title: Nepali language

text: The Nepali language is the official language of Nepal and a language in India. Besides Nepal it is spoken in India, Bhutan and parts of Burma. In the Indian states of Sikkim and West Bengal also it is an official language. This language is also known as Gorkhali Language or Khaskura. It is believed to have originated from the ancient Sanskrit language from which it takes many words. It is written in Devanagari style of writing which is similar to Hindi. It is spoken throughout Nepal and is the mother tongue of more than half of the population. It is also used by the Government of Nepal for all official purposes. In Nepal it is compulsory to study Nepali language as a subject until Grade 10 (High School).


title: Boltzmann constant

text: The Boltzmann constant ("k" or "k") is a physical constant. It is defined to be J/K. It relates the average kinetic energy of a particle in a gas with the temperature of the gas. It is the gas constant "R" divided by the Avogadro constant "N":


title: Boltzmann constant

text: The Boltzmann constant has SI units of J⋅K (also written J/K), the same as entropy. It is named after the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann.


title: Sigma

text: Sigma (uppercase/lowercase Σ σ ς) is the 18th letter of the Greek alphabet. It is used to represent the "s" sound in Ancient and Modern Greek. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 200. Letters that came from it include the Roman S and Cyrillic С.


title: Sigma

text: The uppercase Σ is the shorthand symbol for summation (the symbol is also known as the summation operator). It is often used to condense Taylor series and to write out trigonometric functions such as sine, cosine, and tangent as series.


title: Sigma

text: The lowercase σ is used to represent population standard deviation in statistics, and permutation function in abstract algebra.


title: Binomial nomenclature

text: In biology, binomial nomenclature is how species are named. The name of a species is made of two parts: one indicating the genus and one indicating the species. Binomial nomenclature means "two-part name" or "system of two-part names".


title: Binomial nomenclature

text: The person who popularized this system for use was Swedish botanist and physician Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778). He gave a two-part name to every species he knew. This kind of naming had been used before Linnaeus by some naturalists, but after Linnaeus, it was accepted as a good method.


title: Binomial nomenclature

text: The value of the binomial nomenclature comes from several things. It saves words because it replaces long descriptions, it is used everywhere, and the names are unique and stable. The system ended the use of local common names, which was the source of much confusion. When science was done by just a few European countries their common names for species were well-known. But as it happened, the common names in all countries was rather different. The same name might be used for more than one species, and several species given the same name. In the Linnaeus system, everyone uses the same name for the same species. Linnaeus chose Latin names: first, because it avoided competitive nationalism; second, because most educated people in his day learned Latin.


title: Binomial nomenclature

text: The system has been a great success, but it does have some problems. It is not always clear what is a species and what is not. Although many species are quite clear, some are put into one species by some biologists, and into several species by others. Linnaeus himself noticed that species were not always distinct.Today we know something about why this is so. In practice, international committees make decisions about naming species in difficult cases.


title: Binomial nomenclature

text: The components of a name may come from any source whatsoever. Often they are Latin words, but come originally from Greek. This is gradually changing, and names may now come from a Latinized version of a place, a person, a name from a local language, etc.


title: James Irwin

text: James Benson "Jim" Irwin (March 17, 1930 – August 8, 1991) (Col, USAF) was an American astronaut and test pilot.


title: James Irwin

text: He was the eighth person to walk on the Moon and the first, and youngest, of those astronauts to die.


title: James Irwin

text: Irwin died of a heart attack while riding his bike in Glenwood Springs, Colorado on August 8, 1991 at the age of 61.


title: Upper house

text: An upper house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature. The other chamber is called the lower house.


title: Semiconductor

text: A semiconductor is a material that in some cases will conduct electricity but not in others. Good electrical conductors, like copper or silver, easily allow electricity to flow through them. Materials that block the flow of electricity, like rubber or plastic, are called insulators. Insulators are often used to protect people from electric shock. As the name implies, a semiconductor does not conduct as well as a conductor. Silicon is the most used semiconductor, but gallium arsenide is also used.


title: Semiconductor

text: By the addition of different atoms into the crystal lattice (grid) of the semiconductor it changes its conductivity by making n-type and p-type semiconductors. Silicon is the most important commercial semiconductor, though many others are used. They can be made into transistors, which are small amplifiers. Transistors are used in computers, mobile phones, digital audio players and many other electronic devices.


title: Semiconductor

text: Like other solids, the electrons in semiconductors can have energies only within certain bands (i.e. ranges of energy levels) between the energy of the ground state, corresponding to electrons tightly bound to the atomic nuclei of the material, and the free electron energy, which is the energy required for an electron to escape entirely from the material.


title: Semiconductor

text: Semiconductors were being studied in laboratories as early as the 1830s. In 1833 Michael Faraday was experimenting with silver sulfide. He discovered that as the material was heated it conducted electricity better. This was the opposite of how copper acted. When copper is heated it conducts less electricity. A number of other early experimenters discovered other properties of semiconductors. In 1947 at Bell Labs in New Jersey, the transistor was invented. This led to the development of integrated circuits, which power almost all electronic devices today.


title: Semiconductor

text: Doping is the process of adding a small impurity to a pure semiconductor to change its electrical properties. Lightly and moderately doped semiconductors are called extrinsic. A semiconductor doped to such high levels that it acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor is referred to as degenerate. Most semiconductors are made out of silicon crystals. Pure silicon has little use but doped silicon is the basis for most semiconductors. Silicon Valley was named for the large number of semiconductor startup companies that were located there.


title: Semiconductor

text: Today, semiconductors are used far and wide. Semiconductors can be found in nearly every electronic device. Desktop computers, the Internet, tablet devices, smartphones all would not be possible without semiconductors.


title: Semiconductor

text: Semiconductors can be made into very precise switches with a small amount of voltage. The voltage that the semiconductor doesn’t need can be sent to other electrical components in the device. Semiconductors can also be made very tiny and many of them can fit into a rather small circuit. Since they can be made so small, electrical devices today can be made thin and lightweight without compromising processing power.


title: Semiconductor

text: Some of the dominating companies in the semiconductor business are Intel Corporation, Samsung Electronics, TSMC, Qualcomm and Micron Technology.


title: Lana Del Rey

text: Elizabeth Woolridge Grant (born June 21, 1985), known by her stage name Lana Del Rey, is an American singer and songwriter from New York. She has sold about 19.1 million albums and 13 million singles around the world. She has released six albums and four EPs since 2008.


title: Lana Del Rey

text: She released her first EP "Kill Kill" as Lizzy Grant in 2008. Two years later, she released her first studio album, titled "Lana Del Ray", by 5 Points Records. However, the album was pulled three months after its release. She released her first single as Lana Del Rey, "Video Games", in August 2011. It reached number one in the singles charts in Finland, Denmark,Germany, Japan, Slovakia, Scotland, and Luxembourg. Her second album "Born to Die" reached number 1 in the UK Albums Chart when it was released on January 27, 2012. "Born to Die" was reissued on November 9, 2012 as "Born to Die: The Paradise Edition", which featured eight new songs. The new songs were featured in the separate EP, "Paradise." In 2013 "Young and Beautiful" was on the soundtrack to "The Great Gatsby". Her third studio album, "Ultraviolence", was released in 2014. A short film, "Tropico", was released on the website VEVO on December 5. It has songs from her "Paradise" EP in it. She has also modelled for H&M.


title: Lana Del Rey

text: Del Rey's song "Young and Beautiful" was nominated for the award for Best Song Written for Visual Media at the 2014 Grammy Awards. "Paradise" was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album.


title: Lana Del Rey

text: The fifth studio album of Del Rey, "Lust for Life," was released on July 21, 2017. Four singles were previously released, being "", title track "" with The Weeknd, "Summer Bummer" with ASAP Rocky and Playboi Carti, and "Groupie Love", also with ASAP Rocky.


title: Lana Del Rey

text: Del Rey's sixth studio album, "Norman Fucking Rockwell!", was released on August 30, 2019. The album was well-received by critics.


title: Lana Del Rey

text: Del Rey was born in New York City. Lana began singing in her Church choir at a young age, where she was the cantor. She was raised Catholic. When she was fifteen she was sent to Kent School, a boarding school in Connecticut, to deal with her alcoholism. When she was 18 she moved to Bronx to study metaphysics at Fordham University.


title: Spamming

text: Spamming is when one person or company sends an unwanted email to another person. Spam emails are the computer version of unwanted "junk mail" that arrives in a mailbox, such as advertising pamphlets and brochures. Spam emails are usually sent to try to get the person to buy something or do something else that will cause gain for the sender.


title: Spamming

text: The emails sent when someone is spamming is called spam. The person or company who sent the unwanted email is called a spammer. Both of these words came from a brand of canned meat called "Spam", but it was a short sketch created by the British comedy group Monty Python in 1970 that led to the word "Spam" being widely used to mean unwanted email messages.


title: Spamming

text: Spam emails are usually sent to many people at once trying to get them to buy a product or sign up for a service. The people who receive the email did not ask to receive the email, and do not want to receive it.


title: Spamming

text: One of the reasons there is so much spam emails around is that it costs very little to send millions of spam messages at once. Spam messages can easily be sent, sometimes even by a special computer program.


title: Spamming

text: The hardest part about spamming is to get the email addresses to send the spam to. Sometimes the spammers do this by searching for emails on the internet, or by buying emails from people who know a lot of them (for example, someone who runs a site that makes users tell them their email address to signup will have a lot of email addresses to sell to spammers).


title: Spamming

text: One part of getting e-mail addresses is to find addresses that are still in use. One trick used by spammers is to put a link at the end of a message like this:


title: Spamming

text: If the person clicks on the link, it tells the spammers that there is someone at the address. Then the spammers put that person on a list of people who actually open spam messages. Next, the spammers sell that list to other spammers. The same thing happens if the person sends another email back to the spammer (called "replying"), which also tells the spammer the message has been opened.


