title: Billie Piper

text: On 27 November 2007, the BBC confirmed that she would return her role as Rose Tyler in the fourth series for three episodes. Later, it was confirmed by Russell T Davies in Doctor Who Magazine that this return had been planned since she left. It was also revealed in the Turn Left Doctor Who Confidential that Billie had made arrangements to return as Rose since she decided to leave.


title: Billie Piper

text: The series began in April 2008, and after several cameo appearances, Piper made her official return as Rose in the series four final episodes Turn Left, The Stolen Earth and Journey's End. She has not said whether she will be reprising the role again, although on Doctor Who Confidential she said that she thinks "It's never really the end for the Doctor and Rose" but it probably was "for the foreseeable future".


title: Billie Piper

text: In November 2005, Piper starred as Hero in a BBC adaptation of "Much Ado About Nothing", updated for the modern day like in "Canterbury Tales" series in which she featured, with Hero now being a weather presenter in a television station.


title: Billie Piper

text: Piper has completed work on a BBC version of Philip Pullman's historical novel "The Ruby in the Smoke" broadcast in December 2006, Piper played main character Sally Lockhart, a Victorian orphan. The BBC plans to film all four of Pullman's Sally Lockhart novels, with Piper continuing in the role in "The Shadow in the North" which was shown in December 2007. In 2007 she appeared as the main character, Fanny Price, in an adaptation of Jane Austen's novel "Mansfield Park", screened on ITV1. This was her first acting role on television for a broadcaster other than the BBC.


title: Billie Piper

text: Piper has provided voiceovers for various television commercials, including one for "Comfort Fabric Softener" airing in June 2007.


title: Billie Piper

text: Piper stars in "Secret Diary of a Call Girl", an ITV2 version of Belle de Jour's "The Intimate Adventures of a London Call Girl", a memoir detailing the life of a high-class prostitute. The series, which aired from 27 September 2007, saw Piper in several semi-nude scenes, including a lesbian romp and one scene featuring her saddling a client and riding him like a horse. A second series, with Piper in the starring role, started filming in May 2008, during which two body doubles were hired in order to effectively hide Piper's pregnancy.


title: Billie Piper

text: Piper made her first stage appearance in a touring production of Christopher Hampton's play "Treats", which opened in early 2007 in Windsor. "Treats" was to have ended its tour in the West End, at the Garrick Theatre, starting on 28 February 2007 with previews from on 20 February. The play-officially finished as of 26 May.


title: Titles of Nobility Amendment

text: The Titles of Nobility Amendment is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution. It was approved by the 11th Congress on May 1, 1810, and submitted to the state legislatures for ratification. It would strip United States citizenship from any citizen who accepted a title of nobility from a foreign country. On two occasions between 1812 and 1816, it only needed ratifying by two states to become a valid part of the Constitution. Congress did not set a time limit for its ratification, so the amendment is still pending before the states. Now, since the number of states has increased, ratification by an additional 26 states would be needed for this amendment to be adopted.


title: Titles of Nobility Amendment

text: This proposed amendment would amplify both , which prohibits the federal government from issuing titles of nobility or honor, and , which prohibits the states from issuing them.


title: Titles of Nobility Amendment

text: There is speculation that the Congress proposed the amendment in response to the 1803 marriage of Napoleon Bonaparte's younger brother, Jerome, and Betsy Patterson of Baltimore, Maryland. She gave birth to a son for whom she wanted aristocratic recognition from France. The child, named Jérôme Napoleon Bonaparte, was not born in the United States, but in Great Britain on July 7, 1805. Nevertheless, he would have held U.S. citizenship through his mother. In turn, his son, Charles Joseph Bonaparte, was born in 1851 and died 1921. He graduated from Harvard Law School, and became Secretary of the Navy and then, in the Theodore Roosevelt Administration, Attorney-General – and created the FBI. Another theory is that his mother actually desired a title of nobility for herself. She is referred to as the "Duchess of Baltimore" in many texts written about the amendment. The marriage had been annulled in 1805. This was well before the amendment's proposal by the 11th Congress. Nonetheless, Representative Nathaniel Macon of North Carolina is recorded to have said that "he considered the vote on this question as deciding whether or not we were to have members of the Legion of Honor in this country."


title: North Rhine-Westphalia

text: North Rhine-Westphalia (, Low Franconian: "Noordrien-Wesfale", Low German: "Noordrhien-Westfalen", Kölsch: "Noodrhing-Wäßßfaale") is the federal state (Bundesland) with the highest population in Germany. It is in the western part of Germany and has 18,033,000 inhabitants. The capital is Düsseldorf, while the city with the most inhabitants is Cologne.


title: Zirconium

text: Zirconium is a chemical elemental metal. It is a greyish-white in color. It is atomic number 40 on the periodic table. Its symbol is Zr. And it is in the family of four (4). Zirconium alloys are used as cladding for nuclear fuel rods.


title: Classical mechanics

text: Classical mechanics is the part of physics that describes how everyday things move and how their motion changes because of forces. If we know how things are moving now, classical mechanics allows us to predict how they will move in the future and how they were moving in the past. We can use classical mechanics to predict how things like planets and rockets move.


title: Classical mechanics

text: Classical mechanics is not accurate when things are the size of atoms or smaller: for those things, we use quantum mechanics instead. Classical mechanics is also not accurate when things move close to the speed of light: for those things, we use special relativity instead.


title: Classical mechanics

text: The position of an object tells you where it is. For example, if you live in New York City and your friend lives in Seattle, your friend has a position of 3,876 kilometers (2,408 miles) west from you. But your friend would say that "you" have a position of 3,876 kilometers (2,408 miles) "east" from them instead. This is because position depends on where "position zero" or the "origin" is. For you, the origin is in New York City, but for your friend, the origin is in Seattle. So we make sure to always say where the origin is when we talk about position.


title: Classical mechanics

text: We talk about position using vectors: we first say a distance (such as 3,000 km) and then the direction (such as "east", "left", or "38 degrees south"). If there is no direction, position is simply "distance". Position can sometimes be negative: for example, New York City is 3,876 kilometers (2,408 miles) east of Seattle and Seattle is "negative" 3,876 kilometers (2,408 miles) east of New York City. However, it is easier to say "west" instead of "negative east".


title: Classical mechanics

text: When something moves, its position changes. You may pull a book closer to you, and the book has a new position. Or, you may walk away from your house and you have a new position. The velocity of an object tells you how fast the object changes position, and where it is moving. Velocity is a vector just like position: a car can move "160 kilometers per hour "west"" (100 miles per hour west) or "31 miles per hour "south"" (50 kilometers per hour south). Since position can be negative, velocity can be negative too.


title: Classical mechanics

text: When something speeds up or slows down, its velocity changes. The acceleration of an object tells you how fast the object speeds up or slows down. Acceleration is a vector, too, and we can use "negative" acceleration when we want to say that an object slows down: for example, if you drive your car south and slow down, your acceleration is positive going north but negative going south.


title: Classical mechanics

text: Newton's laws of motion are important to classical mechanics. Isaac Newton discovered them. They tell us how forces change how things move, but they do not say what causes the forces.


title: Classical mechanics

text: Newton's first law of motion says that objects do not change how they move unless something pushes or pulls them. Things that push or pull objects are called forces.


title: Classical mechanics

text: Before Isaac Newton, people thought that things do not move forever: they will always stop even if nothing touches them. On Earth, this seems correct: if you roll a ball on the grass, the ball will stop; if you push a book across a table, the book stops moving. But this does not happen everywhere. In outer space, rockets and planets move and they do not slow down or stop. So something on Earth makes objects stop moving, and this is a force called friction. Every object that touches another object feels friction. Even when you throw something like a baseball, the baseball feels friction because of the air. This is called drag or "air resistance". In outer space, there is no friction because outer space is a vacuum: there are no objects there, including no air.Gravity is another force that changes how objects move on Earth, but in outer space gravity is very small unless you are close to a planet or a star.


title: Classical mechanics

text: Newton's first law of motion also tells us that an object that is not moving will stay still unless something pushes or pulls it. This makes sense because a book on your bookshelf does not suddenly fly away.


title: Classical mechanics

text: Newton's second law of motion says that bigger objects need a bigger force to change how they move, and smaller objects need a smaller force to change how they move. For example, it is easy to push a marble across the floor but it is really hard to push a car across the road. This is because the car is very heavy and the marble is not.


title: Classical mechanics

text: We sometimes write Newton's second law of motion as an equation: formula_1. formula_2 is the amount of force you need, formula_3 is the mass of the object you want to move, and formula_4 is the amount of acceleration (change of velocity) that the object gets when you try to move it. We can also write the equation as formula_5, where formula_6 is momentum and formula_7 is the way we write "change in momentum over time" using calculus. Momentum is the mass of an object times how fast it is moving (its speed): formula_8, where formula_9 is the speed. A bumblebee has a small mass, but it moves very fast so it has lots of momentum. The Earth moves very slow, but it has a large mass so it also has lots of momentum.


title: Classical mechanics

text: Newton's third law of motion says that forces always come in pairs. When you push a book, the book also pushes you, but it does not push you very far because you have a much larger mass. However, if you and your friend go ice skating and you push your friend, you and your friend both move back.


title: Classical mechanics

text: A rocket works because of Newton's third law of motion: the bottom of the rocket makes very hot gas and the gas pushes the colder air. Then the rocket goes up because the colder air also pushes the bottom of the rocket. The force that makes a rocket go up is called thrust. Birds and airplanes fly because of Newton's third law of motion: this is because both birds and airplanes push air down when they move, and the air pushes them up. This force is called lift. Without lift, birds and airplanes fall on the ground.


title: Classical mechanics

text: In physics, kinematics is the part of classical mechanics that explains the movement of objects without looking at what causes the movement or what the movement affects.


title: Classical mechanics

text: 1-Dimensional (1D) Kinematics are used only when an object moves in one direction: either side to side (left to right) or up and down. There are equations with can be used to solve problems that have movement in only 1 dimension or direction. These equations come from the definitions of velocity, acceleration and distance.


