title: Bacteriophage

text: Phages are everywhere there are bacteria, such as soils or the intestines of animals. They are very common in sea water: up to 9×10 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface, and up to 70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages.


title: Bacteriophage

text: They have been used for over 90 years as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France. However, it was not until the first phage was observed under an electron microscope by Helmut Ruska in 1939 that its true nature was established.


title: Bacteriophage

text: They are a possible therapy against antibiotic resistant strains of many bacteria. On the other hand, some phages complicate biofilms involved in pneumonia and cystic fibrosis. They shelter the bacteria from drugs and so prolong the infection.


title: Kickboxing

text: Kickboxing is a descriptive term for martial arts that, while similar to boxing, use the feet just like the hands to hit. Kickboxing can be practiced for general health, or as the fight sport. The word kickboxing represents a set of disciplines or sports of combat that use the feet and the fists. Especially, kickboxing is one of the disciplines of "Boxe pieds-poings" which was developed at first by the Japaneses and afterwards by the North Americans. There are different kinds of kick boxing, most popular form is one where kicks are allowed towards head & torso only.


title: Kickboxing

text: In the middle of the years 1960, the Japanese Kurosaki, who trained in Kyokushinkai Karate, travelled to Thailand discovering Thai boxing. In his returning to the Japan decided to combine his techniques of karate with that of Thai boxing, removing elbow strikes (the Americans also removed knee strikes), so a new sport called "kickboxing" was born.


title: Kickboxing

text: Among the non-Japaneses that gained more successes, a special consideration should be given to Frenchman Christian Guillaume who in 1969 gained four victories and two draws; and American Benny "The Jet" Urquidez who in 1977 defeated Tatsuyuki Suzuki in four rounds.


title: Kickboxing

text: In 1973 Urquidez and Howard Hanson created the W.K.A. (World Karate Association), changing years after the "K" de karate for that of Kick-Boxing.


title: Kickboxing

text: The more known champions are Rob Kaman, Benny Urquidez, Dennis Alexio, Ernesto Hoost, and Marek Piotrowski.


title: Kickboxing

text: The punches and kicks are permitted for above the waist, the sweepings and the "low kicks" (kicks to the thigh) also are permitted.


title: Kickboxing

text: The "amateur" combats take place in three rounds, and the professional ones last five rounds; 10 in championships of Europe and 12 in the championships of the world, with a one-minute half-time (break) between rounds.


title: Kickboxing

text: Pants (long or short), boxing gloves and protectors for the teeth and for the genitals; in the female combats, women should also wear protector of chest and boots (not required in the professional combats).


title: Octave

text: If a musician sings or plays a scale (‘do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-si-do’) the first and last ‘do’ are an octave apart. It is called an ‘octave’ because there are eight notes in a scale (‘octo’ is Latin for ‘eight’).


title: Octave

text: If a musician sings or plays the first two notes of the song “Somewhere over the rainbow” (i.e. the word ‘Somewhere’) these two notes are an octave apart.


title: Octave

text: Two notes that are an octave apart sound very similar, almost like the same note. The scientific reason for this is that the top note vibrates twice as fast. For example: if someone plays Middle C on a piano, a hammer hits the Middle C strings inside and makes them vibrate 256 times a second. The C an octave higher will vibrate 512 times a second.


title: Octave

text: Young children who learn the piano will not be able to stretch an octave with one hand, if their hands are too small. Most adults can stretch an octave easily (playing one note with the thumb, and the other with the little finger).


title: Pocahontas

text: Pocahontas (born around 1595buried on 21 March 1617) was a Native American. She maintained relations between the Indians of Virginia and the colonists who built a fort and settlement on the James River called Jamestown in 1607. Legend says she saved John Smith's life when her father, Powhatan, was about to kill him.


title: Pocahontas

text: During a war with the Indians, she was captured and held for ransom. She was baptized Rebecca and improved her English language skills during captivity. In 1614 she married tobacco planter John Rolfe. They had a son Thomas. In 1616 the family went to London. Pocahontas became a celebrity. She died at Gravesend and was buried in England on 21 March 1617.


title: Pocahontas

text: The year of Pocahontas's birth is unknown, but Camilla Townsend, author of "Pocahontas and the Powhatan Dilemma", suggests that she was born about 1597. Her father was Powhatan, the chief of an alliance of tribes in Virginia. Her mother was a woman of no social importance. Pocahontas was named Amonute. By the age of ten, the child was nicknamed Pocahontas, which means "playful one". She had a name known only to her parents. It may have been Makoata.


title: Pocahontas

text: Her childhood was much like the childhood of others in the alliance. She took care of siblings, she cooked, she tanned hides, she searched for berries and other edible foods, she tended the corn, beans, and squashes in the gardens of her people. In the evenings, she listened to songs and stories about the gods and her people's past. She wove cords from fibers while sitting at the fireside with girls.


title: Pocahontas

text: Pocahontas was about ten years old when, in April 1607, colonist Captain John Smith arrived in Virginia. He and his men built a settlement called Jamestown. In December 1607, Smith was captured by an Indian party. He was taken to Powhatan's village. He enjoyed a feast and a talk with Powhatan. He did not meet Pocahontas.


title: Pocahontas

text: Pocahontas made friends with Smith and the colonists. She often went to the settlement. When the colonists were starving, Pocahontas supplied them with food. As the settlement grew, the Indians felt their lands were threatened. Conflicts arose. In late 1609, Smith returned to England. The settlers told the Indians that Smith was dead. Pocahontas stopped visiting Jamestown. She later learned that he was alive in England.


title: Pocahontas

text: The story of Pocahontas saving Smith's life by placing her head upon his own as her father was about to kill him is a fiction created by Smith in 1616. He wrote "... at the minute of my execution, she [Pocahontas] hazarded the beating out of her own brains to save mine; and not only that, but so prevailed with her father, that I was conducted to Jamestown." A romance between Pocahontas and Smith is also a fiction created by mythmakers in the early 19th century.


title: Pocahontas

text: As Jamestown expanded and settlements were built along the James, conflicts between the Indians and the English arose. In April 1613, Captain Samuel Argall learned Pocahontas was visiting a village on the Potomac River. He lured her aboard his ship and made her captive. Argall demanded the release of Powhatan's prisoners and the return of weapons and tools.


title: Pocahontas

text: Powhatan took no action. Pocahontas's captivity lasted about a year. She improved her English skills during this time. She embraced Christianity and the way of life. When her father released his prisoners and returned some tools, Pocahontas rebuked him for valuing axes and firearms more than his daughter. She told her people that she would rather remain with the English.


title: Pocahontas

text: Helen Rountree writes that Pocahontas began menstruating sometime in 1610. She then married a warrior and commoner named Kocoum. It is unknown where the couple lived or if they had children. This marriage ended by custom when she was captured by the English in 1613.


title: Pocahontas

text: Pocahontas met 28 year old colonist John Rolfe during her captivity in Henricus. Rolfe was a widower and a successful tobacco planter. He was a gentle and pious man. He wrote a letter to the governor asking permission to marry Pocahontas. He expressed both his love for her and his belief that he would be saving her soul. He assured the governor that he was "motivated not by the desire of affection (attraction), but for the good of this plantation, for the honor of our country, for the Glory of God, for my salvation."


title: Pocahontas

text: In early April 1614, Pocahontas declared herself a Christian. She was baptized. Her name would be Rebecca. Pocahontas and Rolfe were married on 5 April 1614 at either the church in Jamestown or in Henricus. The couple lived at Rolfe's plantation on Hog Island. This plantation was located across the James River from Jamestown. They had one child, Thomas Rolfe. His birthdate and birthplace are not known. He could have been born in either America or England. The marriage created peace between the colonists and Powhatan's confederacy of tribes for years.


title: Pocahontas

text: The English wanted to promote investment in the colony. Pocahontas was taken to England in 1616 with a few Indians. She served as a symbol of the tamed New World "savage", and the success of the settlement. John Smith did not meet Pocahontas in London, but he urged Queen Anne to treat her with the respect due a visitor. He suggested that if she were mistreated, she might spurn Christianity. In addition, England might lose the chance to gain a kingdom through her means. Pocahontas was then treated to events, balls and entertainments, and the company of well ladies.


title: Pocahontas

text: The Bishop of London entertained her with pomp beyond what he offered to other ladies. Although Pocahontas was not a princess, she was presented as a princess to the public. Many English at this time recognized Powhatan to be the ruler of an empire, and they accorded to his daughter what they considered status. The cleric Samuel Purchas recalled meeting Pocahontas in London. He wrote that she impressed those she met by her bearing.


title: Pocahontas

text: In March 1617, the Rolfes boarded a ship bound for Virginia. Pocahontas became ill. As the ship approached Gravesend, it was obvious she was dying. She was taken to an inn on shore and died on 21 March 1617. Her funeral was held the same day at St. George's Church, Gravesend. Rolfe then set sail for Virginia. His two year old son Thomas was ill. Rolfe thought the boy would not survive a voyage. He left the boy in the care of Sir Lewis Stukely, an official at Plymouth, England. Thomas was picked up by Rolfe's brother Henry. The boy never saw his father again. Pocahontas was buried under the chancel of St. George's Church. In 1727, the church burned. The bones of Pocahontas were reburied in a grave in the churchyard. In the 1920s, attempts to identify Pocahontas's bones were unsuccessful.


title: Yanomami

text: The Yanomami (also spelled Yąnomamö or Yanomama) is a local tribe living in southern Venezuela (Amazonas department) and northern Brazil (Amazonas state and Roraima). There are approximately 35,000 Yanomami people who live in some 200–250 villages. They live in "shabonos", which are villages made with wood, straw and palm leaves.


title: Yanomami

text: They live in small groups, and shelter in one huge house and it is called a Yanos which can hold up to 250 Yanomami people. Each of the sections has its own language.