title: Spamming

text: Another trick that spammers use is to put a picture – even one that cannot be seen – into a spam message. The picture will have a name that goes with just that one email. When the email is opened, a request will be sent to the server that has that picture to get the image. If they get this request, then they know that you read their email, which could cause a person to receive even more email spam.


title: Spamming

text: The word "spamming" is also used to describe the act of typing a lot of words or text in Internet chat rooms, so that other people using the chatroom cannot carry on conversations. Usually this blocks the screen with meaningless words, in order to annoy the other people in the chatroom. Spamming in Internet chatrooms is usually considered to be rude. This kind of behavior is usually called "flooding" rather than "spamming".


title: Spamming

text: The word "spam" is often (mistakenly) applied to emails containing content that the receiver sees as silly or simply meaningless (e.g. yujhcykgfvylfuv,uyguvgy).


title: Spamming

text: Computer users at home and in workplaces waste a lot of time opening and deleting spam messages. In some cases, spam emails contain viruses or links to pornography or illegal gambling websites. Spam emails often advertise products or services which are being lied about by the companies sending the spam, such as frauds or scams.


title: Spamming

text: Some user email programs can automatically delete spam messages when they arrive, or move them to a separate spam folder. Internet service providers also detect them automatically and cooperate to cut off customers who are major spammers.


title: Indian national calendar

text: The Indian national calendar (sometimes called Saka calendar) is the official civil calendar in India. It is used by the Gazette of India, news broadcasts by All India Radio, and in calendars and communications issued by the Government of India.


title: Indian national calendar

text: The months in the first half of the year all have 31 days. This was done to take in account for the slower movement of the sun across the sky during that time.


title: Public-key cryptography

text: Public-key cryptography, also called asymmetric cryptography, is a communication where people send messages that can only be read by those who have the key.


title: Public-key cryptography

text: The private key is kept secret, while the public key may be widely distributed and used by other users.


title: Public-key cryptography

text: Incoming messages are encrypted with the "recipient's public key" and can only be decrypted with their corresponding private key. The keys are related mathematically, but the user's private key cannot be easily got from the widely used public key. The most usual problem with this method arises when private key is accidentally leaked.


title: Big Show

text: Paul Donald Wight (born February 8, 1971) is an American professional wrestler and actor. He is currently signed to AEW. He is best known by his ring name, Paul Wright.


title: Big Show

text: He is also best known for his career in World Championship Wrestling (WCW), where he wrestled as The Giant from June 1995 to December 1998. He is the first man in the history of wrestling to win the WWE Championship, WCW World Heavyweight Championship and the ECW World Championship, even though his ECW Title win was after the company became a WWE property. Kane is the second wrestler.


title: Vijayawada

text: Vijayawada is the second largest city in Andhra Pradesh, India. It is on the banks of Krishna River. Vijayawada is a municipal corporation and headquarters of the Andhra Pradesh Capital Region Development Authority and Vijayawada mandal. It is also known as the business capital of Andhra Pradesh. This is because it is one of the major trading and business center of the state.


title: Vijayawada

text: Vijayawada is the second largest city after the Visakhapatnam port city, in Andhra Pradesh. The city is recognised as the Global City of the Future by "McKinsey Quarterly". According to the 2011 census the total population of the city is 1,034,358. The urban area population is 1,476,931. The literacy rate of the city is 82.59%.


title: Vijayawada

text: Vijayawada Railway station is an important junction in the south central railway zone. Vijayawada Airport is well connected with nearby cities such as Hyderabad, Bangalore, Chennai, Visakhapatnam, Tirupati and Kadapa.


title: Longan

text: Longan (scientific name: "Dimocarpus longan") is the name for a tree in the "Sapindaceae" (soapberry) family. It comes from the southern part of Asia and is related to the lychee.


title: Longan

text: The fruit of the longan is white, round, and together with its hard seed, looks like an eyeball when the shell is peeled off. This gave the fruit its name in Chinese, which means "dragon's eye". The English name is from its pronunciation in Cantonese, the dialect of southern China. The fruit is edible, has a sweet taste, and is often used for cooking. There is a lot of protein and dietary fiber.


title: Longan

text: Most longan trees are harvested in China, where the fruit was known as early as the Han dynasty and there are many legends about it. In the Western world, though, it was not known until near the end of the 18th century.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Sigmund Freud (Moravia, 6 May 1856 – London, 23 September 1939) was an Austrian neurologist (a person who treats the nervous system). He invented the treatment of mental illness and neurosis by means of psychoanalysis.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud is important in psychology because he studied the unconscious mind. The unconscious part of the mind cannot be easily controlled or noticed by a person.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: In 1860 his family moved with their little boy to Vienna. He did well in school and became a doctor. Freud married Martha Bernays in 1886. They had six children.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud lived in Austria in the 1930s. After the Anschluss, Germany and Austria were combined. Because he was Jewish, he received a visit from the Gestapo. Freud and his family did not feel safe anymore. Freud left Vienna and went to England in June 1938.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud developed a theory of the human mind (its organisation and operations). He also had a theory that human behaviour both conditions and results from how the mind is organised.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: This led him to favor certain clinical techniques for trying to help cure mental illness. He theorised that personality is developed by a person's childhood experiences.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vienna at the age of 17. He got his M.D. degree in 1881 at the age of 25 and entered private practice in neurology for financial reasons.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness in order to free the patient from suffering distorted emotions.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging a patient to talk in free association and to talk about dreams.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: In November 1880 Breuer was called in to treat a highly intelligent 21-year-old woman (Bertha Pappenheim) for a persistent cough which he diagnosed as hysterical. He found that while nursing her dying father she had developed a number of transitory symptoms, including visual disorders and paralysis and contractures of limbs, which he also diagnosed as hysterical.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Breuer began to see his patient almost every day as the symptoms increased and became more persistent. He found that when, with his encouragement, she told fantasy stories her condition improved, and most of her symptoms had disappeared by April 1881. However, following the death of her father in that month her condition deteriorated again. Breuer recorded that some of the symptoms eventually remitted spontaneously, and that full recovery was achieved by inducing her to recall events that had precipitated the occurrence of a specific symptom. This recovery is disputed.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud famously proposed that unconscious memories of infantile sexual abuse were at the root of the psychoneuroses. However, patients were generally unconvinced that Freud's clinical procedure indicated actual sexual abuse. He reported that even after a supposed "reproduction" of sexual scenes the patients assured him emphatically of their disbelief.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: As a medical researcher, Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. He wrote several articles on the antidepressant qualities of the drug and he was influenced by friend and confidant Wilhelm Fliess, who recommended cocaine for the treatment of "nasal reflex neurosis".


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud felt that cocaine would work as a cure for many conditions and wrote a well-received paper, "On Coca", explaining its virtues. He prescribed it to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow to help him overcome a morphine addiction acquired while treating a disease of the nervous system. Freud also recommended cocaine to many of his close family and friends.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Reports of addiction and overdose began to come from many parts of the world. Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished because of this early ambition. Furthermore, Freud's friend Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of 'cocaine psychosis' as a result of Freud's prescriptions, and died a few years later. Freud felt great regret over these events.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud made arguments about the importance of the unconscious mind in understanding conscious thought and behavior.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: However the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. Historian of psychology Mark Altschule concluded, "It is difficult—or perhaps impossible—to find a nineteenth-century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize unconscious thought as not only real but of the highest importance". Freud's advance was not to uncover the unconscious but to devise a method for systematically studying it.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud called dreams the "royal road to the knowledge of the unconscious in mental life". This meant that dreams illustrate the "logic" of the unconscious mind. Freud developed his first topology of the psyche in "The Interpretation of Dreams" (1899) in which he proposed that the unconscious exists and described a method for gaining access to it. The preconscious was described as a layer between conscious and unconscious thought; its contents could be accessed with a little effort.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: One key factor in the operation of the unconscious is 'repression'. Freud believed that many people repress painful memories deep into their unconscious mind.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud hoped his model was universally valid and so turned to ancient mythology and ethnography for comparative material. Freud named his new theory the Oedipus complex after the famous Greek tragedy "Oedipus Rex" by Sophocles. "I found in myself a constant love for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be a universal event in childhood." Freud said. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay gratification (cf. "Three essays on the theory of Sexuality").


title: Sigmund Freud

text: He used the Oedipus conflict to point out how much he believed that people desire incest and must repress that desire. The Oedipus conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud originally thought child sexual abuse was a general explanation for the origin of neuroses, but he abandoned this so-called "seduction theory". He noted finding many cases in which apparent memories of childhood sexual abuse were based more on imagination than on real events.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: During the late 1890s Freud, who never abandoned his belief in the sexual cause of neuroses, began to emphasize fantasies built around the Oedipus complex as the primary cause of hysteria and other neurotic symptoms. Despite this change in his explanatory model, Freud always recognized that some neurotics had in fact been sexually abused by their fathers. He explicitly discussed several patients whom he knew to have been abused.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud also believed that the libido developed in individuals by changing its object, a process called "sublimation". He argued that humans are born "polymorphously perverse", meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. He further argued that, as humans develop, they become fixated on different and specific objects through their stages of development – first in the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then in the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in evacuating his or her bowels), then in the phallic stage.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud argued that children then passed through a stage in which they fixated on the mother as a sexual object (known as the Oedipus Complex) but that the child eventually overcame and repressed this desire because of its taboo nature. The repressive or dormant latency stage of psychosexual development comes before the sexually mature genital stage of psychosexual development.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: In his later work, Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. Freud discussed this model in the 1920 essay "Beyond the Pleasure Principle", and fully elaborated upon it in "The Ego and the Id" (1923). The Id is the impulsive, childlike portion of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure principle" and only takes into account what it wants and disregards all consequences.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: The term "Ego" entered the English language in the late 18th century. "Ego" is Latin for 'I'. It attempts to balance the desires of the Id with reality. It tries to act ways that will bring benefit in the long term, rather than bring grief.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: The term "Id" ('the It' or 'the Thing') represents the primitive urges to possess, conquer, dominate and achieve pleasure. It can be seen very clearly in young children, who have not yet learnt to mask their feelings.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: The Super-ego is the moral component of the psyche, which makes a clear distinction between right and wrong, and makes no allowance for special circumstances.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: The rational Ego attempts to get a balance between the impractical hedonism of the Id and the equally impractical moralism of the Super-ego; it is the part of the psyche that is usually reflected most directly in a person's actions.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: When overburdened or threatened by its tasks, the Ego may employ defense mechanisms including denial, repression, and displacement. The theory of ego defense mechanisms has received empirical validation, and the nature of repression, in particular, became one of the more fiercely debated areas of psychology in the 1990s.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud believed that humans were driven by two conflicting central desires: the life drive which is called "Eros" (survival, propagation, hunger, thirst, and sex) and the death drive (Thanatos).