title: Classical mechanics

text: 2-Dimensional kinematics is used when motion happens in both the x-direction (left to right) and the y-direction (up and down). There are also equations for this type of kinematics. However, there are different equations for the x-direction and different equations for the y-direction. Galileo proved that the velocity in the x-direction does not change through the whole run. However, the y-direction is affected by the force of gravity, so the y-velocity does change during the run.


title: 2nd century BC

text: The 2nd century BC was a century that started the first day of 200 BC and ended the last day of 101 BC. It is considered part of the Classical period of history.


title: 2nd century BC

text: After having won the Second Punic War, the Roman Republic continued expanding by conquering neighbouring territories. It eventually made Greece part of its empire. It also took the coast of North Africa after destroying the city of Carthage at the end of the Third Punic War. In the east, the Seleucid Empire was forced to make concessions to Rome in order to avoid war. Rome came to dominate the Mediterranean Sea during this period. By the end of the century, its army changed from conscription to a voluntary professional force. These changes were known as the Marian Reforms.


title: 2nd century BC

text: In East Asia, China became very successful under the Han Dynasty. Its empire extended from Korea in the east to Vietnam in the South and, to the borders of what is today Kazakhstan in the west. The Han also try to get help in fighting the Xiongnu from the Yuezhi people in the west. It is also during this century that the first paper is made in China.


title: International Standard Serial Number

text: An International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) is an eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic periodical publication. The ISSN system was first created known as international standard ISO 3297 in 1975. The ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC 9 is responsible for the standard.


title: Bab-el-Mandeb

text: The Bab-el-Mandeb, meaning "Gate of Tears" in Arabic, is a strait between Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula, Djibouti and Eritrea, north of Somalia, in the Horn of Africa, and connecting the Red Sea to the Guardafui Channel and Gulf of Aden. It is sometimes called the "Mandab Strait" in the English language.


title: Bab-el-Mandeb

text: The strait gets its name from the dangers of traveling on it. Or, according to an Arab legend, from the numbers who were drowned by the earthquake which separated Asia and Africa.


title: Bab-el-Mandeb

text: Bab el-Mandab acts is an important link between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, via the Red Sea and the Suez Canal. In 2006, about of oil passed through the strait per day, out of a world total of about .


title: Bab-el-Mandeb

text: The distance across is about 20 miles (30 km) from Ras Menheli in Yemen to Ras Siyan in Djibouti. The island of Perim divides the strait into two channels. The eastern channel, known as the Bab Iskender (Alexander's Strait), is 2 miles (3 km) wide and 16 fathoms (30 m) deep. The western channel, or Dact-el-Mayun, has a width of about 16 miles (25 km) and a depth of 170 fathoms (310 m). Near the coast of Djibouti is a group of smaller islands known as the "Seven Brothers".


title: Celine (brand)

text: Céline is a French luxury fashion house. It was founded in 1945 by Céline Vipiana. Today, it is an international brand owned by LVMH. It was sold to LVMH in July 1988 for 2.7 billion francs (US$540 million).


title: Celine (brand)

text: Céline started as a children's shoe business. It later began selling women's shoes and accessories. It began selling ready-to-wear shoes in the 1960s. Celine Vipiana remained the designer until 1997. American fashion designer Michael Kors then took over as creative director for the brand. Kors turned the fashion house into a highly successful brand. The current creative director of Céline is Hedi Slimane, who replaced Phoebe Philo at the beginning of 2018.


title: Helmut Kohl

text: Helmut Josef Michael Kohl (3 April 1930 – 16 June 2017) was a German politician of the CDU party. He was the last Chancellor of West Germany, and he stayed in office after reunification as the first Chancellor of a united Germany.


title: Helmut Kohl

text: From 1969 to 1976 he was the Minister President of the state of Rhineland-Palatinate and from 1982 to 1998 Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany. Kohl helped to arrange the process of German reunification and participated considerably in the European unity process. A pro-EU conservative, he was often compared to Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher, two other leaders with similar views in the 1980s. In 1998, he retired as Chancellor, as the SPD won the election. His replacement was Gerhard Schröeder.


title: Helmut Kohl

text: His involvement with the CDU donation affair, and in particular offences against party law is open to question.


title: Mixture

text: In chemistry, a mixture is a substance that is made up of two or more simpler substances. These substances can be chemical elements or compounds. A mixture can be made of liquids, solids, or gases.


title: Mixture

text: A mixture is not the same as a compound which is made of two or more atoms connected together. For instance, a mixture of the gases hydrogen and nitrogen contains hydrogen and nitrogen, not the compound ammonia which is made of hydrogen and nitrogen atoms.


title: Mixture

text: A mixture where the different parts can be distinguished easily is called "heterogenous", one where this is not the case is called "homogeneous". A third form is called colloid.


title: Mixture

text: If one substance in a mixture dissolves in the other, it is called a solution. For example, if sugar is put in water it forms a mixture, then dissolves to make a solution. If it does not dissolve, it would be called a suspension.


title: Mixture

text: Solids can be mixtures also. Alloys are mixtures. Many kinds of soil and rock are mixtures of different minerals. Thus, a mixture is made of two or more elements and/or compounds which are not chemically combined.


title: Tiger Woods

text: Eldrick Tont "Tiger" Woods (born December 30, 1975) is an American professional golfer. His achievements, which include winning 70 tournaments on the PGA Tour, including 14 major championships, make him one of the best golfers in the world.


title: Tiger Woods

text: Woods was born in Cypress, California. His parents Kultida (Tida) (born 1944) and Earl Woods (1932–2006). He is the only child of their marriage. He does have two half-brothers, Earl Jr. (born 1955) and Kevin (born 1957) and a half-sister, Royce (born 1958) from the 18-year marriage of Earl Woods and his first wife, Barbara Woods Gray. Earl, a retired lieutenant colonel and Vietnam War veteran, was of mostly African-American, as well as Caucasian and possible Native American and Chinese ancestry. Kultida (née Punsawad), originally from Thailand (where Earl had met her on a tour of duty in 1968), is of mixed Dutch, Chinese and Thai ancestry. He refers to his ethnic make-up as ""Cablinasian"" (a syllabic abbreviation he coined from Caucasian, Black, American Indian and Asian).


title: Tiger Woods

text: On February 23, 2021, Woods was involved in a serious car accident in Rancho Palos Verdes, California. He suffered from multiple leg injuries and had surgery for non-life threatening injuries.


title: Dalmatian (dog)

text: The Dalmatian (Croatian: "Dalmatinac") is a breed of dog. It is named after the Adriatic coast of Dalmatia, in Croatia, its first home. The origins of the breed are unknown. The Dalmatian has been used for a war dog, fire department mascot, and shepherd. It is best known, however, as a coach or carriage dog, being a guard for horse-pulled vehicles. Also, the Dalmatian was used for being a circus performer, vermin hunter, fire-apparatus follower, hound dog, and as a guard dog.


title: Dalmatian (dog)

text: There are lots of arguments about the origin of this dog. Spotted dogs are known very much in the history of Africa, Europe, and Asia. Spotted dogs are also thought to have lived in Egypt. In 1700, a dog known as the "Bengal pointer", which looked a bit like the Dalmatian, was popular in England. Some think the Dalmatian is from Croatia, and is a Croatian breed. In the Middle Ages, it was used as a hound dog for hunting. The breed became popular as a carriage dog in the 1800s. They walked among the horses and carriages, following their masters, and guarding the carriages and horses while the master was busy with other things.


title: Dalmatian (dog)

text: The Dalmatian is a medium , strong dog. Its skull is flat on the top. The muzzle is almost the same length as the top of the skull. Its nose can be either black, brown (liver), blue, or a dark gray that looks like black. Its round eyes are either brown or blue, or sometimes both put together.


title: Dalmatian (dog)

text: Its toenails are white or black in dogs with a black spotted coat and brown or white in those with liver colored spots. Puppies are usually born completely white and the spots develop a few weeks after they are born.


title: Dalmatian (dog)

text: Around 8% of Dalmatians are born deaf and some can become partially deaf after a while making them expensive to treat.


title: Dalmatian (dog)

text: Dalmatians are known as the "clowns" in the dog world. They are also loyal to their owners and caretakers. Dalmatians are medium sized dogs, and they are very active and lively. They are brave and smart, and their senses are very bright. This makes them a good choice to become a companion dog.


title: Northern England

text: Northern England, also known as the North of England, North Country or simply the North, is the northern part of England. People have different ideas about which parts of England are in Northern England, but it usually includes the counties of Cheshire, Cumbria, County Durham, Lancashire, Northumberland, Westmorland and Yorkshire, as well as parts of Lincolnshire. There are big cities in Northern England, but there are also large mountains and lakes. The biggest Northern cities are Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and Sheffield.


title: Northern England

text: Northern England has a long history: it was where many battles between England and Scotland were fought, and it was the place where the Industrial Revolution began. Nowadays, most of the industry is gone and Northern England is poorer than Southern England. However, Northern England still has its own culture and way of speaking, and many Northerners are proud of the region.


title: Northern England

text: The area roughly spans from the River Trent to the Scottish border in the north. However, people disagree about where the southern border is. Some people say Northern England starts near Birmingham, while some people say it only starts at the River Tees. The government says that Northern England is made up of three statistical regions: the North East, North West and Yorkshire and the Humber. These have a combined population of around 14.9 million as of the 2011 Census and an area of 37,331 km (14,414 sq mi).


title: Northern England

text: Northern England contains much of England's national parkland but also has large areas of urbanization, including the conurbations of Greater Manchester, Merseyside, Teesside, Tyneside, Wearside, South and West Yorkshire.


title: Moskva River

text: The Moskva River (, romanized: "Moskva-reka") is a river in Russia. It is the river where the capital of Russia Moscow gets it name, as it is the main river in the city. It is a tributary of the Oka River. This river then flows into the Volga River. The Volga flows into the Caspian Sea. The Moskva is around long.