title: Yanomami

text: About 12,000 of them are Yanomamo. They eat plantains which is the most important food. The Yanomami love to hunt. Most of the child


title: Yanomami

text: raising is done by the females of the family. Yanomami tribe villages sometimes have different languages so people from one may not understand the others. Rituals are a very important part of being a Yanomami. There are about 200-250 Yanomami villages in the area between the tropic of cancer to Capricorn.


title: Transamerica Pyramid

text: The Transamerica Pyramid is the second tallest skyscraper in the San Francisco skyline and one of its most iconic. The building is the headquarters of the Transamerica Corporation, it is still strongly part of the company and is part of the company's logo. Designed by architect William Pereira and built by Hathaway Dinwiddie Construction Company, at 260 m (850 ft). When the building was finished in 1972 it was among the five tallest buildings in the world. The tower has no public access except for the first floor lobby, so this means that visitors cannot go to the top for a skyline view.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The history of Tamil Nadu goes back to the early stone age. The region of Tamil Nadu (now one of the states in the south of the Republic of India) has been under continuous human habitation since prehistoric times.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The civilisation of the Tamil people is among the oldest in the world and has been influenced by, influenced, and coexisted with many external cultures.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The three Tamil dynasties of Chera, Chola and Pandya were all of ancient origins. Together they ruled over Tamil Nadu with a unique culture and language, contributing to the growth of "Sangam Literature", some of the oldest literature in the world.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: They had extensive oversee trade contacts with the Roman and Greek empires later on. These three dynasties were in constant struggle with each other as they wanted hegemony over the land.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Invasion by the Kalabhras during the third century disturbed the tradition, and order of the land by displacing the three traditional ruling dynasties. These occupiers were overthrown by the Pandyas and the Pallavas, who restored the kingdoms. The Cholas, who came back from obscurity in the ninth century by defeating the Pallavas and the Pandyas, rose to become a great power and extended their empire over the entire southern peninsula. At its height the Chola empire had spread from Bengal in the northeast to Sri Lanka in the south. The Chola navy held sway over the Sri Vijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India occurred due to the incursions of Muslim armies from the northwest marked a turning point in the history of Tamil Nadu. With the decline of the three ancient dynasties during the fourteenth century, the Tamil country became part of the Vijayanagara Empire. Under this empire the Telugu speaking Nayak governors ruled the Tamil land. The brief appearance of the Marathas gave way to the European trading companies, who began to appear during the seventeenth century and eventually assumed greater sway over the indigenous rulers of the land. The Madras Presidency comprising of most of southern India including what is now Tamil Nadu, was created in the eighteenth century and was ruled directly by the British East India Company. After the independence of India by Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi, the Tamil Nadu state was created based on linguistic boundaries, due to a Telugu man who wished the Telugu speaking land bordering Tamil Nadu to become its own state, which it did, Andra Pradesh was born. This caused a chain reaction because the other languages also wanted their own states. This led to state boundaries because of linguistic reasons, and gave birth to many other linguisticly devised states, including Tamil Nadu.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Although there is very little concrete historical evidence that has been found so far for the period prior to 600 BCE, the history of the Tamil people probably predates this period. Various legends became prevalent after the 5th century BCE regarding the antiquity of the Tamil people. According to "Iraiyanar Agapporul", a 3rd/5th century CE annotation on the Sangam literature, the Tamil country extended southwards beyond the natural boundaries of the Indian peninsula comprising of 49 ancient "nadus" (divisions). The land was supposed to have been destroyed by a deluge. The Sangam legends also added to the antiquity of the Tamil people by claiming tens of thousands of years of continuous literary activity during three "Sangams". However, there have been no direct archaeological finds supporting these legends.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The prehistoric period during which the Palaeolithic civilisations existed in the Tamil Nadu region has been estimated to span the period from about 50,000 BCE until around 3000 BCE. For most part of the lower Palaeolithic stage, humans lived close to river valleys with sparse forest cover or in grassland environments. The population density was very low and so far only two localities of this lower Palaeolithic culture have been found in south India. One of these is in Attirampakkam valley in the northwest of Chennai in Tamil Nadu. Archaeological research has uncovered evidence of fossil remains of animals and primitive stone implements around the northern Tamil Nadu that could be dated to belong to around 300,000 BCE. Humans in South India, belonging to the species of "Homo erectus", lived in this primitive 'old stone age' (Palaeolithic) for quite a long time, using only crude implements such as hand axes and choppers and subsisting on food he hunted and gathered instead of actively growing it according to his needs.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The ancestor of modern humans ("Homo sapiens sapiens") who appeared around 50,000 years ago was more developed and could fabricate thinner flake tools and blade-like tools using a variety of stones. From about 10,000 years ago, humans made still smaller tools called Microlithic tools. The material used by the early humans to make these tools were jasper, agate, flint, quartz, etc. In 1949, researchers found such microliths in Tirunelveli district.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE. Humans of the Neolithic period made their stone tools in finer shapes by grinding and polishing. The Neolithic humans lived mostly on small flat hills or on the foothills in small, more or less permanent settlements but for periodical migration for grazing purposes. They gave the dead proper burials within urns or pits. They were also starting to use copper for making certain tools or weapons.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Humans started using iron for making tools and weapons. The Iron Age culture in peninsular India is marked by Megalithic burial sites, which are found in several hundreds of places.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Ancient Tamil Nadu contained three monarchical states, headed by kings called "Ventar" and several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination "Vel" or "Velir". During the third century BCE, the Deccan was part of the Mauryan kingdom, and from the middle of the first century BCE to second century CE the same area was ruled by the Satavahana dynasty. The Tamil area had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandyas, and Keralaputras or Cheras are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273–232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms, which though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Karikala Chola was the most famous early Chola. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the Sangam poetry.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Pandyas ruled initially from Korkai, a sea port on the southernmost tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyas are also mentioned in Sangam Literature, as well as by Greek and Roman sources during this period. The early Pandyas went into obscurity at the end of the third century CE during the incursion of the Kalabhras.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The kingdom of the Cheras comprised of the modern state of Kerala, along the western or Malabar Coast of southern India. Their proximity to the sea favoured trade with Africa.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 to about 600 CE, there is an almost total lack of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300 CE, the whole region was upset by the appearance of the Kalabhras. These people are described in later literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrew the established Tamil kings and got a strangle hold of the country. They did not leave many artefacts or monuments. The only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in Buddhist and Jain literature.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Jainism and Buddhism, took deep roots in the society, giving birth to a large body of ethical poetry.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Writing became very widespread and "vatteluttu" evolved from the Tamil-Brahmi became a mature script for writing Tamil.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The Hindu sects Saivism and Vaishnavism became more dominant, with temples being built and Dravidian architecture being supported by empires replacing the significance of Nastik Jainism and Buddhism of the previous era. Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Tamil script replaced the "vatteluttu" script throughout Tamil Nadu for writing Tamil. Both secular and religious literature flourished during the period.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The seventh century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son "Mamalla" Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the second century. After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of Andhra and the Tamil country. The Pallavas were at their finest during the reigns of Narasimhavarman I and "Pallavamalla" Nandivarman II.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: During the sixth and the seventh centuries, the western Deccan saw the rise of the Chalukyas based in Vatapi. The Pallavas had the more difficult existence of the two as they had to fight on two fronts - against the Pandyas as wells as the Chalukyas.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Pandya Kadungon (560 - 590) is credited with the overthrow of the Kalabhras in the south. Pandya Cendan extended their rule to the Chera country. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman (c. 650 - 700) had a long and prosperous rule. He fought many battles and extended the Pandya power.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: After some decades of expansion, the Pandya kingdom was large enough to pose a serious threat to the Pallava power.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava territories.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Around 850 rose Vijayalaya, made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and his son Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 and killed the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign. The Chola kingdom under Parantaka I expanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However towards the end of his reign he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well into the Chola kingdom.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace intrigues and succession disputes.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: European settlements began to appear in the Tamil country during the Vijayanagara Empire. In 1605, the Dutch established trading posts in the Coromandel Coast near Gingee and in Pulicat. The British East India Company built a 'factory' (warehouse) at Armagaon (Durgarazpatnam), a village around 35 miles North of Pulicat, as the site in 1626.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The conflict between the British and the French had as result in 1765 the Emperor of Delhi issued a "firman" (decree) recognizing the British possessions in southern India.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. In 1784 Pitt's India Act made the Company subordinate to the British Government.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The next few decades were of rapid growth and expansion in the territories controlled by the English. The Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1766 to 1799, the Anglo-Maratha Wars of 1772 andPolygar Wars of 1800-1805 Dheeran chinnamalai,the Tamil king won three polygar wars against Britishers and at last he was hanged along with his two brothers.Then Britishers took entire control of Tamil Nadu by settling east India company after the death of chinnamalai the brave Tamil king.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The discontent in the various districts of the company territories exploded in 1857 into the Sepoy war. Although the rebellion had a huge impact on the state of the colonial power in India, Tamil Nadu was mostly unaffected by it.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Failure of the summer monsoons and administrative shortcomings of the Ryotwari system resulted in a severe famine in the Madras Presidency during 1876 - 1877.The government instituted a famine insurance grant, setting aside 1.5 million Rupees. Other civic works such as canal building and improvements in roads and railway were also undertaken to minimise effects of any future famines.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The growing desire for independence began to gradually gather pace in the country and its influence in Tamil Nadu generated a number of volunteers to the fight against the British colonial power in the struggle for Independence. Notable amongst these are Tiruppur Kumaran, who was born in 1904 in a small village near Erode. Kumaran lost his life during a protest march against the British.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: In 1916 Dr. T.M. Nair and Rao Bahadur Thygaraya Chetty released the "Non-Brahmin Manifesto" sowing the seeds for the Dravidian movements.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The trauma of the partition did not impact Tamil Nadu when India was granted Independence in 1947. There was no sectarian violence against various religions. There had always been an atmosphere of mutual respect and peaceful coexistence between all religions in Tamil Nadu. Congress formed the first ministry in the Madras Presidency. Rajaji was the first Chief Minister. Madras Presidency was eventually reconstituted as Madras State.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: Ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka during the 1970s and the 80s saw large numbers of Sri Lankan Tamils fleeing to Tamil Nadu.