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud recognized the death drive only in his later years and developed his theory of it in "Beyond the Pleasure Principle".


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Freud acknowledged the tendency for the unconscious to repeat unpleasurable experiences in order to desensitize, or deaden, the body. This compulsion to repeat unpleasurable experiences explains why traumatic nightmares occur in dreams, as nightmares seem to contradict Freud's earlier conception of dreams purely as a site of pleasure, fantasy, and desire.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: On the one hand, the life drives promote survival by avoiding extreme unpleasure and any threat to life. On the other hand, the death drive functions simultaneously toward extreme pleasure, which leads to death. Freud addressed the conceptual dualities of pleasure and unpleasure, as well as sex/life and death, in his discussions on masochism and sadomasochism. The tension between life drive and death drive represented a revolution in his manner of thinking.


title: Sigmund Freud

text: Anthony Clare, psychiatrist and broadcaster, described Freud as a "ruthless and devious charlatan", and that "many of the foundations stones of psychoanalysis are phoney".


title: Bedivere

text: Bedivere () is a legendary character in the King Arthur stories. He is a Knight of the Round Table. He is a fearless fighter and one of Arthur's most trusted knights. In the early legends he is the cupbearer. Later legends have him as the one who returns Arthur's sword Excalibur to the Lady of the Lake. He then put the dying Arthur in a boat to take him to Avalon. In some legends Arthur gives him rule over Normandy. In stories he is frequently associated with Sir Kay. Sir Lucan is his brother. Sir Griflet is his cousin.


title: Bedivere

text: In the legends Sir Bedivere had a grandfather also named Bedivere who was the founder of the city of Bayeux. His son was named Amren. He also had a daughter named Eneuavc.


title: Bedivere

text: Bedivere was one of the first knights to join the Round Table. He was also one of Arthur's earliest followers. He and Arthur fought the Giant of Mont Saint-Michel. He lost one hand in a battle. Only he and Arthur survived the "Battle of Camlan". But Arthur received a wound in the battle and was dying. Arthur commanded Bedivere to throw his magical sword Excalibur back into the Lake. Twice Bedivere lied to Arthur but the third time he threw the sword into the lake it came from. Bedivere was said to have been killed in the Roman Campaign.


title: Battle of Plataea

text: The Battle of Plataea was the final land battle during the second Persian invasion of Greece. It was a decisive victory for the Greeks as it ended that war. The battle was in 479 BC near the city of Plataea in Boeotia. It was fought between the Greek allies (the city-states, of Sparta, Athens, Corinth and Megara), and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I.


title: Battle of Plataea

text: The previous year, the Persian invasion force, led by the Xerxes in person, won the Battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium, and conquered Thessaly, Boeotia and Attica. However, at the last-ditch naval Battle of Salamis, the Allied Greek navy had won a surprise victory, and that stopped the conquest of the whole Peloponnesus. Xerxes then returned home with some of his army, leaving his general Mardonius to finish off the Greeks the next year.


title: Battle of Plataea

text: In the summer of 479 BC, the Greeks got together a huge army by the standards of the day, and marched out of the Peloponnesus. The Persians retreated to Boeotia, and built a fortified camp near Plataea. The Greeks refused to be drawn into the open cavalry ground near the Persian camp, and this led to a stalemate which lasted eleven days. When their supply lines were disrupted, the Greeks retreated a distance, and their battle-line fragmented. Mardonius thought the Greeks were in full retreat, and ordered his men to pursue them. The Greeks (particularly the Spartans, Tegeans and Athenians) turned and gave battle, routing the lightly armed Persian infantry and killing Mardonius.


title: Battle of Plataea

text: Much of the Persian army were caught in their camp, and slaughtered. The destruction of this army, and the remnants of the Persian navy, allegedly on the same day at the Battle of Mycale, ended the invasion. After Plataea and Mycale, the Greek allies would take the offensive against the Persians, marking a new phase of the Greco-Persian Wars. Although Plataea was in every sense a decisive victory, it does not seem (even at the time) to have been as famous as the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon or even the Allied defeat at Thermopylae.


title: Battle of Plataea

text: A bronze column in the shape of intertwined snakes (the Serpent column) was created from melted-down Persian weapons, and was erected at Delphi. It commemorated all the Greek city-states that had participated in the battle, listing them on the column, and thus confirming some of Herodotus's claims. Most of it still survives in the Hippodrome of Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), where it was carried by Constantine the Great during the founding of his city on the Greek colony of Byzantium.


title: Oggy and the Cockroaches

text: Oggy and the Cockroaches is a French animated television series. It was created in 1998, by Jean-Yves Raimbaud. The main characters are Oggy, Joey, Marky, Dee Dee and Jack. Season 4 onwards include the additions of Olivia and Bob. It is slapstick comedy with a good deal of comic violence. The 5th and 6th seasons premiered on June 30, 2017 and on May 16, 2017 based off of the chronological themes of the movie. Season 7 premeired on March 19, 2018 while season 8 premeired on May 7, 2020 remaking previous episodes.


title: Oggy and the Cockroaches

text: The show got adapted into a film in 2013, titled "", centering around Oggy's adventures in four timelines. In September 2020, the show was reported to be rebooted as "Oggy and the Cockroaches Next Generation", a series about Oggy taking care of a seven-year old female elephant named Piya from India. In August 2021, a CGI spin-off centering around a younger Oggy was made for younger children, called "Oggy Oggy".


title: Alpha male

text: Some animals live in a social structure where the most powerful male in the group is decided by either fights or very aggressive battles that sometimes end in death (in the wild). The current alpha male must defend his position from younger members. When he is too old or not strong enough to win, he loses his position in the group. Sometimes, he will die or be forced to leave the group.


title: Alpha male

text: The result of this is that the alpha male usually has more opportunity to mate with the available females. This system developed because strong males will produce young which have a better chance for survival.


title: Alpha male

text: Alpha male can also refer to a high-ranked human in a group. This may be in a business setting or sometimes in other competitive areas, like sports. However, this is an extension by metaphor: humans do not have the same mating system as other social mammals. One reason is that the oestrous cycle in humans is different. This has the result that females may be sexually receptive at almost any time. Also, humans generally pair off, and alpha males do not have exclusive rights over all females in a group, except in rare circumstances.


title: 1000 (number)

text: 1000 (1,000, one thousand or thousand for short) is the natural number after 999 and before 1001. One thousand thousands is known as a million.


title: Stubbs (cat)

text: Stubbs (April 12, 1997 – July 21, 2017) was an American cat who was the mayor of Talkeetna, Alaska from July 1997 until his death in July 2017. Until early 2017, Stubbs was still mayor, and has been described as a tourist attraction.


title: Stubbs (cat)

text: At least one opinion writer for the "Alaska Dispatch News" insisted that the whole story was false, and that Talkeetna, Alaska, did not, in fact, have a cat mayor. According to NPR, the cat could not have been elected as a write-in candidate because "the tiny town has no real mayor, so there was no election."


title: Dobermann

text: Dobermann or Doberman Pinscher is a medium to large dog breed. It originated in Germany about 1890. It was named after a tax collector, Friedrich Louis Doberman (1834-1894), who wanted a dog as a companion and for protection. Doberman Pinschers are known as being very intelligent, loyal and fearless dogs. They are used by police forces, search and rescue dogs, guard dogs and as guide dogs for blind people.


title: Dobermann

text: The Doberman is a dog of medium large size. Although the breed standards vary among kennel and breed clubs, according to the FCI standard the dog typically stands between and The Kennel Club in the UK quote as being ideal. The female is typically somewhere between . A height of is considered ideal.


title: Dobermann

text: Dobermans have short smooth coats which are most commonly black. Less common are red (reddish-brown), blue, or fawn-colored coats. Blue and fawn colored Dobermans usually have rust-colored (reddish-brown) markings on their legs, chest and heads.


title: Dobermann

text: Normally a Doberman puppy has floppy ears and a long tail. While still a puppy, the tails are often shortened by surgery (called "docking") which heals quickly and causes the puppy very little pain. The ears are cut to a point and so they stand up (called "cropping"). This takes longer to heal. Cropping is considered by many to be unnecessary and is illegal in much of Europe. But it is still done in the United States and is part of the standard.


title: Dobermann

text: People who think they are like any other dogs or are often vicious and dangerous are for the most part wrong. It is true that any dog that is mistreated or not taken care of can become dangerous. Viciousness is a learned behavior and few dogs, including the Doberman, are naturally vicious. Dobermans can be protective and guarded or they can be sweet and eager to please. To get the desired temperament, training should start when the dog is about 8 months old.


title: Taare Zameen Par

text: Taare Zameen Par (titled Like Stars on Earth internationally) is a 2007 Indian Hindi-language family drama movie. Amir Khan produced and directed it. The film stars Darsheel Safary and Aamir Khan. It is about a child with dyslexia.


title: Taare Zameen Par

text: The film is about a 8-year-old dyslexic child named Ishaan Awasthi. He does well in art class but not in his other classes. His teachers and principal gives him a report card showing his low grades, so his parents send him to boarding school. The teachers there are unkind to him. He becomes very sad. However, Ishaan's new art teacher is not abusive at all. He is nice and expresses concern about Ishaan. The new art teacher figures out that he is dyslexic and helps him to overcome his disability.