title: Moulting

text: Moulting (or molting) is the manner in which an animal routinely casts off part of its body (usually the outer layer or covering) at particular times of year, or at specific points in its life cycle. Moulting is also known as sloughing, shedding, or for some species, ecdysis.


title: Moulting

text: Moulting can involve the epidermis (skin), and hair, fur, wool, or other external layer. In some species, other body parts may be shed, for example, wings in some insects. Examples include old feathers in birds, old hairs in mammals (especially dogs and other canidae), old skin in reptiles, and the entire exoskeleton in arthropods.


title: Moulting

text: In arthropods, such as insects, arachnids and crustaceans, moulting is the shedding of the exoskeleton (or shell).


title: Moulting

text: This process of moulting is called ecdysis. It is the defining feature of a whole group of invertebrates, the clade Ecdysozoa. This group includes the arthropods, nematodes, velvet worms, horsehair worms, rotifers, tardigrades and Cephalorhyncha. Since the cuticles of these animals often forms an inelastic exoskeleton, it is shed during growth and a new, larger covering is formed. Amongst fossils, trilobites and eurypterida used ecdysis.


title: Moulting

text: Ecdysis is part of the whole process of metamorphosis. The different stages (called 'instars') and the development of new 'apparatus' (such as sense organs) is necessary as the creature moves from one form to another. The new exoskeleton is initially soft but hardens after the moulting of the old exoskeleton.


title: Francium

text: Francium is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Fr and an atomic number of 87. It is a metal. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the alkali metals. Francium is very radioactive. It is in very small amounts in uranium and thorium ores. It has the lowest electronegativity and electron affinity of all the chemical elements.


title: Francium

text: Francium is one of the hardest to find elements on the planet Earth. It is estimated that there are only about 15 grams or half an ounce in the Earth's crust at a single time.


title: Francium

text: Although chemists knew the element number 87 in the periodic table should exist, it was a long time before it was discovered. In the early 1900s, nearly all boxes on the periodic table had been filled. Chemists knew that one element had been found to fit into each box. Francium was discovered in 1939 by a French chemist called Marguerite Perey. She named it after her home country, France.


title: Francium

text: There are 34 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic mass from 199 to 232. Francium-223 and francium-221 are the only isotopes that occur in nature.


title: Francium

text: Francium-223 is the most stable isotope, with a half-life of 21.8 minutes. Francium-223 is the fifth product of the actinium decay series as the daughter isotope of actinium-227. Francium-223 then decays into radium-223 by beta decay (1.149 MeV decay energy), with a minor (0.006%) alpha decay path to astatine-219 (5.4 MeV decay energy).


title: Francium

text: Francium-221 has a half-life of 4.8 minutes. It is the ninth product of the neptunium decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium-225. Francium-221 then decays into astatine-217 by alpha decay (6.457 MeV decay energy).


title: Alan Greenspan

text: Greenspan was born on March 6, 1926 in New York City, New York to a Romanian-Hungarian-Jewish family. He studied at George Washington High School and at New York University.


title: Alan Greenspan

text: He was the Chairman of the Federal Reserve of the United States from 1987 to 2006. He currently works as a private adviser and provides consulting for firms through his company, Greenspan Associates LLC. He was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in November 2005.


title: Alan Greenspan

text: Greenspan was first appointed Federal Reserve chairman by President Ronald Reagan in August 1987. He was reappointed at successive four-year intervals until retiring on January 31, 2006 after the second-longest tenure in the position.


title: Alan Greenspan

text: Greenspan was married to Joan Mitchell from 1952 until they annulled their marriage in 1953. He married Andrea Mitchell in 1997. He now lives in New York City and in Washington, D.C..


title: Pedestrian

text: A pedestrian is a person traveling on foot, whether walking or running. In modern times, the term mostly refers to someone walking on a road or footpath, but this was not the case historically.


title: Pedestrian

text: The main way humans get around is by walking. The first humans walked out of Africa about 60,000 years ago. We walked across India to reach Australia. We walked across Asia to reach the Americas. We walked from the fertile crescent area to reach Europe.


title: Pedestrian

text: Nowadays, roads often have a designated footpath attached especially for pedestrian traffic, called the "sidewalk" in American English and the "pavement" in British English. There are also footpaths not associated with a road which are used only by pedestrians, especially ramblers, hikers or hill-walkers and there are roads not associated with a footpath. These footpaths, in mountains or forests, are called trails.


title: Pedestrian

text: Efforts are underway by pedestrian advocacy groups to make it easy to be a pedestrian in new developments, especially to counteract newer developments where 20 to 30 percent do not include sidewalks. Some activists advocate large auto-free zones where pedestrians only or pedestrians and some non-motorised vehicles are allowed.


title: Earliest known life forms

text: The earliest known life forms found on Earth are fossils of microorganisms in 3.46 billion year old rocks in Western Australia. Life forms, as microorganisms, may have lived much earlier. The earliest time that life forms first appeared on Earth is unknown. Such life forms may have lived as early as 4.28 billion years ago, not long after the oceans were formed 4.41 billion years ago, and not long after the formation of the Earth 4.54 billion years ago.


title: Earliest known life forms

text: A life form, or lifeform, is an organism that is living. Estimates of the number of species of life forms on Earth range from 14 million, to as many as 1 trillion species. More than 99% of all species of life forms that have ever lived on Earth are thought to be extinct. Life forms may be found everywhere on Earth. This includes underground, possibly at least 12 miles deep underground, and the deepest parts of the oceans. Life can be found at least 47 miles high in the atmosphere and, under test conditions, it survives the vacuum of outer space.


title: Earliest known life forms

text: According to one researcher, "You can find microbes everywhere — [they are] extremely adaptable to conditions, and survive wherever they are".


title: Earliest known life forms

text: Fossil evidence is at the basis of most studies about the origin of life. The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years; the best evidence of early life on Earth dates from at least 3.46 billion years ago.


title: Earliest known life forms

text: In 2017, fossils of fossilized microorganisms were reported to have been discovered near hydrothermal vents in Quebec, Canada. These fossils are thought to be at least 3.779 million years old.


title: Earliest known life forms

text: Also in 2017, evidence of life on land may have been found in 3.48 billion-year-old rocks, discovered in Western Australia, that are usually found around hot springs and geysers.


title: Earliest known life forms

text: In November 2017, a study by the University of Edinburgh suggested that life on Earth may have originated from biological particles carried by streams of space dust.


title: Earliest known life forms

text: Nonetheless, according to biologist Stephen Blair Hedges, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the universe."


title: Rib

text: A rib is a bone that forms a structure around the thorax of vertebrates. This is known as the rib cage. Humans have 24 ribs, 12 on each side.


title: Rib

text: It is a common urban legend that male humans have one fewer pair of ribs than female humans. However, this is not true. This came from the Christian bible explaining the creation of Eve from the rib of Adam.


title: Rudi Völler

text: Rudolf "Rudi" Völler (; born 13 April 1960), nicknamed ""Tante Käthe"" ("Aunt Käthe"), is a German former professional football player and manager who serves as the sporting director for Bayer Leverkusen.


title: John Forbes Nash Jr.

text: John Forbes Nash Jr. (June 13, 1928 – May 23, 2015) was an American mathematician who worked in game theory and differential geometry. He was born in Bluefield, West Virginia. He shared the 1994 Memorial Prize in Economics with two other game theorists, Reinhard Selten and John Harsanyi.


title: John Forbes Nash Jr.

text: Nash was born on June 13, 1928, in Bluefield, West Virginia. He studied at Princeton University and at Carnegie Institute of Technology.


title: John Forbes Nash Jr.

text: The winner of a Westinghouse scholarship, he attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology, where he received both his bachelor's degree and his master's degree in 1948. From Pittsburgh he went to Princeton University where he worked on his equilibrium theory. He received a Ph.D. in 1950 with a dissertation on non-cooperative games. The thesis, which was written under the supervision of Albert W. Tucker, contained the definition and properties of what would later be called the Nash equilibrium. His studies on this subject led to three articles:


title: John Forbes Nash Jr.

text: This work led to "Nash embedding theorem": "Two real algebraic manifolds are equivalent if and only if they are analytically homeomorphic."


title: John Forbes Nash Jr.

text: He is best known in popular culture as the subject of the Hollywood movie, "A Beautiful Mind", about his mathematical genius and his struggles with schizophrenia, with which he was diagnosed.


title: John Forbes Nash Jr.

text: Nash married Alicia Lopez-Harrison de Lardé in 1957. They had one son. Nash had a first son out of wedlock to Elenor Stier.. In 1963, the couple divorced. They later remarried in 2001. Nash lived in West Windsor Township, New Jersey for a long time.


title: John Forbes Nash Jr.

text: On May 23, 2015, Nash and his wife Alicia were killed in a car accident near Monroe Township, New Jersey. A taxi that they were riding in was struck by another vehicle and the pair was ejected from the taxi. Nash was 86 years old.


title: Armadillo

text: A armadillo is in the Cingulata, an order of New World placental mammals. The living ones have a leathery armored shell. The word "armadillo" is Spanish for "little armored one".


title: Armadillo

text: There are about 10 living genera and about 20 species of armadillo. Their average length is about 75 centimeters (30 in), including the tail. The giant armadillo grows up to 100 cm (39 in) and weigh 30 kg (66lbs). All species live in the Americas. Most of the 20 species are found in open areas, such as grasslands, but some also live in forests.


title: Armadillo

text: Armadillos species are mostly found in South and Central America, especially around Paraguay. Many species are endangered.


title: Armadillo

text: The nine-banded armadillo has an unusual reproductive system, in which genetically identical quadruplets are born in each litter.


title: Armadillo

text: Because they are always genetically identical clones, the group of four young is a good subject for scientific, behavioural or medical tests. They provide the same biological and genetic makeup, and then get different treatment. This is the only regular case of 'polyembryony' in the class Mammalia, where one fertilised egg splits into four embryos. It only happens in the genus Dasypus, and not in all armadillos. Other animals which have this reproductive method are parasitoid wasps, certain flatworms and various aquatic invertebrates.


