title: Yahoo!

text: Yahoo! is a web portal and an internet content and service provider. It offers many products and services, such as a search engine, e-mail, instant messaging, video, news, weather forecasting, money and other information. Yahoo! makes money from advertisements in their services. Yahoo started on October 8, 1997.


title: Yahoo!

text: In January 1994, Jerry Yang and David Filo were Electrical Engineering graduate students at Stanford University. In April 1994, "Jerry and David's Guide to the World Wide Web" was renamed "Yahoo!", for which the official is "Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle". Filo and Yang said they chose the name because they liked the word's general meaning, which comes from Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift: "rude, and ". Its URL was akebono.stanford.edu/yahoo. Yang describes their selection of the name as "We thought it fit well with what we were doing. It was irreverent. It was reflective of the Wild West nature of the Internet. A lot of people found it easy to remember, and besides, it's exactly what me and Jerry are. A couple of yahoos."


title: Nuclear power

text: Nuclear power is the controlled use of nuclear energy. Nuclear energy can be released by nuclear reactions in a machine called a nuclear reactor. This energy boils water for a steam engine to make electricity, which then can be used to power machines and homes. In 2007, 14% of the world's electricity came from nuclear power. Nuclear power plants also make radioactive waste that could be harmful if it is not stored properly.


title: Nuclear power

text: People have also been studying since the middle 20th century to use fusion power which produces much more energy and doesn't produce radioactive waste. Nuclear fusion reactors don't exist yet and are still being developed.


title: Nuclear power

text: Enrico Fermi made the first nuclear reactor in 1941. Many reactors were built in the U.S. during World War II during the Manhattan Project. In 1954 the first nuclear power plant started in Obninsk near Moscow. Most nuclear power plants in the U.S. were built during the 1960s and 1970s. Nuclear reactors also power some large military ships and submarines.


title: Nuclear power

text: Nuclear reactors use a process called nuclear fission, which uses atoms like uranium or plutonium (In particular the isotope Uranium 235) and splits them apart with particles called neutrons. This converts some of the mass into energy, according to Einstein's equation E=mc2. The fissionable elements are placed into rods called 'fuel rods'. The fuel rods are submerged in water, and the energy released in the fission reaction heats up the water which turns into steam.


title: Nuclear power

text: The steam then turns a turbine, which generates electricity. The steam is then condensed in huge cooling towers, and it turns back into water and is sent into the reactor again.


title: Nuclear power

text: The reaction can be controlled by putting 'control rods' in between the fuel rods. The control rods are generally made of boron, which absorbs neutrons and stops the reaction.


title: Nuclear power

text: A nuclear meltdown can happen when the reaction is not controlled, and starts to generate dangerous radioactive gases (like Krypton). Contrary to popular belief, nuclear reactors can't explode like a nuclear bomb, but it is a danger when radioactive materials escape.


title: Nuclear power

text: Some serious nuclear accidents have occurred. A scale was made to measure how dangerous accidents are. It is called the International Nuclear Event Scale. The scale has 8 levels (0-7), and 7 is the worst.


title: Nuclear power

text: Nuclear-powered submarine mishaps include the Soviet submarine K-19 reactor accident (1961), the Soviet submarine K-27 reactor accident (1968), and the Soviet submarine K-431 reactor accident (1985).


title: Nuclear power

text: The economics of nuclear power is challenging, and following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, costs are likely to go up for currently operating and new nuclear power plants, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats.


title: Nuclear power

text: There is a debate about the use of nuclear power. Supporters, such as the World Nuclear Association and IAEA, argue that nuclear power is a sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions. Additionally, it does not contribute to smog or acid rain. It is believed that thousands of lives have been saved by using nuclear energy instead of more dangerous fuels such as coal, oil and gas.


title: Nuclear power

text: Anti-nuclear opponents, such as Greenpeace International and the Nuclear Information and Resource Service, believe that nuclear power poses threats to people and the environment.


title: Nuclear power

text: Nuclear power generates radioactive waste materials, both as fission products (broken atoms) and by inducing radioactivity in existing materials.


title: Nuclear power

text: In 2007, nuclear power plants made some 2600 TWh of electricity and provided 14 percent of the electricity used in the world, which represented a fall of 2 per cent compared with 2006. As of May 9, 2010, there were 438 (372 GW) nuclear reactors operating globally. A peak was reached in 2002 when there were 444 nuclear reactors operating.


title: Nuclear power

text: The nuclear emergencies at Japan's Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant and other nuclear facilities raised questions about the future of nuclear power. Platts has said that "the crisis at Japan's Fukushima nuclear plants has prompted leading energy-consuming countries to review the safety of their existing reactors and cast doubt on the speed and scale of planned expansions around the world". Following the Fukushima nuclear disaster, the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035.


title: Pasteurization

text: Pasteurization (or pasteurisation) is a process of heat processing a liquid or a food to kill pathogenic bacteria to make the food safe to eat and to preserve longer. It involves heating the food to kill most harmful microorganisms. Producers pasteurize dairy and other foods to make them safe to eat. The process is named after Louis Pasteur. He was the first person to learn how to do it successfully. The first pasteurization was done by Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard on 20 April 1862.


title: Pasteurization

text: Unlike sterilization, pasteurization is not intended to kill all microorganisms in the food. Instead, pasteurization gets a "log reduction" in the number of microorganisms. It brings their number down so they are unlikely to cause disease if the product is kept in the refrigerator and consumed before its sell-by date. Commercial sterilization of food is not common, because it tends to destroy the flavour of the food.


title: Pasteurization

text: Pasteurization is usually done to milk, which was first suggested by Franz von Soxhlet in 1886. There are two popular ways to pasteurize milk. First, high temperature/short time (HTST), and second, ultra-high temperature (UHT). HTST is the most common method. Milk only labeled "pasteurized" (or "past") is usually treated with the HTST method, whereas milk labelled "ultra-pasteurized" or "UHT" must be treated with the UHT method. HTST is when the milk is at a temperature of 72 degrees Celsius (or 161.5 degrees Fahrenheit) for at least 15 seconds. UHT is when the milk is at a temperature of 138 °C or 280 °F for at least two seconds.


title: Pasteurization

text: Pasteurization rules are usually set by national food safety agencies (like the USDA in the United States and the Food Standards Agency in the United Kingdom). These agencies say milk has to be HTST pasteurized to have the "pasteurized" label. There are different rules for different dairy products, depending on the fat content and what they will be used for. For example, the pasteurization rules for cream are different than the rules for fluid milk, and the standards for pasteurizing cheese are designed to keep the phosphatase enzyme fresh, which helps in making the cheese.


title: Pasteurization

text: HTST pasteurized milk normally has a refrigerated shelf life of two or three weeks, but ultra pasteurized milk can last much longer when refrigerated, sometimes two or three months. When UHT pasteurization is mixed with safe handling and container technology, it can even be stored unrefrigerated for even longer periods of time.


title: Pasteurization

text: In addition to the standard HTST and UHT pasteurization standards, there are other lesser-known pasteurization techniques. The first technique, called "batch pasteurization", involves heating large batches of milk to a lower temperature, typically . The other technique is called higher-heat/shorter time (HHST), and it lies somewhere between HTST and UHT in terms of time and temperature. Pasteurization causes some irreversible and some temporary denaturization of the proteins in milk.


title: Pasteurization

text: In most legislations, double pasteurization is not allowed. A heat treatment at a lower temperature or for a shorter time is sometimes performed. Possibly, such milk could be called "raw milk" or, confusingly, "unpasteurized milk". It cannot be called "pasteurized", even though a significant number of pathogens are destroyed during the process.


title: Pasteurization

text: In recent years, there has been some consumer interest in raw milk products, due to perceived health benefits. Advocates of raw milk maintain, correctly, that some components survive in milk that has not been pasteurized. Specifically, raw milk contains immunoglobulins and the enzymes lipase and phosphatase, which are inactivated by heat. Raw milk also contains vitamin B6 of which up to 20% may be lost on heat treatment. It is also claimed to contain beneficial bacteria which aid digestion and boost immunity.


title: Pasteurization

text: Some doctors (and some raw milk advocates) acknowledge that certain people should not drink raw milk, including pregnant or breast-feeding mothers, those undergoing immunosuppression treatment for cancer, organ transplant, or autoimmune diseases; and those who are immunocompromised due to medical conditions such as AIDS.


title: Pasteurization

text: In fact, some doctors suggest that babies and breast-feeding mothers avoid all but UHT pasteurized dairy products.


title: Pasteurization

text: In Africa, it is common to boil milk whenever it is harvested. This intense heating greatly changes the flavor of milk, which the people in Africa are accustomed to.


title: Pasteurization

text: Milk pasteurization standards have been subject to increasing scrutiny in recent years, due to the discovery of pathogens that are both widespread and heat resistant (able to survive pasteurization in significant numbers). Researchers have developed more sensitive diagnostics, such as real-time PCR and improved culture methods, that have enabled them to identify pathogens in pasteurized milk.


title: Pasteurization

text: One bacterium in particular, the organism "Mycobacterium avium" subspecies "paratuberculosis" (MAP), which causes Johne's disease in cattle and is suspected of causing at least some Crohn's disease in humans, has been found to survive pasteurization in retail milk in the U.S., the U.K., Greece, and the Czech Republic. The food safety authorities in the U.K. have decided to re-evaluate pasteurization standards in light of the MAP results and other evidence of harmful, pasteurization-resistant pathogens.