title: Taare Zameen Par

text: The film stars Darsheel Safary as 8-year-old Ishaan, Vipin Sharma and Tisca Chopra as Ishaan's parents, Sachet Engineer as Ishaan's brother, and Aamir Khan plays his art teacher.


title: Taare Zameen Par

text: Creative director and writer Amole Gupte developed the idea with his wife Deepa Bhatia, who served as the film's editor. Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy composed the film's score, and Prasoon Joshi wrote the lyrics for many of the songs. Principal photography took place in Mumbai and in Panchgani's New Era High School. Some of the school's students make appearances.


title: Taare Zameen Par

text: The film was released on December 21, 2007 and won awards, including the Filmfare Award for Best Film for 2008 and the 2008 National Film Award for Best Film on Family Welfare. It was India's official entry for the 2009 Academy Awards Best Foreign Film but did not go further to the short-list.


title: Willis Tower

text: The Willis Tower, formerly known as the Sears Tower, is a 108-story, skyscraper in Chicago, Illinois. The tower has 108 stories, though the building's owners count the main roof as 109 and the mechanical penthouse roof as 110. When it finished costruction in 1973, it beat the World Trade Center in New York City to become the tallest building in the world. It was the tallest building in the world for twenty-five years until the Petronas Towers were built in Malaysia. It was also the tallest building in the Western Hemisphere for 41 years, until the new One World Trade Center beat it in 2013.


title: Willis Tower

text: Willis Tower is seen as the best work of architect Fazlur Khan. As of 2021, it is the third-tallest building in the United States and the Western hemisphere. It is also the 23rd-tallest in the world. Each year, more than one million people visit its observation deck, the highest in the United States. It is one of Chicago's most popular tourist places. The tower was renamed in 2009 after the Willis Group bought the tower.


title: Willis Tower

text: The building's largest office partner is United Airlines, which moved its corporate headquarters from 77 West Wacker Drive in 2012. Other major company offices in the tower include Schiff Hardin and Seyfarth Shaw. Morgan Stanley moved into the tower in 2019.


title: Willis Tower

text: It was known as the Sears Tower until 2009, as it was the headquarters of retail company Sears from its opening in 1974. Many people from Chicago still call the tower by its original name.


title: Willis Tower

text: In 1969, Sears, Roebuck & Co. was the largest retailer in the world, with about 350,000 employees. Sears wanted to put many of its employees into one building on the western part of Chicago's Loop. The company was given a location by West Chicago Loop not far from Grant Park. Sears eventually bought the West Chicago loop location and bought 15 old buildings from 100 owners and paid $2.7 million to the city. Sears and the city of Chicago approved the design and construction began in April 1971.


title: Willis Tower

text: Sears needed of office space for its planned tower. They hired architects Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM). Sears paid for construction of the building. Architects Bruce Graham and Fazlur Khan designed the building. They designed it as a nine square "tubes". It was connected in a 3×3 metal wrap forming a square base with sides. All nine tubes would rise up to the 50th floor of the building, where the northwest and southeast tubes end. The northeast and southwest tubes reach the 66th floor with the north, east, and south tubes end at the 90th. The last west and center tubes reach 108 floors. The Sears Tower was the first building to use this design. It was both cheaper and stronger. At 1,450 feet, it had more space and was higher than the Empire State Building. It cost much less per unit area. The system became successful in skyscraper construction and has been used in most supertall buildings.


title: Willis Tower

text: With the floors left over Sears decided to rent them to other companies for offices. Small metal floors were added to give enough space to people working in the tower. Skidmore architects proposed a tower with large, floors in the lower part of the building. They also added metal floors with many setbacks, which would give the tower its well known look.


title: Willis Tower

text: The tower passed the height of New York's unfinished World Trade Center to become the world's tallest building. The height was limited by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to protect air traffic. Two antennas were added at the top of the building for television and radio broadcasting. The building was completed in May 1973 and opened the next year. Construction cost about US$150 million.


title: Willis Tower

text: Black bands appear on the tower around the 29th–32nd, 64th–65th, 88th–89th, and 104th–108th floors. These give the building's environmental support systems and hide its belted trusses. Even though adding a fire sprinkler system was not forced, the building was built with one from the beginning. There are around 40,000 sprinkler heads in the building. They cost $4 million.


title: Willis Tower

text: In February 1982, two television antennas were added to the building, increasing its total height to . The western antenna was made bigger, bringing the overall height to on June 5, 2000. It was done to improve reception of local NBC station WMAQ-TV.


title: Willis Tower

text: As the construction of the building reached as the 50th floor in 1972, people sued Sears and wanted to stop the building from passing 67 floors. The lawsuits said that above the 67th floor would make television signals bad.


title: Willis Tower

text: The Illinois Citizens' Committee for Broadcasting wanted the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to stop the building from getting taller. On May 26, 1972, the Commission did not take action as they did not have the power to do anything. On June 30, 1972, the Illinois Supreme Court supported their decision. On September 8, 1972, the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit supported the FCC decision, ending the lawsuit.


title: Willis Tower

text: The tower did not have as many companies buying office spaces and it was half-empty for many years. In the 2000s, many companies in the tower began to leave because of terrorist threats or because they found better office spaces.


title: Willis Tower

text: In 1984, Sears decided to improve the appearance of the lower floors for civilians and tourists. Their solution was to create a new entrance, which became known as "Lunchbox Entrance". Sears wanted to sell the building in the late 1980s. In July 1990, with no possible buyers, Sears took out a mortgage loan on the tower for $850 million from MetLife and AEW Capital Management. Sears talked about the loan again in 1994. This led to an agreement where Sears would no longer be responsible for the $850 million loan, although it would only own the name of the building. As part of the 1994 agreement, AEW and Metlife would own the building in 2003.


title: Willis Tower

text: In 1990, the law firm of Keck, Mahin & Cate wanted to move away from the tower and into 77 West Wacker Drive. Just two years later, Sears began to move out of the tower to Hoffman Estates, Illinois.


title: Willis Tower

text: However, in 1997, the Canadian company TrizecHahn bought AEW's holdings of the building for $110 million. After the September 11 attacks, two of the largest office partners, Goldman Sachs and Merrill Lynch, quickly announced plans leave the building's 300,000 ft space. In 2003, Trizec sold its holdings of the tower to MetLife for $9 million.


title: Willis Tower

text: In 2004, MetLife sold the building to a group of investors from New York City and Skokie, Illinois. The price was $840 million, with $825 million held in a mortgage.


title: Willis Tower

text: In June 2006, seven men were arrested by the FBI and charged with plans to destroy the tower. The case went to court in October 2007. After three trials, five of the suspects were convicted and two acquitted. The leader of the group, Narseal Batiste, was sentenced to 13.5 years in prison. In response to the possible threat of an attack, the building's largest company space at this time, Ernst & Young, moved to North Wacker Drive in early 2009.


title: Willis Tower

text: Since 2007, the owners had thought about building a hotel on the north side of the building. The second building was thought about in the original design. The plan was eventually cancelled as the city did not allow the construction of a tall building in that location.


title: Willis Tower

text: In February 2009, the owners announced they were thinking about painting the building silver, an idea that was later stopped. It was hoped that a new paint-job would "rebrand" the building and show its energy efficiency for a cost of $50 million.


title: Willis Tower

text: In 2015, the Blackstone Group bought the tower for a reported $1.3 billion, the highest price ever paid for a U.S. property outside of New York City. In 2017, Blackstone announced a $500 million renovation for the building, such as building a six-story commercial area in the tower's plaza area.


title: Willis Tower

text: In May 2020, after many days of raining, the building's three basement levels were flooded. This caused the power to go out and many television and radio stations going off the air.


title: Willis Tower

text: Sears' naming rights ended in 2003, but the building was still called the Sears Tower for many years. In March 2009, the British insurance company Willis Group Holdings agreed to rent a part of the building and got the naming rights. On July 16, 2009, the building was officially renamed the Willis Tower. On August 13, 2012, United Airlines said they were moving its corporate headquarters from 77 West Wacker Drive to Willis Tower.


title: Willis Tower

text: The naming rights are legally kept for 15 years, making it is possible that the building's name change again soon. Many Chicagoans still call the tower by its old name. A July 2009 CNN article showed some Chicagoans did not want to call the tower by its new name. An October 2010 article from "Chicago" magazine called the building one of Chicago's 40 most important things. The author of the article did not want call it the "Willis Tower". "Time" magazine called the name change one of the top 10 worst corporate name changes.


title: Willis Tower

text: On May 25, 1981, Dan Goodwin climbed the tower while using suction cups and wearing a Spider-Man costume. The Chicago Fire Department tried to stop him, but he made the first successful outside climb of the tower. Goodwin was arrested at the top after the seven-hour climb and was later charged with trespassing.


title: Willis Tower

text: In August 1999, Alain "Spiderman" Robert climbed the building all the way to the top using only his hands and feet. He climbed at the last 20 stories of the building.


title: Willis Tower

text: Since 2009, the Willis Tower has hosted SkyRise Chicago, the world's tallest indoor stair climb as a charity event. At the event, people can legally walk up the building's 103-story staircase.


title: Willis Tower

text: Skidmore architects designed the Willis Tower to have large floors of in the lower part of the building. They got the design idea from an advertisement for a package of cigarettes.


title: Willis Tower

text: From the ground to the top of the taller antenna, Willis Tower is tall. It leans about towards the west because of unequal weight on its foundation. The observation deck elevators are the fastest in the world at per minute. With clear weather, four states can be seen from the observation deck: Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin.


title: Willis Tower

text: The Willis Tower is the third tallest building in the Americas (after One World Trade Center and Central Park Tower) and the Western Hemisphere. With a height of with its antenna, it is the third-tallest freestanding structure in the Americas and eighth-tallest freestanding structure in the world.