title: Child sexuality

text: When children develop into adults, their body will change. So will the way they see their body, and the way their perceive their sexuality. Child sexuality is also influenced by cultural and social values, and by education. Classical psychoanalysis looks at child sexuality, and develops models how it changes over time.


title: Dachau concentration camp

text: Dachau concentration camp (, ) was the first World War II Nazi concentration camp. It was built in 1933 by Heinrich Himmler. The original purpose was to hold political prisoners. Dachau camp was located on the grounds of an old munitions factory. It was southeast of the medieval town of Dachau, about northwest of Munich in the state of Bavaria, in southern Germany.


title: Dachau concentration camp

text: The camp's purpose was enlarged to include forced labor and housed ordinary German and Austrian criminals. Eventually foreign nationals from countries that Germany occupied or invaded were sent here. It became a death camp for Jews. Countless thousands of Jews died were executed or died of starvation, disease or overwork. The Dachau camp system grew to include nearly 100 sub-camps. These were mostly work camps or "Arbeitskommandos," and were located throughout southern Germany and Austria. The camps were liberated by U.S. forces in the spring of 1945.


title: Dachau concentration camp

text: Estimates of the number of people who died here vary widely. Complete records of how many died at Dachau do not exist. Three weeks before the United States Army reached the camp, most of the important records were removed or burned. A few days before the Americans arrived, Germans began evacuating prisoners. But poor organization prevented all from being removed. Prisoners from the Buchenwald concentration camp had been sent to Dachau. When the last train was found, 2,000 of the 4,000 prisoners on it were dead. Between 1933 and the liberation by Americans in 1945, about 228,930 prisoners had been sent to Dachau. This includes about 7,000 who had just arrived from Buchenwald. This number is close to that given by a US Seventh Army report of 229,000. Dachau used high altitude medical experiments on prisoners.


title: Mafdet

text: Mafdet was a goddess in early Egyptian mythology. She protected against snakes and scorpions and was often shown as either some sort of feline or mongoose.


title: Mafdet

text: In art, Mafdet was shown as a feline, a woman with a feline head, or a feline with the head of a woman.


title: Nobelium

text: A radioactive metal, it is the tenth transuranic element and is in the actinide series of the periodic table. Twelve isotopes are known, and they are all short-lasting.


title: Winti

text: Winti is the Afro-Surinamese traditional religion. It is about believing in a god called Anana Kedyaman Kedyanpon.


title: Peter Falk

text: Peter Michael Falk (September 16, 1927 - June 23, 2011) was an American actor. His best known role was Columbo in the TV series of the same name.


title: Peter Falk

text: Falk was born in Manhattan on September 16, 1927. He was Jewish. He grew up in Ossining, New York. He earned a degree in political science from the New School for Social Research. He then earned his Master's degree in public administration at Syracuse University.


title: Peter Falk

text: He appeared in a number of Broadway plays including: "The Prisoner of Second Avenue", "The Passion of Josef D", "Diary of a Scoundrel", and "Saint Joan". Falk won four Emmy Awards playing the police detective Columbo, and one for "The Dick Powell Theatre". He was nominated for seven other Emmy awards. Falk also received two Academy Award nominations for the films "Murder Inc." and "Pocketful of Miracles".


title: Peter Falk

text: Falk was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. He died in his Beverly Hills, California home on the morning of June 23, 2011.


title: Halsey (singer)

text: Ashley Nicolette Frangipane ( ; born September 29, 1994), known professionally as Halsey ( ), is an American singer. She was signed by Astralwerks in 2014 and released her debut EP, "Room 93", later that year. In 2015, she released her album "Badlands", peaking at number two on the "Billboard" 200 album chart. She released "Hopeless Fountain Kingdom" in 2017, which reached number one.


title: Halsey (singer)

text: Halsey was featured on the Chainsmokers' 2016 single "Closer", which topped charts in several countries worldwide. She released "Without Me" in October 2018 as the lead single from her 2020 studio album, "Manic". "Without Me" became her second US number-one hit after "Closer". "Manic" peaked at number two in the US.


title: Halsey (singer)

text: In December 2020, she revealed the use of "she/they" pronouns in her Instagram bio. She released a makeup line, About-Face, in January 2021.


title: Halsey (singer)

text: She gave birth to her son, Ender Ridley Aydin on July 14, 2021, with boyfriend Alev Aydin, a Turkish-American filmmaker.


title: Big O notation

text: In mathematics and computer science, Big O notation is a way of comparing rates of growth of different functions. It is often used to compare the efficiency of different algorithms, which is done by calculating how much memory is needed, and how much time it takes to complete.


title: Big O notation

text: The Big O notation is often used in identifying how complex a problem is, also known as the problem's complexity class. The mathematician Paul Bachmann (1837-1920) was the first to use this notation, in the second edition of his book "Analytische Zahlentheorie", in 1896. Edmund Landau (1877-1938) made the notation popular. For this reason, when people talk about a Landau symbols, they refer to this notation.


title: Big O notation

text: Big O notation is named after the term "order of the function", which refers to the growth of functions. Big O notation is used to find the upper bound (the highest possible amount) of the function's growth rate, meaning it works out the longest time it will take to turn the input into the output. This means an algorithm can be grouped by how long it can take in a worst-case scenario, where the longest route will be taken every time.


title: Big O notation

text: More specifically, given two positive functions formula_1 and formula_2, we say that formula_3 is in the big O of formula_4 (written formula_5) if for large enough formula_6, formula_7 for some constant formula_8.


title: Big O notation

text: Big O is an expression that finds worst-case scenario run-time, showing how efficient an algorithm is without having to run the program on a computer. This is also useful due to the fact that different computers may have different hardware, and therefore need different amounts of time to complete it. Since Big O always assumes the worst-case, it can show a consistent measurement of speed: regardless of the hardware, formula_9 is always going to complete faster than formula_10, because they have different levels of efficiency.


title: Big O notation

text: The following examples all use code written in Python. Note that this is not a complete list of Big O types.


title: Big O notation

text: formula_9 always takes the same amount of time regardless of input. For example, take a function that accepts an integer (called x) and returns double its value:


title: Big O notation

text: After accepting the input, this function will always take one step to return an output. It is constant because it will always take the same amount of time, so it is formula_9.


title: Big O notation

text: formula_13 increases according to the size of the input, represented by formula_14. For example, for the following function that accepts n and returns every number from 1 to n:


title: Big O notation

text: If we were to input the value of 5, then this would output formula_15, requiring 5 loops to complete. Similarly, if we input 100, then it would output formula_16, requiring 100 loops to complete. If the input is formula_14, then the algorithm's run time is exactly formula_14 loops every time, therefore it is formula_13.


title: Big O notation

text: formula_10 increases in factorial amounts, meaning the time taken increases massively with the input. For example, say we wish to visit five cities around the world and want to see every possible ordering (permutation). An algorithm we could write using Python's itertools library is as follows:


title: Big O notation

text: This algorithm will calculate each unique permutation of our cities and then output it. Examples of output will include:


title: Big O notation

text: Here, our input list is 5 items long, and for every selection our remaining options decreases by 1. In other words, our 5 inputs choose formula_21 items (or formula_22). If our input is formula_14 cities long, then the number of outputs is formula_24; in general, assuming that we go through every permutation, then we will require formula_10 loops to complete it.


title: Big O notation

text: A related concept to big-O notation is little-o notation. Big-O is used to say that a function does not grow faster than another function, while little-o is used to say that a function grows more slowly than another function. If two functions grow at the same rate, big-O can be used but little-o cannot. The difference between big-O and little-o is similar to the difference between formula_26 and formula_27.


title: American Mayapple

text: The stem grows between 30 and 40 cm tall. The plant produces two growth forms. The one with a single umbrella-like leaf does not produce any flowers or fruit. The plants having a twin leaf (rarely three-leaf) structure, however, a single white flower with a 3-5 cm diameter with six (rarely up to nine) petals, between the two leaves; this matures into a yellow-greenish fruit 2-5 cm long. The plant normally grows in groups in open woodlands. Individual shoots are often connected by systems of thick roots.


title: American Mayapple

text: Despite the name "mayapple," it is the flower that appears in early May, not the "apple," which appears later in the summer. The American Mayapple is also called the Devil's apple, hogapple, Indian apple, umbrella plant, wild lemon, wild mandrake, and American mandrake.


title: American Mayapple

text: According to Brian Fondren, the mayapple had been used for a variety of medicinal purposes, originally by Native Americans and later by other settlers.


title: American Mayapple

text: All the parts of the plant, except the fruit, are poisonous. The plant can kill a person in 24 hours. Even the fruit, which is not dangerously poisonous, can cause red or yellow diarrhea.


title: Jurisdiction

text: In law, jurisdiction is the authority given to a judge to take decisions in matters concerning the law. The word comes from the Latin "jus, juris" meaning "law" and "dicere" meaning "to speak": and literally means: telling the law. Jurisdiction may be legally restricted to a certain period of time called a statute of limitations.


title: Jurisdiction

text: It also includes the authority a of formally constituted legal body or a political leader to deal with legal matters and, by implication, to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility. Jurisdiction relies on public International Law, conflict of laws, constitutional law and the powers of the executive and legislative branches of government to give resources to best serve the needs of its society.


title: Saint Petersburg Stadium

text: The Saint Petersburg Stadium (Russian: Стадион Санкт-Петербург; also called the Krestovsky Stadium or Zenit Arena) is an association football stadium in Saint Petersburg, Russia. During the 2018 FIFA World Cup, the stadium had a capacity of 64,468 people. The stadium cost $1.1 billion to $1.4 billion to build.


title: Saint Petersburg Stadium

text: The stadium is now the home of FC Zenit St. Petersburg. It was used for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup, 2018 FIFA World Cup, and will be used for the UEFA Euro 2020.


title: Katharine, Duchess of Kent

text: Katharine, Duchess of Kent, (born Katharine Lucy Mary Worsley; 22 February 1933), is a member of the British Royal Family. Her husband, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, is a first cousin of Queen Elizabeth II.