title: Pasteurization

text: The USDA (which is responsible for setting pasteurization standards in the U.S.) has not re-evaluated their position on pasteurization adequacy. They do not dispute the studies, which are at this point accepted by the scientific community, but maintain that the presence of MAP in retail pasteurized milk must be due to post-pasteurization contamination. However, some researchers within the FDA, which is responsible for food safety in the U.S., have begun pushing for a re-evaluation of these results. There is a small but growing body of criticism directed at these agencies by Crohn's disease sufferers, scientists, and doctors. Some have suggested that the U.S. dairy industry has been successful in suppressing the agencies' response to a potential health crisis, for fear of consumer panic which would lead to a decrease in milk consumption. It is worth noting that while MAP has not been definitely proven to be harmful in humans, all other mycobacteria are pathogenic, and it has been definitively shown to cause disease in cattle and other ruminants.


title: Pasteurization

text: A newer method called flash pasteurization involves shorter exposure to higher temperatures, and is claimed to be better for preserving color and taste in some products.


title: Pasteurization

text: The term cold pasteurization is used sometimes for the use of ionizing radiation (see food irradiation) or other means (e.g. chemical) to kill bacteria in food. Food irradiation is also sometimes called "electronic pasteurization".


title: Clay tablet

text: Clay tablets were a medium used for writing. They were common in the Fertile Crescent, from about the 5th millennium BC.


title: Clay tablet

text: A clay tablet is a more or less flat surface made of clay. Using a stylus, symbols were pressed into the soft clay. It is possible to correct errors on the tablet. The tablet was then baked until dry and hard, either by leaving it out in the sun, or in a fire. Sun-baked tablets could be moistened and recycled. The ones that survived thousands of years were baked in fire.


title: Clay tablet

text: Cuneiform was the first writing used on clay tablets. The system was used by several civilizations who spoke several different languages.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: The Traveling Salesman Problem (often called TSP) is a classic algorithmic problem in the field of computer science and . It is focused on optimization. In this context, "better solution" often means "a solution that is cheaper, shorter, or faster". TSP is a mathematical problem. It is most easily expressed as a graph describing the locations of a set of nodes.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: The traveling salesman problem was defined in the 1800s by the Irish mathematician W. R. Hamilton and by the British mathematician Thomas Kirkman. Hamilton’s Icosian Game was a recreational puzzle based on finding a Hamiltonian cycle. The general form of the TSP appears to have been first studied by mathematicians during the 1930s in Vienna and at Harvard, notably by Karl Menger. Menger defines the problem, considers the obvious brute-force algorithm, and observes the non-optimality of the nearest neighbour heuristic:We denote by "messenger problem" (since in practice this question should be solved by each postman, anyway also by many travelers) the task to find, for ﬁnitely many points whose pairwise distances are known, the shortest route connecting the points. Of course, this problem is solvable by finitely many trials. Rules which would push the number of trials below the number of permutations of the given points, are not known. The rule that one first should go from the starting point to the closest point, then to the point closest to this, etc., in general does not yield the shortest route.Hassler Whitney at Princeton University introduced the name "traveling salesman problem" soon after.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: The Travelling Salesman Problem describes a salesman who must travel between N cities. The order in which he does so is something he does not care about, as long as he visits each once during his trip, and finishes where he was at first. Each city is connected to other close by cities, or nodes, by airplanes, or by road or railway. Each of those links between the cities has one or more weights (or the cost) attached. The cost describes how "difficult" it is to traverse this edge on the graph, and may be given, for example, by the cost of an airplane ticket or train ticket, or perhaps by the length of the edge, or time required to complete the traversal. The salesman wants to keep both the travel costs, as well as the distance he travels as low as possible.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: The Traveling Salesman Problem is typical of a large class of "hard" optimization problems that have intrigued mathematicians and computer scientists for years. Most important, it has applications in science and engineering. For example, in the manufacture of a circuit board, it is important to determine the best order in which a laser will drill thousands of holes. An efficient solution to this problem reduces production costs for the manufacturer.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: In general, the traveling salesman problem is hard to solve. If there is a way to break this problem into smaller component problems, the components will be at least as complex as the original one. This is what computer scientists call NP-hard problems.


title: Travelling salesman problem

text: Many people have studied this problem. The easiest (and most expensive solution) is to simply try all possibilities. The problem with this is that for N cities you have (N-1) factorial possibilities. This means that for only 10 cities there are over 180 thousand combinations to try (since the start city is defined, there can be permutations on the remaining nine). We only count half since each route has an equal route in reverse with the same length or cost.


title: Radiation

text: In physics, radiation is the emission or transmission of energy in the form of waves or particles through space or through a material medium.


title: Radiation

text: Radiation may also refer to the energy, waves, or particles being radiated. Originally, radiation waves do not contain particles as they are transferred to Earth by the Sun for example.


title: Radiation

text: Many people are already familiar with electromagnetic radiation (EMR), including light. The electromagnetic spectrum shows the types of radiation according to their wavelength and frequency. Some kinds are:


title: Radiation

text: Ionizing radiation is radiation that carries enough energy to free electrons from atoms or molecules.


title: Radiation

text: Only certain types of radiation are harmful to humans. For example, ultraviolet radiation can give people sunburns. X-rays and gamma rays can make a person sick, or even die, depending on the dose they get. Some types of particle radiation can also make people sick and lead to burns. If radiation does not carry high enough levels of energy, though, then these changes will not happen when something is hit by the radiation. This is referred to as non-ionizing radiation, which is not as dangerous.


title: Radiation

text: One can distinguish between various types of radiation by looking at the source of the radiation, its wavelength (if the radiation is electromagnetic), the amount of energy being carried, any particles involved, etc. Radioactive material is a material which emits radiation. Uranium and plutonium are examples of radioactive materials. The atoms they are made of tend to fall apart and give off different kinds of radiation, like gamma rays and lots of particle radiation.


title: Radiation

text: Ionizing radiation can kill living things. It can cause genetic mutations, as shown by H.J. Muller. It can destroy cells in the body which divide, and thus indirectly kill a person.


title: Pride

text: In a good sense it means having a feeling of self-respect. People can be satisfied with their achievements. They can be proud of something good that they have done. They can be proud of (or "take pride in") their work. They might be proud of their son or daughter or husband or wife or anyone else who is close to them and who has done something good. People can be proud of their country (patriotism). The opposite would be "to be ashamed" of someone or something.


title: Pride

text: In a bad sense, "pride" can mean that someone has an exaggerated sense of feeling good. This might mean that someone has no respect for what other people do, only respect for what he or she does. Someone who is described as "proud" may be arrogant. The word is used in this sense in the saying: “Pride comes before a fall” or “Pride goes before destruction, a haughty spirit before a fall.” Prov.16:18 (meaning that someone is so overconfident that he or she might soon have a disaster).


title: Orbit

text: An orbit is the path that an object takes in space when it goes around a star, a planet, or a moon. It can also be used as a verb. For instance: “The earth "orbits" around the Sun.” The word ‘revolves’ has the same meaning, but 'rotates' is the spin of the object.


title: Orbit

text: Many years ago, people thought that the Sun orbits in a circle around the earth. Every morning the Sun came up in the east and went down in the west. It just seemed to make sense that it was going around the earth. But now, thanks to people like Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, we know that the Sun is the center of the Solar System, and the earth orbits around it. Isaac Newton discovered that gravity controls the orbit of the planets and moons. Since a satellite is an object in space that revolves around another object, the earth is a satellite of the sun, just like the moon is a satellite of the Earth! The sun has lots of satellites orbiting around it, like the planets, and thousands of asteroids, comets, and meteoroids. The Earth just has one natural satellite (the Moon), but there are many artificial satellites orbiting the earth.


title: Orbit

text: When people first began to think about orbits, they thought that all orbits had to be perfect circles, and they thought that the circle was a "perfect" shape. Copernicus and Galileo, for example, thought so. But when people began to study the motions of planets carefully, they saw that the planets were not moving in perfect circles. Some of the planets have orbits that are almost perfect circles, and others have orbits that are more oblong (egg shaped).


title: Orbit

text: An "orbital period" is the time that it takes for one object - that is, satellite - to orbit around another object. For instance, the Earth's orbital period is one year: 365.25 days. (The extra ".25" is why we have a leap day once every four years).


title: Orbit

text: The Moon takes 27 days (29.53 days as seen from Earth) to go around the Earth and also to rotate around its own axis. This is why only one side always faces the Earth and the "dark side of the Moon" faces away (it is called dark because we cannot see it, though all sides of the moon get equal light). One lunar year and one lunar day take the same amount of time.


title: Orbit

text: Johannes Kepler (lived 1571-1630) wrote mathematical "laws of planetary motion", which gave a good idea of the movements of the planets because he found that the orbits of the planets in our Solar System are not really circles, but are really ellipses (a shape like a "flattened circle"). That is why orbits are described as elliptical.


title: Orbit

text: The more elliptical an orbit is, the more eccentric the orbit is. This is called orbital eccentricity. Other numbers that describe an elliptical orbit include semi-major axis and orbital inclination.


title: Orbit

text: Isaac Newton (lived 1642-1727) used his own ideas about gravity to show why Kepler's laws worked the way they did. Joseph-Louis Lagrange further advanced the study of orbital mechanics, using Newton's theory to predict perturbations which change the shapes of orbits.


title: Length

text: Length is a measurement. A ruler can measure length. The length of something is the distance between two ends of the thing. Short means a small length. Long means much length. Short and long are opposites. For two dimensional things, length is usually the longer side.


title: Length

text: John sits down at one o'clock, or 1h. John waits until three o'clock, or 3h. John stands up at three o'clock, or 3h. John was sitting for 2 hours. The length of time John was sitting was two hours.


title: Standard Model

text: The Standard Model (SM) of physics is a theory of the elementary particles, which are either fermions or bosons. It also explains three of the four basic forces of nature. The four fundamental forces are: gravity, electromagnetism, the weak force, and the strong force. Gravity is the one the model does not explain.


