, the blacksmith anneals the steel. The steel will then be very soft like iron. The blacksmith can then hammer it into a new tool, and heat-treat and temper it, to make a new, hard steel tool.


title: Blacksmith

text: A blacksmith must be careful when hammering hardened steel or work-hardened iron, because small pieces can break off and fly, and these can hurt his or her eyes. Many blacksmiths wear plastic safety glasses to keep their eyes safe.


title: Blacksmith

text: The first blacksmiths were Hittites. They started working iron to make tools around 1500 BC. The ways that tools are made by blacksmiths have changed very little since then.


title: Blacksmith

text: Around 1850, countries like the United States of America and the United Kingdom made new ways to make steel and tools in factories. Factories now make tools faster, and for less money than blacksmiths. There are now very few blacksmiths in countries that have a lot of factories.


title: Blacksmith

text: The few blacksmiths that are still in countries with a lot of factories, make iron that is art. These blacksmiths make gates, stair rails, and chairs and tables for outdoors. People buy this iron as art, because each piece is different from the other pieces.


title: Robert Kardashian

text: Robert George Kardashian (February 22, 1944 – September 30, 2003) was an American lawyer and businessman. He was the lawyer for O. J. Simpson when he was accused for murder. David Schwimmer played his role in the 2016 FX miniseries "".


title: Robert Kardashian

text: Kardashian was an Armenian-American. He was the husband of Kris Jenner and the father of Kourtney, Kim, Khloé and Rob,


title: Robert Kardashian

text: Kardashian was born on February 22, 1944 in Los Angeles, California. He studied at the University of Southern California and at the University of San Diego School of Law.


title: Robert Kardashian

text: Kardashian was married to Kris Jenner from 1978 until they divorced in 1991. Then he was married to Jan Ashley from 1998 until they divorced in 1999. Then he was married to Ellen Pearson from 2003 until his death two months later.


title: Robert Kardashian

text: Kardashian was diagnosed with esophageal cancer in July 2003. Less than eight weeks after his diagnosis, he died at age 59 on September 30, 2003. He was buried at Inglewood Park Cemetery in Inglewood, California.


title: Legend

text: Legends (derived from Latin, "Legenda") are stories in oral tradition and a narrative of human actions. They are usually old but are believed to have taken place within human history. Legends are often passed on by word-of-mouth. Legends have often been transformed over time to keep them realistic.


title: Legend

text: The word is also used for famous or historically significant people, places, events, etc. We sometimes say of someone who is extremely famous that they are a "legend" or "of legendary fame".


title: Legend

text: Examples of legends are Ali Baba, the Fountain of Youth, Paul Bunyan, Kraken, Atlantis, the Loch Ness Monster, and Bigfoot ,Yeti. Some legends are stories about real people; others are not. Odysseus and Robin Hood for example may have been real but most the stories about them are definitely fiction.


title: Legend

text: For some places, legends are the earliest history. For example, the origin of ancient Rome is known only from legends, as are the earliest dynasties in the history of China.


title: Robot

text: Robots are controlled by a computer program or electronic circuitry. They may be directly controlled by humans. They may be designed to look like humans, in which case their behaviour may suggest intelligence or thought but they do not have feelings. Most robots do a specific job, and they do not always look like humans. They can come in many forms.


title: Robot

text: In fiction, however, robots usually look like people, and seem to have a life of their own. There are many books, movies, and video games with robots in them. Isaac Asimov's "I, Robot" is perhaps the most famous.


title: Robot

text: People have been interested in building machines to do work for us for a long time. But it takes time and money to build just one machine, so early ideas were not built.


title: Robot

text: Leonardo da Vinci designed a man-shaped machine to look like a knight in 1464. It would be controlled with ropes and wheels.


title: Robot

text: Other engineers and dreamers drew mechanical men. In 1920, Karel Čapek wrote a story about them, and he used a word from Czech that is connected with 'work': robot.


title: Robot

text: The most successful robot designs in the 20th century were not made to look like people. They were designed for use. George Devol made the first of these, the Unimate, in 1954, with one arm and one hand. General Motors bought it in 1960. The next year, it started work in a factory in New Jersey, lifting and stacking pieces of metal that were too hot for people to touch. The engineers could program it, and reprogram it if they had to.


title: Robot

text: Robots have many uses. Many factories use robots to do hard work quickly and without many mistakes. They do not look like people, because they are made to do things. These are 'industrial' robots. Some robots find and get rid of bombs. If someone makes a mistake, the robot is damaged or destroyed, which is better than a person being killed. There are also robots that help at home, to vacuum or run a lawn mower, for example. Such robots must learn about the area of work.


title: Robot

text: Planet rovers are robots for exploring distant planets. Because it takes a long time to send a radio signal from Earth to another planet, the robots do much of their work alone, without commands from Earth.


title: Robot

text: People still think of robots as having a shape like a person—two legs, two arms, and a head. ASIMO is one robot that is helping scientists learn how to design and program robots. It can walk, which is not easy to program.


title: Robot

text: Roughly half of all the robots in the world are in Asia, 32% in Europe, and 16% in North America, 1% in Australasia and 1% in Africa. 30% of all the robots in the world are in Japan. Japan has the most robots of any country in the world, and is the leader in the world robotics industry. Japan is actually said to be the robotic capital of the world.


title: Robot

text: In Japan and South Korea, ideas of future robots have been mainly positive. The positive reception of robots there may be partly because of the famous cartoon robot, 'Astroboy'. China expressed views on robotics that are similar to those of Japan and South Korea, but China is behind both America and Europe in robotic development. The East Asian view is that robots should be roughly equal to humans. They feel robots could care for old people, teach children, or serve as assistants. The popular opinion of East Asia is that it would be good for robots to become more popular and more advanced. This view is opposite to the popular Western view.


title: Robot

text: "This is the opening of an era in which human beings and robots can co-exist," says Japanese firm Mitsubishi about one of the many human-like robots in Japan. The South Korean Ministry of Information and Communication has predicted that every South Korean household will have a robot by between 2015 and 2020.


title: Robot

text: Western societies are more likely to be against, or even fear the development of robots. Science fiction movies and other stories often show them as dangerous rebels against humanity.


title: Robot

text: The West regards robots as a 'threat' to the future of humans, which is much due to religious influence of the Abrahamic religions, in which creating machines that can think for themselves would almost be playing God. Obviously, these boundaries are not clear, but there is a significant difference between the two ideologies.


title: Robot

text: The writer Isaac Asimov told many stories about robots who had the three laws of robotics to keep humans safe from them.


title: Robot

text: These were not used in real life when he invented them. However, in today's world robots are more complicated, and one day real laws may be needed, much like Isaac Asimov's original three laws.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Saudi Arabia officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , is a country in Western Asia including most of the Arabian Peninsula. The land area is approximately , so Saudi Arabia is geographically the 5th-largest state in Asia and 2nd-largest state in the Arab world after Algeria. Saudi Arabia is bordered by Jordan and Iraq to the north, Kuwait to the northeast, Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates to the east, Oman to the southeast, and Yemen to the south. It is separated from Israel and Egypt by the Gulf of Aqaba. It is the only nation with both a Red Sea coast and a Persian Gulf coast, and most of its land is dry and barren. Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Arabs and Islam and sometimes called "the Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam. Arabic is the exclusive official language in Saudi Arabia.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Sunni Islam is the state religion. The practice of non-Islamic religions is forbidden in public but not in private. The Hanbali school of faith has a big influence, and the ultra-conservative Wahhabism religious movement within Sunni Islam has been called "the predominant feature of Saudi culture".