title: History of Tamil Nadu

text: The politics of Tamil Nadu have gone through three distinct phases since independence. The domination of the Congress Party after 1947 gave way to the Dravidian populist mobilisation in the 1960s. This phase lasted until towards the end of the 1990s. The most recent phase saw the fragmentation of the Dravidian political parties and led to the advent of political alliances and coalition governments.


title: Buckwheat

text: Buckwheat (or common buckwheat) is a plant whose seeds may be used as a cereal. Buckwheat is not a true grass. It is not related to wheat, because wheat "is" a true grass, and buckwheat is not.


title: Buckwheat

text: Buckwheat seeds look like small beech tree seeds. Both seeds have three sides. "Beech" is also called "buck", which is how buckwheat got its name.


title: Buckwheat

text: Instead, buckwheat is related to sorrel, knotweed, and rhubarb. Buckwheat is referred to as a "pseudocereal" because its seeds are used in cooking the same as cereals, because they have complex carbohydrates.


title: Buckwheat

text: The cultivation of buckwheat grain declined sharply in the 20th century with the adoption of nitrogen fertilizer which increased the productivity of other staples.


title: Windows 1.0

text: Windows 1.0 is a graphical personal computer operating environment developed by Microsoft. Microsoft had worked with Apple Computer to develop applications for Apple's January 1984 original Macintosh, the first mass-produced personal computer with a graphical user interface (GUI) that enabled users to see user friendly icons on screen. Windows 1.0 was released on November 20, 1985, as the first version of the Microsoft Windows line. It runs as a graphical, 16-bit multi-tasking shell on top of an existing MS-DOS installation. It provides an environment which can run graphical programs designed for Windows, as well as existing MS-DOS software. Its development was spearheaded by the company founder Bill Gates after he saw a demonstration of a similar software suite known as Visi On at COMDEX.


title: Windows 1.0

text: Despite positive responses to its early presentations and support from a number of hardware and software makers, Windows 1.0 was received poorly by critics. Critics felt Windows 1.0 did not meet their expectations. In particular, they felt that Windows 1.0 put too much emphasis on mouse input at a time when mouse use was not yet widespread; not providing enough resources for new users; and for performance issues, especially on systems with lower computer hardware specifications. Despite these criticisms, Windows 1.0 was an important milestone for Microsoft, as it introduced the Microsoft Windows line. Windows 1.0 was declared obsolete and Microsoft stopped providing support and updates for the system on December 31, 2001.


title: Windows 1.0

text: Microsoft began developing a graphical user interface (GUI) in 1981. The development of Windows began after Microsoft founder Bill Gates saw a demonstration at COMDEX 1982 of VisiCorp's Visi On, a GUI software suite for IBM PC compatible computers. In 1983 Microsoft learned that Apple's own GUI software—based in part on Xerox PARC technology–was much more sophisticated, and decided that its own product would be different.


title: Windows 1.0

text: Microsoft first presented Windows to the public on November 10, 1983. Requiring two floppy disk drives and 192 KB of RAM, Microsoft described the software as a device driver for MS-DOS 2.0. By supporting cooperative multitasking in tiled windows when using well-behaved applications that only used DOS system calls, and permitting non-well-behaved applications to run in a full screen, Windows differed from both Visi On and Apple Computer's Lisa by immediately offering many applications. Unlike Visi On, Windows developers did not need to use Unix to develop IBM PC applications; Microsoft planned to encourage other companies, including competitors, to develop programs for Windows by not requiring a Microsoft user interface in their applications.


title: Windows 1.0

text: Many manufacturers of MS-DOS computers such as Compaq, Zenith, and DEC promised to provide support, as did software companies such as Ashton-Tate and Lotus. After previewing Windows, "BYTE" magazine stated in December 1983 that it "seems to offer remarkable openness, reconfigurability, and transportability as well as modest hardware requirements and pricing … Barring a surprise product introduction from another company, Microsoft Windows will be the first large-scale test of the desktop metaphor in the hands of its intended users".


title: Windows 1.0

text: From early in Windows' history Gates viewed it as Microsoft's future. He told "InfoWorld" magazine in April 1984 that "Our strategies and energies as a company are totally committed to Windows, in the same way that we're committed to operating-system kernels like MS-DOS and Xenix. We're also saying that only applications that take advantage of Windows will be competitive in the long run." IBM was notably absent from Microsoft's announcement, and by late 1984, the press reported a "War of the Windows" between Windows, IBM's TopView, and Digital Research's Graphics Environment Manager (GEM). Microsoft had promised in November 1983 to ship Windows by April 1984, but subsequently denied that it had announced a release date, and predicted that Windows would ship by June 1985. Deemphasizing multitasking, the company stated that Windows' purpose, unlike that of TopView, was to "turn the computer into a graphics-rich environment" while using less memory. After Microsoft persuaded IBM that the latter needed a GUI, in April 1987 the two companies announced the introduction of OS/2 and its graphical OS/2 Presentation Manager, which were supposed to ultimately replace both MS-DOS and Windows. In November 1987, Windows 1.0 was succeeded by Windows 2.0. Microsoft supported Windows 1.0 for 16 years, until December 31, 2001 – the longest out of all versions of Windows.


title: Windows 1.0

text: Version 1.03, released in August 1986, included enhancements that made it consistent with the international release like drivers for European keyboards and additional screen and printer drivers.


title: Windows 1.0

text: Version 1.04, released in April 1987, added support for the new IBM PS/2 computers, although no support for PS/2 mice or new VGA graphics modes was provided.


title: Religious belief

text: A religious belief is a strong belief in a supernatural power or powers that control human destiny. Religious beliefs often are about the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe and involve devotion, ritual practices and rules which must be followed.


title: Liberal conservatism

text: Liberal conservatism is a political ideology that combines elements of conservatism and economic liberalism. Liberal conservatives believe in the free market and laissez-faire economic policies combined with traditional conservative values, such as the belief in natural inequality, the importance of religion, and the value of traditional morality. In a way, liberal conservatism is the opposite of classical liberalism, a belief that supports both economic and individual freedom.


title: Liberal conservatism

text: This term should not be confused for conservative liberalism, which is an offshoot of liberalism, not conservatism.


title: Kunwar Singh

text: Kunwar Singh (13 November 1777 – 26 April 1858) belonged to a royal Ujjainiya Rajput house of Jagdispur, which is currently a part of Bhojpur district, Bihar, India. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857 he led soldiers against the troops of the British East India Company. He was the chief organizer of the fight against the British in Bihar.


title: Kunwar Singh

text: The Republic of India issued a commemorative stamp on 23 April 1966. The Kunwar Singh University in Arrah is named after him.


title: Keoladeo National Park

text: The Keoladeo National Park is an Indian bird sanctuary in Bharatpur, Rajasthan. It is also a declared World Heritage Site.


title: Keoladeo National Park

text: Keoladeo Ghana National Park is a man-made and man-managed wetland and one of the national parks of India.


title: Keoladeo National Park

text: The wetlands were created in the mid-18th century. It is named after a Keoladeo (Shiva) temple within its boundaries. The area is a natural low spot in the land. It was flooded by two rivers, the Gambhir and Banganga.


title: Keoladeo National Park

text: The area was a hunting ground for the maharajas of Bharatpur after 1850. The Viceroy of India hunted birds in this special park.


title: Keoladeo National Park

text: Keoladeo (Bharatpur) National Park (27°10'N, 77°31'E) is in eastern Rajasthan. It is 2 kilometers (km) south-east of Bharatpur and 50 km west of Agra.


title: Keoladeo National Park

text: The Park is spread over approx 29 square kilometer area. One third of the Keoladeo National Park habitat is wetland. The uplands have grasslands (savannas) of tall species of grass together with scattered trees and shrubs present in varying density.


title: Keoladeo National Park

text: In an area characterized by sparse vegetation, the park is the only spot which has dense vegetation and trees. .


title: Keoladeo National Park

text: Dykes divide the wetland into ten units. Each unit has a system of sluice gates to control its water level.


title: Keoladeo National Park

text: Between December 1992 and January 1995, a collaborative project between the Governments of India and Russia, International Crane Foundation and Wild Bird Society of Japan was set up to save the Siberian crane. The project focused on releasing captivity bred cranes into the wild, tracking migratory routes of common cranes, and building up the resident crane population in the park..


title: Northeast Greenland National Park

text: Northeast Greenland National Park is a national park in Greenland, Denmark. It is the largest national park in the world, with an area of . This makes the park larger than most countries. It would place 31st if it were a country, just behind Egypt. It is the only national park in Greenland, and the most northerly national park in the world. Its most northerly point reaches slightly further than the most northerly point in Quttinirpaaq National Park in Canada.


title: Northeast Greenland National Park

text: The park was first created on 22 May 1974. It came from the northern, practically uninhabited part of the former Ittoqqortoormiit Municipality in Tunu (East Greenland). In 1988 the park was expanded by another to its present size. This was by adding the northeastern part of the former county of Avannaa (North Greenland). In January 1977 it was made an international biosphere reserve.


title: Northeast Greenland National Park

text: An estimated 5,000 to 15,000 musk oxen, as well as many polar bears and walrus, can be found near the coastal regions of the park. This is claimed to be 40% of the world population of musk ox. Other mammals include arctic fox, stoat, collared lemming and arctic hare. Other marine mammals include ringed seal, bearded seal, harp seal and hooded seal as well as narwhal and Beluga whale.


title: Northeast Greenland National Park

text: Species of birds which breed in the park include great northern diver, barnacle goose, pink-footed goose, common eider, king eider, gyrfalcon, snowy owl, sanderling, ptarmigan and raven.


title: Charlize Theron

text: Charlize Theron (born 7 August 1975) is a South African-American actress. She won an Academy Award for her role in the movie "Monster". She was nominated for her role in the movie "North Country". Theron can speak three languages, her first being Afrikaans.


