title: Greta Thunberg

text: Her father doesn't like that she misses school but says: "[We] respect that she wants to make a stand. She can either sit at home and be really unhappy, or protest, and be happy". To lower her family's carbon footprint, she insisted on becoming vegan and give up flying. She said she persuaded her parents to give up eating meat by making them feel guilty. "I kept telling them that they were stealing our future." Her mother gave up her international career as an opera singer. Despite invitations to speak at international events, Greta also avoids flying.


title: Greta Thunberg

text: Thunberg says her teachers are divided in their views about her missing class to make her protest. She says: "As people they think what I am doing is good, but as teachers they say I should stop." A teacher who supports her said: "Greta is a troublemaker, she is not listening to adults. But we are heading full speed for a catastrophe, and in this situation the only reasonable thing is to be unreasonable."


title: Greta Thunberg

text: In May 2019 Penguin, a British publishing house, published "No One Is Too Small to Make a Difference", which is a collection of her speeches. Penguin published "Scenes from the Heart", the Thunberg family's story, in August 2018. All earnings from these books will be donated to charity. In the same month, artist Jody Thomas painted a mural of Thunberg on a wall in Bristol. It portrays the bottom half of her face as if under rising sea water.


title: Phi

text: Phi (uppercase/lowercase Φ φ), is the 21st letter of the Greek alphabet, used to represent the "ph" sound in Ancient Greek. This sound changed to "f" some time in the 1st century AD, and in Modern Greek the letter denotes the "f" sound. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 500. The Cyrillic letter Ф came from Phi. In English, φ is pronounced like "f" but transliterated (re-written) as "ph" in words which originate in Ancient Greek. In those words which originate in Modern Greek, such as feta cheese, φ is transliterated as "f". The letter Phi is used to represent the golden ratio (which is about 1.618).


title: Boeing 737

text: The Boeing 737 is a twin narrow-body airliner built by Boeing. At first, Boeing was making it to be a shorter, cheaper airliner than its 707 and 727. However, the 737 has become a family of many different models. The number of passengers it can carry ranges from 85 to 215. The 737 is the only narrow-body airliner that Boeing is making. The only types of 737 that Boeing is still making are the -700, -800 and -900ER. A version of the 737 with larger engines, the 737 MAX, came into service in 2017 but was grounded between 2019 and 2021 as unsafe.


title: Boeing 737

text: Boeing began designing the 737 in 1964. The very first 737-100 flew in 1967. It was first used by an airline in February 1968. The 737-200 started being used in April 1968. The -200 was basically just a longer version of the 737-100. In the 1980s Boeing made the -300, -400, and -500 models. Boeing called these models the Boeing 737 Classic series. The 737 Classics could carry more passengers, and they had new engines: CFM56 turbofans. The 737 Classic planes also had some improvements made to the wings. In the 1990s, Boeing brought out the 737 Next Generation. The 737 Next Generation planes also had redesigned wings, a better cockpit and a new cabin. The 737 Next Generation is made up of the -600, -700, -800, and -900ER models. These models go from to in length.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737 is the best-selling jet airliner in history. Boeing has never stopped making 737s since 1967. 7,283 aircraft have been delivered, and the 737 still has 2,759 orders that have not been delivered yet (). Boeing 737s are built at the Boeing Renton Factory in Renton, Washington. The 737's main rival is the Airbus A320 family. On average, 1,250 737s are in the air at any time and two land or leave somewhere every five seconds.


title: Boeing 737

text: Boeing was looking at designs for aircraft which flew short distances. Boeing wanted to make another aircraft to replace the 727 on short flights. It began designing the 737 on May 11, 1964. Boeing did a lot of research and found that airlines wanted an airliner which could hold 50 to 60 passengers. This airliner would also be able to fly routes long. Lufthansa was the first airline to order a Boeing 737 on February 19, 1965. They ordered 21 aircraft, worth $67 million (1965, $190.28 million in 2008). After Boeing spoke to Lufthansa in winter 1964, they made the 737 bigger so that it could hold 100 passengers.


title: Boeing 737

text: On April 5, 1965, Boeing announced that United Airlines had ordered 40 737s. United wanted a plane which was a bit bigger than the 737-100. Boeing made a different type of 737 for United, which was longer. This other plane was called the 737-200. Boeing changed the name of the original 737 to the 737-100.