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Saudi Arabia is the largest state in western Asia by land area (most of the Arabian Peninsula) and the second-largest in the Arab World. It has an estimated population of 27 million, of which 8.8 million are registered foreign expatriates and an estimated 1.5 million are illegal immigrants. Saudi nationals comprise an estimated 16 million people.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Saudi Arabia has the world's largest petroleum reserves and is the world's largest oil exporter. Oil accounts for more than 90% of exports and nearly 75% of government revenues, facilitating the creation of a welfare state. However, human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have expressed concern about the state of human rights in Saudi Arabia.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Saudi Arabia has cities that are important to the Muslim religion. Many Muslims from around the world visit Mecca in Saudi Arabia to make a pilgrimage. The pilgrimage is one of the "pillars of Islam". Other big cities are Riyadh, Jeddah and Dammam. The pilgrimage is called hajj in the Arabic language. Somebody who makes a pilgrimage to Mecca is called a "hajj" in the Arabic language. People who are not Muslim are not allowed to enter Mecca.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: The area of modern-day Saudi Arabia formerly consisted of four distinct regions: Hejaz, Najd, and parts of Eastern Arabia (Al-Ahsa) and Southern Arabia ('Asir). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by Ibn Saud. He united the four regions into a single state through a series of conquests beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. The country has since been an absolute monarchy, governed along Islamic lines.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as "Ibn Saud") in 1932. The conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud. The Saudi Arabian government, which is an absolute monarchy, refers to its system of government as being Islamic. It has a strong basis in Wahhabism, a minority school of thought in Islam. The kingdom is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy. However, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran, while the Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution. The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived from the teachings of the Qur'an and the Sunnah (the traditions of the Prophet). Saudi Arabia is unique among modern Muslim states in that Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent, giving judges the power to use independent legal reasoning to make a decision. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence (or "fiqh") found in pre-modern texts and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qur'an and hadith.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Because the judge is empowered to disregard previous judgments (either his own or of other judges) and may apply his personal interpretation of Sharia to any particular case, divergent judgements arise even in apparently identical cases, making predictability of legal interpretation difficult. The Sharia court system constitutes the basic judiciary of Saudi Arabia and its judges (qadi) and lawyers form part of the ulema, the country's Islamic scholars.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Royal decrees are the other main source of law; but are referred to as "regulations" rather than "laws" because they are subordinate to the Sharia. Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labor, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant. Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees. Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the King and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: A hijab is a traditional Islamic norm whereby women are required "to draw their outer garments around them (when they go out or are among men)" and dress in a modest manner. Saudi Arabia is different from many Islamic societies in the extent of the covering that it considers Islamically correct hijab (everything except the hands and eyes) and the fact that covering is enforced by "Mutaween" or religious police.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Among unrelated men, women must cover the parts of the body that are awrah (private). In much of Islam, a women's face is not considered awrah. In Saudi Arabia and some other Arab states, all of the body is considered awrah except the hands and eyes. Accordingly, most women are expected to wear the hijab (head covering), a full black cloak called an abaya, and a face-veil called niqab. Many historians and Islamic scholars argue that the Quran was interpreted to require the veil as part of adapting it to tribal traditions.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Saudi Arabia is home to the largest mass of sand on earth, known as the Rub-al Khali desert (Rub-al Khali means "empty quarter"). The temperature is very hot. There are almost no rivers or lakes in the country. There are many wadis.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: The countries of Yemen and Oman are south of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia is west of Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Iraq, and Jordan. All of these countries, except Jordan and Iraq, make the Arabian Peninsula.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Animal life includes wolves, hyenas, mongooses, baboons, hares, sand rats, and jerboas. There used to be many larger animals such as gazelles, oryx, and leopards. By the 1950s hunting from motor vehicles made these animals almost extinct. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sand grouse and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous, and numerous types of lizards. There is a wide variety of marine life in the Persian Gulf. Domesticated animals include camels, sheep, goats, donkeys, and chickens.


title: Saudi Arabia

text: Because it is mostly a desert Saudi Arabia’s plant life is mostly small herbs and shrubs that need little water. There are a few small areas of grass and trees in southern Asir. The date palm ("Phoenix dactylifera") is widespread.


title: Roman Empire

text: The Roman Empire was the largest empire of the ancient world. Its capital was Rome, and its empire was based in the Mediterranean area. The Empire started in 27 BC, when Octavian became the Emperor Augustus. It fell in 476 AD. Its fall marked the end of the Ancient World and the beginning of the Middle Ages, or Dark Ages.


title: Roman Empire

text: The Empire was the third stage of Ancient Rome. Rome was first ruled by Roman kings, then by the Roman Republic, then by an emperor.


title: Roman Empire

text: Many modern lands were once part of the Roman Empire, for example Britain (not Scotland), Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Germany, Egypt, Levant, Crimea, Switzerland, and the north coast of Africa. The main language of the Roman Empire was Latin with Greek as an important secondary language, especially in the Eastern provinces of the Empire.


title: Roman Empire

text: The western half of the Roman Empire lasted for about 500 years till the barbarian general Odoacer defeated its final emperor Romulus Augustus. On the other hand, the eastern half, consisting of the Balkans, Anatolia, The Levant and Egypt, continued for about a thousand years more (though the Levant and Egypt were lost to the Arabs in the 8th century). The eastern part was called the Byzantine Empire. Its capital was Constantinople, now called Istanbul.


title: Roman Empire

text: In order to control their large empire, the Romans developed ideas about law and government. They developed the best army in the world at that time, and ruled by force. They had fine engineering, and built roads, cities, and outstanding buildings. The Empire was divided into provinces, each with a governor plus civil and military support. Letters, both official and private, went constantly to and from Rome.


title: Roman Empire

text: Trade was most important for Rome, a city of more than a million people, by far the largest city in the world. They needed, and got, wheat from Egypt, tin from Britannia, grapes from Gaul, and so on. In return, the Romans built provincial capitals into fine cities, protected them from raids by barbarians, and provided education and career opportunities for young people in the provinces, such as jobs in the Roman Army.


title: Roman Empire

text: In principle, emperors had absolute control, and could do as they pleased. In practice, they faced some difficult problems. They had a staff of what we call 'civil servants' and the advice of the Roman Senate. The emperor had to decide what were the most important issues facing the Empire, and what should be done about them. Most of them tried to do two things. One was to do things to improve the life of Romans in peacetime. The other was to fight and defeat Rome's enemies. A wealthy empire always has enemies.


title: Roman Empire

text: With kings and emperors, a big problem is the order of succession. Kings were sometimes followed by their eldest son, if he was capable of ruling. For Roman emperors, more often it would be an adopted son. It worked like this. The emperor would notice an outstanding young man from one of the best families. He would adopt him as his son. Before he died he would make clear whom he thought should succeed him, by making him a Roman consul, or by stating in his will that the younger man should succeed him. Sometimes this worked; sometimes it did not. Every now and then there would be a civil war between claimants to the throne.


title: Roman Empire

text: An adopted son or two gave the emperor more choices. Some emperors had no son; some had sons who did not survive. Later on, emperors grew so weak that the Roman army would just pick one of their generals to be the next emperor. This often led to civil war. The life stories of the emperors can be found in List of Roman emperors.


title: Roman Empire

text: The Romans fought many wars against other countries, and against barbarians several times. They enjoyed watching violent sports. They watched chariots races, and fights between gladiators (men using weapons). Unlike in modern sports, the fighters were often killed in fights. Romans enjoyed these shows in the Colosseum.


title: Roman Empire

text: The Romans had great civil engineering. They built many large public buildings and villas, aqueducts to carry water, stone bridges and roads. Some of these things can still be seen today. Many famous writers were Romans, including Cicero and Virgil.


title: Roman Empire

text: The New Testament of the Bible tells about the Romans in the life of Jesus Christ. During Jesus' life, the Romans, who were pagans, ruled his country. Later, several emperors tried to destroy Christianity but they did not succeed. By 312 the emperor Galerius allowed people freedom to follow Christianity, and the next year, a general, Constantine, became emperor and converted to Christianity.


title: Roman Empire

text: The city of Rome was taken over several times by barbarians, notably in 410 when the Goths sacked the city (looting). The last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus, resigned in 476 . The Roman Empire would last another 1,000 years as the Byzantine Empire in the east.