title: Katharine, Duchess of Kent

text: Kathrine was born in Hovingham, North Yorkshire, She was youngest daughter of Sir William Worsley and Joyce Brunner


title: Katharine, Duchess of Kent

text: She was married Prince Edward, Duke of Kent in 1961, They have three children George and Lady Helen, Lord Nicholas


title: Katharine, Duchess of Kent

text: The Duchess of Kent became famous her conversion to Catholicism in 1994, the first member of the Royal Family to convert publicly since 1701. The Duchess of Kent is strongly associated with the world of music, and has performed as a member of several choirs.


title: Red Army

text: The Red Army was the army of the Bolsheviks led by Leon Trotsky in the Russian Civil War. Later it became the army of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. It was the name used mainly before and during World War II. After the war it was renamed as the Soviet Army, although many people still continued to call it the Red Army. Even nowadays some people still nickname the modern Russian Army as the Red Army.


title: Red Army

text: Some later Communist organizations such as the Red Army Faction used the name, and anti-communists sometimes used the name for any left-wing group which they said was trying to promote communism and was paid for by the USSR.


title: Internet Protocol

text: The Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important communications protocol in the Internet protocol suite for relaying data across network boundaries. It establishes the Internet. In the past, IP did not provide the connectivity; It only specified how packets are supposed to be created. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) allowed this functionality. Since one could not perform its task without the other, they earned the name TCP/IP to show how they depend on each other.


title: Internet Protocol

text: Think of IP as something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it into the system, but there is no actual direct "link" between you and the recipient. Instead, there is a "web" of links interconnecting with each other. This is where IP and TCP come in. IP tells packets what their destination is and how to get there; TCP ensures a reliable connection, checking packets for errors, requesting a "re-transmission" if it detects one.


title: Internet Protocol

text: The Internet Protocol gets information from a source computer to a destination computer. It sends this information in the form of packets.


title: Internet Protocol

text: There are two versions of the Internet Protocol currently in use: "IPv4" and "IPv6," with "IPv4" being the version most used. IP also gives computers an IP address to identify each other, much like a typical physical address.


title: Internet Protocol

text: IP is the primary protocol in the Internet Layer of the Internet Protocol Suite, which is a set of communications protocols consisting of seven abstraction layers (see OSI model),


title: Internet Protocol

text: The main purpose and task of IP is the delivery of datagrams from the source host (source computer) to the destination host (receiving computer) based on their addresses. To achieve this, IP includes methods and structures for putting tags (address information, which is part of metadata) within datagrams. The process of putting these tags on datagrams is called encapsulation. Think of an analogy with the postal system. IP is similar to the U.S. Postal System in that it allows a package (a datagram) to be addressed (encapsulation) and put into the system (the Internet) by the sender (source host). However, there is no direct link between sender and receiver.


title: Internet Protocol

text: The package (datagram) is almost always divided into pieces, but each piece contains the address of the receiver (destination host). Eventually, each piece arrives at the receiver, often by different routes and at different times. These routes and times are also determined by the Postal System, which is the IP. However, the Postal System (in the transport and application layers) puts all the pieces back together before delivery to the receiver (destination host).


title: Internet Protocol

text: Note: IP is actually a connectionless protocol, meaning that the circuit to the receiver (destination host) does not need be set up before transmission (by the source host). Continuing the analogy, there does not need to be a direct connection between the physical return address on the letter/package and the recipient address before the letter/package is sent.


title: Internet Protocol

text: Originally, IP was a connectionless datagram service in a transmission control program created by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in 1974. When format and rules were applied to allow connections, the connection-oriented Transmission Control Protocol was created. The two together form the Internet Protocol Suite, often referred to as TCP/IP.


title: Internet Protocol

text: Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) was the first major version of IP. This is the dominant protocol of the Internet. However, IPv6 is active and in use, and its deployment is increasing all over the world.


title: Internet Protocol

text: Addressing and routing are the most complex aspects of IP. However, intelligence in the network is located at nodes (network interconnection points) in the form of routers which forward datagrams to the next known gateway on the route to the final destination. The routers use interior gateway protocols (IGPs) or external gateway protocols (EGPs) to help with making forwarding route decisions. Routes are determined by the routing prefix within the datagrams. The routing process can therefore become complex. But at the speed of light (or nearly so) the routing intelligence determines the best route, and the datagram pieces and datagram all eventually arrive at their destination


title: Internet Protocol

text: IP packets or datagram has two parts. The first part is the header, which is like a label on an envelope. The second part is the payload, which is like the letter inside an envelope. The header contains the source and destination IP addresses, and some extra information. This information is called metadata, and is about the packet itself. Putting data in a packet with a header is encapsulation.


title: Internet Protocol

text: Every computer on a network does some kind of routing. Dedicated computers talk with each other to figure out where to send packets. These computers are called routers, and talk using routing protocols.


title: Internet Protocol

text: Along every hop in a packet's journey, a computer reads the header. The computer sees the destination IP address and figures out where to send the packet.


title: Internet Protocol

text: ARPANET, the early ancestor of the internet, was designed to survive a nuclear war. If one computer was destroyed, communication between all the other computers would still work. Computer networks still follow this same design.


title: Internet Protocol

text: Computers talking to each other handle the "smart" functions to simplify computer networks. The end nodes will check for errors instead of a central authority. Keeping the "smart" things on the end computers or nodes follows the end-to-end principle.


title: Internet Protocol

text: The Internet Protocol sends packets out without ensuring they arrive safely. This is "best-effort delivery", and is unreliable. Packets could get messed up, lost, duplicated, or received out of order. Higher level protocols like the Transmission Control Protocol ("TCP") ensure packets are delivered correctly. IP is also "connectionless", so it does not keep track of communications. It assumes that another protocol such as TCP will keep track of connections.


title: Internet Protocol

text: Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) uses a checksum to check for errors in an IP header. Every checksum is unique to a source/destination combination. A routing node generates a new checksum when it gets a packet. If the new checksum is different from the old one, the routing node knows the packet is bad and throws it out. IPv6 assumes another protocol will check for errors and leaves out the checksum. This is to improve performance.


title: Internet Protocol

text: In 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers published a paper called "A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication". The paper described a way for computers to talk to each other using Packet Switching. A big part of this idea was the "Transmission Control Program". The Transmission Control Program was too big, so it split into TCP and IP. This model is now called the "DoD" "Internet Model" and "Internet Protocol Suite", or the TCP/IP Model.


title: Internet Protocol

text: Versions 0 to 3 of IP were experimental, and used between 1977 and 1979. Versions 2 and 3, and a draft of version 4, allowed an address length of up to 128 bits, but this was mistakenly reduced to 32 bits in the final version of IPv4. Versions 7-9 were prototypes of what eventually became IPv6.


title: Internet Protocol

text: IPv4 addresses will run out, because the number of possible addresses is running out. To fix this, the IEEE made IPv6 which had even more addresses. While IPv4 has 4.3 Billion addresses, IPv6 has 340 undecillion of them. This means we will never run out of IPv6 addresses. IPv5 was reserved for the Internet Stream Protocol, which was only used experimentally.


title: Stewart Kohl

text: Stewart Kohl (born c. 1955) is an American businessman. He is the co-chief executive officer (CEO) of The Riverside Company, a global private equity firm with $8 billion in assets under management.


title: Stewart Kohl

text: Stewart Kohl was born and raised in Leonia, New Jersey. His father Bertram Kohl was a manufacturer’s representative and his mother, Judith Kohl, was a legal secretary who later became chief of staff for a state senator. Kohl studied economics and government at Oberlin College, graduating in 1977. At Oberlin College, he was the President of the Oberlin Student Cooperative Association.


title: Stewart Kohl

text: Kohl is the co-chief executive officer and managing partner of The Riverside Company, a private equity investment firm based in Cleveland, Ohio and New York, New York. Kohl joined The Riverside Company as Co-CEO with Co-CEO Béla Szigethy in 1993. Prior to joining The Riverside Company, Kohl was a vice president at Citicorp Venture Capital, the private equity arm of Citibank. Before joining Citicorp Venture Capital, Kohl was chief operating officer for National Cooperative Business Association in Washington, D.C.


title: Stewart Kohl

text: Kohl was inducted into the Ohio Foundation of Independent Colleges Hall of Excellence in 2009. Kohl and Szigethy won Mergers & Acquisitions’ M&A Mid-Market Award for Dealmakers of the Year in 2013. He was inducted into the Northeast Ohio Business Hall of Fame in 2014. Kohl earned the Harvard Business School Club of Northeastern Ohio George S. Dively Entrepreneurship Award in 2018.


title: Stewart Kohl

text: Kohl has served on Cleveland Clinic's Board of Directors since 2013, currently serving on the Philanthropy Committee as Vice Chair. Kohl is an Honorary Trustee of Oberlin College and Co-Chair of the Museum of Contemporary Art Cleveland.


title: Stewart Kohl

text: Kohl is a founder of VeloSano, an annual charity cycling event that has raised more than $21 million for research at the Cleveland Clinic Taussig Cancer Institute since 2014.


title: Uranos

text: Uranos is the sky in Greek mythology. It is also spelt Ouranos, and in Ancient Greek: Οὐρανός - "sky" or "heaven". He is the son and husband of the primordial goddess Gaia and father of the Titans Hekatonkheires, and Elder Cyclopes.


title: Youth

text: Youth is the opposite of elderly. When something is new, it can be called young. Sometimes "young" is only for living things, and things that are not alive are "new". The word youth is often used to describe young people from the beginning of the teen years to the beginning of adulthood.


title: Youth

text: Different things lose their youth or grow old at different rates. For example, some machines are only be considered young for roughly one year. There are laws about the age of majority when young teenagers are legally treated as adults. Even after that age, these youth may still be seen as immature. This is because complete mental and emotional development is not done until around age 25, and because many young people have not yet had adult life experiences.