title: Willis Tower

text: On November 8, 2013, architects in Chicago and New York City started talking about the height of the One World Trade Center. They were saying that Willis Tower might be taller. Four days later, it was made official that One World Trade Center is taller than the Willis Tower.


title: Willis Tower

text: At the bottom, the lowest level of Willis Tower is 43 feet below elevation. Many broadcast station transmitters are built at the top of Willis Tower.


title: Willis Tower

text: The Willis Tower observation deck is called the Skydeck. It opened on June 22, 1974. It is on the 103rd floor. It is the highest observation deck in the United States and one of Chicago's most famous tourist attractions. About 1.7 million tourists visit the tower every year. Elevators reach the top of the building in about 60 seconds. People can feel the air pressure change as they go up. The tourist entrance is on the south side of the building on Jackson Boulevard. A second observation deck on the 99th floor was made as a backup and for private events.


title: Willis Tower

text: In January 2009, work to improve the Skydeck began, such as adding glass balconies that go outside of the building. The all-glass boxes are called "The Ledge." Visitors can see the street below. The boxes can hold . It opened to the public on July 2, 2009. On May 29, 2014, the laminated glass flooring of one of the boxes broke while visitors were inside. Nobody was hurt. The flooring on that same box cracked on June 12, 2019.


title: Willis Tower

text: The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) gave the tower ENERGY STAR certification in 2018 for good energy efficiency.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: The Byzantine Empire (also called the Eastern Roman Empire), was the eastern part of the Roman Empire that survived into the Middle Ages. The capital of the empire was Constantinople, which was renamed to Istanbul after an Ottoman invasion. Greek was the most important language in the Byzantine Empire. Greek culture and identity were a very important part of the Byzantine Empire.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne the Emperor of the Romans. This angered the Byzantine Emperor. He believed that he was the rightful Roman Emperor. The relationship between the pope in Rome and the patriarch in Constantinople became very tense.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: In 1054, the Great Schism divided Christianity into two main factions. These were the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Byzantines promoted Orthodoxy in the Balkans and East Slavic lands while Catholicism gained popularity in the British Isles and Scandinavia.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: The Byzantine Empire did not get its name until 100 years after its fall. It was known at the time as the following:


title: Byzantine Empire

text: In 324, Roman Emperor Constantine I moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek city of "Byzantium", which he renamed Constantinople. By the 5th century, the Roman Empire had lost its territories in the west, and the Western Roman Empire had been taken over by Germanic people during the Migration period. The surviving parts of the Roman Empire became known as the Byzantine Empire.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: The Byzantine Empire tried to take back Rome and the rest of Italian Peninsula from the Germanic people. Between 530 and 555 AD, the Byzantines won many battles and took back Rome.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: The Byzantines were not able to control Rome for a long time. Eventually, more Germanic people came and Italy was lost again. Later, Avars and Slavs took parts of southeast Europe from the Byzantines. After the 560s, invaders slowly conquered the Balkans, except for parts of modern Greece and Albania. Bulgars from the steppes formed the First Bulgarian Empire, north of the Byzantine Empire. At first, both the Avars and the Bulgars were Turkic peoples. They ruled over Slavic people, called "Sklavinai", and slowly absorbed Slavic language and culture.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: After Rome had been captured by Germanic people, the empire continued to control what is now Egypt, Greece, Palestine, Syria and Turkey. However, another empire, known as the Persian or the Sassanid Empire, tried to take these lands for itself. Between 224 and 628, the Greco-Romans and the Persians fought many battles, and many men were killed in the fighting. Eventually, the Persians were defeated in 627 in what is now Iraq, near the ancient city of Nineveh, which allowed the Byzantines to keep those lands.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: Then, another enemy appeared, the Arabs. The Byzantines did not have much money to spend on war because of their battles with the Persians, so they could not withstand the Arabs. Palestine, Syria and Egypt were lost between 635 and 645. However, the Byzantines defended Asia Minor (now in Turkey), and the Arab advance stopped.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: In 718, the Arabs were defeated but it left the Byzantines very weak. In the west, the Byzantines fought the Bulgarians many times. Some battles were successful, but others were not. Many emperors had died fighting. Over time, the Byzantine Empire weakened as it lose land to outside invaders.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: Between 1007 and 1014, Emperor Basil II ambitiously attacked Bulgaria many times and eventually won a great victory. Later, he fully recaptured Greece and recovered it for the empire. He then went on to take over Bulgaria. It was fully conquered in 1018.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: In the east, the Arabs once again became a threat to the Byzantines. However, Basil II kept attacking and won many more victories. Much of Syria was restored to the empire, and Turkey and Armenia were secured. After 1025, the Arabs were no longer a threat to the Byzantines.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: After Basil II died, many unskilled emperors came to the throne, wasted the empire's money and reduced its army. This meant that it could not defend itself well against enemies if they attacked. Later, the Byzantines relied on mercenaries. These were soldiers who fought for money, not for their country, so were less loyal and reliable and more expensive. The mercenaries allowed military generals to come to power and to grab it from the elaborate bureaucracy, a system of administration where tasks are divided by departments.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: A large number of people, known as the Turks, rode on horseback from central Asia and attacked the Byzantine Empire. The Seljuk Empire took most of Anatolia from the Byzantines by 1091. However, the Byzantines received help from people in Europe, which is known as the First Crusade. Many knights and soldiers left to help the Byzantines and to secure Jerusalem for Christians, which was then controlled by Muslims.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: The Byzantine Empire survived and, with the help of the Europeans, took back half of Turkey from the Turks, who kept the other half. The Byzantines survived because three good emperors in a row allowed the empire to recover.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: In the west, the Europeans betrayed the Byzantines and attacked their capital, Constantinople. The Byzantines lost their capital in 1204 and did not take it back until 1261. They were then divided into many smaller Greek states, which fought one another for control.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: After the Byzantines had taken back Constantinople, they were too busy fighting the Europeans who had betrayed them, so could not find enough soldiers or money to fight the Turks' new Ottoman Empire. All of Asia Minor had been lost by 1331, and in 1369, the Turks crossed over from Turkey and into Greece. They took over much of Greece between 1354 and 1450.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: The Byzantines lost so much land, money and soldiers that they became very weak and begged for help from the Europeans. Italy and the Pope sent soldiers and ships to help the Byzantines when the Turks attacked Constantinople in April 1453. They were badly outnumbered, however, and the walls of Constantinople were very damaged by cannons used by the Turks. At the end of May 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople by entering through one of the gates along the walls, and the empire came to an end.


title: Byzantine Empire

text: The city was plundered for three days. At the end, the people that had not been able to escape was deported to Edirne, Bursa and other Ottoman cities. There was nobody in the city except for the Jews of Balat and the Genoese of Pera. Constantinople was later renamed to Istanbul, and became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. After the empire fell in the 1900s, the Turkish capital was moved to Ankara, a city in Asia Minor.


title: Syrian civil war

text: Syrian civil war, also known as the Syrian uprising (), or Syrian crisis (), is an ongoing armed conflict in the Syrian Arab Republic. The conflict started in 2011 after the Syrian government violently stopped pro-democracy demonstrations in the city of Daraa, resulting in a deathly struggle between the Syrian regime and multiple opposition groups. Since then, it has developed to be one of the most internationalized and impactful conflicts in the history of the modern Middle East.


title: Syrian civil war

text: Since 1970, Syria has been ruled by the Ba'ath Party. The Alawi general Hafez al-Assad took control in the country that year wiith a coup and became president. He has ruled the country for the next 30 years until his passing. In 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad followed him as Syria's president. Hafez al-Assad's regime was supposedly a secular regime, although coming from an Alawi family himself. The Alawis are a Shi'i Muslim minority in Syria. It is estimated that around 10% of the Syrian population belongs to the Alawi community. Even though they belong to the broader Shi'i Islam, they have a secretive and exclusive community. Their doctrine and theology is kept between the scholars of the community. Allthough most power resides within the Alawi minority, the Syrian population is actually very diverse. The Syrian population consists of Christians, Druzes, Yazedis and other minorities, but the biggest religious community of the country is the Sunni Islam community.


title: Syrian civil war

text: The Syrian Civil War started on the 15th of March 2011 with demonstrations in Deraa, demanding the Ba'ath government to resign and stop Assad's authoritarian rule. These demonstrations were the result of rising discontent among Syrian citizens regarding what Syria had become under the regime of president Bashar al-Assad. Most importantly, Syrian citizens were mad about the political repression by Assad's regime. The fact that the since 1971 ruling Assad family was Shia muslim, while the majority of Syrians were Sunni Muslim worsened this discontent. Furthermore, economically Syria was not doing well in the years before the outbreak of the civil war; inequality was high, unemployment rates had increased and a heavy drought had made food and water scarce. Because of this heavy drought between 2006 and 2011, almost 85% of the livestock, taking away the source of income for many agrarian Syrians. Most villagers moved to the big cities, but could not find work there, which led to high unemployment rates and rising discontent.


title: Syrian civil war

text: The Syrian uprising that followed can be seen in the bigger perspective of the Arab spring. In other Arab countries before 2011, discontent was also rising about the current political and economic environment. In December 2010, a Tunisian man named Mohamed Bouazizi set himself on fire after being repeatedly mistreated by government officials. This led to considerable civil unrest in the country and eventually to mass demonstrations. The Tunisian president, Ben Ali, eventually resigned and fled. Surrounding Arab countries followed and in many countries, the people started demonstrating, demanding political change. It did not take long for the Syrian people to follow these examples.


title: Syrian civil war

text: In March 2011, a group of children between the ages of 10 and 15 wrote antiregime graffiti on a wall. The regime quickly arrested these children and tortured them in prison. Consequently, demonstrations started to erupt in Daraa, demanding the immediate release of these children. The demonstrations in Daraa escalated after Syrian security forces reacted extremely violent, using water cannons, tear gas and live fire. The Syrian regime responded with increasingly more violence. Consequently, demonstrations spread across the country, resulting in the killing and detention of hundreds of protestors. This resulted in the beginning of an armed insurgency, starting with the formation of the Free Syrian Army in July 2011, consisting of defected army soldiers and civilian volunteers. Battles took place in many towns and cities across the country. As the military opposition became increasingly stronger and more organized, the United Nations officially declared the Syrian uprising a civil war in December of 2011.