title: Roman Empire

text: Various reasons have been given for the fall of Rome. Edward Gibbon wrote "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" in which he investigated various ideas. Chief among them was (in his opinion) was the effect of Christianity on the ability of the Empire to defend itself militarily.


title: Roman Empire

text: Other historians blame the unstable system of leadership. In one later 50-year period, only 2 out of 22 emperors died a natural death. Most of the emperors were assassinated.


title: Pyramid

text: A pyramid is a structure, usually made of stone, built in the shape of a pyramid. From ancient to modern times people in many different parts of the world have built such structures.


title: Pyramid

text: The word "pyramid" comes from the Greek word "pyramis" which meant "wheat cake." The ancient Egyptian word for them was something like "Mer". The Great Pyramid of Giza was one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world.


title: Pyramid

text: The first pyramids were built in 2630 B.C. The oldest known pyramid was made for king Djoser of the third Dynasty.


title: Pyramid

text: In Egypt, kings and queens, called Pharaohs, were buried in the tombs of huge square-bottomed pyramids built of stone. They were usually built to be used as tombs for Pharaohs. The ancient Egyptian pyramids are very well built. Some of the pyramids still stand today.


title: Pyramid

text: The oldest man-made pyramid found is called the Step pyramid. It is in the Giza Necropolis in Saqqara, near Cairo, Egypt. It was built for King Djoser thousands of years ago. Later pyramids were built much larger. The largest one was the Great Pyramid of Giza. It is near Cairo. It was the tallest building in the world until the Eiffel Tower was built in Paris, in 1889. The Great Pyramid was built by the pharaoh Khufu (= Cheops) from the Ancient Egyptian Old Kingdom. Herodotus was told by his Egyptian guides that it took twenty years for a force of 100,000 slaves to build the pyramid (with another ten years to build a stone causeway that connected to a temple in the valley below).


title: Pyramid

text: People once thought pyramids were built by slaves. More recent evidence suggests that the workers who built the pyramids were paid and well-cared for. They were loyal to the Pharaoh. Inside the Great Pyramid, famous man-made objects have been found from ancient times. Many valuable items were buried with the dead Pharaohs, in the hope that they would take them to the afterlife. Pyramids usually had traps to stop thieves from escaping easily. Tomb thieves were punished by death if they were caught. However, by 1000 BC, many of the pyramids had been robbed of their precious treasures.


title: Pyramid

text: A large statue of a Sphinx stands near the pyramids at Giza. It has the body of a Lion and the head of a Pharaoh.


title: Pyramid

text: The ancient Greeks called the Great Pyramid one of the seven wonders of the world. There are over 100 pyramids in Egypt. Most of them are on the western side of the River Nile. Some Egyptologists have different opinions on why the ancient Egyptian Kings built pyramids as their tombs. Pyramids have been excavated for about the last 200 years.


title: Pyramid

text: The ancient Egyptians believed that the Egyptian pharaohs went to the stars to join their gods in the afterlife.


title: Pyramid

text: The Aztecs and Mayans also built many massive pyramids. None are as old or big as the oldest or biggest Egyptian pyramids. Most of them are step pyramids.


title: Pyramid

text: Unlike Egyptian pyramids, which were used as tombs for rulers and wealthy people, Aztec and Mayan pyramids are believed to have been used for public displays of human sacrifice.


title: Pyramid

text: There are also ancient pyramids in other parts of Africa, Central America, Europe, North America, and Asia. There is a famous modern glass pyramid in front of the Louvre Museum in Paris. The Luxor Hotel, in Las Vegas, Nevada is also a glass pyramid.


title: Saint Peter

text: Saint Peter (, "rock") also called Simon (Kephas) Peter is one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. He is often talked about in the New Testament. Most of what we know about Peter comes from the Bible. In the Gospel it is written that Jesus Christ would make Peter the "rock" (foundation) of the Church (Gospel of Matthew 16:18, "you are Peter (rock), and upon this rock I will build my church").


title: Saint Peter

text: It is not known when Peter was born. But the date of his death is said to be about the year 64 AD. He died by being nailed to a cross in Rome. This type of death is called crucifixion. According to the apocryphal Acts of Peter, Peter asked to be crucified upside down, as he felt unworthy to die as Jesus did. Most historical sources only say he was crucified this way.


title: Saint Peter

text: In art, he is often shown holding the keys to the kingdom of heaven (interpreted by Roman Catholics as the sign of his primacy over the Church), a reference to Matthew .


title: Saint Peter

text: The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Lutheran Churches, as well as the Anglican Communion, consider Simon Peter a saint. Roman Catholics believe that the Pope is Peter's successor. For this reason, he is the rightful head of all other bishops. Eastern and Oriental Orthodox also recognise the Bishop of Rome as the successor to Saint Peter and the Ecumenical Patriarch sends a delegation each year to Rome to participate in the celebration of his feast.


title: Saint Peter

text: In the "Ravenna document" of 13 October 2007 representatives of the Eastern Orthodox Church agreed that "Rome, as the Church that 'presides in love' according to the phrase of St. Ignatius of Antioch (To the Romans, Prologue), occupied the first place in the "taxis" (order), and that the bishop of Rome was therefore the "protos" (first) among the patriarchs. They disagree, however, on the interpretation of historical evidence from this era regarding the rights of the bishop of Rome as "protos", a matter that was already understood in different ways in the first millennium."


title: Saint Peter

text: Christian tradition says Saint Peter was the first leader of an early apostolic community for at least 34 years. At that time the word Pope or "Papa" was not used to name the leader of the Roman Catholic Church. At that time there was only one Christian Church. Later, the Roman Catholic Church would say that Peter was their first Pope.


title: Ice

text: Ice is the common name for frozen water. Other liquids, such as ammonia or methane or milk, could be called ice when they freeze but they are called 'milk ice', for instance, instead of just 'ice'. Liquid water becomes solid ice when it is very cold. The freezing point is 0° Celsius (32° Fahrenheit or 273 kelvin).


title: Ice

text: Ice is commonly made in a home refrigerator or freezer. If water is put in a freezer and left for a while, the water gets very cold and will freeze solid, creating ice. Water can be placed into a copper (or other metal) container to cause it freeze into ice faster. Metals are good conductors of heat, so water can freeze faster than in a plastic ice tray.


title: Ice

text: Unlike other liquids, water expands as it freezes to become ice; so ice floats on water because ice has less density than water. This is very unusual - just about every other liquid gets more dense as it cools; water ice, however, is an important exception. Liquid water expands by about 9% as it becomes ice - it takes up more space. This is because the water molecules are actually farther apart instead of being closer together. The molecules in an ice crystal are arranged in a way that makes it less dense than liquid water.


title: Ice

text: If water in plumbing freezes, it can burst the water pipe. Water in glass bottles can make them explode when it freezes. Water freezing in rock cracks can expand enough to split hard rocks apart; this is an important geological weathering process that can wear down mountains and make rock into soil.


title: Ice

text: When materials are cooled their molecules vibrate less and compact together. When most materials reach a temperature called the freezing point, the molecules form a crystalline solid - although some materials (like glass and tar) do not crystallise at all but form super stiff fluids, which seem to be solid. Only Helium will not freeze; all other substances will freeze if cold enough, but fluids like cooking oil, antifreeze, petrol (gasoline), nitrogen, etc. freeze at temperatures that most people don't experience.


title: Ice

text: Salt water needs a lower temperature to freeze than pure water. The resulting ice contains much less salt than the salt water it came from. This fact has sometimes been used for desalination. Salty ice is not as strong as frozen pure water. Similarly spreading salt on ice melts it, if it's not too cold: the salt progressively eats into the ice, forming brine which does not freeze at that temperature.