title: Youth

text: For some people, youth is an obsession. They want to look young. Because of this, they use various products like face cream and plastic surgery, to stop or slow their looking older. The ""Fountain of Youth"" was a popular myth, and people thought that if you took water from the fountain, you would never be old. Now however, we know that this "was" a myth, and it was not magical at all.


title: Jack White

text: John Anthony Gillis (born July 9, 1975) is an American singer, guitarist, composer and actor. He is best known as one half of The White Stripes with his ex-wife Meg White.


title: Jack White

text: Because of his successful career with The White Stripes, he has gotten the chance to work many other famous musicians, including Bob Dylan and Loretta Lynn. He has performed many different genres of music, including blues music, folk music, alternative rock, garage rock, and indie music, among other music, in his songs.


title: Jack White

text: He married model Karen Elson in 2005. They currently have two children, Scarlett Teresa White and Henry Lee White. As of today, they live in Nashville, Tennessee.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Bridge to Terabithia is a fantasy movie. It was released in 2007. The director of the movie was Gábor Csupó. It was adapted for a movie by David L. Paterson and Jeff Stockwell. The movie is based on the Katherine Paterson novel of the same name. Walt Disney Pictures distributed the movie in the U.S.A. Bridge to Terabithia tells the story of two 12-year-old neighbours, Jesse Aarons and Leslie Burke. They spend their free time in an abandoned tree house where they create a fantasy world called Terabithia.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: David Paterson, who wrote the screenplay, is Katherine Paterson's son. The novel is based on parts of his childhood. When he asked his mother if he could write a screenplay of the novel, she agreed. This was because he could write plays well. Production of the movie began in February 2006. The movie was shot by November. It was shot mainly in Auckland, New Zealand within two months. It took ten weeks to edit the movie. Post-production, music mixing, and visual effects took many months.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: "Bridge to Terabithia" was released in the US and Canada on February 16, 2007. The movie was successful in terms of earnings. With a budget of around $20 million, it collected US$137 million worldwide. The movie received positive reviews. Critics called it faithful to the children's novel. They said the visuals and performances made the movie imaginative. "Bridge to Terabithia" was nominated for seven awards. It won five of them at the Young Artist Awards.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Jesse "Jess" Aarons (Josh Hutcherson) is a fifth grader who wants to be an artist. He lives with his financially poor family in Lark Creek. He rides the bus to school with his little sister, May Belle (Bailee Madison). He avoids the school bully, Janice Avery (Lauren Clinton). In class, his classmates, Scott Hoager (Cameron Wakefield) and Gary Fulcher (Elliot Lawless) tease him. A new student his age named Leslie Burke (AnnaSophia Robb) comes to the school. At recess, Jess enters a running event, for which he had been training at home. Leslie also enters it. She manages to beat all the boys, including Jess. This irritates Jess. While going home, Jess and Leslie learn that they are next-door neighbors.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Later in the evening, Jess becomes angry to find his sister has drawn in his notebook. His strict father (Robert Patrick) sides with her. The next day at school, Leslie praises Jess' drawing ability. This is after she sees his notebook. They soon become best friends. After school, they go into the woods. There, they swing across a creek on a rope. Jess and Leslie find an abandoned tree house and a broken down truck on the other side of the creek. They invent a new world, which they call "Terabithia". The fantasy world reflects their lives. It comes to life as they explore the area. For the next few days, Jess and Leslie spend their free time in the tree house and learn about one another.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Leslie gives Jess an art kit for his birthday. This pleases Jess very much. Later, he gives her a puppy. She names it Prince Terrien. Once in Terabithia, they fight with various creatures, including a troll that looks like Janice Avery, the school bully. At school, May Belle shows her friend Alexandra what she has for her snack, Twinkies. Jess tells her that she should not brag about them. At recess, May Belle tells Jess and Leslie that Janice stole her Twinkies. Leslie becomes frustrated by Janice's fee for entering the toilet. Jess and Leslie play a trick on Janice. Everyone laughs at her at the bus for this.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Once Leslie's parents finish writing their book, she and Jess help paint their house. Jess is impressed by her parents' happiness and watches the family. At school on Friday, Leslie hears Janice crying in the bathroom. After Leslie talks with her, she learns that the reason why Janice is a bully is because she is abused by her father. They become friends. Jess and Leslie take Prince Terrein to Terabithia. There they fight off several creatures that look like students at their school. They decide to go home when it starts raining. The creek gets higher than ever due to the rain.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: The next morning, Ms. Edmunds (Zooey Deschanel), Jess' music teacher, invites him on a one-on-one field trip to an art museum. Jess tries to ask his mother's permission. As she is half-asleep, he takes her mumbling as approval. Jess does not ask Leslie to come with him. When he returns home, Jess finds that his father and mother are worried. This is because they did not know where he was. His father tells him that Leslie drowned in the river that morning. This happened when Jess went to the museum. Jess is very sad to hear this. He visits the Burke family home with his parents to pay their respects. Leslie's father, Bill Burke (Latham Gaines), tells Jess that she loved him. He thanks him for being a very good friend to her, since she could not make friends at her old school. Jess feels very guilty for Leslie's death. His father consoles him to keep their friendship alive for her sake. Jess decides to re-imagine Terabithia and builds a bridge across the river to welcome a new ruler. He invites his sister, May Belle to enter Terabithia. She is delighted because she was not allowed to enter before. She and Jess make Terabithia even better, with Jess as king and his sister as princess.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Production for the movie began in February 2006, with a budget of around $20 million. The main photography for the movie was shot in Auckland, New Zealand in sixty days. movie editing took ten weeks. Post-production, music mixing, and visual effects took a few months. The movie was finished by November 2006. This was because the crew "had to rush" to finish it by February 16. The movie was directed by Gábor Csupó. Walden Media President Cary Granat first recommended him to direct the movie. Csupó had never done a live-action movie before. However, he said it "didn't worry Granat in the least". Csupó noted that he was interested in making the movie. He "had the ambition to do a live-action movie for a long time", but that he "didn't like anything until I read this book". He called the book "beautiful" and said that it "moved [him]". The cinematographer of "Bridge to Terabithia" was Michael Chapman. This was his final movie before he retired. Chapman mentioned in the film's DVD commentary that he retired after the movie because he wanted his last movie to be a good one. He said: "this is such a beautiful story, and it's exactly the kind of movie I want to do at this time in my life".


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Director Csupó stated they had thought of no actors for the movie at first. The first actor cast was AnnaSophia Robb as Leslie Burke. Robb wrote Csupó "such a beautiful, heartwarming letter" that showed she loved the book and character. Csupó said Robb was cast for the movie because of "her letter, her enthusiasm, and her love of the material". Robb also talked with Lauren Levine, the producer of the movie, before casting even began. "[T]heir conversation convinced her that, without a doubt, AnnaSophia was meant for this role," Csupó stated. Levine said "it was just so clear in talking to her about all this fantasy that I was basically talking to Leslie, that she had that same kind of spark and magical presence. She might be physically different from Leslie in the book, but the spirit of Leslie and the spirit of AnnaSophia are nearly identical. It was a match made in heaven." With regard to the character, Robb said "[Leslie]'s one of those people who's just always lit up, who has this glow about her, and no one can bring her down. Leslie's such a lively and energetic character, it was really fun for me to become her."


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Levine noted that "looking for Jess was a really tough hunt. We needed someone who could go from an introverted boy in an isolated world to someone who completely taps into his imagination and becomes a confident, brave leader in Terabithia. That's a heck of a range for such a young actor." Josh Hutcherson was not their first choice for the role of Jess Aarons. He was chosen as they "felt the chemistry between AnnaSophia Robb and him". Hutcherson said that he liked the project because of "the real life day-to-day drama as well as the arc of the character Jess".


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: The filmmakers cast Robert Patrick as Jess' father. He was chosen due to his experience in several movies in the past. Patrick explained that he could relate to the plot. He was "constantly creating imaginary worlds as a kid" himself, and that the movie reminded him of the place where he grew up. He also said that he agreed to act because it was a movie his children could watch.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Bailee Madison was cast as May Belle Aarons. Csupó said they searched for a long time for someone to play her role. She had "such a charm, even before the camera, she was just like a little sweetheart," he said. She was confident, shook hands with everybody and was "totally sweet and perky". Csupó was pleased by her attitude and cast her for the movie.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Csupó explained that "it was a very conscious decision from the very beginning that we're not going to overdo the visual effects because of the story's integrity and the book's integrity." There was only a small mention of Jess and Leslie fighting creatures in Terabithia in the book. For this reason, they "tried to do the absolute minimum, which would be required to put it into a movie version".


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: To design the creatures of Terabithia, Csupó wanted to use "little more artsy, imaginative, fantastical creatures than the typical rendered characters you see in other movies." He was inspired by Terry Gilliam and Ridley Scott. Dima Malanitchev drew the creatures. Csupó helped him in this. Csupó chose Weta Digital render the 3D animation. He "was impressed with their artistic integrity, the teamwork, the [fact that] people were really nice, and also they responded to our designs very positively." Weta modified some of the creature designs. However, they mainly used Csupó's original designs.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: 100 crew members from Weta worked for the movie. Weta was doing the animations when the movie was being shot. Weta crew members saw the shooting of all scenes involving these creatures. Weta's Matt Aitken said the process of animation was "split into two steps". First, natural-looking creatures were created based on pencil sketches by Csupó and Malanitchev. Photoshop pictures made by visual effects art director Michael Pangrazio was used for this. The second step was to use the best animation and motion style for the creatures.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Leslie's costumes in the movie were designed to look as if the character "might have made some of them herself". They were updated from those described in the book. This was because the descriptions in the book would appear odd now.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Producer and screenwriter David L. Paterson is the novel's author's son. His name was featured on its dedication page. The story was based on his real life best friend, Lisa Hill. Hill had been struck by lightning. She was killed when they were both eight years old. Paterson had asked his mother, Katherine Paterson, if he could write a screenplay of the novel. She agreed "not only because he's [her] son, but also because he's a very good playwright". Paterson found it difficult to market his screenplay. It was mainly because of Leslie's death. "[I]f you can believe this, I did meet with some companies that asked if I could just 'hurt' Leslie a little bit—put her in a light coma and then bring her out".