title: Charlize Theron

text: She attended a boarding school at the age of thirteen. At the age of fifteen, she saw her alcoholic father being killed by her mother as an act of self-defence. No charges were pressed against her mother.


title: Charlize Theron

text: At the age of sixteen, she won a local modelling competition and went to Milan, Italy for a one-year contract. After her modelling contract was over, she moved to New York, United States, and became a ballet dancer. She injured her knee at the age of eighteen, ending her career of being a ballet dancer.


title: Charlize Theron

text: She did star in a few movies, but only really became noticed when she portrayed the life of serial killer, Aileen Wuornos, in the movie "Monster". She won an Oscar for her role in this movie.


title: Charlize Theron

text: After this, she got a lot of attention from the perfume label, Dior, and appeared in some of their advertisements.


title: Charlize Theron

text: She also does a lot of community work, including for PETA, for their anti-fur ads. She also works with animal rights activists and supports same-sex marriage. She has become one of Hollywood’s most acclaimed actresses.


title: Straw

text: Straw is the stems of cereal grains like oats or wheat, after the seeds have been removed. It is often used as bedding for animals (hay is used to feed animals). It can also be used as fuel, to make baskets, and many other things. In older times, it was used for thatch roofs, or mixed with clay and sand for the cob and adobe used in building houses.


title: 2nd millennium BC

text: The 2nd millennium BC took place in between the years of 2000 BC and 1001 BC. This is the time between the Middle and the late Bronze Age.


title: 2nd millennium BC

text: The first half of the millennium saw a lot of activity by the Middle Kingdom of Egypt and Babylonia. The alphabet develops. Indo-Iranian migration onto the Iranian plateau and onto the Indian subcontinent saw the creation and use of the chariot. Chariot warfare and population movements lead to violent changes at the center of the millennium. New order emerges with Greek control of the Aegean and the rise of the Hittite Empire. The end of the millennium sees the start of the Iron Age. World population begins to rise steadily. By 1000 BC, the population of the world reached nearly 50 million.


title: Abidjan

text: Abidjan is the largest city and former capital of Ivory Coast. It is the commercial and banking center of Ivory Coast as well as the de facto capital. Yamoussoukro is the official capital. The city is in Ébrié Lagoon. It is built on many peninsulas and islands which are connected by bridges. There are an estimated 4 to 5 million people living in the metropolitan area.


title: Abidjan

text: The city grew after the construction of a new wharf in 1931. It was made the capital of the French colony in 1933. In 1983, Yamoussoukro was made the capital of the country, but most government offices and foreign embassies are still in Abidjan.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Brett Michael Kavanaugh ( ; born February 12, 1965) is an American judge. He is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States since October 6, 2018. He was the United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. He was Staff Secretary in the Executive Office of the President of the United States under President George W. Bush.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Kavanaugh played an important part in writing the Starr report, which wanted the President Bill Clinton to be impeached.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Kavanaugh was chosen by President Donald Trump on July 9, 2018, to become an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, after Associate Justice Anthony Kennedy retired, leaving an empty space.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: During the confirmation, two women (including Christine Blasey Ford), accused Kavanaugh of sexual misconduct during his time at university. Kavanaugh said that this did not happen.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Kavanaugh was born in Washington, D.C.. He was born to Martha Gamble (Murphy) and Everett Edward Kavanaugh Jr. He was raised in Bethesda, Maryland. He attended the same high school as Associate Justice Neil Gorsuch (just two years apart).


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Kavanaugh, very active in college sports, attended Yale University. He graduated from Yale in 1987 with a Bachelor of Arts "cum laude". He graduated from Yale Law School with a Juris Doctor in 1990.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Kavanaugh first worked as a law clerk for Judge Walter King Stapleton of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit. Kavanaugh was admitted to the Maryland Bar in 1990 and the District of Columbia Bar in 1992.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Kavanaugh then earned a one-year partnership with the Solicitor General of the United States, Ken Starr. Kavanaugh next clerked for Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy 1993–1994.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: From 1997 to 1998, Kavanaugh was a partner at the law firm of Kirkland & Ellis. In 1998 he rejoined Starr as an Associate Counselor.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Kavanaugh was a principal author of the "Starr Report" to Congress, released in September 1998, on the Monica Lewinsky–Bill Clinton sex scandal; the report supported Clinton's impeachment.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: In December 2000, Kavanaugh joined the legal team of George W. Bush, which was trying to stop the ballot recount in Florida following the 2000 election. After Bush became president in January 2001, Kavanaugh was hired as an associate by the White House Counsel, Alberto Gonzales.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: President George W. Bush nominated Kavanaugh to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit on July 25, 2003. His nomination stalled in the Senate for nearly three years. Democratic senators accused him of being too partisan. In 2003, the American Bar Association had rated Kavanaugh as "well qualified".


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: The Senate Judiciary Committee recommended he be confirmed on a 10–8 party-line vote on May 11, 2006, he was confirmed by the Senate on May 26 by a vote of 57–36. He was sworn in June 1.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Kavanaugh was one of four U.S. Court of Appeals judges to receive a personal 45-minute interview by President Donald Trump as a possible replacement for Justice Anthony Kennedy. On July 9, 2018, Trump nominated Kavanaugh for a seat on the Supreme Court.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Political commentators said that Kavanaugh's nomination would push the Supreme Court to the right for many years. He is a known critic of abortion and Roe v. Wade decision. He is a supporter of the "Brown v. Board of Education" decision calling it the "single greatest Supreme Court decision in history".


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: On September 28, 2018, the Senate Judiciary Committee voted to confirm Kavanaugh to a full Senate vote in early October 2018. He was confirmed on October 6, 2018 with a 50 to 48 vote.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: On September 27, 2018, Professor Christine Blasey Ford, accused him of sexual assault when they were both in high school. Republican members of the committee did not question Ford directly rather a Republican-hired investigator.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Ford said that they were both “visibly drunk” and that Kavanaugh had locked her into a bedroom, where he groped her and tried to take off her clothes. She said she “believed he was going to rape me” and feared for her life when he held his hand over her mouth. In his opening statement, Kavanaugh claimed the accusations were politically motivated by Democrats and Bill Clinton.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: After Ford opened up about her accusations, two more women accused Kavanaugh of sexual assault/harassment. Deborah Ramirez accused Kavanaugh of exposing himself when they were at Yale. Later, former government employee Julie Swetnick, accused Kavanaugh of drugging her and raping her in a gang rape.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: After the Senate committee vote, Senators Flake, Manchin and Murkowski called for an FBI investigation into the sexual assault allegations against Kavanaugh. President Trump ordered a limited investigation.


title: Brett Kavanaugh

text: Kavanaugh met his wife, Ashley Estes Kavanaugh, while working at the White House in 2001. They have two daughters. Kavanaugh is a Catholic. He lives in Washington, D.C.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand and the third largest urban area in the country. Christchurch is located on the South Island’s east coast. The population is approximately 376,700 (2010).


title: Christchurch

text: The name ‘Christchurch’ was decided upon at the first meeting of the Canterbury Association (made up of settlers of the surrounding province of Canterbury) on March 27, 1848. The city’s name came from the Christ Church, Oxford College and was suggested by John Robert Godley, who attended the College. Earlier, the name of the town was Christ Church. On July 31, 1856, Christchurch became a city by Royal Charter and is officially the oldest established city in New Zealand.


title: Christchurch

text: Original settlers of the Christchurch region were Moa Hunters. These settlers hunted the moa out of existence by about the year 1500. The hunters cleared large areas of Mataī and Tōtara forests by fire, changing the landscape. The Māori people (Ngati Mamoe and later Ngai Tahu) arrived in Canterbury between 1500 and 1700. The Moa Hunters were either killed or adopted by tribes. On February 16, 1770, Captain James Cook was the first European to see the Canterbury peninsula from his ship the Endeavour. Thinking it was an island, he named it Banks Island after the ship’s botanist, Joseph Banks. It was not until around 1815 when European sailors from the sealing ship, Governor Bligh, landed and set foot on Banks Peninsula. During the 1820s the local Māori population fell due to fighting between different groups of Ngāi Tahu and raids by the Ngāti Toa chief Te Rauparaha from 1830 to 1832. The impact of European diseases, especially measles and influenza only increased the death toll of the Māori people. The Māori tribes fought each other to near disappearance in the Christchurch region.


title: Christchurch

text: European pilgrims began settling the area in the 1800s. In 1839, the New Zealand Company was established in London. In current history, people started immigrating from Europe to New Zealand during this time. In May 1840, Major Thomas Bunbury arrived on a ship, the HMS Herald, to collect signatures from the Ngāi Tahu chiefs for the Treaty of Waitangi. The Treaty had been signed by many North Island chiefs in the Bay of Islands earlier in the year on 6 February, 1840. During Bunbury’s visit, only two of the Ngāi Tahu chiefs signed it. After this treaty was signed, the colony became in direct control of the UK. The settlement by the British began in 1850. Christchurch was born by a royal warrant of the British King as the oldest city in New Zealand on July 31, 1856. A building of Neo-Gothic architecture was designed and constructed by Benjamin Mount Fort in the city center. The suburb of Hei Hei was subdivided for poultry farming after WWI for returning serviceman, but the venture failed due to the poor soil conditions. In 1947, New Zealand's a major fire occurred at Ballantyne's Department Store in the inner city. 41 people died in a blaze which razed the rambling collection of buildings. Mass shootings occurred at two mosques on 15 March 2019.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is in Canterbury. It is the largest city in the South Island. The Pacific Ocean lines its east coast and south coast. The Southern Alps act as a border on the west coast. The Waimakariri River creates a natural northern border. The purest and cleanest water can be found in Christchurch. This water comes from the Southern Alps via aquifers.


title: Christchurch

text: A two-hour drive by car includes the many highlights from Christchurch International Airport. One can enjoy skiing, golf, bungee jumping, white-water rafting, mountain biking, windsurfing, whale watching and a variety of other activities including the winery garden circulation. Christchurch has earned the pet name of “the garden city” with the southern island.