title: Ice

text: Because ice floats, even large bodies of water that freeze, like some oceans, only form ice on the surface. Most lakes never freeze to the bottom. Even the coldest oceans, like the Arctic Ocean, only freeze on the top, leaving liquid ocean circulating below. Because of this the Earth's oceans are able to redistribute heat and the climate of the earth has less extremes of heat and cold than it would otherwise. If ice were to sink instead of float, the oceans would fill with ice from the bottom, would remain solid and only some of the top would melt. A solid ocean would not circulate heat. But because ice floats on the surface the water beneath can continue to circulate and the ice on the surface stays exposed and readily melts when the temperature rises.


title: Ice

text: Climate change happens all the time. When it is very cold it is called an ice age. During ice ages very large areas of the earth are covered in ice, snow and glaciers. The causes of ice ages are complex, and not entirely known. Global warming is currently affecting the Earth's ice resources and its causes are also very complex.


title: Ice

text: There is also 'dry ice'; it is frozen carbon dioxide. Dry ice exposed to normal air gives off carbon dioxide gas that is odorless and colorless. The gas is so cold that when it mixes with air it cools the water vapour in the air to fog, which looks like a thick white smoke. It is often used in the theatre to make fake fog or smoke.


title: Sydney

text: Sydney is a city on the east coast of Australia which is the capital city of New South Wales. About five million people live in Sydney which makes it the biggest city in Oceania.


title: Sydney

text: Sydney started in 1788, when the Captain Arthur Phillip brought the First Fleet to settle in Australia. The settlers were mostly convicts from crowded prisons in England and Ireland, with a group of soldiers to guard them. The country is home to more than 200 spoken languages with a large population of overseas-born residents. The first people to occupy the area were Australian Aboriginals.


title: Sydney

text: In Sydney, there are many famous buildings: the Sydney Opera House, the Queen Victoria Building and the Sydney Harbour Bridge. Sydney has a large harbour and many beaches. The most famous beach is Bondi Beach, some other famous beaches are Coogee Beach and Manly Beach. A popular coastal walk to do is the Bondi to Coogee Coastal Walk. Famous parts of the harbour are Darling Harbour and Circular Quay. The Royal National Park is a popular and famous park in southern Sydney.


title: Sydney

text: Sydney has many things to see and do. These include visiting Taronga Zoo (a park for animals) on the northern side of the harbour, eating food, looking at art or watching sports (like cricket or rugby) or walking down George Street which has many nice shops. Sydney has some of Australia's best shopping, and the Blue Mountains are about two hours' drive away to the west. Many people go to Sydney City to watch the great fireworks display over the harbour on New Year's Eve. Sydney holds events throughout the year that attract tourists from around the world, some namely events are Vivid Sydney, Royal Easter Show, and more.


title: Sydney

text: Sydney is home to a range of events that happen throughout the year, drawing many tourists and visitors to the city. One of Sydney's biggest event holding convention centre is the newly rebuilt International Convention Centre located by Darling Harbour, Sydney.


title: Sydney

text: High-profile global events held in Sydney were: 2007 APEC Leaders Conference, 2008 World Youth Day and the 2014 G20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank Governors meeting.


title: Sydney

text: Vivid Sydney is held every year in June in the winter and is a display of light shows, art installations and music from local and international artists. In 2016, Vivid Sydney ran for 23 nights from May 27 to June 18.


title: Sydney

text: The Royal Easter Show is held in Sydney Olympic Park throughout the Easter public holiday period in April. It is a family attraction with rides, carnival games, showbags and food tents. There are also agriculture shows where children can learn more about farm animals as well as animal feeding areas. Shows such as woodcutting and animal competitions are popular every year.


title: Sydney

text: Mercedes Benz Fashion weekend runs for two days every year and features runway shows by leading Australian designers. The event is attended by fashion journalists, magazine editors, bloggers and fashion buyers. There are also Styling Sessions and VIP parties at the home of fashion week in Carriageworks in the inner city suburb of Redfern.


title: Sydney

text: Sydney is a city located on the East Coast of Australia. It is currently the largest city in Australia, and the continent of Oceania. Sydney is known for having been the original landing spot for the British. It is situated next to the Blue Mountains. Sydney has more than 650 suburbs, and 38 local government areas.


title: Sydney

text: Sydney lies on a drowned coastline on the east coast of New South Wales, where the ocean level has risen up to flood deep river valleys carved in the Sydney Triassic sandstone, which was laid down about about 200 million years ago. Sydney has over two major regions: the Cumberland Plain, a mostly flat region lying to the west of Sydney Harbour, and the Hornsby Plateau, a tableland north of the Harbour. Sydney's native plant species are mostly eucalyptus trees, and its soils are red and yellow in colour. Sydney has nine rivers and just over a hundred creeks.


title: Sydney

text: Sydney's main vegetation communities are grassy woodlands or savannas, which are open woodlands that feature hard-leaved shrubs, trees like eucalyptuses and acacias, and grass in the understory. Dry and wet forests are common as well, and as well as very small rainforest communities.


title: Sydney

text: Sydney has a humid subtropical climate with warm to hot summers and cool winters, and rainfall spread throughout the year. Hotter temperatures are recorded inland in the western suburbs, because the coast is moderated by the ocean. Rainfall is higher in the first half of the year when easterly winds are common, and lower in late winter/early spring when winds are more westerly, but rain has been very changeable in recent years.


title: Sydney

text: East coast lows bring heavy rainfall to the Sydney area, typically in autumn to early winter. In the warm months, rain comes in short heavy falls in the afternoons, usually with a thunderstorm. Snow is unheard of, but major snowfall was last reported in Sydney on 28 June 1836. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation are an important feature in Sydney's weather patterns: drought and bushfire on the one hand, and storms and flooding on the other.


title: Sydney

text: The highest recorded temperature in the city was , which was observed on 18 January 2013. The highest recorded temperature in the west was , observed on 4 January 2020 in the suburb of Penrith. Hot days are usually ended by a southerly buster, a windy sea breeze that coms from the southeast. While Sydney CBD (Observatory Hill) has never recorded frost, the far western suburbs usually get frost in winter. The ultraviolet index rating in the summer averages at 12, but can reach as high as 13. Windspeed recorded in Sydney Airport averages at 24.3 km/h (15.0 mph), making Sydney the windiest capital city in Australia.


title: August

text: August (Aug.) is the eighth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between July and September. It has 31 days. It is named after the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar.


title: August

text: August does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August always ends on the same day of the week as November.


title: August

text: This month was first called "Sextilis" in Latin, because it was the sixth month in the old Roman calendar. The Roman calendar began in March about 735 BC with Romulus. October was the eighth month. August was the eighth month when January or February were added to the start of the year by King Numa Pompilius about 700 BC. Or, when those two months were moved from the end to the beginning of the year by the decemvirs about 450 BC (Roman writers disagree). In 153 BC January 1 was determined as the beginning of the year.


title: August

text: August is named for Augustus Caesar who became Roman consul in this month. The month has 31 days because Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in 45 BC. August is after July and before September.


title: August

text: August, in either hemisphere, is the seasonal equivalent of February in the other. In the Northern hemisphere it is a summer month and it is a winter month in the Southern hemisphere.


title: August

text: No other month in common years begins on the same day of the week as August, but August begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August ends on the same day of the week as November every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.


title: August

text: In common years, August starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the previous year, and in leap years, June of the previous year. In common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as March and June of the previous year, and in leap years, September of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, August starts on the same day of the week as February of the previous year.


title: August

text: In years immediately before common years, August starts on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, October of the following year. In years immediately before common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, February and October of the following year.


title: Time zone

text: Time zones give specific areas on the Earth a time of day that is earlier or later than the neighboring time zones. This is because when it is daytime on one side of the earth, it is night-time on the other side. There are 24 time zones dividing the earth into different times, each with its own name, like the North American Eastern Time Zone. The North American Eastern Time Zone contains large cities in North America like New York City and Miami.