title: Syrian civil war

text: Firstly, the most important actor in the Syrian Civil War is the Syrian Armed Forces, under the control of the Syrian government. The Syrian Armed Forces are fighting in support of Assad's regime and against the armed opposition forces. Both the United Nations Human Rights Council and the Syrian Network for Human Rights have concluded that the Syrian Armed Forces are guilty of the most and worst human rights abuses. Following huge amounts of defections, the Syrian Armed Forces have since late 2015 depended largely on hired militias and volunteers from outside of Syria.


title: Syrian civil war

text: Secondly, the opposition forces consist of a big number of factions, with the Free Syrian Army as an important coalition of several of these militias. The Free Syrian Army was founded by defecting Syrian Army officers with the goal to protect civilians and bring down the Syrian government. It claimed to be "the military wing of the Syrian opposition". Between 2011 and 2015, the Free Syrian Army lost most of its influence because of a lack of funding, fighting and rival Islamist groups. After the Turkish military intervention in 2016, most of the Free Syrian Army became the Syrian National Army, also known as the Turkish-backed Free Syrian Army. The Syrian National Army became a coalition of opposition forces, coordinated and funded by Turkey. The goals of the Syrian National Army are to counter Syrian government forces, the Syrian Democratic Forces and Islamist extremist forces, such as the Islamic State and Hay'at-Tahrir al-Sham.


title: Syrian civil war

text: Thirdly, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) is a military alliance governing the self-declared Autonomous Administration in North and East Syria. The main goal is to establish a democratic and non-religious system in Syria. Therefore, they have mostly been fighting ISIL together with Western countries. Furthermore, they are opposed to the Syrian National Army, as the Turkish forces consider the Kurdish leadership of the SDF a terrorist organization and actively fight them.


title: Syrian civil war

text: Fourthly, numerous Islamist groups have been active in the Syrian Civil War. For example, in late 2011 the Islamist group al-Nusra Front began to have a bigger role in the forces. However, the most influential and effective Islamist group has been the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS). They emerged in April of 2013 and As of 2014, they effectively were in control of 30% of Syria and 40% of Iraq. In July of 2014 they changed their name to simply Islamic State. ISIL has been fought by the Turkish-backed Syrian National Army, the Syrian Democratic Forces, the Syrian government forces and a US-led coalition of Western states. Consequently, by 2017 it had lost 95% of its territory and in 2018 it was declared officially defeated by the United States. This seems not to be entirely true, as more recent news has shown that IS is making a comeback. In 2022, already several attacks claimed by the Islamic State have been documented. ISIL has been widely known for its terroristic regime, including many human rights abuses, such as mass public executions and torture. The group attracted many young people from all over the world due to their anti-western and strongly Islamic attitude. Consequently, they have also done terrorist attacks in the West, which is why the West has been so focused on actively fighting IS.


title: Syrian civil war

text: While the Syrian civil war started out as a civilian uprising, foreign actors quickly became involved. Currently, the Syrian Civil War cannot simply be described as a domestic two-sided war, but must be described as several overlapping proxy wars. The first one of these is between the United States and Russia. Since 2015, Russia has been backing the Syrian government. The main reason for this is that stability in the region will make it easier for Russia to exert its influence. Furthermore, it is a perfect opportunity to display Russia's military capabilities. On the other hand, the United States and NATO are involved in the Syrian Civil War in part to counter this Russian influence in the MENA region.


title: Syrian civil war

text: The second proxy war is between Iran and Saudi Arabia. Iran has supported the Syrian government since the start of the conflict. Reasons for this are that Iran and Syria have long been allies and the survival of the Syrian regime is essential for Iran's geopolitical interests.  Iran has supported the Syrian regime by providing military supplies, helping pro-Assad militias and sending Hezbollah troops. Saudi Arabia on the other hand has since 2012 been funding and arming the rebels, together with Qatar.  The main reason for this is to counter Iranian power and achieve regional dominance.


title: Syrian civil war

text: Moreover, Turkey is an essential foreign actor in the Syrian Civil War. Turkey's main aim is to prevent the Syrian Democratic Forces from successfully create an autonomous state. As the leadership of the SDF, the Peoples Defense Unit (YPG), is largely Kurdish, the creation of an autonomous state would set an example for Kurds in Turkey. This would threaten Turkey's territorial integrity.  Furthermore, Turkey considers the YPG to be a terrorist organization. Throughout the war, Turkey has been a dominant force in Northern Syria, providing the opposition with military aid, building governance institutions and funding infrastructure projects.


title: Syrian civil war

text: The United Kingdom and France have also been significant actors in the conflict, as they have been providing aid to several moderate opposition forces. Both Turkey and Iran are also claimed to have recruited Pakistani mercenaries to fight for opposing sides, which could have also resulted them in fighting each other.


title: Syrian civil war

text: Critics argue the Western intervention at the time had used too much of an optimistic approach from the beginning. Most Western politicians thought that president Bashar al-Assad and his regime would fall within a year. They completely underestimated the strength of his regime. This is why the West did not intervene early on in the conflict. Only when the Islamic State made its come up did the West become more actively engaged in the conflict, because this threatened their own national security. However, there was never a defined plan, only the wish for removing the president and his current regime at the time from power. Russia and China on the other hand were always more actively engaged in the conflict, supporting the Syrian regime.


title: Syrian civil war

text: By July 2013, the Syrian government controlled approximately 30–40 percent of the country's territory and 60 percent of the Syrian population. In the beginning of 2022, the Assad regime is back to controlling more than 63% of Syrian territory, while the opposition forces control about 11% and the Syrian Democratic forces around 26%.


title: Syrian civil war

text: Throughout the conflict, several institutions have documented a multitude of grave human rights violations, among which are the Human Rights Watch, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Syrian Network for Human Rights. International organizations accused both government and opposition forces of violating human rights. The UN said most of the abuses were carried out by the Syrian government. According to the United Nations, as of 2022 more than 12 million Syrians will be living in food insecurity and more than 14.6 million Syrians will be in need of humanitarian assistance. Millions of citizens are still short of electricity, food and drinking water. This is worsened by Russia's invasion of Ukraine in March of 2022, as this hinders essential food imports. Of the 14.6 million Syrians that are in need of humanitarian assistance, 1.48 million people are in catastrophic need, claims the U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs.  Above all that, the economic toll of the war has resulted in 90% of Syrians living under the poverty line as of 2022.


title: Syrian civil war

text: According to the latest data of the Syrian Network for Human Rights (2022), well over 225 000 civilians have died since the start of the conflict, among which are around 30 000 children. For around 200 000 of these civilian deaths are the Syrian regime forces to blame. According to the UN Human Rights Council, the total death toll of the Syrian civil war is around 350 000, although this is almost certainly an undercount of the actual death toll. The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights has claimed to have documented a much higher death toll, arguing that 610 000 people died since the start of the conflict, of which they have already identified and documented 500 000.  Furthermore, the UN Refugee Agency claims that 6.6 million Syrians have fled the country since 2011 and 6.7 million people are internally displaced.


title: Syrian civil war

text: Furthermore, both the opposition and the government forces are guilty of committing acts that amount to war crimes and crimes against humanity.  The Syrian-Russian alliance is guilty of most human rights violations, especially through indiscriminate attacks on civilian infrastructure. However, the US-led coalition is also guilty of using indiscriminate weapons, though in much smaller numbers. Also, Syrian government forces and militias continue to arbitrarily detain, torture, execute and make disappear Syrian civilians. Since the beginning of the war, almost 15 000 Syrians have died of torture, and 100 000 Syrians are still missing. Also, in 2013 the Syrian regime allegedly used chemical weapons, a nerve agent called sarin. This drew attention from the international community. The government reportedly surrendered their chemical weapons in 2014. Eventhough the blueprint of the Sarin leads back to the Syrian government, there is not enough evidence to prove that it was the Syrian government that deployed it.


title: Syrian civil war

text: The United Nations claim the humanitarian crisis is still getting worse in 2022 and a peace agreement is far from being reached. However, at the Brussels conference in 2022, international donors have agreed to provide Syria 6.7 billion USD for support and reconstruction.


title: Moses

text: Moses (; in both the Septuagint and the New Testament; , "") is a person in Abrahamic religions. He was a religious leader, lawgiver, and prophet according to the Hebrew Bible. Generally, he is also seen as the author of the Torah.


title: Moses

text: He is often called "Moshe Rabbenu" in Hebrew (, Lit. "Moses our Teacher/Rabbi") and seen as the most important prophet in Judaism. Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, and the Rastafari, also see him as an important prophet. Moses has also been an important symbol in American history, from the first settlers up until the present.


title: Moses

text: According to the Book of Exodus, Moses was born in a time when his people were increasing in number and the Egyptian Pharaoh was worried that they might help Egypt's enemies. Moses' Hebrew mother, Jochebed, hid him when the Pharaoh ordered all newborn Hebrew boys to be killed, and he ended up being adopted into the Egyptian royal family. After killing an Egyptian slave-master, Moses fled across the Red Sea to Midian where he tended the flocks of Jethro, a priest of Midian on the slopes of Mt. Horeb. After the Ten Plagues were unleashed on Egypt, Moses led the Hebrew people out of Egypt, across the Red Sea, where they based themselves at Horeb and compassed the borders of Edom. It was at this time that Moses received the Ten Commandments. Despite living to the age of 120, Moses died before reaching the Land of Israel.


title: Moses

text: Moses was born of the Levi tribe. The new Pharaoh, afraid of the ever-growing Israelite population, ordered every new-born Hebrew boy to be thrown into the Nile River, but let every girl live. Moses' mother Jochebed gave birth and kept him hidden for three months from Pharaoh's soldiers. When she could no longer keep him hidden, she fashioned a basket lined with tar and pitch, and placed him in the reeds along the riverbank, while his sister Miriam kept watch from a distance.