title: Boeing 737

text: The first 737s were made near Boeing Field (now officially called King County International Airport) because the factory in Renton was too busy building the 707 and 727. After 271 aircraft were made at Boeing Field, Boeing moved the 737s to Renton. This was in 1970.


title: Boeing 737

text: The first Boeing 737-100 prototype was ready in 1966. It made its first flight on April 9, 1967. On December 15, 1967 the Federal Aviation Administration said that the -100 was allowed to fly with passengers. They gave it the Type Certificate A16WE. Lufthansa got its first 737 on December 28, 1967. On February 10, 1968, Lufthansa became the first non-American airline to fly a new Boeing aircraft. It was the only large airline which bought the 737-100. Only 30 -100s were ever made.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737-200 first flew on August 8, 1967. The FAA allowed it to fly with passengers on December 21, 1967. The first flight it made for United Airlines was on April 28, 1968. It flew from Chicago to Grand Rapids, Michigan. Airlines liked the 737-200 much more than the 737-100.


title: Boeing 737

text: A "thrust reverser" is a part of the engine of a plane. It changes the flow of air through the engine so that it ends up trying to push the plane backwards instead of forwards. The first thrust reversers on the 737 were not very good. They were said to lift the aircraft off the runway when they were used. This meant that the wheels were not being pushed down onto the ground very much, which made the brakes less useful. In 1968, Boeing improved the thrust reverser. This improvement was put onto all aircraft after March 1969. Aircraft which were made before the improvement could have it installed. Boeing also improved the flaps. This improvement allowed the flaps to be used more during takeoffs and landing. All these changes meant that the 737 could hold more cargo and fly further. In May 1971, after the 135th aircraft was built, all of these improvements, as well as better engines and more fuel, were put into the 737-200. This gave it 15% more payload and range than the first 737-200s. This type of 737-200 became known as the 737-200 Advanced.


title: Boeing 737

text: In 1970, Boeing only got 37 orders for 737s. Since Boeing were running out of money, they thought about stopping making 737s and selling the design to Japanese companies. Boeing cancelled the Boeing Supersonic Transport and started making less Boeing 747s. By doing this, Boeing kept enough money to keep the 737 project going.


title: Boeing 737

text: In 1988, Boeing stopped making 737-200s. 1,114 aircraft were made and the last one was delivered to Xiamen Airlines on August 8, 1988.


title: Boeing 737

text: In 1979, Boeing started working on a large improvement for the 737. Boeing wanted to allow the aircraft to hold more passengers and travel further. It also wanted to make improvements to make the aircraft more modern. However, it also wanted to keep it similar to the older 737s. In 1980, information on this new type of 737 (called the 737-300) was given at the Farnborough Airshow.


title: Boeing 737

text: The CFM56-3B-1 engine was chosen to be the engine for this new 737 type. This engine burned much less fuel and was much less noisy. However, it was also difficult to fit these engines to the aircraft. This was because the 737's wings were not very high above the ground, and the CFM56 had a bigger diameter than the original engines. Boeing and CFM solved the problem by putting the engine slightly ahead of the wing, instead of right under it. They also moved some parts of the engine, which would normally go on the bottom, to the sides. This made the engine look a bit like a hamster pouch, because the engine is not shaped like a circle.


title: Boeing 737

text: The plane could now carry 149 passengers, because the fuselage of the plane was made bigger. Many changes were made to the wings. The tip of the wing was made longer by . The wingspan was also made bigger. The flaps on the wings were changed. The flight deck (cockpit) was improved with electronic displays. However, airlines could choose not to have these in their planes. The main cabin (where the passengers sit) was also made better. It looked similar to the cabin of a Boeing 757. The prototype of the 737-300 first flew on 24 February 1984. Its pilot was Jim McRoberts.


title: Boeing 737

text: In June 1986, Boeing said that it was working on the 737-400. The 737-400 made the fuselage even bigger (by ). This change meant that the -400 could carry 170 passengers. The 737-400's first flight was on February 19, 1988. The first airline to use it was Piedmont Airlines.