title: Time zone

text: Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) began in 1675. This was when the Royal Observatory, Greenwich was built to help ships find their longitude at sea. GMT was a standard reference for time keeping when each city kept a different local time. When railways began carrying many people quickly among cities keeping different time, they adopted time zones to simplify operations. By about 1900, almost all time on earth was in the form of standard time zones.


title: Time zone

text: Greenwich Mean Time is now called UTC (Coordinated Universal Time). UTC is the time standard of the world. All other parts of the world are offset (plus or minus) according to their longitude. Most of the zones are offset by a full hour, but there are some offset by half an hour or 45 minutes.


title: Time zone

text: In some parts of the world they follow the Daylight Saving Time (DST), and during this period of time in summer they add one hour to their normal solar hour.


title: Time zone

text: The time zones are numbered in relation to the UTC, so in Los Angeles the time zone will be UTC−8, in London UTC+0, in Rome UTC+1, and in New Delhi UTC+5:30.


title: Star

text: A star is a very large ball of bright glowing hot matter in space. That matter is called plasma. Stars are held together by gravity. They give out heat and light because they are very hot.


title: Star

text: The amount of material in a star (its mass) is so huge that it starts a nuclear reaction going. The reaction changes hydrogen to helium and gives off heat.


title: Star

text: Stars like the Sun are hot because this nuclear reaction happens inside them. The reaction is called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion makes light and heat and makes bigger chemical elements. In the Sun (but not all stars) the change which takes place is the production of helium, with minute (very small) amounts of heavier elements.


title: Star

text: Stars have a lot of hydrogen. Nuclear fusion changes hydrogen into helium. Fusion makes a lot of energy. The energy makes the star very hot. The energy produced by stars moves (radiates) away from them. Much of the energy leaves as light. The rest leaves as other kinds of electromagnetic radiation.


title: Star

text: When a star like the Sun gets old, it will expand in size and become a red giant star. That will happen in about a billion years' time (10 years).


title: Star

text: The star nearest to Earth is the Sun. The energy from the Sun supports almost all life on Earth by providing light for plants. Plants turn the light into energy in a process called photosynthesis. The energy from the Sun also causes weather and humidity on Earth.


title: Star

text: We can see other stars in the night sky when the Sun goes down. Like the Sun, they are made mostly of hydrogen and a little bit of helium plus other elements. Astronomers often compare those other stars to the Sun. For example, their mass is given in solar masses. A small star may be 0.2 solar masses, a big one 4.0 solar masses.


title: Star

text: The Earth and other planets move around ("orbit") the Sun. The Sun and all things that orbit the Sun are called the Solar System. Many other stars have planets orbiting them: those planets are called exoplanets. If you were on an exoplanet, our Sun would look like a star in the sky, but you could not see the Earth because it would be too far away.


title: Star

text: Proxima Centauri is the star that is closest to our Sun. It is 39.9 trillion kilometres away. This is 4.2 light years away. This means that light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to reach Earth.


title: Star

text: Astronomers think there is a very large number of stars in the Universe. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (10) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth). That is, 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 stars, which is many times more than the few hundred billion stars in the Milky Way (our galaxy).


title: Star

text: Most stars are very old. They are usually thought to be between 1 billion and 10 billion years old. The oldest stars are 13.7 billion years old. That is as old as the Universe. Some young stars are only a few million years old. Young stars are mostly brighter than old ones.


title: Star

text: Stars are different sizes. The smallest stars are neutron stars, which are actually dead stars. They are no bigger than a city. A neutron star has a large amount of mass in a very small space.


title: Star

text: Hypergiant stars are the largest stars in the Universe. They have a diameter over 1,500 times bigger than the Sun. If the Sun was a hypergiant star, it would reach out to as far as Jupiter.


title: Star

text: The star Betelgeuse is a red supergiant star. Although these stars are very large, they also have low density.


title: Star

text: Some stars look brighter than other stars. This difference is measured in terms of apparent magnitude. There are two reasons why stars have different apparent magnitude. If a star is very close to us it will appear much brighter. This is just like a candle. A candle that is close to us appears brighter. The other reason a star can appear brighter is that it is hotter than another cooler star.


title: Star

text: Stars give off light but also give off a solar wind and neutrinos. These are very small particles of matter.


title: Star

text: Stars are made of mass and mass makes gravity. Gravity makes planets orbit stars. This is why the Earth orbits the Sun. The gravity of two stars can make them go around each other. Stars that orbit each other are called binary stars. Scientists think there are many binary stars. There are even groups of three or more stars that orbit each other. Proxima Centauri is a small star that orbits other stars.


title: Star

text: Stars are not spread evenly across all of space. They are grouped into galaxies. A galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars.


title: Star

text: Stars have been important to people all over the world for all of history. Stars have been part of religious practices. Long ago, people believed that stars could never die.


title: Star

text: Astronomers organized stars into groups called constellations. They used the constellations to help them see the motion of the planets and to guess the position of the Sun. The motion of the Sun and the stars was used to make calendars. The calendars were used by farmers to decide when to plant crops and when to harvest them.


title: Star

text: Stars are made in nebulae. These are areas that have more gas than normal space. The gas in a nebula is pulled together by gravity. The Orion nebula is an example of a place where gas is coming together to form stars.


title: Star

text: Stars spend most of their lives combining (fusing) hydrogen with hydrogen to make energy. When hydrogen is fused it makes helium and it makes a lot of energy. To fuse hydrogen into helium it must be very hot and the pressure must be very high. Fusion happens at the center of stars, called "the core".


title: Star

text: The smallest stars (red dwarfs) fuse their hydrogen slowly and live for 100 billion years. Red dwarfs live longer than any other type of star. At the end of their lives, they become dimmer and dimmer. Red dwarfs do not explode.


title: Star

text: When very heavy stars die, they explode. This explosion is called a supernova. When a supernova happens in a nebula, the explosion pushes the gas in the nebula together. This makes the gas in the nebula very dense (thick) . Gravity and exploding stars both help to bring the gas together to make new stars in nebulas.


title: Star

text: Most stars use up the hydrogen at their core. When they do, their core becomes smaller and becomes hotter. It becomes so hot it pushes away the outer part of the star. The outer part expands and it makes a red giant star. Astro-physicists think that in about 5 billion years, the Sun will be a red giant. Our Sun will be so large it will eat the Earth. After our Sun stops using hydrogen to make energy, it will use helium in its very hot core. It will be hotter than when it was fusing hydrogen. Heavy stars will also make elements heavier than helium. As a star makes heavier and heavier elements, it makes less and less energy. Iron is a heavy element made in heavy stars.


title: Star

text: Our star is an average star. Average stars will push away their outer gases. The gas it pushes away makes a cloud called a planetary nebula. The core part of the star will remain. It will be a ball as big as the Earth and called a white dwarf. It will fade into a black dwarf over a very long time.


title: Star

text: Later in large stars, heavier elements are made by fusion. Finally the star makes a supernova explosion. Most things happen in the universe so slowly we do not notice. But supernova explosions happen in only 100 seconds. When a supernova explodes its flash is as bright as a 100 billion stars. The dying star is so bright it can be seen during the day. Supernova means "new star" because people used to think it was the beginning of a new star. Today we know that a supernova is the death of an old star. The gas of the star is pushed away by the explosion. It forms a giant cloud of gas called a planetary nebula. The crab nebula is a good example. All that remains is a neutron star. If the star was very heavy, the star will make a black hole. Gravity in a black hole is extremely strong. It is so strong that even light cannot escape from a black hole.


title: Star

text: The heaviest elements are made in the explosion of a supernova. After billions of years of floating in space, the gas and dust come together to make new stars and new planets. Much of the gas and dust in space comes from supernovae. Our Sun, the Earth, and all living things are made from star dust.


title: Star

text: Astronomers have known for centuries that stars have different colors. When looking at an electromagnetic spectrum, ultraviolet waves are the shortest, and infrared are the longest. The visible spectrum has wavelengths between these two extremes.