title: Standard Model

text: The model uses the parts of physics called quantum mechanics and special relativity, and the ideas of physical field and symmetry breaking. Some of the mathematics of the SM is group theory, and also as equations which have biggest and smallest points, called Lagrangians and Hamiltonians.


title: Standard Model

text: Fermions are particles that join together to make up all "matter" we see. Examples of groups of fermions are the proton and the neutron. Fermions have properties, such as charge and mass, which can be seen in everyday life. They also have other properties, such as spin, weak charge, hypercharge, and color charge, whose effects do not usually appear in everyday life. These properties are given numbers called quantum numbers.


title: Standard Model

text: Fermions are particles whose spin numbers equal an odd, positive number times one half: 1/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc. We say that fermions have "half integer spin."


title: Standard Model

text: An important fact about fermions is that they follow a rule called the Pauli exclusion principle. This rule says that no two fermions can be in the same "place" at the same time, because no two fermions in an atom can have the same quantum numbers at the same time. Fermions also obey a theory called Fermi-Dirac statistics. The word "fermion" honors the physicist Enrico Fermi.


title: Standard Model

text: Quarks are grouped into three pairs. Each pair is called a "generation." The first quark in each pair has charge 2/3, and the second quark has charge -1/3. The three kinds of neutrino have a charge of 0. The electron, muon, and tau have charge -1.


title: Standard Model

text: Matter is made of atoms, and atoms are made of electrons, protons, and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are made of up and down quarks. You can find one lepton by itself, but you can never find quarks alone. This is because quarks are held together by the color force.


title: Standard Model

text: Bosons are the second type of elementary particle in the standard model. All bosons have an integer spin (1, 2, 3, etc..) so many of them can be in the same place at the same time. There are two types of elementary bosons: gauge bosons and the Higgs boson. Gauge bosons are what make the fundamental forces of nature possible. (We are not yet sure if gravity works through a gauge boson.) Every force that acts on fermions happens because gauge bosons are moving between the fermions, carrying the force. Bosons follow a theory called Bose-Einstein statistics. The word "boson" honors the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose.


title: Standard Model

text: These particles have all been seen either in nature or in the laboratory. The model also predicts that there is a Higgs boson. The model says that fermions have mass (they are not just pure energy) because Higgs bosons travel back and forth between them. The Higgs boson is believed to have been discovered on July 4th, 2012. It is the particle that gives mass to other particles.


title: Standard Model

text: There are four basic known forces of nature. Three of these forces affect fermions, and are carried by bosons traveling between those fermions. The standard model explains these three forces.


title: Standard Model

text: The other force affects all particles (fermions and bosons) and is not known to have an associated boson.


title: Standard Model

text: The strong and weak forces are only seen inside the nucleus of an atom. They only work over very tiny distances: distances that are about as far as a proton is wide. The electromagnetic force and gravity work over any distance, but the strength of these forces goes down as the affected objects get farther apart. The force goes down with the square of the distance between the affected objects: for example, if two objects become twice as far away from each other, the force of gravity between them goes down to a quarter (2=4).


title: Standard Model

text: The standard model is believed to be theoretically self-consistent. It has demonstrated huge and continued successes in experimental predictions, but it does leave some things unexplained.


title: Substance abuse

text: Substance abuse, or drug abuse, happens when a person uses a drug over and over again, in ways that hurt their health. The person is using the drug to change their mood or to feel better, not for any healthy reason. Sometimes when the person uses the drug for a long time, they will start to act differently. Some of the drugs are illegal to have or use, or can have certain limits that the person does not follow. Someone who thinks that they need a drug is called an addict.


title: Substance abuse

text: Substance abuse can have different symptoms in different people. “Drug abuse” is not used in the DSM or ICD. In the DSM, the term “substance abuse” is used instead to mean the misuse of one of ten different types of drugs.  A person can also become dependent on drugs. Repetitive use of a drug can cause dependence as well as tolerance. Tolerance happens when it takes more of a drug to produce the same effect than a previous time.


title: Substance abuse

text: The term “drug misuse” is sometimes used when the drug being used is a prescription medication that are classified as sedatives (medicines that make someone calm), anxiolytics ( make someone less worried or anxious), analgesics (medicines that reduce pain), or stimulants (medicines that give someone more energy). Someone who abuses there drugs may have to illegally buy them from someone who gets them from doctor.


title: Substance abuse

text: Not everyone agrees on the definition of substance abuse. Different countries have different rules for what is a drug and what drugs are illegal. People also do not agree about what is abuse. In most Western countries, one glass of wine is acceptable, but drinking more than one bottle at once is abuse. To some people, any drinking can be seen as abuse. In the United States, any use of marijuana


title: Substance abuse

text: In many cases, when a person is using drugs, their thinking and behaviors change. Sometimes, they commit crimes while using drugs. They may do things that are not safe, like drive a car while drunk. When people abuse drugs over a longer time, their personalities often change as well. The people who abuse drugs are often addicted. Since many of these drugs are illegal, very often drug users have problems with the law.


title: Substance abuse

text: There are two major ideas about why people abuse drugs. Many people believe that both can be true for different cases or with different people, which is one reason why different treatments work better or worse for different people.


title: Substance abuse

text: One idea about why people use drugs is because of their genes. When a person's parents or grandparents have been addicted to drugs, alcohol, cigarettes or even coffee, the same genes that made them become addicted could be passed down to any of their children. When someone is born with the genes that increase addiction, it causes their brain and body to become dependent on drugs very quickly. But even if a person's genes make it easier for them to become addicted to drugs, that person still need to try a drug first, before they can become addicted on it. This idea also means that different people can have harder or easier time stopping drugs after they are already addicted.


title: Substance abuse

text: The second major idea is that drug use is a habit that becomes harmful. It is always very hard to stop bad habits, but in this idea, drugs are one of the strongest bad habits because drugs cause so many changes in the brain. Each time a person uses drugs, the parts of the brain that think about drugs become stronger and stronger. In this idea, if a person likes drugs, that person starts to plan their day around using drugs. To stop a habit as strong as drug use, many other things about that person's life must also change. This idea also means that, the longer a person takes drugs, the harder it is for them to stop taking drugs.


title: Substance abuse

text: People who abuse drugs have a high rate of suicide. This is because of the changes in the brain caused by drugs, both when they are being used and the changes they cause over time. Another cause is the loss of family and friends because of the drug abuse. In the United States, about 30% of all people who perform suicide have abused alcohol at some point.


title: Substance abuse

text: Treatment of substance abuse can include both therapy and medicine. Therapy for substance abuse helps people not use drugs when they feel they need to. For children and young adults, both the child and the family may have therapy. The child will learn how to not abuse, and the family will learn how to help the child. The organization Alcoholics Anonymous helps people with alcohol abuse.


title: Substance abuse

text: For some kinds of substance abuse, medicine can be used to help. Some of these medicines, such as methadone, stop the drug from working in the brain. Other medicines can cause people to feel ill if they use the substance that they abuse. Some medicines, like bupropion, makes people stop wanting the drug so much.


title: Substance abuse

text: Many substances can cause withdrawal. Withdrawal is group of bad feelings that happen when someone stops taking a drug suddenly, if they were regularly taking that drug before. For someone to have withdrawal, they must be dependent on the drug. Different drugs cause different things to happen during withdrawal. They can also cause different amounts of trouble for the person in withdrawal. Withdrawal for some drugs, like heroin and other opiates, can be dangerous or deadly, and should be done with a doctor or nurse taking care of the person in withdrawal.


title: Substance abuse

text: About 9% of Americans have a substance abuse issue. Young people are the most likely to experiment with and abuse drugs. Drug abuse affects about 5% of adolescents. More men than women have substance abuse disorder, though women are more likely to have an issue with abusing prescription medication. Children who have parents with substance abuse issues are more likely to have a substance abuse issue when they grow up.


title: Substance abuse

text: Certain groups of people are more likely to develop substance abuse issues. One group is immigrants or other people who have left their home country. They often have issues in their new country, and some use drugs as a way to feel better.  Another group that is at risk is homeless children. They will use drugs to become closer to each other. A third group that is at risk is musicians. They may use stimulants to make themselves more active and happy. Singers can also hurt themselves if they use drugs that are inhaled.


title: Substance abuse

text: The first official definition for substance abuse was made in 1932 by the American Psychiatric Association. This definition was only used for when the substance was illegal and not being used as medicine. In 1966, the American Medical Association defined abuse as the drug being given by someone to themselves without a doctor.


title: Substance abuse

text: The first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) had drug abuse as a symptom of other psychological issues. In the third edition, substance abuse was made its own issue. The DSM also has drug abuse as a different issue than drug dependence, which is defined as compulsive use of a drug.


title: Substance abuse

text: Most countries have laws that make having or using certain drugs illegal. The rules for these drugs can be different between countries or in different parts of the same country. Many drugs that are illegal in several places are sold to make money for groups known as drug cartels.


title: Substance abuse

text: Drug abuse can also cause issues in a country’s economy. According to the European Union, about 2.5 billion dollars are lost each year because of people abusing drugs. This loss comes from people not going to work or having to go to the hospital because of side effects of the drug. In the United Kingdom, about 29 billion dollars a year are lost. This number does not include the cost of police or other law enforcement. In the United States, the cost was 181 billion dollars in 2002. This number includes costs because of health issues, loss of work, law enforcement, and welfare programs.


title: 16 (number)

text: 16 (also written as sixteen or six-ten) is a number. It comes between fifteen and seventeen, and is an even number. It is also the 4th square number, after 1, 4, and 9.