title: Boeing 737

text: Boeing made a 737-500 because its customers wanted one. It was a replacement of the 737-200. The -500 is longer than the 737-200. Up to 132 passengers can travel on the 737-500. Cockpits with electronic displays could be installed on the -500, but airlines could choose the use the older cockpit if they wanted.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737-500 was first ordered by Southwest Airlines in 1987. Southwest Airlines ordered 20 aircraft. The 737-500 flew for the first time on June 30, 1989. On February 28, 1990, Southwest Airlines got their first delivery.


title: Boeing 737

text: After the Boeing 737 Next Generation planes were brought into service, Boeing named the 737-300/-400/-500s the 737 Classic series.


title: Boeing 737

text: In 1991, Boeing started working on an updated group of 737s. They did this so they could have a plane to rival the Airbus A320. Boeing said that the 737 Next Generation (NG) program had begun on November 17, 1991. The -600, -700, -800, and -900 models are all part of the 737 Next Generation program. The 737 was changed so much by the 737NG program that it is almost like a new aircraft. However, some important parts of the plane were kept similar to the older 737s.


title: Boeing 737

text: The wing was changed again. Many different changes were made. An example of one is a bigger wingspan (made bigger by ). Since the wings were made bigger, 30% more fuel could fit in the plane. CFM56-7B engines were used, which were newer, quieter and burned less fuel. The improvements to the wing, engine and fuel mean that the 737NG can travel 900 nautical miles further. This means it can travel over in total, which means that the 737NG can travel between different continents. Winglets can be added to most 737NG models. The flight deck was given modern electronics (called avionics). The main cabin was also improved.


title: Boeing 737

text: The first NG to be built was a 737-700. It was finished on December 8, 1995. This aircraft was 2,843rd 737 built. It first flew on February 9, 1997. The prototype 737-800 was finished on June 30, 1997 and first flew on July 31, 1997. The smallest of the 737NGs, the -600, is the same size as the -500. It was the last NG to be launched (it was launched in December 1997). It first flew on January 22, 1998. The FAA certified it on August 18, 1998. A


title: Boeing 737

text: Boeing delivered the 5,000th 737 to Southwest Airlines on February 13, 2006. The 6,000th 737 was delivered to Norwegian Air Shuttle in April 2009. The Airbus A320 family has sold more planes than the 737NG over the past ten years. However, this total includes sales for the A321 and A318. The A321 has been the rival of Boeing's 757 and the A318 has been the rival of the 717. The Next Generation series helped make sure the 737 stayed the bestselling airliner family since it first flew.


title: Boeing 737

text: Since 2006, Boeing has been thinking about replacing the 737 with a completely new design. This was named the Boeing Y1 by people who worked at Boeing. This re-design would be launched after the Boeing 787 Dreamliner. Boeing did not decide on whether or not to go ahead with this. They said they would decide in 2011.


title: Boeing 737

text: On July 20, 2011, Boeing said that they were working on a new 737 version, which would have the CFM International LEAP engine. American Airlines said they would order 100 of these aircraft. On August 30, 2011, Boeing said that a new 737 would definitely be launched. It was called the 737 MAX. It would also definitely have CFM International LEAP-1B engines.


title: Boeing 737

text: The MAX 8 first carried paying passengers in May, 2017. In 2019 two MAX 8 aircraft crashed, killing all aboard and causing aviation authorities to ban commercial operation of the 737 MAX until they are fixed.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737's main landing gear (wheels) go into holes at the bottom of the plane. The wheels do not have a door to close over them. The tires can be seen easily when a 737 is taking off or is flying low-down.


title: Boeing 737

text: 737s do not have fuel dump systems. A fuel dump system is a system which gets rid of any unneeded fuel if the aircraft needs to make an emergency landing while it still has a lot of fuel on board. This is useful because aircraft can only land safely at a certain weight or below. Getting rid of unneeded fuel helps to get to a safe weight for the plane to land. The first 737s were too small to need these systems. Adding a fuel dump system to the bigger 737s would make the plane much heavier. Instead, if the emergency is not very serious, 737s fly around in circles to get rid of fuel. If the emergency is serious, the 737 just needs to land at an unsafe weight. If it has to land at an unsafe weight, the plane needs to be looked at for damage. If there is no damage, the plane can be put back into service.