title: Star

text: Modern instruments can measure very precisely the color of a star. This allows astronomers to determine that star's temperature, because a hotter star's black-body radiation has shorter wavelengths. The hottest stars are blue and violet, then white, then yellow, and the coolest are red. Knowing the color and absolute magnitude, astronomers can place the star on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, and estimate its habitable zone and other facts about it.


title: Star

text: For example, our Sun is white, and the Earth is the perfect distance away for life. If our Sun was a hotter, blue star, however, Earth would have to be much farther away or else it would be too hot to have water and sustain life.


title: May

text: May is the fifth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between April and June. It has 31 days. The month of May might have been named for the Roman goddess Maia, or more likely the Roman goddess of fertility Bona Dea, whose festival was held in May.


title: May

text: May's flower is the Lily of the Valley. Its birthstone is the emerald. The meaning of the emerald is success in love.


title: May

text: May comes between April and June and is the fifth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar. It is one of seven months to have 31 days. In the older Roman calendar, May was the third month of the year. It is a spring month in the Northern Hemisphere and an autumn month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of November in the other. May is likely to have been named after the Roman goddess Maia, though there is a theory that May might have its name from the Latin "Maiores", meaning "Seniors". The same theory suggests that June would then be named from "Iuniores", meaning "Juniors".


title: May

text: No other month of any year either begins or ends on the same day of the week as May: this month is the only one that has both of these properties.


title: May

text: In common years, May starts on the same day of the week as August of the previous year, and in leap years, March and November of the previous year. In common years, May finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the previous year, and in leap years, March and June of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, May starts on the same day of the week as February of the previous year.


title: May

text: Every year, May both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the following year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In years immediately before common years, May starts on the same day of the week as October of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and July of the following year. In years immediately before common years, May finishes on the same day of the week as February and October of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, July of the following year.


title: May

text: In the Northern Hemisphere, May is in late Spring, and May Day on May 1 and Walpurgis Night, during the night of April 30 to May 1, are symbolic of the transition from winter to summer. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is in autumn, and comes just before the Antarctic winter, when emperor penguins breed there.


title: Lawyer

text: A lawyer (also called an "advocate", "attorney", "barrister", "counsel", "counsellor", or "solicitor") is someone who practices law. A lawyer has earned a degree in law, and has a license to practice law in a particular area.


title: Lawyer

text: If people have any problem regarding the law, they can contact a lawyer for advice. A legal problem is referred to as a case. A person can hire a lawyer to start a case against someone else, or to help with a case that has been started against them. If the case goes to court, the lawyer will represent their client in court. The lawyer will use their knowledge of the law to convince the court that the client is on the right side of the argument. Lawyers also help people "settle out of court," which means that both sides of the argument agree to resolve the dispute ahead of time so that they will not have to go to trial.


title: Lawyer

text: When a person is accused of a crime, the person has a defense lawyer to try to show they have not committed a crime. The lawyer arguing that they did do the crime is called the "prosecutor".


title: Lawyer

text: Lawyers also prepare legal documents for their clients. Examples: buying or selling property or making a will (testament). Certain lawyers (called "commissioners of oaths" in England) can take legally binding witness statements which can be presented to the court.


title: Lawyer

text: Lawyers work in different settings. Some work by themselves, while some work in law firms. Some lawyers work for hospitals and private companies. Lawyers who work for private companies are usually called in-house counsel.


title: Lawyer

text: Lawyers generally charge a fee for the work that they do, but sometimes advice is offered freely, which is called "pro bono," meaning "for the public good." In many countries, if a person is accused of a crime and unable to pay for a lawyer, the government will pay a lawyer to represent them using tax money.


title: Tudor dynasty

text: The Tudor dynasty was a series of kings and queens of England. This line of rulers started in 1485 and lasted until 1603.


title: Tudor dynasty

text: The dynasty started when Henry Tudor defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. This was the final stage of the Wars of the Roses and made him King Henry VII of England. Arthur, Prince of Wales, was the oldest son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He married Catherine of Aragon. She was the daughter of Ferdinand II of Argon and Isabella I of Castle). Arthur died in 1502 and did not become King.


title: Tudor dynasty

text: During her marriage to Henry VIII, Catherine had six children. Only one of these children, Mary, survived. When Catherine became too old to have any more children, Henry divorced her. He then married a new wife, Anne Boleyn. Henry and Boleyn also had a daughter, Elizabeth. Anne Boleyn was executed in 1536.


title: Tudor dynasty

text: Shortly after, Henry VIII married Jane Seymour of England. She had one son, Edward VI of England, who would later become king himself at the age of 9. Jane died in 1537. Her death was caused by medical problems caused by Edward's birth.


title: Tudor dynasty

text: Henry married three other wives before his death in 1547. Edward, his only living son, became King after Henry died.


title: Tudor dynasty

text: In 1553, Edward became ill. He created the "Device for Succession.". He said that his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, would be Queen after he died. Lady Jane was only queen for nine days.


title: Tudor dynasty

text: Henry's daughter, Mary I of England, was the next ruler of the Tudor dynasty. Mary was a strong believer in Catholicism. As Queen, Mary did many things against hundreds of Protestants. Because of all the executions while she was Queen, she was given the nickname "Bloody Mary", which is a name for a modern cocktail today.


title: Tudor dynasty

text: After Mary's death in 1558, her half-sister Elizabeth I of England became queen. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was a Protestant. Elizabeth never married or had children. Because she never married, Elizabeth is often called the "Virgin Queen".


title: Tudor dynasty

text: The dynasty ended when Elizabeth died. She had not named a person to be ruler after her death. When she died, James I became King of England. He was the son of Elizabeth's cousin, Mary Stuart. This started the Stuart dynasty.


title: Tudor dynasty

text: During the Tudor period, there were many changes in religion. Henry VIII was a Catholic. When the Pope said he could not divorce Catherine, Henry left Catholicism and named himself as head of the Church. The Church of England was now Protestant. Edward VI was raised a Protestant. He closed all Catholic churches. Mary I was a strong Catholic and heavily influenced by her Spanish mother Catherine of Aragon. She closed the Protestant churches and burnt about 300 people for being Protestant. Those people were later called martyrs. Elizabeth was Protestant. When she became queen, the Anglican Church was started.


title: European Union

text: The European Union (abbreviation: EU) is a confederation of 27 member countries in Europe established by the Maastricht Treaty in 1992-1993. The EU grew out of the European Economic Community (EEC) which was established by the Treaties of Rome in 1957. It has created a common economic area with Europe-wide laws allowing the citizens of EU countries to move and trade in other EU countries almost the same as they do on their own. Nineteen of these countries also share the same type of money: the euro.


title: European Union

text: The name of Europe comes from the Latin Europa, which in turn derives from the Greek Εὐρώπη, from εὐρύς eurys "wide" and ὤψ ops "face".


title: European Union

text: The Treaty of Lisbon is the most recent treaty that says how the Union is run. Every member state signed to say that they each agreed with what it says. Most importantly, it says which jobs (’powers’) the Union should do for the members and which jobs they should do themselves. The members decide how the Union should act by voting for or against proposals.


title: European Union

text: The objective of the EU is to bring its member states closer together with respect of human rights and democracy. It does this with common rules about fair trading with each other, common agreements about law enforcement, a common style of passport, and other agreements. Most members share a common currency (the euro) and most allow people to travel from one country to another without having to show a passport. It does this with common rules about fair trading with each other, common agreements about law enforcement, and other agreements. It has a common style for (its) passports.


title: European Union

text: After World War II, the countries in Europe wanted to live peacefully together and help one another's economies. Instead of fighting each other for coal and steel, the first member countries (West) Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg created one European Coal and Steel Community in 1952.


title: European Union

text: In 1957 in the Italian city of Rome, the member countries signed another treaty and made the European Economic Community. Now it was a community for coal, steel and for trade. Later it changed the name to the European Community.