title: Mogadishu

text: Mogadishu () is the capital city of the African country of Somalia. It is also the largest city in that country. It is located in the coastal Banadir region on the Somali Sea. The city has been an important port for the region for many centuries. Estimates of the city's population are between 1.5 and 3 million people.


title: Mogadishu

text: Trade between the people in the Mogadishu area with other areas along the Somali Sea coast of East Africa started as early as the 1st century. Muslim traders from the Arabian Peninsula came to the area during the 10th century. Because of trade with them, Islam spread through Somalia. The Portuguese tried to take control of the city, but failed. In 1871 Barghash bin Said, the sultan of Zanzibar, controlled the city.


title: Mogadishu

text: In 1892, Ali bin Said let Italy use the city. Italy bought the city in 1905. They made "Mogadiscio" (Italian for Mogadishu) the capital of Italian Somaliland. The Italians took control of the area around the city in 1919 after minor resistance. Italian Mogadiscio from a small village of 1,000 inhabitants in the 1890s to a modern capital in 1940 of nearly 100,000 persons (of whom more than 1/3 were Italians), that was second only to Asmara in Eritrea for development inside the Italian Empire.


title: Mogadishu

text: British forces that were in Kenya during World War II captured Mogadishu on February 26, 1941. The British ruled until they gave Italy control of the city again in 1952. Somalia became independent in 1960 with Mogadishu as its capital.


title: Mogadishu

text: Rebel forces entered and took the city in 1990. They forced President Mohamed Siad Barre to resign and leave the country in January 1991. He went to Lagos, Nigeria. Some of the rebels said that Ali Mahdi Muhammad was the new president. Others said that Mohamed Farrah Aidid was president. A group of United States Marines landed near Mogadishu on December 9, 1992. They were the first part of the United Nations peacekeeping forces during Operation Restore Hope to go to the country. Mogadishu has had many years of civil war. This is because the government of Somalia fell in 1991. This has included many suicide bombings by jihadist group al-Shabaab. In 2017, an al-Shabaab suicide bomber killed over 500 people.


title: Mogadishu

text: Mogadishu is a commercial and financial center for Somalia. The economy got better after the Somali Civil War but there are still problems. Because the government does not have control of the whole country, there is less taxation or regulatory costs. This makes businesses not cost as much as it does in other places. Businesses have hired armed militias to have security. This is reducing violence in the city.


title: Mogadishu

text: The main industries of the city include making food and beverages as well as textiles. The main textile is cotton. The main market many different types of goods from food to electronic items.


title: Mogadishu

text: Mogadishu has the most port traffic of any port in Somalia. It is still a major seaport. However, there has been a lot of piracy around Somalia's coastal areas. This makes trade risky.


title: 2009 Formula One World Championship

text: The 2009 Formula One season was the 60th FIA Formula One World Championship season. There were ten teams signed up to compete in the championship. Jenson Button became the Drivers' World Champion and Brawn GP won the Constructors' title.


title: 2009 Formula One World Championship

text: The season is scheduled to take place over 17 rounds, and started with the Australian Grand Prix on 29 March 2009. It will end on 1 November 2009 with the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, which is included on the race calendar for the first time and will be held at the new Yas Marina Circuit. The French and Canadian Grands Prix, which were both included in the 2008 championship, have been dropped.


title: 2009 Formula One World Championship

text: Several rule changes will be implemented by the FIA, in a bid to cut costs due to the global financial crisis and to improve the on-track spectacle. New rules governing tyres, aerodynamics and Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems (KERS), among others, are some of the biggest changes in the Formula One regulations for several decades. FIA initially declared a change in deciding the World Driver's Championship, with the driver winning the most races to be declared as the champion. However, this decision was later reversed following protests from Formula One Teams Association.


title: 2009 Formula One World Championship

text: Drivers did not finish the Grand Prix, but were classified as they completed over 90% of the race distance.


title: Court

text: A court, in law, is a part of the government in which people come together to decide how to apply the country's laws to a specific situation, especially when there is an argument over how to apply the law. Some disagreements a court may decide are whether a person is guilty of a crime, who is the legal owner of property, or who the children of two divorced parents should live with. A court is usually in a special building called a courthouse.


title: Court

text: Most countries have multiple courts to deal with different issues. For example, civil courts deal with private disputes between people or organizations, while criminal courts deal with people who have been accused of crimes.


title: Court

text: An appellate court is one that can change a decision made by a lower court. This is called court hierarchy. The decision made by a low court can be appealed to a higher one, asking the higher court to change the decision. Higher courts usually have more experienced judges in charge. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in that country.


title: Court

text: Some countries have a constitutional court. These courts decide if a law is in agreement with the constitution of the country.


title: Court

text: Courts usually set the punishments for breaking the law. Common punishments include paying fines and spending time in prison. In some countries, courts have the power to sentence people to death (the death penalty).


title: Scarlett Johansson

text: Scarlett Johansson (born November 22, 1984) is an American actress, model and singer. She is best known for her roles in the movies "The Avengers", "Lost in Translation", "Girl With a Pearl Earring", "Match Point", and "The Prestige".


title: Scarlett Johansson

text: Scarlett Johansson was born in New York City, New York on November 22, 1984. Her father, Karsten Johansson, is a Danish-born architect originally from Copenhagen, and her paternal grandfather, Ejner Johansson, was a screenwriter and director. Her mother, Melanie Sloan, a producer, comes from an Ashkenazi Jewish family from the Bronx. Melanie's ancestors emigrated to New York from Minsk, Tsarist Russia. She has an older sister, Vanessa, also an actress; an older brother, Adrian; a twin brother, Hunter (who appeared with her in the film "Manny & Lo"); and an older half-brother, Christian, from her father's first marriage.


title: Scarlett Johansson

text: Johansson is registered as an independent and campaigned for Democratic candidate John Kerry in the 2004 United States presidential election. About George W. Bush's 2004 reelection, she said, "[I am] disappointed. I think it was a disappointment for a large percentage of the population." Johansson also campaigned for Democratic candidate Barack Obama: Her efforts included appearances in Iowa during January 2008, where her efforts were targeted at younger voters; an appearance at Cornell College; and a speaking engagement at Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota on Super Tuesday, 2008. Johansson appeared in the 2008 music video for The Black Eyed Peas front man will.i.am's song, "Yes We Can", directed by Jesse Dylan, a song inspired by Obama's speech following the 2008 New Hampshire primary. On February 7, 2012, Johansson and Anna Wintour hosted a fashion launch of pro-Obama clothing, bags and accessories, with proceeds going to the President's re-election campaign. She addressed voters at the Democratic National Convention on September 6, 2012, calling for President Obama's reelection and for more engagement from young voters.


title: Pangaea

text: Pangaea was the global supercontinent which formed in the Palaeozoic era. The process started about 450 million years ago (mya) and was complete by 210 mya. So, apart from some volcanic islands (not proven, but very likely), all the land areas were collected together in one big supercontinent.


title: Pangaea

text: Pangaea was the latest of a series of global supercontinents. They formed at various times since plate tectonics began on Earth. Panthalassa was the name of the huge global ocean which surrounded Pangaea.


title: Pangaea

text: The collisions between continental plates formed the greatest mountain ranges in the history of the Phanerozoic eon. The mountain building included the Caledonian orogeny, the Alleghenian orogeny and the Variscan orogeny. The low mountains of Scotland, Scandinavia and eastern North America are the ground-down remains of these vast events.


title: Pangaea

text: There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first signs of rifting came in the Triassic before Pangaea was completely formed.


title: Pangaea

text: Pangaea broke up about 180/200 million years ago, in the early middle Jurassic. It broke into supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana before each of these broke into the present continents. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.


title: Pangaea

text: The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Lower Cretaceous (150–140 mya), when Gondwana separated into continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia).


title: Pangaea

text: The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America (Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55 mya. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.


title: OpenOffice Calc

text: Calc is similar to Microsoft Excel, with almost the same abilities. Calc is capable of opening and saving spreadsheets in Microsoft Excel's file format. It provides a number of features not present in Excel, including a system which automatically defines a series for graphing based on the layout of the user's data. Calc is also capable of writing spreadsheets directly as PDF files.


title: OpenOffice Calc

text: The default file format for OpenOffice Calc version 2.x or 3.x can be set to either Microsoft Excel's native file format or the Open Document Format (ODF). Calc also supports a wide range of other file formats, for both opening and saving files.


title: OpenOffice Calc

text: Just like the entire OpenOffice package, Calc can be used on many operating systems, including Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, Linux, FreeBSD and Solaris. Available under the Apache License, Calc is free software.


title: OpenOffice Calc

text: Calc can store a maximum of 65,536 rows with 1024 OOoo columns in each sheet, with a maximum of 256 sheets. There is a way to increase these limits, but it is only suitable for ODF and text-based formats, as there is a risk of data turning unusable for binary formats such as Microsoft Excel's file format.


title: OpenOffice Calc

text: Version 2 of Calc was able to store a maximum of 65,536 rows with 256 columns in each sheet, with a maximum of 256 sheets.


title: OpenOffice Calc

text: In some cases, Calc lacks a GUI to access certain advanced features that other spreadsheet software have, such as statistical abilities like error bar support on graphs, and polynomial regression analysis, however, many of these calculations can still be performed by manually entering the functions. Another FOSS application called Gnumeric provides easier access to these statistical analysis features by showing them to users with a wizard.


title: Henry VI of England

text: Henry VI (6 December 1421 - 21 May 1471) was King of England twice. The first time was from 31 August 1422 to 1461. The second time was from 1470 to 21 May 1471. He was also the King of France from 1422 to 1453.