title: Boeing 737

text: Engines on the 737 Classic series (300, 400, 500) and Next Generation series (600, 700, 800, 900) are not shaped like a circle like most planes. The 737 Classics had CFM56 turbofan engines. These burned much less fuel and made much less noise than the Pratt & Whitney JT8D engines which were used on the -100 and -200. However, because the 737's wings and fuselage are not very high above the ground, it was impossible to get the engines to fit on the wings. Boeing and CFM fixed this problem by putting the engines slightly ahead of the wings instead of putting them right underneath. They also moved some parts of the engines which would normally go at the bottom to the sides. This is what makes the engines non-circular.


title: Boeing 737

text: The gearbox of the engine was moved from the bottom of the engine to the side. The gearbox makes the engine look a bit like a triangle. Since the engine is close to the ground, it is possible that they can be damaged by things lying on the ground. The CFM56-7 engine on the 737 Next Generation burns even less fuel than the engines on the 737 Classics. The Boeing 737 MAX aircraft will have CFM International LEAP-1B engines. These engines are supposed to burn 10-12% less fuel than the CFM56-7B engines on the 737 Next Generation family.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737's controls are very safe. If the hydraulics or both engines fail, servo tabs will be automatically used. Servo tabs are small hinges which move important parts of an aircraft. The tabs are controlled by the yoke (the thing used to steer the plane). For the 737 Next Generation, a new cockpit with LCD displays was made. These cockpits also have modern avionics (autopilot etc.).


title: Boeing 737

text: Most 737 cockpits have "eyebrow windows". These are smaller windows which are above the main windows. There are two on each side. Eyebrow windows were used on the Boeing 707. They helped the pilot see better when the plane was turning. However, because autopilot, advanced radar etc. exist, they are no longer needed. They were removed from the 737 cockpit in 2004. However, 737s used by the military still have them installed. If the customer likes, Boeing will install eyebrow windows for them.


title: Boeing 737

text: Winglets can be fitted to 737s which do not have them already installed. They can also be added when the aircraft is built. The winglets are about tall. They are fitted at the end of the wing and help the engines to burn less fuel because they reduce drag. They also help make less noise on takeoff. Winglets can help a plane burn up to 5% less fuel.


title: Boeing 737

text: How the cabin looks was changed in each different type of 737 (Classic and Next Generation). The cabin design of the 737 Original was changed 737 Classic using designs from the 757. Designs from the Boeing 777 were used to design the cabin for the Next Generation 737. The newest cabin design is called the Sky Interior. It has curved walls. It also has redesigned windows. The Sky Interior has more headroom and LED mood lighting. Overhead bins which move have been installed. These bins are similar to the bins on a 777 and Boeing 787 Dreamliner. They have more space for luggage than the other designs. The Sky Interior is also designed to make the cabin less noisy by 2–4 dB. The first 737 with the Sky Interior was delivered to Flydubai in 2010. Malaysia Airlines, TUIFly and Continental Airlines have also ordered 737s with the Sky Interior.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737 are split into three "generations". These are Original, Classic and Next Generation. The "Original" models are the 737-100, 737-200/-200 Advanced. The "Classic" models are the 737-300, 737-400 and 737-500. The "Next Generation" models are the 737-600, 737-700/-700ER, 737-800, and 737-900/-900ER.


title: Boeing 737

text: The fourth generation of 737 is called the 737 MAX. It is still being worked on, but when it is finished, it will be made up of the 737-MAX-7, 737-MAX-8 and 737-MAX-9. The MAX-7 will replace the 737-700, the MAX-8 will replace the 737-800 and the MAX-9 will replace the 737-900 and 739-900ER.


title: Boeing 737

text: The very first 737 model was the 737-100. It was first ordered by Lufthansa in 1965. The -100 was finished on January 17, 1967. It entered service in 1968. The aircraft is the smallest type of 737. Only 30 737-100s were ordered and delivered. No 737-100s are still being used by airlines. The 737-100 prototype is in the Museum of Flight in Seattle.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737-200 is a 737-100 with a larger fuselage. It was created because of an order from United Airlines in 1965. The -200 was finished on June 29, 1967. It entered service in 1968. The 737-200 Advanced is an improved version of the -200. Its first user was All Nippon Airways. It began using the -200 Advanced on May 20, 1971. The -200 Advanced has many improvements. For example, more powerful engines and more fuel. The 737-200 Advanced can also fly further than the 737-200. The last delivery of a 737-200 aircraft was in August 1988 to Xiamen Airlines. This was the 1,095th 737-200 built. Many 737-200s are still used by airlines.