title: European Union

text: In 1993, with the "Treaty of Maastricht" it changed its name to the European Union. Now the member countries work together not only in politics and economy (coal, steel and trade), but also in money, justice (laws), and foreign affairs. With the Schengen Agreement, 22 member countries of the EU opened their borders to each other, so people can now travel from one country to the other without a passport or identity card. Many of the countries of the EU also share a currency, which is called the euro. 10 new countries became members of the EU in 2004, 2 more became members in 2007, and 1 more in 2013. In 2016, the United Kingdom voted to leave the EU. Today there are 27 member countries altogether.


title: European Union

text: A person who is a citizen of the European Union can live and work in any of the 27 member states without needing a work permit or visa. For example, a French person can move to Greece to work there, or just to live there, and he or she does not need permission from an authority in Greece.


title: European Union

text: In the same way, products made in one member country can be sold in any other member country without any special permissions or extra taxes. For this reason, the members agree rules on product safety - they want to know that a product made in another country will be as safe as it would be if it had been made in their own.


title: European Union

text: The Council of the European Union is the main decision-making group. The cabinet ministers of the member countries meet (Ministers for Foreign affairs, for Agriculture, for Justice, etc...) and discuss issues that are important to them.


title: European Union

text: Before the Treaty of Lisbon (written in 2007, implemented in 2008) each member state takes a turn at being President of the council for six months. For example, from January 2007 until July 2007, Germany held the presidency. The six months before that, Finland held the presidency. Now the President of the European Union chairs the council summits. The President of the council is the organiser and manager and is voted into office for a duration of two and a half years. He or she does not have the power to make decisions about the European Union like the President of the United States does for that country.


title: European Union

text: Member countries with a large population (Germany, France, United Kingdom, etc.) have more votes than countries with small populations (Luxembourg, Malta, etc.) but a decision cannot be made if enough countries vote against the decision.


title: European Union

text: Twice a year, the heads of government (Prime Ministers) and/or the heads of state (Presidents) meet to talk about the main issues and make decisions on different issues. This meeting is different and not as formal. It is known as a European Council.


title: European Union

text: The European Commission runs the day-to-day running of the EU and writes laws, like a government. Laws written by the commission are discussed and changed by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union.


title: European Union

text: The commission has one President and 27 Commissioners, selected by the European Council. The Commission President is appointed by the European Council with the approval of the European Parliament.


title: European Union

text: The commission operates like a cabinet government. There is one Commissioner per member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.


title: European Union

text: The Parliament has a total of 705 members (called Members of the European Parliament, or MEP). They are elected in their countries every five years by the citizens of the European Union member countries. The Parliament can approve, reject or change proposed laws. It can also sack the European Commission. In that case, the entire commission would have to give up their jobs.


title: European Union

text: In 1951, six countries made the "European Coal and Steel Community", a basic version of what the EU is now. These six then went further and in 1957 they made the European Economic Community and the European Coal and Steel Community. The UK and others decided not to join, and then when the UK changed its mind it was stopped from joining by French President Charles de Gaulle. When he was no longer President, the UK and others started to join. Today there are 27 members but the idea that more should join is not seen as a good one by everyone.


title: European Union

text: Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Turkey and Iceland are "candidate countries"; they are being considered for membership. Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are expected to follow.


title: European Union

text: However, since there have been many political problems happening in Turkey recently, especially with President Edrogan's arresting of tens of thousands of political rivals since the failed coup attempt on July 15, 2016, it is unlikely that it would be allowed to part of the EU anytime soon because EU members believe that the current Turkish government is not respecting human rights, rule of law, or democracy.


title: European Union

text: United in diversity (or "together with many types of people" in Simple English), is the motto of the European Union.


title: European Union

text: On June 23, 2016, the UK held a referendum on whether it should stay in the EU or leave it. The majority [52% to 48%] favored leaving. Britain leaving the EU is commonly known as Brexit.


title: European Union

text: The government of the UK invoked "Article 50" of the Treaty of European Union (the Treaty of Lisbon) on 29 March 2017. This began negotiations with fellow members of the EU on the terms of exit. The timetable for these negotiations is two years, which meant that the UK would remain a member of the EU until at least March 2019. However this deadline was later extended to October 31st 2019 at the request of the British Government. The United Kingdom left the European Union on the 31 of January 2020 at 23:00 (Greenwich Mean Time). Following the UK left from the European Union on January 31, the transition period expired on December 31, 2020 and ended on January 1, 2021.


title: Sand

text: Sand is a mixture of very small pieces of different rocks or minerals. It is the same minerals from which those pieces are broken, such as granite and feldspar. Sand is gritty to touch. It is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. Sand is also formed various rocks by weathering and erosion. Erosion breaks large boulders into smaller rocks. They get smaller and smaller until they reach the beach or a low-lying area as sand.


title: Sand

text: Sand grains are between the size of gravel grains (which is from 2 mm to 64 mm) and the size of silt (which is around 0.0625 mm to 0.004 mm). Most sand is found on beaches, and in deserts. The most common sands are made of silica (silicon dioxide, or SiO). Calcium carbonate is the second more common.


title: Sand

text: Sand dunes are made when wind or a river pulls sand into a mountain-like shape. They can be found in deserts, but sometimes high up on beaches too.


title: Sand

text: Sand is crucial in the process of mixing concrete. It can also be used to make sand castles. Sand is sometimes in households for aesthetic purposes.


title: Hungarian language

text: The Finno-Ugric languages also include Finnish, Estonian, Lappic (Sámi) and some other languages spoken in Russia: Khanty and Mansi are the most closely related to Hungarian. The Hungarian name for the language is "Magyar".


title: Hungarian language

text: Although Hungarian is not an Indo-European language, unlike most other European languages, its vocabulary has many words from Slavic and Turkic languages and also from German.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian is spoken by approximately 13 million people. Most of them live in Hungary (around 10 million) and Romania (around 1.5 million), but there are also speakers in Slovakia, the northern part of Serbia (Vojvodina), Ukraine and other countries. Hungarian is the official language of Hungary and one of the official languages of the European Union (EU). It is also an official language of the Autonomous Republic of Vojvodina (Serbia) and of some places in the Republic of Slovenia.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian has several dialects, but people can easily understand one another. The Csángó dialect in Romania, however, is archaic and has changed less than the other dialects.


title: Hungarian language

text: Although Hungarian is not an Indo-European language, its vocabulary has many words from Slavic and Turkic languages and also from German.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian has no grammatical gender. For example, there are no separate words for "he" and "she" but there is one pronoun ("ő"). Instead of prepositions, (like "from" or "with"), Hungarian uses suffixes (particles at the end of main words). For example, "from Budapest" becomes "Budapestről", and "with Alexandra" becomes "Alexandrával".


title: Hungarian language

text: Another Hungarian feature is vowel harmony: suffixes change according to (harmonise with) the vowel of the main word. If they have "a" in the word, the suffix normally has "a" as well ("fa" "tree" and "fával" """with a tree"), and if they have "e", the suffix will change to have "e" as well' ("teve" "camel" and "tevével" "with a camel").


title: Hungarian language

text: The Hungarian alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet. Some letters have diacritics (dots or commas above them) and so Hungarian has 44 letters, more than the 26 of English.


title: Hungarian language

text: Since Hungarian writing is mostly phonetic, it is easy to write words by knowing their pronunciation.


title: Hungarian language

text: The earliest known written Hungarian words are to be found in a Latin document, the "Foundation Charter of the Abbey of Tihany" (1054). The "Funeral Oration and Prayer" (1192-95) and the "Old Hungarian Lament of Mary" (13th century) are the earliest known continuous Hungarian texts.


title: Hungarian language

text: In the 16th century, the first printed Hungarian texts were published. The modern literary language appeared in the 18th and the 19th centuries.


title: Hungarian language

text: Hungarian replaced Latin as the official language of Hungary between 1844 and 1849 and then again in 1867.