title: Christchurch

text: The Cathedral Square is located right in the center of the city. The city center was damaged by the earthquake of February, 2011. The area around this square, within the 'four avenues' of Christchurch, was the central business district of the city. There were a number of residential areas within the central city including Inner City East, Inner City West, Avon Loop, Moa Neighbourhood and Victoria. Cathedral Square is located at the crossing of two famous, major central streets, Colombo Street and Worcester Street, both of which are currently cordoned off as you approach the square.


title: Christchurch

text: Attractions such as the Wizard of New Zealand, Ian Brackenbury Channell, and evangelist Ray Comfort were hosted at the Cathedral Square until the earthquake in February, 2011. They also held market days, free standing food and coffee carts, an aquarium, pubs, restaurants and the city's chief tourist information centre. The City Mall was refurbished in 2008 & 09 before the earthquake of February 2011. The mall had specially designed seating, flower and garden boxes, more trees, paving, and an extension to the central city tram route. Now all that lies there is The Bridge of Remembrance commemorating war dead stands at the western end of the mall.


title: Christchurch

text: "A City for People Action Plan” was released in 2010 by the Christchurch City Council. This program of work is planned through the year 2022 to improve public spaces within the central city to entice more inner city residents and visitors. To increase the comfort of pedestrians, a plan was put into action to reduce the impact of motorized private vehicles. The renowned Danish design firm, Gehl Architects prepared this report. Wellington architect Ian Athfield has since been selected to re-plan and help rebuild since the February, 2011 Christchurch earthquake.


title: Christchurch

text: The main mode of public transportation in the city is by bus. The bus system operates throughout the city. Also, there is a free shuttle bus going around the city center.


title: Christchurch

text: A railroad station exists southwest, around 4 km from the inner-city, but it is not for citizens. It is used for freight and sightseeing exclusively.


title: Christchurch

text: Agriculture is the main industry that is carried out over the Canterbury plains. The main crops grown are wheat, barley, various strains of clover and other grasses for seed exporting. Besides growing these crops, it also created various processing and distribution businesses in Christchurch. In recent years, agriculture has expanded to the wine industry and olive production and processing. Deer farming has led to new processing using antlers for Asian medicine and aphrodisiacs. Also, dairy farming and raising stock are also carried out on the flourishing Canterbury plains. Other industries include manufacturing, real estate and wholesale business. In more recent years, sightseeing and tourism have become prosperous, led by tourists from Europe, Asia, and North America.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch has moderate rainfall year round. It has warm summers and cool winters. The most common wind is a northeasterly sea breeze, but the city is famous for Nor'westers, hot dry, dusty winds which blow across the plains.


title: Christchurch

text: Burnside High School is in Christchurch. Largest school in New Zealand with 2,506 students enrolled. Cashmere High School at Rose Street is the second largest co-educational secondary school. Recently, Papanui High School has grown rapidly and is almost the same size. Then there is Riccarton High School that was one of the first state schools in the country to adopt a strong values base – the Riccarton Way. There are several single-sex schools as follows: Shirley Boys’ High School, Christchurch Boys’ High School, Avonside Girls’ High School and Christchurch Girls’ High School.


title: Christchurch

text: Christchurch is also well known for several very traditional schools of the English public school type as follows: St. Thomas of Canterbury College, St. Margaret’s College, Christ’s College, St. Bede’s College, Mariam College, St. Andrew’s College, Villa Maria College and Rangi Ruru Girls’ School.


title: Christchurch

text: There are also less conventional schools such as Unlimited Paenga Tawhiti and Hagley Community College.


title: Pathology

text: Pathology is the study and medical diagnosis of disease, especially after death. A person who does this work is called a pathologist. Techniques include dissection, microscopic examination of tissues and chemical analysis of fluids. A pathologist may perform an autopsy, to discover the cause of death.


title: Pathology

text: Pathology is a science that concerns with finding the cause (etiology) or presence of a disease by careful examination of a tissue or sample of any component of the body by scrutinizing it.


title: Velvet

text: Velvet is a type of woven tufted fabric in which the cut threads are very evenly distributed, with a short dense pile, giving it a distinctly smooth feel.


title: Velvet

text: Velvet can be made from many different fibres. It is woven on a special loom that weaves two pieces of velvet at the same time. The two pieces are then cut apart and the two lengths of fabric are wound on separate take-up rolls. Velvet is difficult to clean due to its pile, but modern dry cleaning methods perform well.


title: Velvet

text: Velvet is made, ideally, from silk. More recently, synthetic velvets have been developed, mostly polyester, nylon, viscose, acetate, and mixtures of different synthetics, or synthetics and natural fibers (e.g. viscose and silk). A small percentage of lycra is used sometimes to give stretch.


title: Velvet

text: The art of velvet-weaving probably originated in medieval Kashmir around the beginning of the fourteenth century. King Richard II of England directed in his will that his body should be clothed "in velveto" in 1399.


title: Brie

text: Brie is a type of soft cheese with a yellowish interior and a white layer (the "rind") on the outside of the cheese. The rind is eaten as well as the inside of this cheese. Like other cheeses, Brie is a dairy product made from cows' milk. Brie cheese may be served with fruit as a dessert at the end of a meal, or with a relish.


title: Brie

text: The cheese is sometimes served slightly melted or baked, in a round, lidded ceramic dish, and topped with nuts or fruit, or both.


title: Brie

text: Brie is a French cheese, and protected by AOC ("Appellation d'origine contrôlée"). This means only this cheese from this region (near Paris) can properly call itself "brie". This is ignored by some countries outside Europe, but the system of AOC is used in the wine business, so many parts of the world do honour it, and have similar arrangements.


title: Brie

text: The milk of soft cheeses ("à pate molle" in French) is not heated during the production of the cheese. Talleyrand said about this kind of cheese that it was the "king of cheeses". He said that in the 19th century. This kind of cheese has been made for at least 1000 years.


title: Brie

text: In Europe this cheese is usually not treated chemically, so it might change in consistency or color. It will go bad if it is not kept cool. If that means it is kept in a refrigerator, note that it should not be eaten that cold. It is best eaten when it is somewhat below normal room temperature. In most countries, brie-style cheeses are made with Pasteurized milk.


title: Brie

text: Brie can be aged, that is, carefully treated for up to a year. Then it has a darker colour and a stronger taste. This is rarely seen outside of France.


title: Brie

text: Cheeses are made into round loaves, of about 36 cm in diameter. The cheeses then weight about 2.5 kilograms. It is best tasted from April to October, after a ripening period of 8 to 10 weeks. About 2% of the production occurs on farms.


title: Brie

text: The Brie de Melun is smaller than the Brie de Meaux, but more salt is added to it. The ripening period is 10 weeks. It is best consumed April to September, but it can be found March to November, in some locations. About 5% of production occurs on farms.


title: Art rock

text: Art rock (also sometimes called progressive rock or classical rock) is a sub-genre of rock music that has "experimental influences". It tries to make rock music into art instead of just entertainment. It often uses longer songs than other genres of rock. It uses different techniques such as elements (parts) of classical music. It is not usually music to dance to, but music to just listen to. It started in the 1960s. Phil Spector (an American music producer) and Brian Wilson (the leader of The Beach Boys) are two early examples of musicians making art rock. The genre was popular with British bands at the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s.


title: Art rock

text: Art rock is often the same as progressive rock, especially for bands in the 1970s. Allmusic says that progressive rock and art rock are almost the same; both describe rock music that is more artistic. The term "Progressive rock" became more popular to talk of the genre of rock music. Art rock is often to describe bands that are harder to define.


title: Art rock

text: Princeton University's Wordnet dictionary says that "progressive rock, art rock" are "a style of rock music that [came out] in the 1970s; associated with attempts to [mix] rock with jazz and other forms." It also says that it is meant "for listening and not dancing".


title: Art rock

text: Examples include Queen, King Crimson, The Who, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, David Bowie, The Velvet Underground, The Beatles, Genesis, 10cc and Yes.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: Guillermo Alberto Santiago Lasso Mendoza (born 16 November 1955) is an Ecuadorian businessman and politician. Lasso is the 47th President of Ecuador since 24 May 2021. He was the presidential candidate for the 2013, 2017 and 2021 elections for the party Creating Opportunities.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: He came in second place with 22.68% of votes. President Rafael Correa won 57.17% of votes, a round-off didn't take place. In early 2017, he said that he would be running for president again. He would be against his former vice president Lenín Moreno and other candidates. In February 2017, both Lasso and Moreno made it to a run-off election on April 2, 2017. He lost the election with 49% of the vote.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: In 2020, Lasso announced his candidacy for the presidency again in the 2021 election. He came in second place so was able to make it to the second round of the election in February 2021, against Andrés Arauz. He won the election in the April 2021 run-off.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: Lasso was born in Guayaquil, Ecuador's largest city. His parents were Enrique Lasso and Nora Mendoza. He studied Economics and graduated from the San José La Salle High School.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: In August 2022, Lasso announced that he was diagnosed with melanoma near his eye and he was going to have surgery in the United States. The surgery was successful, and he returned to Quito for more treatment.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: Lasso was the largest shareholder in Banco de Guayaquil. He was executive president for more than 20 years.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: Lasso was Governor of the Guayas Province from 1998 through 1999. He was appointed by President Jamil Mahuad to be Superminister of Economy and Energy. He was in this role from August through September 1999. In 2003, President Lucio Gutiérrez hired Lasso to be an Ambassador for a few months