title: Henry VI of England

text: Henry was the only child of King Henry V of England and was his heir. He was born on 6 December 1421 at Windsor. He became king at the age of nine months on 31 August 1422, when his father died. His mother, Catherine of Valois, was then only twenty years old. Because she was the daughter of King Charles VI of France, and France had been the enemy of England, the English people did not trust her and she was not allowed to have a large part in raising her son.


title: Henry VI of England

text: Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, Henry IV's youngest son, was given the position of "Protector and Defender of the Realm and the Church" (Regent of England) until the King was old enough to rule. His job was to keep the peace and deal with Parliament. Henry IV's oldest living son, John, Duke of Bedford, was made the Regent of France. He was in charge of running the war that was happening. Bedford also replaced Gloucester as Regent of England whenever he was in England.


title: Henry VI of England

text: Henry was eventually made King of England at Westminster Abbey on 6 November 1429 a month before his eighth birthday. He was made King of France at Notre Dame in Paris on 16 December 1431. Because he was a child he was not allowed to control the government until he was declared of age on his sixteenth birthday in 1437, the same year his mother died.


title: Henry VI of England

text: Because of his success in the Hundred Years' War, Henry V had left England with a lot of land in France. Since Henry VI was still a child, and England was ruled by a Regent, much of the land his father gained was lost. Diplomatic mistakes as well as military failures caused the loss of most of the English land in France.


title: Henry VI of England

text: Henry VI was a deeply spiritual man and was not very interested in politics. He let his court be controlled by a few noblemen who were called his "favourites". The people who wanted to end the war in France became more powerful, and Henry went along with them. Henry VI was told that the best way to get peace with France was to marry Margaret of Anjou, who was a niece of King Charles VII of France. Charles agreed to let Henry marry Margaret as long as he did not have to give her a dowry and was given the lands of Maine and Anjou by the English. Henry agreed, but did not let Parliament know about giving away Maine and Anjou. He thought that the English people would not be happy to know that the land was being given away to France.


title: Henry VI of England

text: The marriage happened in 1445. Margaret was much the opposite of Henry. She was ready to take decisions and lead while he was happy to be led by her. Margaret was a stronger ruler than Henry ever was, even though she was only sixteen at that time.


title: Henry VI of England

text: Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he was murdered on 21 May 1471. Popular legend said that Richard, Duke of Gloucester was guilty of his murder, as well as the murder of Henry VI's son Edward of Westminster. King Henry VI was originally buried in Chertsey Abbey. In 1485, his body was moved to St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. He was succeeded by Edward IV, son of Richard, Duke of York.


title: Rock cycle

text: There are three main kinds of rocks: igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock. Each of these rocks can change into the other kinds by physical processes: cooling, melting, heat, weathering/erosion, compacting (squeezing tightly together), cementing, and pressure.


title: Rock cycle

text: When heated deep under ground, rocks become magma (liquid rock). Above ground, it is called lava. Sediment, the particles from rock erosion and weathering, is the basis for sedimentary rock of the future.


title: Rock cycle

text: Igneous rock is hardened magma, which can happen above or below ground. It can melt into magma, erode into sediment, or be pressed tightly together to become metamorphic.


title: Rock cycle

text: Metamorphic rock is igneous or sedimentary rock that has been heated and squeezed. It can erode into sediment or melt into magma. It is formed under extreme pressure and temperature deep inside mountain chains.


title: Rock cycle

text: Sedimentary rock is compacted sediments which can come from any of the other rocks, plus remains of living things. It can erode back into sediment, or be pressurized into metamorphic rock and can be melted to magma, which forms igneous rocks.


title: Rock cycle

text: These processes can occur in different orders, and the cycle goes on forever. Earth has several processes for changing rocks. Wind and water can create sediment from rocks, and movement of one tectonic plate against another creates enormous heat and pressure which affects rocks greatly. Subduction converts all kinds into magma, which eventually rejoins the cycle as igneous rocks.


title: Encryption

text: Encryption allows information to be hidden so that it cannot be read without special knowledge (such as a password). This is done with a secret code or cypher. The hidden information is said to be encrypted.


title: Encryption

text: Decryption is a way to change encrypted information back into plaintext. This is the decrypted form. The study of encryption is called cryptography. Cryptanalysis can be done by hand if the cypher is simple. Complex cyphers need a computer to search for possible keys. Decryption is a field of computer science and mathematics that looks at how difficult it is to break a cypher.


title: Encryption

text: A simple kind of encryption for words is ROT13. In ROT13, letters of the alphabet are changed with each other using a simple pattern. For example, "A" changes to "N", "B" changes to "O", "C" changes to "P", and so on. Each letter is "rotated" by 13 spaces. Using the ROT13 cipher, the words "Simple English Wikipedia" becomes "Fvzcyr Ratyvfu Jvxvcrqvn". The ROT13 cipher is very easy to decrypt. Because there are 26 letters in the English alphabet, if a letter is rotated two times by 13 letters each time, the original letter will be obtained. So applying the ROT13 cipher a second time brings back the original text. When he communicated with his army, Julius Caesar sometimes used what is known as Caesar cipher today. This cipher works by shifting the position of letters: each letter is rotated by 3 positions.


title: Encryption

text: Most kinds of encryption are made more complex so cryptanalysis will be difficult. Some are made only for text. Others are made for binary computer data like pictures and music. Today, many people use the asymmetric encryption system called RSA. Any computer file can be encrypted with RSA. AES is a common symmetric algorithm.


title: Encryption

text: Most types of encryption can theoretically be cracked: an enemy might be able to decrypt a message without knowing the password, if he has clever mathematicians, powerful computers and lots of time. The one-time pad is special because, if it is used correctly, it is impossible to crack. There are three rules that must be followed:


title: Encryption

text: If these three rules are obeyed, then it is impossible to read the secret message without knowing the secret key. For this reason, during the Cold War, embassies and large military units often used one-time pads to communicate secretly with their governments. They had little books ("pads") filled with random letters or random numbers. Each page from the pad could only be used once: this is why it is called a "one-time pad".


title: Encryption

text: Encryption is often used on the Internet, as many web sites use it to protect private information. On the Internet, several encryption protocols are used, such as Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), IPsec, and SSH. They use the RSA encryption system and others. The protocol for protected web browsing is called HTTPS.


title: Encryption

text: URL encryption mostly uses the MD5 Algorithm. Various algorithms are used in the internet market depending upon the need.


title: Organization

text: Organization (British English: Organisation) is the idea of putting things together in a logical order. The verb is "to organize".


title: Organization

text: An organization is a group of people who work together. Organizations exist because people working together can achieve more than a person working alone.


title: Age of consent

text: The age of consent is the age at which a person can legally consent to have sexual intercourse. This is also the minimum age of the other person legally permitted to engage in sexual activity. Having sex with a person who is younger than the age of consent (but who agrees to have sex) is called statutory rape. The person below the minimum age is regarded as a victim, and their sex partner as the offender. Different countries have different laws regarding the age of consent. Some are as low as 12 or as high as 21. Most countries have ages set between 14 and 16. But worldwide, the average age of consent is 16 years of age.


title: Age of consent

text: Most jurisdictions allow minors above a certain age to marry with parental and/or government permission. In jurisdictions which allow this, a minor who is married is an exception to the law. For example, in Wisconsin the age of consent for sex is 18. Marriage is an exception. Marriage usually prevents a party to the marriage from being charged under sexual assault laws, as long as both husband and wife are at least 16 years, although not if one of the parties is younger than this age and one is older. This varies from country to country. In some places kissing is considered a sexual activity. Other places only count sexual intercourse. Most countries have laws that say what the legal age of consent is. This is usually a fixed age. For example, in France the age of consent is set at 15, which means having sex with anyone below that age by anyone over that age is illegal. However, some jurisdictions use sexual maturity instead of age to determine capacity for consent. For example, when Russia was a part of the Soviet Union, its age of consent was having reached "sexual maturity".


title: Age of consent

text: There are exceptions to age of sexual consent laws. Although most jurisdictions have a fixed age set as the law, where no one over that age can be with anyone under that age, some states have close in age exceptions. For example, in Indiana the age of consent for sex is 16, but there is a close in age exception that makes it legal for a person younger than 18 but above 16 to still be able to have sex with a 14 year old without being guilty of a crime. Indiana also allows a defense against the law in court if the victim is married or was married in the past, and allows pregnant females who are 15 or older to marry the man who impregnated. This is with parental and government approval as an alternative to prosecuting the defendant.


title: Age of consent

text: The age of consent varies between states and countries. The laws in different areas range as low as 13 years to 20 years old. The laws are almost always affected by a nation's culture. Nations with Islamic law tend to have lower ages. European countries generally range from 14 years to 16 years. In the United States, the age varies from 16 to 18. In many areas, there is a "close-in-age" part of the laws. This allows for people under of consent but above a certain age to have sex with people as long as there older partner is either less than a certain age or the difference in age is a certain number of years. The age of consent may also vary if one of the people is in a position of authority over the other. For example, if the older person was a teacher of the victim, the age may be higher than for other people, an example of this is Indiana where the age where a person can have sex is 16 except if the older partner is a teacher at the victim's high school, in which case the age limit is 18. If the two people are married, the age is often lower. Age of consent can also be affected by the type of sex or the sex of the person. Many areas have different ages for homosexual sex as well as anal sex. There are areas which also have different ages depending on if the person is male or female.


title: Age of consent

text: If a person is caught having sex, or any other sexual act, with someone who is below the age of consent, the person may be punished as a sex offender. The violator may be sent to prison, or jail, or fined. In Wisconsin having sex with a person beneath 16, a felony (serious crime), carries prison time, but having sex with a minor who is 16 or over but under 18, which is a misdemeanor (a non-serious crime), carries jail time and a fine. An example of punishing age of consent violations occurred in 2011, an American swimming teacher was sent to prison for 16 months for having sex with a 15-year-old student. The law usually applies to both males and females having sex with a minor.