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Paterson said it was very important for him to keep the spirit of the book alive. At the same time, he had to change it from "a novel that takes place mostly in the characters' heads to a dynamic visual medium". Paterson knew that the movie had to be about friendship and imagination. He focused "bringing out the emotions of the story." He said he found it difficult to write about Terabithia. This was "because it was too close". He credited fellow screenwriter Jeff Stockwell for recreating Terabithia for the movie. "What Jeff was able to do as an outsider who wasn’t so attached to the story was to really let his imagination go free and make up this world in a wonderful way", David said. Csupó said that the two main characters are a little bit older in the movie. Csupó claims the movie "deals with so many issues including friendship, and maybe first innocent love, things like that", so it "made more sense" to make the characters older.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: The film's musical score was composed by Aaron Zigman. He was hired after Alison Krauss did not compose the music. Zigman said there are similarities between the music he made fro "Bridge to Terabithia" and the movie "Flicka". He said: "[...]at times there's a bit of a Celtic influence but not much", but he also went on to say that there was a more modern feel to the music he composed for "Bridge to Terabithia". The score he composed for the movie is described as "very large" compared to his other work, and Zigman commented that "Aside from the minimalist stuff and coloring that I love to do, I also like big orchestral stuff, and want to do more of that, and this movie enabled me to spread my wings out a bit." The official soundtrack for the movie was released by "Hollywood Records" on February 13, 2007.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Reviewers criticized the film's advertisement campaign. One critic said the movie was actually "grounded in reality far more than in fantasy." Another thought, "far from a computer generated [created] escapist fantasy, this movie is an unpretentious [not pretending] and touching tale of preteen companionship and loss".


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: The movie premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood on February 16, 2007. Paterson, who studied in The Catholic University of America, held a special advance screening of the movie for them. This was shown at the AFI Silver Theatre in Silver Spring, Maryland on February 1, 2007. The movie opened in the UK on May 4, 2007, and in New Zealand June 7, 2007. The movie grossed "a higher-than-expected" $28,536,717 from 2,284 screens. It earned an average of $9,885 per screen. The opening day had collections of $6.3 million. The movie has a worldwide gross of US$120 million. It grossed $80 million in the US and Canada.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: The DVD and Blu-ray Disc were released on June 19, 2007 in the US. The DVD and Blu-ray version had "Digital Imagination: Bringing Terabithia to Life", "Behind the Book: The Themes of "Bridge to Terabithia"" It also had "Keep Your Mind Wide Open" music video by Robb, and two audio commentaries. The first was with director Csupó, writer Jeff Stockwell, and producer Hal Lieberman. The second was with producer Lauren Levine and actors Hutcherson and Robb.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes said 85% of 137 collected reviews for "Bridge to Terabithia" were positive. The average score was 7.1/10. Critics said the movie was "a faithful adaptation of a beloved children's novel and a powerful portrayal of love, loss, and imagination through children's eyes. Dynamic visuals and natural performances further enhance the imaginative film". At Metacritic, the movie got 74 out of 100 from 25 reviews. This meant it received "generally favorable reviews".


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: James Berardinelli of ReelViews called "Bridge to Terabithia" "easily the best family feature of the early year". Ann Hornaday of "The Washington Post" praised the script. She said it was "utterly recognizable and authentic", and thought Robb and Hutcherson were "perfectly cast". Hornaday said the final five minutes showed "oversweet sentiment." Viewers would remember the film's "warmth and respect with which it pays homage [respect] to first love," she added. Jessica Grose of "The Village Voice" praised director Csupó for not showing "cutesy tween [neither a child, nor a teenager] stereotypes." She felt Jess' relationship with his father made "Bridge to Terabithia" from "a good kids movie to a classic contender". "The New York Times" Jeannette Catsoulis believed that the fantasy was kept in the background "to find magic in the everyday", and thought Csupó directed "like someone intimate with the pain of being different, allowing each personality more than a single characteristic". She particularly praised Deschanel and Madison. Catsoulis said the movie handled adult topics with "with nuance [cleverly] and sensitivity". Since it was smart and "delicate as a spider web", it was the kind of children's movie "rarely seen nowadays". Miriam di Nunzio of the "Chicago Sun-Times" praised Hutcherson and Robb's performances. "[T]he film's heart and soul rests on the abilities of its young lead characters to make us really see the world through children's eyes. The dynamic duo of Hutcherson and Robb do not disappoint," she noted.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: Not all reviews were positive. Claudia Puig of "USA Today" said "for a movie about the power of imagination, "Bridge to Terabithia" is not as clever as you would hope". Puig said it was an average translation of the novel. But the adult characters were too caricatured or exaggerated in the movie. The real-life portions of the movie were "derivative and simplistic", but Jess' emotional feelings seemed "powerfully authentic, and this is where the movie finds its truth and soul". "The Wall Street Journal" critic Joe Morgenstern felt the movie overused fantasy. The critic added that the "agreeable simplicity in between computer-generated monsters". The young members of the cast were "appealing but unpolished". Morgenstern thought Csupó lacked experience in direction. Although Deschanel was the best among the adults, she seemed self-directed.


title: Bridge to Terabithia (2007 movie)

text: "Bridge to Terabithia" was nominated for seven awards. It won five of these. Josh Hutcherson was nominated at the 2008 Saturn Awards for "Best Performance by a Younger Actor". AnnaSophia Robb was nominated for a Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for "Best Young Actress". The film won five awards at the Young Artist Awards. This included "Best Family Feature Film (Fantasy or Musical)" and "Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actor" for Hutcherson. Robb won "Best Performance in a Feature Film – Leading Young Actress", and Bailee Madison won "Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Actress Age Ten or Younger". The cast also won the award for "Best Performance in a Feature Film – Young Ensemble Cast". The cast included Hutcherson, Robb, Madison, Wakefield, Clinton, Lawless, Isabelle Rose Kircher, Carly Owen, Devon Wood, Emma Fenton and Grace Brannigan.


title: Terror birds

text: Terror birds, the family Phorusrhacidae, were large carnivorous flightless birds. They were the dominant predators in South America during the Cainozoic, from 62–2 million years ago. They were roughly 1–3 meters (3–10 feet) tall.


title: Terror birds

text: "Titanis walleri", one of the larger species, is known from Texas and Florida in North America. This makes the phorusrhacids the only known example of large South American predators migrating north during the Great American Interchange. This took place after the volcanic Isthmus of Panama land bridge rose about three million years ago.


title: Terror birds

text: A recently discovered species, "Kelenken guillermoi" from Middle Miocene some 15 million years ago, discovered in Patagonia in 2006, had the largest bird skull yet found. The fossil has been described as being a , nearly intact skull. The beak is roughly long and curves in a hook shape that resembles an eagle's beak. Most species described as phorusrhacid were smaller, tall, but the new fossil belongs to a bird that probably stood about tall. The large terror birds were nimble and quick runners able to reach speeds of .


title: Terror birds

text: Simulations of a terror bird strike produced by the Discovery Channel using a pneumatic model have demonstrated the larger species could easily crush the skull of its prey and puncture through bone with its beak. They had a fearsome weapon, a beak which could be driven into prey with the force of a sledgehammer, and could at speed over long distances. The Phorusrhacids are colloquially known as "terror birds", as the larger species were apex predators during the Miocene.


title: Boeing 720

text: The Boeing 720 is a jet airliner. It has two rows of seats, which means that it is a narrow-body airliner. It has four engines. The Boeing 720 was designed by Boeing in the 1950s. It was based on the Boeing 707, but the 720 is shorter and cannot fly as far. The 720 first took off in November 1959. Airlines began to use it in July 1960.


title: Boeing 720

text: Two versions of the plane were made. The first one had Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojet engines and was first used in 1960. The second one is called the 720B, and it has Pratt & Whitney JT3D turbofan engines. It was first used in 1961. Some 720s were changed to 720Bs.


title: Boeing 720

text: Only 154 Boeing 720s were built, but it still made Boeing a lot of money because it did not cost a lot to design.


title: Boeing 720

text: Boeing said it would make a new type of Boeing 707 in July 1957. At first, the new plane was called the "707-020", but it was changed to "720". The Boeing 720 is shorter than the Boeing 707.


title: Boeing 720

text: The 720 had a lot of changes made to the outside of the plane. These changes helped the 720 fly faster than the 707−120. It had four Pratt & Whitney JT3C-7 turbojet engines. The engines made of thrust each.


title: Boeing 720

text: At one point while the plane was being designed, it was called the "717-020". However, Boeing used the name "717" for a military jet, but this was changed to the MD-95 after Boeing bought McDonnell Douglas in 1997.


title: Boeing 720

text: Since the plane was so similar to the Boeing 707, no prototype Boeing 720 was needed. Any new systems were tested on the Boeing 367-80. The first 720 took off on November 23, 1959. It was first used by United Airlines, on July 5, 1960. 65 720s were made.


title: Boeing 720

text: The "720B" was a different type of 720. It had JT3D turbofan engines. These engines made of thrust each. The JT3D engines burned less fuel and could make more thrust. The first 720B took off on October 6, 1960. The first airline to use it was American Airlines in March 1961. 89 720Bs were made. American Airlines also changed some of their normal 720s to 720Bs.


title: Boeing 720

text: Since the Boeing 720 was so similar to the Boeing 707, it did not cost much to design. This meant that it still earned Boeing money, even though not many planes were sold. Boeing made 154 Boeing 720s and 720Bs from 1959 until 1967.


title: Boeing 720

text: Although the Boeing 720 was similar to the Boeing 707-120, it was 9 ft (2.73 m) shorter. It was also lighter.


title: Boeing 720

text: The 707 had emergency exits over the wings. These are called over-wing emergency exits. The back over-wing exit was removed. Two extra over-wing exits could be put in so that the plane could hold more passengers.