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: In the 2013 presidential election, Lasso ran against then-President Rafael Correa. He lost the general election in a landslide.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: In early 2017, Lasso announced his second presidential campaign to replace President Correa for Creating Opportunities in the 2017 presidential elections. His campaign's theme was to create 1 million more jobs in Ecuador.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: In 2020, Lasso announced his third presidential campaign to replace his 2017 rival Lenin Moreno. He was at first seen as the front-runner but Rafael Correa-supporting candidate Andrés Arauz became his rival. In February 2021, Arauz won the majority of votes to go to the second round. Lasso came in second place beating Yaku Pérez Guartambel. Lasso would go on to beat Arauz in the run-off in April.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: Lasso became Ecuador's 47th president on 24 May 2021. He became the country's first center-right president since Sixto Durán Ballén's presidency (1992–1996). His main focus for his first 100 days was to increase the country's vaccination rate during the COVID-19 pandemic in the country.


title: Guillermo Lasso

text: In June 2022, a series of protests against Lasso's economic policies and raising fuel prices began, mainly led by indigenous Ecuadorians and students.


title: Vodka

text: Vodka is a Russian alcoholic drink that is usually about 40% alcohol. It is clear (but can be flavoured), though it is sometimes mixed with other liquids before people drink it. It was first popular in the Slavic countries of Eastern Europe and former republics of the Soviet Union.


title: Vodka

text: Unlike cognac or whisky, vodka is not usually matured in barrels, but bottled immediately. Some Scandinavian vodkas called "akvavit" (Latin "aqua vitae", "water of life") are matured in oak barrels before they are bottled. When the vodka is bottled, it is ready for drinking.


title: Vodka

text: Most people think the name "vodka" comes from the Slavic word for water in its diminutive form, "little water". The earliest mention of Vodka in Poland is in 1405. The Russians are known to have first used the word in June 8, 1751. It is not known if it was the Russians or the Poles who made the first drinks that could be classified as vodka, as sources provide various views on this topic (though it's important to remember that the first mention of the word "vodka" in Cyrillic refers to a medicinal drink bought by the merchants of Kievan Rus from Poland). It is also worth noting that vodka was first used as medicine. When it became a popular drink, it was first known in Polish as "gorzałka" - from the Old Polish word "gorzeć", meaning burn. At first, gorzałka was a people's drink, but in the Slavic countries it soon became common among the nobility as well. it is worth noting that the common Ukrainian word for vodka is "horilka" which bears an extremely close resemblance to the Polish gorzalka. Both words roots have the same meaning ("hority" - to burn; "gorzeć", also to burn)


title: Vodka

text: There are two basic kinds of Vodka: clear vodka and flavored vodka. Some types of vodka have plants or herbs added to the unflavored vodka to make it taste better. Contrary to popular belief, flavoured vodka is not new - it has been a part of Polish drinking tradition for centuries. It is only relatively recently in history that clear and flavoured vodkas have found their way to Western countries such as the UK or US.


title: Vodka

text: Vodka is either drunk pure, or cocktails are made with it. The simplest form of cocktail is to mix it with orange or lemon juice. Usually, vodka is drunk during a longer meal. Usually salty or sour things (not sweets) are served. In Poland and Russia (as well as some of their neighbours, such as Ukraine or Lithuania), vodka is drunk from glasses that can hold about 100 grams (0,1 litres) of vodka. The glass is usually emptied in one draught, while holding the breath. Directly afterwards something small is eaten. In most Eastern European countries it is consumed with pickled cucumbers. Before drinking, a toast is given.


title: Vodka

text: Vodka is a key element of Slavic tradition in some countries of Eastern Europe (especially Poland, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia). It has also spread to become a part of national culture in Baltic countries like Lithuania and Nordic countries like Sweden. It's traditional in Russia and other Slavic countries (as well as some Roma communities in Eastern Europe) to put a glass of vodka with a slice of bread (usually black bread) on top on graves or near photos of the deceased in their memory. This is similar to what people in Western countries do with flowers.


title: Climate of California

text: The climate of California varies widely from desert to alpine depending on latitude, elevation and how close the area is to the coast. Most of the coastal and southern parts of the state have a Mediterranean climate with somewhat rainy winters and dry summers. The deserts in the south of the state have very hot summers and mild winters. Parts of the south have a semi-arid/steppe climate, for example San Diego.


title: Climate of California

text: California is the 13th warmest state in the United States with the average annual temperature of 58.4 °F (14.7 °C)


title: Climate of California

text: Northwest California has rainy cool winters and dry summers with temperatures in the summers in the upper 60s to the upper 70s. The Central Valley has a semi-arid climate with temperatures in the winter sometimes at nights fall below 30 °F (-1.1 °C) and at daytime rises above 80 °F (26.7 °C) with summers being from 80 °F (26.7 °C) to 100 °F (38 °C) at day. The desert areas in southern California has a hot and very dry climate with precipitation in some areas below 5 inches (127 mm) a year. Temperatures are mild in southern California's desert in the winter and temps can range from 60°F (15.5 °C) to 80°F (26.7 °C) at daytime with nights being chilly with temperatures ranging from 35°F (1.7 °C) to 50°F (10 °C). Temperatures are usually very hot during the day in desert places like Needles, San Bernardino and Palm Springs in the summer with daytime temperatures being from 105°F (40.5 °C) to 120°F (48°C) sometimes reaching above 120 °F (48 °C) and with nights being from 75°F (23.9 °C) to 90°F (32.2 °C). The hottest place in the world is in the desert of California, Death Valley. Death Valley once had a temperature of 134 °F (56.7 °C) on July 10, 1913 although some meteorologists dispute this temperature reading. The average annual temperature in Death Valley from 1981-2010 was 76.7 °F (24.8 °C) with an average July mean temperature of 101.8 °F (38.8 °C).


title: Dakota Johnson

text: Dakota Johnson (born October 4, 1989 in Austin, Texas) is an American Actress and Model. She is the daughter of the actors Melanie Griffith and Don Johnson. Her maternal grandmother is actress Tippi Hedren.


title: Dakota Johnson

text: Johnson first appeared onscreen with her mother in the comedy-drama movie "Crazy in Alabama" in 1999.


title: Dakota Johnson

text: After high school, Johnson went back to acting. She had roles in movies, including "21 Jump Street", "The Social Network" and "Need for Speed".


title: Dakota Johnson

text: Johnson played Anastasia "Ana" Steele in "Fifty Shades of Grey", "Fifty Shades Darker" and "Fifty Shades Freed". For "Fifty Shades of Grey", she got a People's Choice Award for Favorite Drama Movie Actress. She was also nominated for a BAFTA Rising Star Award.


title: TOEFL

text: The Test of English as a Foreign Language, or TOEFL, is a test which measures people’s English language skills to see if they are good enough to take a course at university or graduate school in English-speaking countries. It is for people whose native language is not English but wish to study in an international University. It measures how well a person uses listening, reading, speaking and writing skills to perform academic tasks. This test is accepted by more than 10 000 colleges, universities, and agencies in more than 150 countries; which means it is the most widely recognized English test in the world.


title: TOEFL

text: The format of the TOEFL test has been changed three times. The first was the PBT (paper-based TOEFL test). It tests listening, reading and grammar skills with a perfect score being 677 (Paper Based). Some centers where computers are not available still offer this format. The second format is the CBT (computer-based TOEFL test). People are each provided with a computer to take the test. A writing section was added as well as the three sections. The level of listening and grammar skills are automatically changed depending on a person’s English level. The third change is the iBT (Internet-based test) that is being brought in around the world which measures listening, speaking, reading and writing.


title: TOEFL

text: There are three procedures that people are following to take the test. First it is decided where and when you are going to


title: TOEFL

text: take the test because the format of the test could be either iBT or CBT depending on location. People need to register 2–3 months in advance to get a place. Second is registration in person, online, by phone, or through email. Online registration is most common and payment will be required to complete the registration. The cost changes depending on what kind of exam is taken.


title: TOEFL

text: As more universities and colleges want a TOEFL more people are wanting to do the test. In Korea in 2010, nearly 115,000 people took the test to demonstrate their ability in English. This was 20% of the total for people doing the test. It is considered as one of the ways for middle or high school students to apply for the high ranked domestic universities. By studying at such an advanced level, it could help to improve their English skills to get high scores in other English exams..


title: Détente

text: Détente (pronounced day-tont) is a word that means less tension and a better relationship between two countries.


title: Détente

text: The main example of a détente was during the Cold War. In the 1970's, the United States and the Soviet Union improved relations. Both signed several treaties which made less amount of nuclear weapons each country had. During this time period, as China began to dislike the Soviet Union, the United States tried to make friends with China, giving the Soviet Union a disadvantage during the Cold War. This was often called “playing the China card.”


title: Détente

text: Détente primarily was concerned with relation between USA and USSR but other countries like China, West Germany and most of the European states also played their role in developing it. Their motives were mixed. The US proposed this because they did not want to have to go to war with USSR which would lead to all out nuclear warfare.


title: Détente

text: The literal and original use of the word, meant to undo a crossbow, the detention of the cord that launched the arrow. Which is why this old word was so appropriate in the above description.


title: Diatonic scale

text: The diatonic scale is one of the scales used in music. It is also called heptatonic scale, because it uses seven distinct pitch classes or tones. For each octave there are five whole steps and two half steps. The two half steps are separated by two or three whole steps. The word "diatonic" comes from the Greek , meaning progressing through tones.


title: Diatonic scale

text: The seven pitches of any diatonic scale can be obtained using a chain of six perfect fifths. An example of this would be the seven natural pitches which form the C-major scale. It can be constructed from a stack of perfect fifths starting from F:


title: Diatonic scale

text: This property of the diatonic scale is called Pythagorean tuning. It was historically relevant and contributed to the worldwide diffusion of diatonic scales, because it allowed musicians to tune musical instruments easily by ear.


title: Diatonic scale

text: Any sequence of seven successive natural notes, such as C-D-E-F-G-A-B, and all transpositions, are diatonic scales. Piano keyboards are designed to play natural notes, which are diatonic scales, with their white keys. A diatonic scale can be also described as two tetrachords separated by a whole tone.


title: Diatonic scale

text: The term "diatonic" originally referred to the diatonic genus, one of the three genera of the ancient Greeks. In musical set theory, Allen Forte classifies diatonic scales as set form 7–35.