title: AC Cobra

text: The AC Cobra is a hybrid sportscar consisting of a British roadster with an American engine and transmission. In 1961 Carroll Shelby and took a dated sports car and collaborated to design a body to fit a Ford V-8 engine with a Borg-Warner T-10 four-speed transmission. The resulting car made history. Designed as a Corvette-killer it was one of the fastest cars available at the time. Their bodies and chassis were produced in the UK and subsequently tuned by Carroll Shelby International Inc in the USA. They became famous as "Shelby Cobra and Shelby AC Cobra" in the USA and "AC Cobra" in Europe until 1968, when the Shelby/AC collaboration ended. Since 1969 genuine AC Cobra has been produced by .


title: AC Cobra

text: Carroll Shelby was one of the world's first professional race car drivers. At age 37 a bad heart forced his retirement from racing. He started building cars in the back of a tire dealership in Santa Fe Springs, California. In June 1962 he moved to Venice, California. He wanted to build an American sportscar. Others had experimented with putting an American engine into a European car body. Shelby thought he could do it better. He approached General Motors with the idea but they already had the Corvette. They were also not interested in a limited production sports car. Ford, however, was very interested. Shelby also learned that in England was having trouble getting motors for their cars. He told them Ford was interested in supplying engines if they would ship him a car to test. They sent a body and Ford sent him a V-8. He and a friend worked all night installing the engine. In the morning they had the first Shelby AC Cobra.


title: AC Cobra

text: In the beginning Shelby used Ford's 260 cu in. engine. The V8 worked so well within the spacious engine bay Shelby looked for a larger engine. In 1963 the 289 was installed and worked very well. In 1964 Shelby moved to Ford's 427 cu in. engine and made the chassis stronger in 1965.


title: AC Cobra

text: In October 1962 a Cobra was winning at Riverside, California when a broken hub put it out of the race. In January 1963 a Cobra won at Riverside. Cobras raced at Daytona, Sebring and Le Mans.


title: AC Cobra

text: In 1964 a specially designed 427 coupe won the GT Championship. The same year raced at Le Mans and placed fourth. Their legend continued to grow on the racetrack.


title: AC Cobra

text: From 1961 to 1968 a total of only 998 were built. Of these 655 were 289 Cobras and 343 were 427 Cobras. In late 1968 AC stopped production of the Ace body. They continued to produce AC Cobras for Shelby until 1968 and have been producing it as sole manufacturer until recent days.


title: AC Cobra

text: Shelby didn't make any more Cobras until the early 1990s. He watched as prices soared for his original cars. He also saw many Cobra replicas being built; some good, some not so good. He still had a number of unused chassis numbers for cars designed to be built in 1965. He wanted to sell them as new 1965 models but the state of California would only allow them to be sold for off-road use. He built only nine "Completion Cobras". Shelby then began to build cars as "rollers" that could be completed by an authorized dealer. They were available with a fiberglass body or the original aluminum body. He offered 289 Cobras and Cobras with 427 "side-oiler" engines. Shelby offered a 50th anniversary Cobra in all black with red interiors. They had special gold badging. He made 50, available as rollers, which were all sold out in 48 hours.


title: Chemical compound

text: A chemical compound is a chemical formed from atoms of different chemical elements. The different atoms are joined by chemical bonds. Each compound has a fixed ratio between the elements.


title: Chemical compound

text: The elements stick together so strongly that the compound behaves like it is one substance. The chemical that is made depends upon what atoms it is made of and how they are joined together.


title: Chemical compound

text: Many compounds are made of separate molecules. Each molecule has the exact same number and types of atoms. For example, every water molecule has one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. Other compounds are made of a large network of atoms. For example, sodium chloride always has equal numbers of sodium and chlorine atoms, but there are no separate molecules.


title: Chemical compound

text: Chemical compounds can be solids like sodium chloride, liquids like water, or gases like carbon dioxide. We get compounds from natural sources such as plants or make them in laboratories. Compounds can be made from others by scientists and these are called "synthetic chemicals".


title: Chemical compound

text: Some chemical compounds can be dangerous but are safe if they are used the right way. Most dangerous chemicals are only used by scientists who have had special training in how to handle and use them. These chemicals might be poisonous, corrosive, explosive, they may catch fire easily, or they may react with other substances.


title: Chemical compound

text: People who work in factories near chemicals often wear special clothes that stop the chemicals from hurting their body.


title: Half-life (element)

text: The half-life of a substance is the time it takes for half of the substance to decay. The word "half-life" was first used when talking about radioactive elements where the number of atoms get smaller over time by changing into different atoms. It is now used in other situations, such as the time it takes for a drug in the body to be half gone. A Geiger-Muller detector can be used to measure the radioactive half-life; it is the time when the activity is half the original.


title: Half-life (element)

text: Half-life depends on probability because the atoms decay at a random time. Half-life is the expected time when half the number of atoms have decayed, on average.


title: Half-life (element)

text: Radioactive isotopes are atoms that have unstable nuclei, meaning that the nucleus of each atom will decay after enough time has passed. Their nuclei are unstable because the arrangement of protons and neutrons in them change. This is known as radioactive decay. When they decay, they release particles such as alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays. Sometimes they decay by fission, which means to break into pieces, to make smaller nuclei. For example, a radioactive carbon-14 atom releases a beta particle to become nitrogen-14. As an example of fission decay, a fermium-256 atom can split into xenon-140 and palladium-112 atoms, releasing four neutrons in the process.


title: Half-life (element)

text: Uranium-232 has a half-life of about 69 years. Plutonium-238 has a half-life of 88 years. Carbon-14, which is used to find the age of recent fossils, has a half-life of 5,730 years.


title: Half-life (element)

text: After ten half-lives, about 99.9% of the atoms have decayed into different atoms, so only 0.1% of the original atoms are left, and 99.9% of the radioactivity from the original kind of atom is gone. Some atoms decay into other atoms that are also radioactive, so the remaining radioactivity depends on the type of atom.


title: Angkor Wat

text: Angkor Wat () is a temple complex at Siem Reap, Cambodia, built for the Hindu king Suryavarman II in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. Before long it became a Buddhist site. It is the world's largest religious building. Angkor fell into decline after the 14th Century.


title: Grandparent

text: The term grandparent means the parents of a person's father or mother. s have always been important members of a family. The role of a parent is often very different from the role of a grandparent. Parents are the providers and disciplinarians of their children. Grandparents are often much freer to enjoy and have fun with their grandchildren. A grandparent-grandchild relationship is usually much simpler than that of a parent and child.


title: Grandparent

text: The term 'grandparent' is used for both male and female genders. The male grandparent is called a grandfather. The female grandparent is a grandmother. When looking at the relationship from the point of view of the grandparent, the term grandchild is used. A grandchild is the child of a person's child. It can also be used based on gender. Grandchild is correct for either gender. Grandson is male. Granddaughter is female.


title: Grandparent

text: For example: Bob has a son named Rick. Rick, in turn, has 2 children; a boy (Bill) and a girl (Mary). Bob is the grandfather (male grandparent) of both Bill and Mary. Bill is the grandson (male grandchild) of Bob, and Mary is the granddaughter (female grandchild) of Bob. Rick's mother would be the grandmother (female grandparent) of both Mary and Bill.


title: Grandparent

text: There are a number of nicknames for a person's grandparents. These include 'grandpa', 'grandpapa', 'papa' and 'pawpa' for a grandfather. Nicknames for grandmothers include 'grandma', 'grammy', 'granny', and 'nanna'. There are also many unique nicknames. An example is American actress Goldie Hawn who did not want to be called 'grandma', instead came up with the nickname 'Glamma.'


title: Grandparent

text: Traditionally, grandparents were highly respected in most cultures. Today many grandparent-grandchild relationships are declining. Much of the modern world does not value older people the way societies did in the past. Also, popular entertainment, especially programs and movies aimed at 'tweens' (children 10 to 12 years old) portray adults as being foolish. This makes the involvement of grandparents more important than ever.


title: Grandparent

text: A person's great-grandparent's "parents" would be that person's "great-great-grandparents". Commonly the prefix "great-" is added, one for each additional generation. To avoid having to add several "greats" when discussing a direct ancestors, ordinals are commonly used instead. For example, a "great-great-grandfather" would be a "second great-grandfather". A "great-great-great-grandfather" would be a third great-grandfather, and so on. Some sources also use cardinal numbers for numbering greats. For example, a great-great-great-great-great-great-grandmother becomes "six times great grandmother". However, sixth great-grandmother would be most commonly used.


title: Grandparent

text: Not counting the individual person in the relationship, a parent is the first generation of the person's ancestors. A grandparent is the second generation (from the individual). A great-grandparent would be the third generation and so a great-great-grandparent would be in the fourth generation of ancestors, and so on. Another way of putting it is a person's second great-grandparent is a grandparent's grandparent.


title: Grandparent

text: In the past, many great-grandparents died long before their great-grandchildren were born. Today, people in many societies are living longer. This means many children get to know at least one of their great-grandparents.


title: Grandparent

text: The word 'family' is often used to mean the same as the term Nuclear family. Strictly speaking, a nuclear family is made up of a husband, a wife, and their children. It may also be used to include a stepparent, stepchildren or adopted children. However, the latter family unit is more commonly called a blended family. Close kin however extends the family unit. For example, second cousins are all descendants of one or both great-grandparents. Family units extending to second cousins are considered close kin. So the term includes great-grandparents as well. Third cousins (all those descended from second great-grandparents) are not considered close kin, but just family.