title: Southern United States

text: The Southern United States (also known as the Southern States or The South among Americans) is a term for the Southeastern part of the United States. All Confederate states were in the South, but not all Southern states joined the Confederacy; those that did not join were called border states. The States farthest to the south are called the "Deep South". Even though Arizona, New Mexico and southern California are geographically southern parts of United States, they are usually classified as the Southwestern United States and not the South (the climate, culture and ethnic makeup of the Southwest are also different from the South).


title: Southern United States

text: Most of the South is a land of long, hot summers. Winters are mostly short and cool. There is much rainfall. This combination gives the South a long growing season. Important crops include cotton, tobacco, peanuts, and peaches.


title: Southern United States

text: The border state Missouri is also sometimes considered Southern, although the Census classifies it as a Midwestern state.


title: Southern United States

text: Except for Florida and Texas, most of the South did not have as many immigrants arriving from other countries as the rest of the United States did, in the late 19th and 20th centuries. Most of the people in the South are of English, Scottish, or Irish ancestry, or the descendants of African-American slaves. Some Southerners identify themselves as being of "American" ancestry.


title: First aid

text: First aid is promptly helping people who are suddenly sick (illnesses) or hurt (injuries or body damage). For example, first aid is used at accidents to help an injured person until they get medical treatment (help by doctors, nurses or ambulances). First aid is also used to help people who suddenly become sick, until help arrives or they can be taken to medical care.


title: First aid

text: A person does not need much equipment to give first aid. A package of things useful to give first aid is called a first aid kit. Lives can be saved even without a first aid kit. What is required is basic knowledge. First aid can be done just about anywhere that an emergency requires. In places far from hospitals, first aid may be the only help possible until the person can be taken to a hospital or clinic.


title: First aid

text: Emergency medical dispatchers are trained in first aid, so that if there is an emergency, they can give the caller some information on what to do until the ambulance arrives. This can include the "C-A-B" listed below.


title: First aid

text: First aid skills are kept simple on purpose so that people can remember and use them in an emergency to save at least one life.


title: First aid

text: People can learn about first aid from books ("manuals") and videos. A good first aid kit will often include a simple First Aid Guide.


title: First aid

text: It is best to have good training to give first aid. In addition to books and videos, good training includes a good teacher and the chance to practice. For example, CPR is practiced on a dummy called a mannequin, so a student can learn to push down on someone's chest in an emergency without actually doing it to a person. The teacher makes sure the first aid student is doing the skill correctly.


title: First aid

text: Training can be given by an organization or by a professional medical person, like a doctor, a nurse, or a paramedic. Organizations that teach first aid include the International Red Cross, schools, hospitals, the military, Scout groups, and rescue groups such as fire departments.


title: First aid

text: The level of training needed to be a first aid helper changes from country to country. For example, in the United Kingdom and the United States, you can go on a 1-day course to become a first aid giver. In the U.K., you can go on a 4-day course for emergencies in a place of work. All firefighters, police officers, and soldiers are trained in first aid during their basic training.


title: First aid

text: First aid kits may be kept in cloth bags or plastic or metal boxes. They are often labeled with a symbol such as those on the upper right. A first aid kit may contain many items, but basic items that can help with first aid include:


title: Chemistry

text: Chemistry is a branch of science that deals with chemical elements and compounds, and how they work together and change. In other words, chemistry is the branch of science that study fundamental properties of matter and chemical reactions. Chemistry is the study of the substances and their transformations(change).


title: Chemistry

text: Before 1600, people studied substances to figure out how to do things such as turn lead into gold, but no one managed to do that. This was called alchemy. After 1600, using the scientific method alchemists became chemists. Chemists separated the air into many parts and isolated the noble gases from it. They also processed special minerals from a mine in Sweden to get rare earth metals. Radioactivity was also discovered. Today chemists have discovered 118 different elements. Some are very common, like oxygen. Many are very rare and expensive, like platinum. Some cannot be found on earth and can only be made in labs, like rutherfordium.


title: Chemistry

text: Since the 1920s, the increased understanding of physics has changed chemists' theories about chemical reactions. With smaller and faster computers, chemists have built better tools for analyzing substances. These tools have been sent to study chemicals on Mars. Police also use those tools to study evidence from crime scenes.


title: Chemistry

text: There are several types of chemistry. Analytical chemistry looks at which chemicals are in things. For example, looking at how much arsenic is in food. Organic chemistry looks at things that have carbon in them. For example, making acetylene. Inorganic chemistry looks at things that do not have carbon in them. One example is making an integrated circuit. Theoretical chemistry tries to explain chemical data with mathematics and computers.


title: Chemistry

text: A large area of chemistry is polymer chemistry. This looks at plastics. One example is making nylon. Because plastics are made of carbon, polymer chemistry is part of organic chemistry. Another area is biochemistry. This looks at the chemistry of living things. An example would be seeing how arsenic poisons people. Biochemistry is also part of organic chemistry. There are many other small branches of chemistry.


title: Chemistry

text: The basic unit of an element is called an atom. An atom is the smallest building block that you can cut an element into without the element breaking down (turning into a lighter element, for example through nuclear fission or radioactive decay). A chemical compound is a substance made up of two or more elements. In a compound, two or more atoms are joined to form a molecule. The tiniest speck of dust or drop of liquid, that one can see is made up of many millions or billions of these molecules. Mixtures are substances where chemicals are mixed but not reacted. An example would be mixing sand and salt. This can be undone again to produce salt and sand separately. Chemical compounds are changed by a chemical reaction. An example would be heating sodium bicarbonate, common baking soda. It will make water, carbon dioxide, and sodium carbonate. This reaction cannot be undone.


title: Chemistry

text: One very important concept in chemistry is that different atoms interact with one another in very specific proportions. For example, two hydrogen atoms interacting with one oxygen atom lead to the water molecule, HO. This relationship is known as the "Law of constant proportions" and leads to the idea of "stoichiometry", a term that refers to the ratios of different atoms in chemical compounds. For example, in water, there are always exactly 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen atom. In carbon dioxide, there are exactly 2 oxygen atoms for 1 carbon atom. These relationships are described using chemical formulas such as HO (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom) and CO (one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms).


title: Chemistry

text: Because atoms of different elements react with one another in very specific proportions but atoms of different elements have different weights, chemists often describe the number of different elements and compounds in terms of the number of "moles". A "mole" of any element contains the same number of atoms: 602,214,150,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. The atomic mass of an element can be used to see how much of the element makes a mole. For example, the atomic mass of copper is about 63.55. That means about 63.55 grams of copper metal has a mole of atoms. The atomic mass of chlorine is about 35.45. That means 35.45 grams of chlorine has a mole of atoms in it.


title: Chemistry

text: Moles can be used to see how many molecules are in chemical compounds, too. Copper(II) chloride is an example. CuCl is its chemical formula. There is one copper atom (63.55) and two chlorine atoms (35.45 · 2 = 70.90). Add all the molar masses of the elements together to get the molar mass of the chemical compound (63.55 + 70.90 = 134.45). That means in 134.45 grams of copper(II) chloride, there is one mole of copper(II) chloride molecules. This concept is used to calculate how much chemicals are needed in a chemical reaction if no reactants (chemicals that are reacted) should be left. If too much reactant is used, there will be some reactants left in the chemical reaction.


title: Chemistry

text: Acids and bases are common chemicals. Acids release H ions when in water, and bases release OH ions when in water. Acids can react with bases. The H ion is taken from the acid by the base. This makes water, HO. A salt is also made when an acid and a base react together. An example would be reacting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Hydrochloric acid releases H and Cl ions in water. The base releases Na and OH ions. The H and the OH react to make water. There is a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) left. Sodium chloride is a salt.


title: Chemistry

text: Chemistry is very useful in everyday life and makes up the foundation of many branches of science. Most objects are made by chemists (people who do chemistry). Chemists are constantly working to find new and useful substances. Chemists make new drugs and materials like paints that we use every day.