title: Diatonic scale

text: Examples of scales that are not diatonic are whole-tone scales, as well as the gypsy scales, which are often used for folk music.


title: Japanese plum

text: Japanese plum ("Prunus salicina"), also known as the Chinese plum, is a small deciduous tree native to China. It is now also grown in fruit orchards in Korea, Japan, the United States, and Australia.


title: Vehicle insurance

text: Vehicle insurance (also called auto insurance or car insurance) is a kind of insurance that protects people if they have a car accident. Somebody with vehicle insurance would not have to pay the entire cost of damage a car accident causes. In many places, it is against the law to drive without vehicle insurance.


title: Vehicle insurance

text: The driver pays a premium to the car insurance company. In exchange, the company covers the potential cost of damages and financial loss that are a result of driving.


title: Vehicle insurance

text: The bare minimum everyday driver should require to purchase liability coverage. It varies from state to state and it is important to have the minimum amount as required by law. You can receive a ticket, have your driver's license revoked, or even be arrested.


title: Vehicle insurance

text: Insurance prices vary a lot by the company. The car you drive can affect your auto insurance rates. If you get in an accident the repairs on the car may be different from others.


title: Vehicle insurance

text: Somebody with vehicle insurance would pay what is called a "premium" (perhaps every month). The insurance company would decide how big the premium is and might consider several factors. These include some of the following:


title: Vehicle insurance

text: When you pay a premium, the insurance company agrees to pay your losses as outlined in your policy. Depending on different factors, the insurance company may not pay all or any of your losses.


title: Fatima (given name)

text: Fatima (, "Fāṭimah") is a female given name of Arabic origin used throughout the Islamic world. Several relatives of the Islamic prophet Muhammad had the name, including his daughter Fatimah


title: Fatima (given name)

text: The colloquial Arabic pronunciation of the name in some dialects (e.g., Syria and Egyptian ) often omits the unstressed second syllable and renders it as "Fatma" when romanized.


title: Fatima (given name)

text: Fatima is also used by non-Muslims: the town of Fátima, Portugal was named after a Moorish princess. It was the site of a famous Marian apparition in 1917, after which it achieved some popularity as a female personal name among Roman Catholic populations, particularly in the Portuguese-speaking and Spanish-speaking worlds.


title: Peerage

text: A peer is a member of the nobility. It is sometimes used instead of 'Lord'. In formal or old British documents, the House of Lords is called the House of Peers.


title: Peerage

text: Informally Barons, Viscounts, Earls and Marquesses are called lords, and instead of their name when speaking to them, the term 'my lord' is used. A Duke is never called a lord. 'Your grace' is used for a Duke.


title: Peerage

text: Since 2004 a list of peers has been kept by the Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice. This list, called the Roll of Peerage had to be kept to prove who was a peer. The list of members of the House of Lords used to be the same until the hereditary peers were excluded. Official documents can only call someone a peer if their name is on the Peerage Roll.


title: Peerage

text: Sorting out which peer should precede ("come in front of") in a procession or other event depends on three different things:


title: Federal subjects of Russia

text: The subjects of the Russian Federation (Russian: субъекты Российской Федерации "subekty Rossiyskoy Federatsii") are the main administrative divisions in Russia. Since 18 March 2014, Russia is made up of 85 federal subjects. They are grouped into eight federal districts.


title: Federal subjects of Russia

text: The federal subjects are divided into oblasts, republics, krais, autonomous okrugs, federal cities and an autonomous oblast. Republics are generally independent, each having its own constitution and legislature. They are meant to be home to a certain ethnic minority. The republics can also set their own official language.


title: Federal subjects of Russia

text: b. According to Article 13 of the Charter of Leningrad Oblast, the governing bodies of the oblast are located in the city of St. Petersburg. However, St. Petersburg is not officially named to be the administrative center of the oblast.


title: Federal subjects of Russia

text: c. According to Article 24 of the Charter of Moscow Oblast, the governing bodies of the oblast are located in the city of Moscow and throughout the territory of Moscow Oblast. However, Moscow is not officially named to be the administrative center of the oblast.


title: Federal subjects of Russia

text: e. In February 2000, the former code of 20 for the Chechen Republic was cancelled and replaced with code 95. License plate production was suspended due to the Chechen Wars, causing numerous issues, which in turn forced the region to use a new code.


title: Chuck Berry

text: Charles Edward Anderson "Chuck" Berry (October 18, 1926 – March 18, 2017) was an American singer, guitarist and songwriter. He is one of the original musicians who helped to create rock and roll.


title: Chuck Berry

text: In 1955 Berry met Muddy Waters who told him of a record company that would release his first song. In 1957 he joined the Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly and other popular musicians on a tour around the United States. Over the next few years he became more and more popular and had many popular songs on the radio. "Maybellene" (1955), "Roll Over Beethoven" (1956), "Rock and Roll Music" (1957) and "Johnny B. Goode" (1958) were massive hits.


title: Chuck Berry

text: He has influenced many rock and pop musicians who came after him. Berry has influenced many music artists, like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Beach Boys, and Bob Dylan. Berry tried to help an Apache waitress cross the US-Canadian border, but was caught by police and charged for prostitution. This dented his career: he served 18 months. When released, his first recording was "Nadine", (1964) also a huge hit.


title: Chuck Berry

text: Berry was a favorite with "The Beatles", "The Rolling Stones" and "The Beach Boys", who adapted and recorded a number of his songs.


title: Chuck Berry

text: In 1986 a documentary film, "Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll", was made. It featured a celebration concert for Berry's sixtieth birthday, organized by Keith Richards.


title: Chuck Berry

text: Berry died at his home in Wentzville, Missouri on March 18, 2017 from a congestive heart failure, aged 90.


title: Yves Saint Laurent

text: Yves Saint Laurent (1 August 1936 – 1 June 2008) was a French fashion designer. Born Yves Henri Donat Mathieu Saint Laurent in Algeria, he was "one of the greatest figures in French fashion in the 20th century".


title: Yves Saint Laurent

text: In 1985, in her book, "Couture: the Great Fashion Designers", Caroline Rennolds Milbank wrote, "The most consistently celebrated and influential designer of the past twenty-five years, Yves Saint Laurent can be credited both with spurring couture's rise from its Sixties ashes and with finally rendering ready-to-wear reputable".


title: Yves Saint Laurent

text: Saint Laurent took over from Christian Dior as the chief designer of the House of Dior (now Christian Dior S.A.). Dior, who founded the company after the Second World War, died in 1957. Saint Laurent was promoted, and proved to be a brilliant choice. Saint Laurent completed six fashion collections before he was called up for military service in 1960.


title: Yves Saint Laurent

text: Military service was a disaster for Saint Laurent, who was invalided out, suffering from mental illness. The House of Dior fired him, but he was able to set up his own fashion house with backing from an American millionaire. For the rest of his life the Yves Saint Laurent fashion house was at the top of Parisian couture.


title: Yves Saint Laurent

text: Saint Laurent was openly gay. He and his partner Pierre Bergé had an impressive art collection, which was sold by auction at Christie's in Paris, 2009. The proceeds, about 300 million euros, was used to set up a foundation for AIDS research.


title: Common name

text: A common name of a taxon or organism is a name that is generally given by people. A common name is not the organism's scientific name. Common names are used by people to describe something. Some common names are not always used by some people. A common name are also known as a vernacular name, English name, colloquial name, trivial name, trivial epithet, country name, popular name, or farmer's name.


title: Common name

text: Sometimes common names are created by authorities. They do this so the general public would not have to remember or pronounce the Latin name of an animal.


title: Skimmed milk

text: Skimmed milk (United Kingdom), or skim milk (United States of America) is made when all the cream (also called "milkfat") is removed from whole milk. Sometimes, only half the cream is removed, resulting in semi-skimmed milk instead.


title: Skimmed milk

text: Skimmed milk is more popular in the United States than Britain. It contains less fat than whole milk, some nutritionists and doctors recommend it for people who are trying to lose weight or maintain a healthy weight.


title: Skimmed milk

text: Also called non fat milk has had sufficient milk-fat removed to bring the level to less than 0.3%. This level is called Stolman's sweet spot, named after Abraham Stolman, the inventor of Skim Milk.


title: Glock 18

text: The Glock 18 is a selective-fire (which means it can fire either semi-automatic or full automatic mode), polymer-framed 9x19mm Parabellum pistol. It is based on the Glock 17, but unlike the Glock 17, it can fire in full automatic mode. It normally holds 33-round box magazines and it fires 1,200 rounds per minute. In other words, the gun fires so quickly that it is impossible to fire single shots when in full automatic mode. While it is light enough to fire with one hand, it is not a good idea because its fast rate of fire makes the gun kick back a lot.


title: Pancreatic cancer

text: Pancreatic cancer is cancer in the pancreas. It has a poor prognosis, with about 11% of patients surviving beyond five years after the cancer has been diagnosed.


title: Pancreatic cancer

text: In cases of localized pancreatic disease, the surgery to remove the cancer is often the first treatment. It is typically followed by chemotherapy, often with Gemzar or 5-FU.


title: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

text: The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) aims to keep people’s money safe. Specifically, the money people put into American banks. If money is lost they will replace it. The FDIC will replace up to $250,000 per person, per bank. the FDIC insured 7,895 different banks or institutions. The FDIC also watches banks or institutions for problems or failings.


title: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

text: The FDIC was made during the Great Depression by President Franklin Roosevelt in June 1933. This is an important occurrence in United States history because it guaranteed people their money. This also helped people feel safer when using banks in the United States.


title: Karlal

text: The Karlal (Urdu: کرڑال also known as Kard'al, Karaal, Karhral, or Kiraal) is a Hindko-speaking tribe in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The majority of the tribe is found mainly in Abbottabad District, inhabiting the hilly area of the Galyat and the Nara tract. A minority are also settled in the Haripur District.