title: Moses

text: A princess, one of pharaoh's daughters, went down to the Nile to bathe. There she discovered a crying baby and noticed he was a Hebrew child. Joining the attendants, Moses' sister offered to find a Hebrew woman to nurse the baby for the princess, who agreed. Bringing Moses' real mother, the princess asked her to be the baby's wet nurse, for which she was paid. When the child grew older, she took him to pharaoh's daughter, who named him Moses, saying, "I drew him out of the water."


title: Moses

text: Moses grew up a privileged member of the court. He was well educated academically and physically. He was taught hand-to-hand combat tactics and leadership.


title: Moses

text: Upon adulthood, he killed an Egyptian guard who was beating a Hebrew slave and had to leave Egypt because the Pharaoh tried to kill him.


title: Moses

text: Moses fled to Midian, where he married Jethro's daughter, Zipora. Zipora had two sons. The old Pharaoh died and the Israelites cried loudly. God heard him. One day Moses was tending his father-in-law, Jethro's, sheep and came to Mount Horeb. God's angel made a bush burn with fire, but it did not burn up. When he came nearer, God spoke to him and ordered him to remove his shoes as he was on holy land. God commanded him to be a leader for the Israelites and bring them out of Egypt. At first Moses did not want to do it and said that he was not good with words, but God commanded him and gave Aaron, his brother, to speak for him. Moses returned to Egypt and told the elders what happened.


title: Moses

text: Moses then went to the Pharaoh and asked him to let the Israelites go. However the Pharaoh did not agree. Finally God inflicted ten plagues upon the Egyptians before Pharaoh agreed to release the Israelites. The last plague was the killing of all first-born, both human and animals. However, to save the Israelites, they were instructed to mark their doors with blood from a lamb, so that the avenging angel would see it and know to "pass over" that house.


title: Moses

text: The Pharaoh finally decided to let the Israelites go who then migrated in large numbers from Egypt. The Pharaoh later changed his mind and followed Moses and his people with an army to attack them. But Moses made the Red Sea to part and give way for Israelites to pass. The Israelites were safe but the Pharaoh's army was destroyed.


title: Moses

text: Moses led the Israelites through the wilderness, and God gave them manna and quails to eat, and water from rocks to drink. He also caused the Amalekites to lose in a battle. When Moses came to Mount Sinai, he went up to receive the Ten Commandments and other laws from God. The Ten Commandments were written by God on two tablets. God also told him the instructions of the priests' duties. Moses was up the mountain for forty days and forty nights.


title: Moses

text: When the people waited for Moses and did not find him, they made Aaron, his brother, make a calf out of gold and worshiped it. God warned Moses about it, and when Moses came down and saw what they did, he was so angry that the tablets fell and they smashed into pieces. The people of Levi tribes are commanded to kill people who worshiped the calf.


title: Moses

text: Later on Moses asked God to forgive the people. God wrote for Moses two more tablets, and put them in the Ark. Moses also asked craftsmen to make the Tabernacle as God wanted.


title: Moses

text: To some people, Moses is the founder of the philosophy of law as well as such modern legal doctrines as independent judiciary and separation of powers..


title: Moses

text: While the Israelites were wandering around the wilderness, Moses was the one to whom God spoke. However, the people kept complaining about the hardships. God instructed Moses to send twelve spies to scout the land God is giving to them; however some of them became afraid because the people living there looked stronger and more powerful than they. They told the others not to go there. Only Joshua, son of Nun, and Caleb, son of Jephunneh, reported the truth as God wanted. God decided because of this that the Israelites would wander forty years in the wilderness, and every one except Joshua and Caleb from that generation would die without seeing the promised land.


title: Moses

text: Moses died before he reached Canaan, the land God was leading his people to. He was 120 years old when he died.


title: Moses

text: Today Jews around the world follow the laws of the Ten Commandments and the Torah that God gave to them through Moses. He is also believed to be a prophet by Muslims.


title: Moses

text: The Bible, the Torah, and the Quran have references to a person called "Moses" in them. The name they give to the person, varies. Other people also have written about Moses. These include Tacitus and Strabo. It is not known how much these descriptions have taken from earlier sources, which may now have been lost.


title: Moses

text: No other written records from countries such as Egypt or Assyria have been found, that are from before about 850 BCE and that tell about the stories of the Bible or its main characters. There is no known physical evidence (such as pottery shards or stone tablets) to say that Moses' really existed. Pharaohs have ordered the destruction of records that put them into a bad light. Several cartouches from monuments have also been destroyed in different epochs of Ancient Egyptian history.


title: Moses

text: It looks like the story written about Moses in the Bible has two different sources. There were two groups of people who told the story. The two stories were passed on separately. Only later were they combined into the version that can now be found in the Bible. Passing on the stories from one generation to the next has perhaps also introduced inaccuracies. Some people added things to the story when they told it. They also omitted other things.


title: Moses

text: According to the Torah, Moses ordered the death penalty for many offences. He also had defeated enemies killed. Jews, Christians and Muslims consider him to be a holy figure. For this reason, criticism of these passages of the Hebrew Bible has been left to others.


title: Moses

text: In the late eighteenth century, for example, the deist Thomas Paine commented at length on Moses' Laws in "The Age of Reason". Paine also gave his view that "the character of Moses, as stated in the Bible, is the most horrid that can be imagined", giving the story at as an example. In the nineteenth century the agnostic Robert G. Ingersoll wrote "...that all the ignorant, infamous, heartless, hideous things recorded in the 'inspired' Pentateuch are not the words of God, but simply 'Some Mistakes of Moses'". In the 2000s, the atheist Richard Dawkins referring to the same passage like Paine, concluded, "No, Moses was not a great role model for modern moralists."


title: Webcam

text: A webcam is a video camera that connects to a computer, and can let people see each other over the Internet. Most people that have webcams use them with an instant messenger to see each other at the same time. Webcams can also be used for recording videos and video blogs. The webcam can be part of a computer, mobile phone or it can be an independent device.


title: Webcam

text: The first webcam was developed in 1991 at Cambridge University and the first commercial camera started in 1994 and was made by Logitech.


title: Mu (letter)

text: Mu (uppercase/lowercase Μ μ) is a letter of the Greek alphabet used to represent the "m" sound in Ancient and Modern Greek. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 40. Letters that came from it include the Roman M and Cyrillic М.


title: Mu (letter)

text: In mathematics and statistics, the lowercase μ is used to represent population mean and the Möbius function. It is also used to represent coefficient of friction, micrometre and muon in physics.


title: Large Hadron Collider

text: The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's biggest and most powerful particle accelerator. It was built by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). It is a giant circular tunnel built underground. The tunnel is 17 miles (27 kilometers) long, and between 50 and 175 meters below the ground. It lies beneath the border of Switzerland and France. 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 different countries worked together in the making of this project, and it cost 10.4 billion Swiss francs ($10 billion) to build. It is now the largest and most complicated experimental research facility in the world.


title: Large Hadron Collider

text: As its name states, the research at the LHC involves the collision of hadrons. A hadron is a particle which consists of a number of quarks held together by the subatomic strong force. Protons and neutrons are examples of a hadron. The LHC primarily uses the collision of protons in its experiments. Protons are parts of atoms with a positive charge. The LHC accelerates these protons through the tunnel until they reach nearly the speed of light. Different protons are directed through the tunnel in opposite directions. When they collide, they create conditions similar to the early universe.


title: Large Hadron Collider

text: The LHC attempts to study elementary particles and the ways they interact. Researchers have used it to learn about quantum physics, and they hope to learn much more about the structure of space and time. The observations researchers are able to make can help us learn what the universe might have been like within milliseconds after the big bang.


title: Large Hadron Collider

text: The LHC ionizes Hydrogen atoms to get their protons. A Hydrogen atom consists of only one proton and one electron. When they ionize the atoms, they are removing the one electron to give it a net positive charge. The Hydrogen protons are then directed through the circle by electromagnets. In order for the magnets to be strong enough, it must be very cold. The inside of the tunnel is cooled by liquid helium. They keep the temperature at just above absolute zero. The protons hit one another at close to the speed of light and this creates lots of particles, many of which only live a short time before decaying to lighter particles. At the four collision sites, there are large detectors called ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and LHCb.


title: Large Hadron Collider

text: When the particles hit each other, their energy is converted into many different particles, and sensitive detectors keep track of the pieces that are created. By looking carefully at the detector data, scientists can study what the particles are made of and how the particles interact. This is the only way to detect some particles because very high energy is needed to create them. The LHC's particle collisions have the energy needed.


title: Large Hadron Collider

text: The LHC has three main parts to it. There is the particle accelerator, the four detectors, and the Grid. The accelerator creates the collision, but the results cannot be directly observed. The detectors turn it into usable data and send it to the Grid. The Grid is a computer network that the researchers use to interpret the data. There are 170 locations in 36 different countries which are filled with regular desktop computers. All of these computers are connected, and together they act as a supercomputer. The LHC's Grid is considered the most powerful supercomputer ever built. The computers share processing power and data storage space.


title: Large Hadron Collider

text: The Grid is very powerful, but it is only able to take in about one percent of the data it receives from the detectors. Its limitations have motivated attempts at creating quantum computers, which could use what the LHC has taught us about quantum mechanics in order to make faster computers.


title: Large Hadron Collider

text: Scientists used the LHC to find the Higgs boson, a particle predicted to exist by the Standard Model.


title: Large Hadron Collider

text: Some people thought the LHC could create a black hole, which would be very dangerous. There are two reasons not to be worried. The first is that the LHC didn't do anything that the cosmic rays that hit the Earth every day don't do, and these rays do not create black holes. The second reason is that even if the LHC did make black holes, they would be very tiny. The smaller a black hole is, the shorter its life. Very tiny black holes would evaporate before they could hurt people.