title: Grandparent

text: A person's ancestor tree is a binary tree. It is formed by the person, the parents (2), the grandparents (4), great-grandparents (8), and so on. With each increasing generation of great-grandparents the number doubles. In other words, a person's sixth great-grandparents (great-great-great-great-great-great-grandparents) would number 256 or formula_1 (2 to the 8th power). However, the number of individuals in such a tree grows exponentially and will eventually become impossibly high. For example, a single individual alive today would, over 30 generations going back to the High Middle Ages, have about formula_2 generations or just over a billion ancestors. That would be far more than the total world population at the time.


title: Grandparent

text: This paradox or impossible situation, is explained by having shared ancestors, which is called pedigree collapse. Instead of every person today having a family tree of all unique ancestors, many of these ancestors occupy more than one position in the pedigree. In other words, one's 15th great-grandfather may have been their 15th great-grandfather more than once if the person today is descended from children of both or all of his marriages. So in a typical family tree, the same ancestor may pop up in more than one place in the pedigree. Pedigree collapse is generally caused by close relatives marrying in the past, which was common in many societies. Even today, because most people do not know their ancestry beyond their grandparents, they are inadvertently marrying their own distant cousins. On average, a typical European marriage today is between sixth cousins (those descended from a common sixth great-grandparent). In closed societies the relationship is usually much closer.


title: Inuit

text: The Inuit are one of many groups of First Nations who live in very cold places of northern Canada, Greenland, the Arctic, and Alaska.


title: Inuit

text: They are sometimes called "Eskimos", a word which likely comes from the Algonquin language and may mean "eater of raw meat" which is a fallacy many believe due to misinformation. The term Eskimo means "netter of snowshoes. Most Inuit prefer to be called by their own name, either the more general Inuit particularly in Canada or their actual tribe name. Inuit is a tribe name but not all indigenous Arctic peoples in North America are Inuits. Particularly in the United States Alaska, the word Eskimo would be accepted as a more general term, but would probably refer to themselves by their tribe name.


title: Inuit

text: Inuit in Canada and Greenland like the name "Inuit" because it is their own name for themselves. "Inuit" means more than one, one person is an ""Inuk"". The native Greenlanders are related to the Inuit. The language of the Inuit is Inuktitut, and it is one of the official languages of Nunavut and of the Northwest Territories in Canada. Eskimo is a term more frequently used in mainstream United States where such concerns get less attention.


title: Inuit

text: Inuits in Alaska have various concerns, such as protecting the caribou from American oil pipelines. Anti-seal hunt campaigns work to eliminate this aspect of northern culture, which most Inuits regard as vital to their lives.


title: Inuit

text: Inuit ate both raw and cooked meat and fish, as well as the fetus's of pregnant animals. Whale blubber was burned as fuel for cooking and lamps.


title: Inuit

text: Inuit were also Nomadic people, but they did not domesticate any animals except for dogs, which they used to pull their sleds and help with the hunting. They were hunter-gatherers, living off the land. They were very careful to make good use of every part of the animals they killed. Respect for the land and the animals they harvested was and is a focal part of their culture.


title: Inuit

text: Inuit lived in tents made of animal skins during the summer. In the winter they lived in sod houses and igloos. They could build an igloo out of snow bricks in just a couple of hours. Snow is full of air spaces, which helps it hold in warmth. With just a blubber lamp for heat, an igloo could be warmer than the air outside. The Inuit made very clever things from the bones, antlers, and wood they had. They invented the harpoon, which was used to hunt seals and whales. They built boats from wood or bone covered with animal skins. They invented the "kayak" for one man to use for hunting the ocean and among the pack ice.


title: Inuit

text: Inuit sleds could be built from wood, bone, or even animal skins wrapped around frozen fish. Dishes were made from carving soapstone, bones, or musk ox horns. They wore two layers of skins, one fur side in, the other facing out, to stay warm.


title: Inuit

text: Inuit had to be good hunters to survive. When an animal was killed in a hunt, it was thanked respectfully for offering itself to the hunter. They believed it intended to provide itself as a gift towards the survival of the hunter and his children. Their gratitude was deeply sincere and is an important aspect of their belief system. In the winter, seals did not come out onto the ice. They only came up for air at holes they chewed in the ice. Inuit would use their dogs to find the air holes, then wait patiently until the seal came back to breathe and kill it with a harpoon. In the summer, the seals would lie out on the ice enjoying the sun. The hunter would have to slowly creep up on a seal to kill it. The Inuit would use their dogs and spears to hunt polar bears, musk ox, and caribou. Sometimes they would kill caribou from their boats as the animals crossed the rivers on their migration.


title: Inuit

text: The Inuit even hunted whales. From their boat, they would throw harpoons that were attached to floats made of inflated seal skins. The whale would grow tired from dragging the floats under the water. When it slowed down and came up to the surface, the Inuit could keep hitting it with more harpoons or spears until it died. Whale blubber provide Vitamin D and Omegas to their cultural diet, and prevented rickets. The whaling industry around the world has depleted the whale population, and now traditional whale hunting for subsistence purposes is rare around the world. Inuits have added to their modern northern diet with grocery foods, which are normally very expensive in the north.


title: Inuit

text: During the summer months, the Inuit were able to gather berries and roots to eat. They also collected grass to line their boots or make baskets. Often the food they found or killed during the summer was put into a "cache" for use during the long winter. A cache was created by digging down to the permafrost and building a rock lined pit there. The top would be covered with a pile of rocks to keep out the animals. It was as good as a freezer, because the food would stay frozen there until the family needed it. Inuit cultural traditions and traditional stories provided each new generation with the lifeskills and knowledge to survive their environment and work together. They usually moved around in small groups looking for food, and sometimes they would get together with other groups to hunt for larger animals such as whales. The men did the hunting and home building, and also made weapons, sleds, and boats. The women cooked, made the clothes, and took care of the children. Children and infants under the ages of 5 became easy victims of hypothermia, and if they were to die, their mothers would weight the children's corpses with stones and wrap them in fishnets before placing the bodies through holes in the ice. The mothers believed the children's souls were being offered to the god Phallus, who would reincarnate them as whales.


title: Inuit

text: Some Canadian companies like Canada Goose and Moose Knuckle have clothing designs based on Inuit culture.


title: Inuit

text: Today, most Inuit live in modern houses. Many still hunt or fish for a major part of their food supply and sometimes some income. Seal pelts are used to protect from the extreme cold in the Arctic and are far more effective than man-made fabrics. The technology has worked well for many thousands of years. Besides, commercial winter clothes are expensive. Today, they use rifles and snowmobiles when hunting, however traditional values respecting the animals hunted still very much applies. In Alaska, many of the people have received money from the oil discovered in that state on their traditional lands.


title: Inuit

text: The Arctic is very different from the rest of the world. The way of life in the south does not work well in the north. Canada values having Inuit peoples in Canada's northernmost lands as proof of sovereignty over the Canadian portion of the Arctic Circle. It's a very challenging living in an Arctic environment. There is some controversy over the practice of sinking the corpses of child victims of hypothermia under the ice, as bodies have been known to drift through the currents and wash up on the eastern coast of Canada, and, upon occasion, the northeastern United States.


title: Tobacco

text: Tobacco is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus "Nicotiana" and of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family.


title: Tobacco

text: Native Americans used tobacco before Europeans arrived in the Americas. The earliest know use of tobacco comes from nicotine residue from a pipe in the Southeastern United States. It is Radiocarbon dated at 1685-1530 BC. Europeans in the Americas learned to smoke and brought it back to Europe, where it became very popular. At that time tobacco was usually smoked in a pipe.


title: Tobacco

text: The Europeans who moved to America started to farm tobacco so that they could sell it in Europe. This became one of the main causes of the African slave trade. In 1610 a European man called John Rolfe arrived in the American state of Virginia and set up a tobacco farm which made him very rich. Rolfe was the first non-native farmer to use "nicotiana tabacum", which is the type of tobacco most commonly smoked today. He also married Pocahontas, a Native American woman who became famous when she went to live in London.


title: Tobacco

text: In the 17th and 18th centuries tobacco made farmers very rich and towns quickly grew in the states of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina. In 1883 one third of United States tax money came from tobacco.


title: Tobacco

text: In 1864 the first American tobacco factory opened to produce 20 million cigarettes annually. By 1964 the cigarette contained over 500 added chemicals. Today tobacco manufacturers are still not required by law to list the 500+ ingredients.


title: Tobacco

text: Tobacco users (especially smokers) and people around them (with passive smoking) risk many very serious and often deadly illnesses, such as cancer, strokes, heart disease, and lung disease. The United States' Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature (early) death worldwide". There are over 4800 chemicals in tobacco, including arsenic. Sixty-four of them are known to cause cancer. Smoking can also make men lose erections, and make their penises a bit smaller.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: In mathematics, the word sign refers to the property of being positive or negative. Every real number that is non-zero is either positive or negative, and therefore has a sign. Zero itself is without a sign, or signless. In addition to putting signs into real numbers, the word sign is used throughout mathematics to indicate parts of mathematical objects that mean positivity and negativity. Usually, if numbers are seen without a sign, they are seen as a positive number. Otherwise, a minus sign "formula_1" is appended before the number to indicate that the number is a negative of another number.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: The word sign is also sometimes used to refer to various mathematical signs, such as the plus and minus signs and the multiplication sign.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: A real number is said to be positive if it is greater than zero, and negative if it is less than zero. The attribute of being positive or negative is called the sign of the number. Zero itself is not considered to have a sign.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: In arithmetic, the sign of a number is often denoted by placing a plus or minus sign before the number. For example, +3 would denote a positive 3, and −3 would denote a negative 3. When no plus or minus sign is given, the main way of seeing it is that a number is positive.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: The sign of any number that is not zero can be changed to positive using the absolute value function. For example, the absolute value of −3 and the absolute value of 3 are both equal to 3. In symbols, this would be written as |−3| = 3 and |3| = 3.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: The number zero is neither positive nor negative, and therefore has no sign. In arithmetic, +0 and −0 both mean the same number 0.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: Because zero is neither positive nor negative, the following are sometimes used to refer to the sign of an unknown number:


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: Thus a non-negative number is either positive or zero, while a non-positive number is either negative or zero. For example, the absolute value of a real number is always non-negative, but is not necessarily positive.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: The same definition is sometimes used for functions that take real or integer values. For example, a function would be called positive if all of its values are positive, or non-negative if all of its values are non-negative.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: In many texts, it is common to see a sign together with the measure of an angle, particularly a located angle or an angle of rotation. In such a situation, the sign says whether the angle is in the clockwise or counterclockwise direction. Though different conventions can be used, it is common in mathematics to have counterclockwise angles count as positive, and clockwise angles count as negative.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: It is also possible to put a sign to an angle of rotation in three dimensions, assuming the axis of rotation has been oriented. Specifically, a right-handed turn around an axis usually counts as positive, while a left-handed rotation counts as negative.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: In arithmetic and physics, it is common to label certain directions as positive or negative. For a basic example, the number line is usually drawn with positive numbers to the right, and negative numbers to the left:


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: On the Cartesian plane, the rightward and upward directions are usually thought of as positive, with rightward being the positive "x"-direction, and upward being the positive "y"-direction.


title: Sign (mathematics)

text: In addition to the sign of a real number, the word sign is also used in various related ways throughout mathematics and other sciences:


title: 2022 Formula One World Championship

text: The 2022 FIA Formula One World Championship is a motor racing championship for Formula One cars. This is the 73rd running of the Formula One World Championship.


title: 2022 Formula One World Championship

text: Max Verstappen was reigning Driver's Championship, claimed the second title after win the Japanese Grand Prix. Verstappen due to leave Red Bull Racing shortly after winning the title. He was the first reigning champion to do so since Nigel Mansell in . He was signed Action Express Racing at the 2023 IMSA SportsCar Championship, while his team, Red Bull Racing, achieved their fifth World Constructor Championship at the following United States Grand Prix. Mercedes were the reigning Constructors' Champions


title: 2022 Formula One World Championship

text: The following constructors and drivers are currently under contract to compete in the 2022 World Championship. All teams compete with tyres supplied by Pirelli. Each team is required to enter at least two drivers, one for each of the two mandatory cars.


title: 2022 Formula One World Championship

text: Prior to the 2021 Dutch Grand Prix, Kimi Räikkönen announced his intention to retire at the end of the championship, ending his Formula One career after 19 seasons. Räikkönen's seat at Alfa Romeo was filled by Valtteri Bottas, who left Mercedes at the end of 2021. George Russell replaced Bottas, vacating his seat at Williams which was filled by former Red Bull Racing driver Alexander Albon.


title: 2022 Formula One World Championship

text: Formula 2 driver Zhou Guanyu graduated to Formula One with Alfa Romeo, in place of Antonio Giovinazzi, who left the team at the end of 2021.


title: 2022 Formula One World Championship

text: Nikita Mazepin was originally due to compete for Haas for a second consecutive year. Following the Russian invasion of Ukraine and Uralkali's title sponsorship cancellation, his contract was terminated. He was replaced by Kevin Magnussen, who last competed in with the same team.


title: 2022 Formula One World Championship

text: During Bahrain Grand Prix weekend, Sebastian Vettel tested positive for coronavirus. He was replaced at Aston Martin by reserve driver Nico Hülkenberg, who last raced at the 2020 Eifel Grand Prix, driving for former team Racing Point. Vettel was also replaced by Hülkenberg at the subsequent Saudi Arabian Grand Prix.


title: 2022 Formula One World Championship

text: During the Italian Grand Prix weekend, Alexander Albon suffered from appendicitis. He was replaced at Williams by the Mercedes reserve driver 2020–21 Formula E and 2019 Formula 2 Champion Nyck de Vries, who made his Formula One race debut.


title: Telephone numbers in Belgium

text: A telephone number in Belgium is nine or ten digits dialed on a telephone to make a call. Belgium is under a closed telephone numbering plan. It keeps the trunk code, '0', for all national dialling.


title: Telephone numbers in Belgium

text: Area codes in Belgium are one or two digits long. All Belgian telephone numbers dialed in Belgium must use the leading '0' trunk code.


title: Telephone numbers in Belgium

text: From outside Belgium, a caller would dial their international call prefix (typically 00 in Europe and 011 in North America), followed by 32 (the country code for Belgium), then the area code minus the trunk code '0', and finally the local number.


title: Zagreb

text: Zagreb is the capital city and the largest city of the country of Croatia. It has a population of 792.000 people and its metropolitan area (Zagreb County, Krapina-Zagorje County and Sisak-Moslavina County) has a population of 1.2 million (2005).


title: Windows NT 6.x

text: Windows NT 6.x is a family of Microsoft Windows NT, starting with Vista and ending with 8.1. So far, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and the first release of Windows 8 are the only operating systems to have support dropped completely.


title: Electronic music

text: Electronic music is music which is made with electronic equipment such as synthesizers or computers. Sometimes electronic music artists create special sounds using tape recorders too.


title: Electronic music

text: After World War II, when tape recorders had been invented and were becoming popular, composers started to use them to make music. The tape recorder was needed for the performance. Composers used them to combine lots of different sounds. Sometimes it was music played on ordinary (acoustic) instruments which was then changed in some way by the tape recorder. Sometimes they took sounds from everyday life such as the sound of water, traffic noise or bird song. All these noises were put together in the way the composer wanted by using the tape recorder. Tapes of sounds were often cut into pieces, then the pieces were 'spliced' – put back together in a different order. The results were often very interesting, but there were problems. Some people asked: “Is it music?” Others thought it was boring to just look at a tape recorder during a concert instead of being able to watch live musicians play.


title: Electronic music

text: Composers in Paris were experimenting with electronic music in the 1940s. They called it “Musique concrète” because they used natural, concrete sounds. (“Concrete” in this sense meant the opposite of “abstract” music which was written down for performance). The sounds were played back at different speeds, combined in lots of ways, played backwards or played continuously (repeated in a 'loop'), or played into a mixer and re-recorded onto another tape recorder. The sounds could be filtered. Effects such as vibrato or echo could be added. Sometimes composers used synthesizers which were machines that could make electronic music in real time. They sounded more like normal instruments than the sound effects on a tape recorder.


title: Electronic music

text: Composers who have used these ways of making music include John Cage (1912-1992), Bruno Maderna (1920-1973) and Karlheinz Stockhausen (b.1928). Very often composers combined electronic music with ordinary instruments being played.


title: Electronic music

text: Bands like Twenty One Pilots, Taylor Swift, and Vance Joy among many others employ electronic sounds amongst their music.


title: Electronic music

text: In popular music, the use of electronics to create new sounds began in the 1960s. Producer Joe Meek and inventor Bob Moog both expanded the range of sounds that could be used in pop music, and by the end of that decade electronics had become accepted in the industry. In the next few years the work of people like Giorgio Moroder, Jean-Michel Jarre, Brian Eno and Kraftwerk made electronic music famous.


title: Electronic music

text: In the early 1980s electronic music became fashionable, and bands like New Order, The Human League, Pet Shop Boys and Depeche Mode became famous. Sometimes these bands would mix electronic music with rock music.


title: Electronic music

text: In the 21st Century electronics are so much a part of popular music that using it is no longer strange - in fact, many artists use nothing else.


title: Electronic music

text: A subgenre of electronic music is electronic dance music, or EDM. Electronic dance music is a form of electronica which is generally made with the intention of being danced to, thus making it generally club-friendly and often (but not always) up-tempo in nature. Whilst a lot of electronic genres are also classified as EDM, not all forms of electronic music fall within the specific category. Examples of EDM genres include post-disco, deep house, techno, Eurodance, trance, trip hop, drum and bass and dubstep, as well as several others.


title: Electronic music

text: In 2018, Billboard released a market statistic that proved the value and worth of the electronic dance music market. In this statistical statement, the company shows a 12-percent growth within one year where many changes took place with this musical revolution. One of the biggest helpers in this EDM market growth was YouTube.


title: Electronic music

text: all sorts of genres of music even whale songs, ambient music, sounds of nature and sound effects have been distorted by some electronic sound, also to record sounds from space astronauts use electronic equipment to compress noise into a singularity.


title: War crime

text: A war crime is a crime that happens in a war. There are international laws of war that say what people can do during wars and what they cannot do. A war crime breaks these rules.


title: War crime

text: To be a war crime, a crime must be part of a plan, or the crime has to be committed against many people and must be committed during a war.


title: War crime

text: The idea of what a "war crime" is has changed over time. For example, during World War I, using poison gas in combat was not thought of as a war crime. Now it is.


title: War crime

text: In 2002, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was created. Its goal is to look into and, if possible, punish people for war crimes. When the ICC was created, it came up with a longer list of war crimes. For example, its list was the first one to include types of sexual abuse like forcing women into sexual slavery.


title: War crime

text: These are war crimes whether they are committed against enemy soldiers or civilians or neutral persons.


title: Progressive conservatism

text: Progressive conservatism is an ideology that tries to unite conservative and progressive ideas. To deal with poverty, the ideology supports the idea of a social safety net. It also supports a limited redistribution of wealth. The people supporting progressive conservatism want to allow the government to regulate markets in the interests of both consumers and producers. Progressive conservatism first arose as a distinct ideology in the United Kingdom under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's "One Nation" Toryism.