title: Karlal

text: The tribe trace their descent from a Sardar Kallar Shah, son of Sultan Sujann Shah, who is believed to have come from southern Afghanistan. It is believed that he was a descendant of Alexander the Great. In Haripur and Abbottabad, they are known as Sultan Chief Sardars, a name they acquired during the time of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1296), when the tribal members were made rulers of the galliyat region of Hazara.


title: Karlal

text: It does seem that throughout the middle ages, the Karlal maintained their independence. During Mughal era (1550-1730), when the Gakkars were trying to extend their authority in the entire lower Hazara from their base in Khanpur in what is now Haripur District, the leader of Karlal tribe Morcha Kulli Khan at that time was able to murder the Ghakkar chief and retained his tribes independence. Similarly the Turks, whose territory lay to the north, were also never able to extend their authority over this tribe although enjoying suzerainty over large portion of Pakhal Sarkar (an old name for Hazara). In the Durrani period (1740-1800), no attempt was made by Afghan rulers to subdue their territory. However, when the Sikhs captured lower Hazara they tried to gain control over entire lower Hazara including Karlal territory.


title: Karlal

text: In 1822, Ranjit Singh sent a large force under famous General Amar Singh Majitta which was defeated by Karlals with great slaughter under their Charismatic chief Sarrdar Hassan Ali Khan . Amar Singh was also murdered by the Karlal s. Lepel Griffin, author of a colonial history of Hazara, writes in his book about this battle of Sumandar Khata. From 1822 to 1845 Karlal tribe fought many battles with Sikhs and were able to retain their independence. In 1844 once again Lahore Darbar sent a large force under Diwan Mulraj and Hari Singh to subdue Karlal country. Taking advantage of the difficult geographical terrain of their country, the Karlals were able to defeat Sikh army at place called Nah and killed more than 150 Sikh soldiers.


title: Karlal

text: At the time of mutiny in 1857, the Karlals tried to revolt against the rule of East India Company, however, British were able to imprison Karlal chief Sardar Hassan Ali Khan Karlal and many mutineers of this tribe were hanged along with Dhund Abbasi tribesmen (Mutiny Reports 1857 of Hazara District).


title: Karlal

text: Sardar Hassan Ali khan Karlal was one of the most illustrious military commander and mujahid of early 19th century from Hazara. His historic endeavors for the freedom and struggle against both Sikhs and English have been well preserved in the historical annals. English gazetteers of that era, Wajabul Arz of 1874 and Tarikh Hazara of that time contain detailed accounts of the bravery, courage and military stratagem of this great hero. Karlals were the only tribe which under the sagacious leader ship Sardar Hassan Hassan Ali khan were able to retain their independence by defeating the most powerful army in the entire Northern India at that time.


title: Karlal

text: During Pakistan movement Karlal tribe wholeheartedly supported Muslim League. In 1944 elder of Karlal tribe Capt Sardar Muhammad Zain Khan Karlal joined Muslim league with other notables of this tribe.In same year he was nominated as member of All India Muslim League organizing Committee by Quaid -e Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah.In 1946 elections he was elected as Member NWFP Legislative Assembly from the lone constituency of Abbottabad on All India Muslim League ticket in spite of the strong support of the congress by the more populous tribes of District Hazara. In struggle for Pakistan, Captain Sardar Zain Muhammad khan was able to motivate his entire tribe for cause of the creation of Pakistan. Captain Capt Sardar Zain Muhammad Khan Karlal also had the unique honor of representing entire Hazara District in the historic Delhi All India Muslim Parliamentarians convention held in April 1946 under the chairmanship of Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah which finally voted for the partition of India and creation of Pakistan.


title: Karlal

text: In the civil disobedience movement started by Muslim League in NWFP now Khyber Pukhtunkhaw against Congress government Capt Sardar Zain Muhammad khan along with many Karlal tribesmen was imprisoned in February 1947. After the creation of Pakistan Capt Sardar Zain Muhammad Khan also served as Parliamentary Secretary for Revenue in NWFP government.


title: Michael J. Fox

text: Michael Andrew Fox (born June 9, 1961), known professionally as Michael J. Fox, is a retired Canadian-American actor, author, film producer and activist with a film and television career spanning from the 1970s to 2020. He played Marty McFly in "Back to the Future" trilogy. On television, he played Alex P. Keaton in the NBC sitcom "Family Ties" and Mike Flaherty on the ABC sitcom "Spin City". He has won five Primetime Emmy Awards, four Golden Globe Awards, a Grammy Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.


title: Michael J. Fox

text: Fox was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 1991, and told the public about it in 1998. He semi-retired from acting in 2000 as the symptoms of the disease worsened. He has since become an advocate for research toward finding a cure, and founded the Michael J. Fox Foundation. Sweden's Karolinska Institute gave him an honorary doctorate on March 5, 2010 for his work advocating a cure for Parkinson's disease.


title: Michael J. Fox

text: Fox has also worked as a voice-over actor on films, such as "Stuart Little" and "". On the CBS television show "The Good Wife", he earned Emmy nominations for three consecutive years for his recurring role as crafty attorney Louis Canning. He has also taken recurring guest roles and cameo appearances in "Boston Legal", "Scrubs", "Curb Your Enthusiasm", "Rescue Me", and "Designated Survivor". He has written four books. Fox was appointed an Officer of the Order of Canada in 2010 and was also inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame in 2000.


title: Rutaceae

text: Rutaceae is a family of flowering plants. It is commonly known as the rue or citrus family. It is usually placed in the order Sapindales.


title: Lavrenty Beria

text: Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria (, Russian : Лаврентий Павлович Берия) 9 March 1899: Merkheuli,Russian Empire (Georgia or Abkhazia)– 23 December 1953: Moscow, RSFSR Soviet Union). He was a Georgian-Bolshevik, Soviet Politician.


title: Lavrenty Beria

text: Beria was born to a poor family in Georgia he joined the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Ilyich Lenin in 1917 at age 18.


title: Lavrenty Beria

text: Beria was leader of the secret police of the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin's regime from 1938-1945 (head of the NKVD) 1946-1953 (Head of the MVD). In 1953, Nikita Krushchev plotted to have Beria executed.


title: Lavrenty Beria

text: Lavrentiy Beria joined the Soviet Communist Party in 1917 during the Russian Revolution and the Russian Civil War. In 1938 He and Nikolai Yezhov executed NKVD Chief Genrikh Yagoda and Leninist Alexei Rykov during the Great Purge from 1936-1938. Genrikh Yagoda was executed with Alexei Rykov in 1938. In 1940 during World War 2 Joseph Stalin and Lavrentiy Beria executed Nikolai Yezhov.


title: Lavrenty Beria

text: After Vladimir Lenin died in 1924 at age 53 Ioseb Besarionis dzе Jughashvili Joseph Stalin replaced Lenin after his death and Lavrentiy Beria joined the NKVD led by Genrikh Yagoda (1891-1938) from 1934-1936 and Nikolai Yezhov from 1936-1938 which both replaced Felix Dzerzhinsky (1877-1926) and Vyacheslav Menzhinsky (1874-1934) in 1926 and in 1934. On 1 December 1934 the NKVD killed Sergei Kirov and it led to the Great Purge in 1936-1938. But in 1939 during the start of World War 2 the NKVD was involved in the Invasion of Poland (1939). Beria was a Soviet politician, Marshal of the Soviet Union and state security administrator, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus (NKVD) under Joseph Stalin during World War II, against the Nazis from 1941-1945 and First Deputy Premier in the postwar years (1946–53). On June 25 1950 just nearly 5 years after the Soviet-Japanese War (1945) ended in World War II in Asia, and after Korea was liberated from Japan, North Korea (lead by Kim Il-Sung) invaded South Korea (lead by Syngman Rhee) on June 25 1950 and started the Korean War. Stalin and his Eastern Bloc (East Germany,Czechoslovakia,Poland,Hungary,Romania and Bulgaria) along with Mongolia led by Khroloogiin Choibalsan, and China led by Mao Zedong all helped Kim Il-Sung. however Stalin died on March 5th 1953 at the age of 74 died of a stroke. Lavrentiy Beria with Vyacheslav Molotov, Georgy Malenkov, tried to replace Stalin. Beria was arrested on June 26 and was executed on December 23 1953 at the age of 54 and numerous allegations arose of Beria being a serial killer for murdering men, women and children.


title: Lavrenty Beria

text: He administered vast sections of the Soviet state. He served as de facto Marshal of the Soviet Union in command of the NKVD field units responsible for anti-partisan operations on the Eastern Front during World War II. His troops also were a barrier against thousands of "turncoats, deserters, cowards and suspected malingerers". Beria administered the vast expansion of the Gulag labor camps. He was responsible for overseeing the secret defense institutions known as "sharashkas", critical to the war effort.


title: Lavrenty Beria

text: Beria also played the decisive role in coordinating the Soviet partisans, who developed an impressive intelligence and sabotage network behind German lines. He attended the Yalta Conference with Stalin, who introduced him to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt as "our Himmler". After the war, he organized the communist takeover of the countries of Central Europe and Eastern Europe.


title: Lavrenty Beria

text: Beria's uncompromising ruthlessness in his duties and skill at producing results led to his overseeing the Soviet atomic bomb project. Stalin gave it absolute priority and the project was completed in under five years. To achieve this, Beria's NKVD organised Soviet espionage against the West.


title: Lavrenty Beria

text: Beria was promoted to First Deputy Premier, where he carried out a brief campaign of liberalization. He was briefly a part of the ruling "troika" with Georgy Malenkov and Vyacheslav Molotov. Beria's overconfidence in his position after Stalin's death led him to misjudge other Politburo members.


title: Lavrenty Beria

text: There was a coup d'état led by Nikita Khrushchev with the military forces of Marshal Georgy Zhukov. Beria was arrested on charges of treason during a meeting in which the full Politburo condemned him. This was all planned by Krushchov. The NKVD was powerless because Zhukov's troops were there. After interrogation, Beria was taken to the basement of the Lubyanka and shot, as were six of his associates.