title: Boeing 720

text: The 720's wing was taken from the 707, but some changes were made to it. The 720 had the same wingspan as the 707-120. For the 720, the wing had something called a wing root glove. This glove helped the wing make less drag.


title: Boeing 720

text: Although the 720 first had turbojet engines, the Pratt & Whitney JT3D was much more popular. The JT3D was a turbofan engine. 720s which had the JT3D were called 720Bs. American Airlines changed some of their normal 720s to 720Bs.


title: Boeing 720

text: The 720 used the engines to make air to pressurize the cabin. However, the engines could not make enough air to do this, so some small holes were put in above the engines for more air.


title: Boeing 720

text: The Boeing 720 did not have an APU, so it needed power from the ground to power the plane until the engines were started (the engines could make electricity for the plane).


title: Boeing 720

text: The first Boeing 720 was for United Airlines. It first flew on November 23, 1959. United Airlines first used the plane on July 5, 1960. It flew from Los Angeles to Denver and then Chicago. American Airlines was the second airline to use the 720. The Boeing 720 was replaced by the Boeing 727 during the 1960s.


title: Boeing 720

text: The first 720 had its name changed to "The Starship". It was turned into a private plane used by rock bands. Led Zeppelin used it most, in the 1970s. A bar was put in, as well as beds, a shower, a lounge area, a TV and video cassette player.


title: Boeing 720

text: Honeywell used the last Boeing 720 in the United States. It flew from Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport. Honeywell used it for testing. Honeywell got rid of this plane on June 21 and 22, 2008. Honeywell replaced their Boeing 720 with a Boeing 757.


title: Boeing 720

text: Pratt & Whitney Canada used the last 720 until 2010. It was used to test new engines. Pratt & Whitney Canada it with a Boeing 747SP. In May 2012, flown to the National Air Force Museum of Canada. It can now be seen there.


title: Boeing 720

text: The Boeing 720 has had 23 hull-loss accidents. It has been hijacked nine times. One plane was destroyed by a bomb in 1976. People died in 12 of the hull-loss accidents. 256 people have died on Boeing 720s. The three worst accidents were:


title: Strontium

text: Strontium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Sr. It has the atomic number 38. It is a metal. The colour of the metal is silver-white or yellow-silver. The metal is soft, and highly reactive chemically.


title: Strontium

text: In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the alkaline earth metals. Strontium has a high chemical reactivity. The metal turns yellow when exposed to air. Strontium has properties similar to those of its two vertical neighbours in the periodic table, calcium and barium.


title: Strontium

text: It is found naturally in the minerals celestite and strontianite. The Sr isotope is present in radioactive fallout and has a half-life of 28.9 years.


title: Strontium

text: Strontium forms salts which make a red flame when they burn. They are used in flares for signalling the position of survivors or shipwrecks and to make the red colour in fireworks.


title: Local area network

text: A local area network (LAN) is a computer network in a small area like a home, office, or school. Many computers can be connected to share information and Internet connections. Most LANs use Ethernet to connect together.


title: Local area network

text: LAN topologies tell you how ROM devices are organised. Five common LAN topologies exist: bus, ring, star, tree, and mesh. These topologies are logical architectures. This means that they tell you the directions that signals go between devices, but that the actual cables that connect the devices might not be connected the same way. For example, logical bus and ring topologies are commonly organized physically as a star.


title: Information theory

text: Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering. Information theory measures the amount of information in data that could have more than one value. In its most common use, information theory finds physical and mathematical limits on the amounts of data in data compression and data communication. Data compression and data communication are statistical, because they guess unknown values. The amount of information in data measures how easily it is guessed by a person who does not know its value.


title: Information theory

text: A key measure in information theory is "entropy". Entropy quantifies the amount of uncertainty involved in the value of a random variable or the outcome of a random process. For example, identifying the outcome of a fair coin flip (with two equally likely outcomes) provides less information (lower entropy) than specifying the outcome from a roll of a dice (with six equally likely outcomes). Some other important measures in information theory are mutual information, channel capacity, error exponents, and relative entropy.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Arthur Christopher Orme Plummer (December 13, 1929 – February 5, 2021) was a Canadian actor. His career began in 1946. He first acted on Broadway in 1954. His first important stage roles were as Cyrano de Bergerac in "Cyrano" (1974) and Iago in "Othello". He was also in "Hamlet at Elsinore", "Macbeth", "King Lear", and "Barrymore".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: After being on stage, he acted in his first movie in "Stage Struck" (1958). He had his first main role that same year in "Wind Across the Everglades". He became well known for playing Captain Georg von Trapp in the musical movie "The Sound of Music" (1965).


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer played many historical people in movies, including Commodus in "The Fall of the Roman Empire" (1964), Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington in "Waterloo" (1970), Rudyard Kipling in "The Man Who Would Be King" (1975), Mike Wallace in "The Insider" (1999), Leo Tolstoy in "The Last Station" (2009), Kaiser Wilhelm II in "The Exception" (2016), and J. Paul Getty in "All the Money in the World" (2017).


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer narrated the animated series "Madeline". He voiced Charles Muntz in the Disney Pixar movie "Up" (2009). His final roles were as Harlan Thrombey in "Knives Out" (2019), Frank Pitsenbarger in "The Last Full Measure" (2020) and as Howard Lawson in the television drama "Departure".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer won many awards for his work. He won an Academy Award, two Primetime Emmy Awards, two Tony Awards, a Golden Globe Award, a Screen Actors Guild Award, and a British Academy Film Award. He was one of the few actors and only Canadian to have won the Triple Crown of Acting. He won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for "Beginners" (2010). At the time, at age 82 he was the oldest person to win an acting Oscar. He was nominated again for an Academy Award for "All the Money in the World". This made him the oldest person to be nominated for an acting Oscar at age 88.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer was born on December 13, 1929, in Toronto, Ontario. He was the only child of John Orme Plummer and Isabella Mary Abbott. His great-grandfather was Canadian Prime Minister Sir John Abbott. Plummer's parents divorced not long after he was born. He was raised by his mother in the Abbott family home in Senneville, Quebec. He spoke English and French very well.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: At an early age, he loved acting and went to High School of Montreal. He wanted to become an actor after watching Laurence Olivier's movie "Henry V" (1944). He learned acting as an apprentice with the Montreal Repertory Theatre. Plummer never went to college or university, something he wished he did. Later in life, McGill University gave an honorary degree to Plummer.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: In 1946, the "Montreal Gazette"s theatre critic Herbert Whittaker liked Plummer's role as Mr Darcy in a Montreal High School play of "Pride and Prejudice". Whittaker was also a stage director and he hired Plummer at age 18 to play Oedipus in Jean Cocteau's "La Machine infernale".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer started acting in 1948 with Ottawa's Stage Society. In 1952, he was in many stage works with the Bermudiana Theatre in Bermuda. While working there, he was hired by an American producer. Edward Everett Horton hired Plummer to play Gerard in the 1953 play of André Roussin's "Nina".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer had his first Broadway role in January 1953 in "The Starcross Story". His next Broadway role, "Home is the Hero", lasted from September to October 1954. Plummer was Tyrone Power's understudy. After acting in "Night of the Auk", Plummer was in Elia Kazan's Broadway play "J.B.". He played Jason in Robinson Jeffers' version of "Medea" in Paris in 1955. Also in 1955, he played Mark Antony in "Julius Caesar". He also played Ferdinand in "The Tempest" at the American Shakespeare Festival.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer began acting at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in 1956. He played the main character in "Henry V". He played the main role in "Hamlet" and Sir Andrew Aguecheek in "Twelfth Night" in 1957. The next year, he played Leontes in "The Winter's Tale", Bardolph in "Henry IV, Part 1", and Benedick in "Much Ado About Nothing".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: In April 1961, he played Benedick in "Much Ado About Nothing" with the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon, England. He later played the main character of "Richard III" a month later. He played King Henry II in Jean Anouilh's "Becket". For his role, Plummer won the Evening Standard Award for Best Actor.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: At the Stratford Festival, he played Philip the Bastard in "King John" and Mercutio in "Romeo and Juliet". In 1962, he played the main roles in both "Cyrano de Bergerac" and "Macbeth". He returned in 1967 to play Mark Antony in "Antony and Cleopatra".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer played the main role in a 1963 play of Bertolt Brecht's "The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui". He was also in Peter Shaffer's "The Royal Hunt of the Sun", playing Francisco Pizarro. Many critics liked Plummer's roles as Ui and Pizarro.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: From June 1971 to January 1972, he worked for the Royal National Theatre. He acted in Jean Giraudoux's "Amphitryon 38" directed by Laurence Olivier; Georg Büchner's "Danton's Death"; Adrian Mitchell's "Tyger"; Luigi Pirandello's "The Rules of the Game"; and Eugene O'Neill's "Long Day's Journey into Night" at the New Theatre in London. From May to June 1973, he was on Broadway. He played the main character in "Cyrano". It was a musical version of Edmond Rostand's 1897 play "Cyrano de Bergerac". Plummer won a Tony Award and a Drama Desk Award for that role. Later that year, he played Anton Chekhov in Neil Simon's "The Good Doctor". He played Quentin in Arthur Miller's 1974 version of "After the Fall".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer was in "Lovers and Madmen" at the Opera House at the Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. in 1973. He also appeared in "Love and Master Will" at the same place in 1975.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: In 1982, he was in the Broadway play of the Shakespearean tragedy "Othello", playing Iago. His role as the main villain had positive reviews from critics, such as "The New York Times". For his role, he got a Tony Award for Best Actor in a Play nomination losing to Roger Rees.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: In 1988, he played the main role in Broadway's "Macbeth". He also had positive reviews for his role as the main character. He worked with Jason Robards in the 1994 version of Harold Pinter's "No Man's Land". For his role in "No Man's Land", Plummer was nominated for a Tony Award.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer became well known for playing actor John Barrymore in the 1997 Broadway play of William Luce's "Barrymore". He had many positive reviews from critics. Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" called Plummer a great actor. His role as Barrymore, gave Plummer his second Tony Award and a Drama Desk Award.