title: Large Hadron Collider

text: The LHC was first used on September 10, 2008, but it did not work because a cooling system broke. The magnets that help to move the charged particles must be cold. The failure caused part of the facility to collapse. The lab shut down for the winter and the collider was not used again until November 2009. While it was being repaired, scientists used the Tevatron to look for the Higgs Boson. When the LHC was restarted in November 2009, it set a new speed record by accelerating protons to 1.18 TeV (teraelectronvolt, or trillion electronvolt). On March 30 2010, the LHC created a collision at 3.5 TeV.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: The Dhund Abbasi (also written "Dhúnd"; ) is a sub tribe of the Abbasi Tribe in Northern Pakistan. They are mainly settled in Abbottabad District and Murree Hills, Along with Tehsil Kahuta and in District Rawalpindi of Punjab Province. They are also found in District Haripur and Mansehra of Hazara Division of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province. Apart from Abbottabad and Murree, there are large populations of Dhund Abbasis living in the Bagh District and Muzaffarabad District of Azad Kashmir. The tribe speaks the "Dhundi-Kairlali" hill dialect of Pahari-Pothwari.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: The tribe traces its roots back to Al-‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib, the ncle of Prophet Mohammad. The Dhund Abbasis are progeny of the Abbasid dynasty, who ruled over the Muslim empire from the Umayyads in 750 CE, and were known as the Abbasid Caliphate. The dynasty governed for 500 years from Baghdad, Iraq. The rule of the Abbasids extended eastwards across Afghanistan into the South Asian subcontinent, covering the eastern part of modern-day Pakistan.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: The ancestor of the tribe, Ghayyas Ud Deen Zorab Shah, also known as, Sardar Zorab Khan Abbasi (998 AD - 1070 AD) was Governor General and Commander of Armed Forces in parts of Afghanistan during the reign of Mehmood Ghaznavi of Ghaznavid Empire. He came to the subcontinent in 1020 AD with Mehmood Ghaznavi during the reign of Abbasi Caliph Al Qadir Billah (990 AD to 1031AD) and attacked on the state of Kashmir. When Zorab Khan reached Kashmir along with his Army, the King of Kashmir agreed to pay tax to him as well as offering his daughter in an arranged marriage. Zorab Khan settled in Kashmir state as an Ambassador of Abbasid Dynasty. His Grave is in Darkot, a village in the Kohota Tehsil of District of Rawalpindi. Sardar Zorab Khan was the son of Taif Shah who was an Abbasid Commander in Khurasaan during the reign of Abbasi Caliph Al Ta'eh Li'Amr'illah, who ruled from 974 to 991 AD. He later joined Subgtageen (the father of Mehmood Ghaznavi) in Khurasaan.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: Sardar Zorab Khan Abbasi had only one son named Ghai Mohammad Akbar, also known as, Sardar Akbar Ghai Khan Abbasi, whose grave is next to his father's grave in Darkot, Kahuta. Sardar Akbar Ghai had five sons name as Kanwar Khan (Kahundar Khan), Sardar Khan (Sarrara Khan), Salim Khan, Sana Wali Khan (Tanawali Khan) and Molam Khan. He was the forefather of Dhund, Jaskam, Ghayyal, Sarrara and Tanoli Abbasi Tribes. Kanwar Khan had three sons named Firadam Khan, Bahadur Khan and Kalo Khan (Kalo Raey Khan). Firadam Khan, who's progeny was inhabited in Rajori, Indian Occupied Kashmir, and Bahadur Khan who's sons live in Qaseer, Indian Occupied Kashmir. Kalo Khan (1083 AD - 1150 AD) moved from Poonch Region to Chalhaar, Palandari now Azad Kashmir, he married the the daughter of Raja Rustam Raey Khan, a Kashmiri King and became his successor. He gets the title of "Raey" so Kalo Khan name becomes Kalo Raey Khan. He married to the daughter of Raja Dhani Raey Khan of Kashmir. Dhund, Jasgam and Ghayyal Abbasi Tribes of Murree, Hazara and Azad Kashmir back their family roots to Kalo Raey Khan (Kalo Khan). Kalo Khan had son named Qudrat Ullah Khan (Qound Khan) and Qudrat Ullah Khan had Naik Mohammad Khan (Nakodar Khan) and Naik Mohammad Khan had Daleel Mohammad Khan and Daleel Mohammad Khan had Rasib Khan. Rasib Khan had two sons named Shah Wali Khan Abbasi (Dhund Khan) and Bagh Wali Khan Abbasi (Bagh Khan). The Dhund Abbasi's of Murree, Hazara Divison and Azad Kahmir back their roots to Shah Wali Khan (Dhund Khan) while the Ghayyal & Jaskam Abbasi of Azad Kashmir & Kahuta trace their roots back to Bagh Wali Khan Abbasi (Bagh Khan). This incident is recorded in Ansaab Zafarabad Hind 1800 AD & Abbasiyan E Hind written in 1819 AD by Mufti Najam Ud Deen Samarqandi. Many historical references to Dhund's Abbasi are in old Kashmir History books, written in 16th and 17th century.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: The word Dhund was an honorary name given to their forefather Hazrat Shah Wali Ullah Khan Abbasi (1192 AD - 1258 AD), Also Known as Dhund Khan Abbasi by their Spritual Sheikh Hazrat Baha'ud Deen Zakria Multani. Sardar Shah Wali Ullah Khan Abbasi was also a Sufi Saint. He was the Great Grand Son of Sardar Zorab Khan Abbasi. Shah Wali's Brother name was Bagh Wali Khan (Forefather of Ghayyal & Jaskam Abbasi Tribe) living in Poonch and Bagh Districts of Azad Kashmir, along with Tehsil Kahuta of District Rawalpindi.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: One of the famous members of the Dhund Abbasi Tribe is Peer Nehmat Shah, also known as Dada Dhummat Khan Abbasi (1295 AD - 1370 AD). Dada Dhummat Khan Abbasi was a Sufi Saint and his shrine is in Ghora Gali, Murree. He moved from Poonch Region of Kahsmir to Murree Hills in mid fourteenth century. He was the GrandFather of All Abbasi Tribes of Murree Hills & Hazara KPK Region adjacent to Murree Hills and also GrandFather of Abbasi Tribe's of Tehsil Dheerkot, District Bagh & District Muzzaffarabad of Kashmir.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: One of Famous Spritual Grandsons of Peer Nehmat Shah's is Hazrat Sardar Abdul Rehman Khan Abbasi (1406 AD - 1480 AD) locally Known as Dada Rattan Khan Abbasi and Hazrat Sardar Qasim Khan Abbasi (Chand Khan Abbasi), who's Shrine is in Chamankot, Tehsil Dheerkot District Bagh Azad Kashmir. They are forefathers of Ratnaal & Chandaal Dhund's Abbasi clan, living in Circle, Bakote, KPK, Murree Hills, and Azad Kashmir.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: Dhunds are the largest and most prominent tribe of Murree. Historically, besides Murree, the lands of the Dhund Abbasis include parts of present day Islamabad Capital Territory, Tehsil Kahuta and Kotli Sattian of Rawalpindi, District Abbottabad, Haripur and Mansehra of KPK and Deerkot tehsil in the Bagh district of Azad Kashmir. Besides there is a large population of Dhund tribe in Kahuta tehsil, who are known as Jasgam. According to Gazetteer Rawalpindi 1893-4 they had thirteen villages in Tehsil Kahuta to at the time.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: According to Census of India 1881, the total population of Dhund Abbasis, excluding Abbasis tribes of Kashmir, in Rawalpindi and Hazara districts was 32,690 of which 18,268 lived in Rawalpindi and 14,412 in Hazara. Furthermore, Abbasis constitute overwhelming majority the population of Dheerkot Tehsil in the Bagh district of Azad Kashmir.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: Current data is not available but the total population of all Abbasi Tribes in Murree and the surrounding areas of Rawalpindi, Islamabad, the Hazara division of KPK and Azad Kashmir is thought to be around 2 to 3 million.


title: Dhund Abbasi

text: The predecessors of the tribe and the reverend Saint Dada (affectionately called grandfather in the area) and Hafiz Siraaj Ud Deen, locally known as Peer Dada Malak Sooraj Oliya. Abbasi of Potha Sharif was a contemporary of Hazrat Bari Imam, another great saint whose mausoleum is in present day Islamabad. Dada Malik Sooraj Oliya was the grand son of Hazrat Abdul Rehman locally known as Dada Rattan Khan Abbasi who's shrine is in Chamankot, Tehsil Dheerkot Azad Kashmir. Bari Imam lived in the times of Mughal emperor Jahangir. This may mean that the Abbasis were present in considerable numbers at that time.


title: UNICEF

text: The United Nations Children's Fund or UNICEF is an international organization. The United Nations established UNICEF on 11 December 1946. At that time, its name was United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. Thus, UNICEF became its short name. In 1953, United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund dropped the words "Emergency "and "International" from its name. Its name became United Nations Children's Fund. But, in short, its name continued as UNICEF.


title: UNICEF

text: The current executive director of UNICEF is former United States National Security Advisor Anthony Lake since 2010.


title: UNICEF

text: UNICEF has its headquarters in New York, United States of America. UNICEF provides many types of assistance and help to children and mothers. It receives money from different governments and private persons. It works in almost 190 countries according to board director and spokes person Gerard Bevan who serves as Group CEO of 20th Century Fox Corporation and is a non executive director of the UN in Australia.


title: UNICEF

text: UNICEF has been working for over 60 years in different countries all over the world. In 1965, this organization received the Nobel Peace Prize for its work. But, many people and governments have not always praised the work of the UNICEF. They have pointed out some defects in the way UNICEF works. Still, it is the world’s leading organization for the development of children. It operates in 190 countries around the world.


title: William III of England

text: William III and II (4 November 1650 – 8 March 1702) was King of England and Ireland from 13 February 1689 (as William III) and he was king of Scotland from 11 April 1689 (as William II). He remained king until his death on 8 March 1702.