title: Boeing 737

text: After 40 years the last 737-200 aircraft in the United States were retired on March 31, 2008. This happened with the last flights of Aloha Airlines.


title: Boeing 737

text: The Boeing 737 Classic is the name of the 737-300/-400/-500. However, they were only called the 737 Classics after the 737 Next Generation (737-600/700/800/900) aircraft were made. Until then, the 737 Classics were called the 'new generation' of the 737. The 737 Classics were made from 1984 to 2000. 1,988 aircraft were delivered in that time. As of January 1, 2001, 1,945 are in service.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737-300 was brought into service in 1981. It was used by both US Airways and Southwest Airlines. The 737-300 is the first model of the 737 Classic series. The -300 can usually hold 128 passengers. The 737-300 series was made until 1999. The last -300 was delivered to Air New Zealand on 17 December 1999. This was the 1,113th 737-300 made.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737-400 brought into service in 1985. It was just a longer version of the 737-300. Piedmont Airlines was the launch customer. They ordered 25 aircraft in 1986. The first 737-400s were brought into service in 1988 with Piedmont. The last -400 was delivered to CSA Czech Airlines. This was the 486th -400 built.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737-400F was a 737-400 changed into a cargo plane. The -400F was not delivered by Boeing. They were changed into cargo planes by the airlines that owned them. Alaska Airlines was the first airline to change a -400 to a -400F. It could carry 10 pallets of cargo.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737-500 was finished 1987. It was brought into service with Southwest Airlines in 1990. The 737-500 is around the same length of the 737-200. It was a modern, complete replacement of the 737-200. The last 737-500 was delivered to All Nippon Airways on July 26, 1999. This was the 389th built.


title: Boeing 737

text: In the 1990s, Boeing realized that the Airbus A320 family was a serious threat. Boeing could lose customers because of it. In November 1991, Boeing began the Next Generation program. The Next Generation aircraft would replace the 737 Classics. The 737-600, 737-700 and 737-800 planes were planned.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737-600 replaced the 737-500. It was also supposed to replace the McDonnell Douglas DC-9. The 737-600 was finished in 1995. The first aircraft was delivered to Scandinavian Airlines on September 18, 1998. The 737-600 is the only Boeing 737 still being made that cannot be fitted with winglets.


title: Boeing 737

text: The 737-600's rivals are the Airbus A318, Embraer 195 and Sukhoi Superjet 100. The Bombardier CSeries will also be a rival.<ref>"Bombardier Launches CSeries Jet."


title: Snoop Dogg

text: Calvin Cordozar Broadus Jr. (born October 20, 1969), known professionally as Snoop Dogg, is an American rapper.


title: Snoop Dogg

text: He became known as one of the popular gangsta rappers during the 1990s. Snoop Dogg has also appeared in many movies and television shows throughout his career.


title: Snoop Dogg

text: The reason why he is called "Snoop Dogg" is because his mother nicknamed him after a character called "Snoopy". Snoop Dogg was a fan of the "Peanuts" cartoon, which has the Snoopy character. Snoop Dogg sang in his church choir and played piano as a child. He began smoking when he was in the sixth grade. As a young adult, he was involved in gang activity. He was arrested, convicted and put in prison for possession of illegal drugs.


title: Snoop Dogg

text: At the beginning of his career, Broadus performed under the stage name Snoop Doggy Dogg. He first appeared on Dr. Dre's first solo album, "The Chronic", released in 1992. Later in 1993, Snoop Dogg released his first album "Doggystyle". The album became successful.


title: Snoop Dogg

text: In 1996, his second album, Tha Doggfather, was released. Although the album met with positive acclaim, it was not as successful as his first album.


title: Snoop Dogg

text: In 2004, his album "R&G (Rhythm & Gangsta): The Masterpiece" was released and featured the hit single “Drop It Like It's Hot”. The single became Snoop Dogg's first number one single on the Billboard Hot 100.


title: Snoop Dogg

text: In 2012, Snoop Dogg went to Jamaica. He studied the Rastafari movement. He changed his name to Snoop Lion, after the Lion of Judah. This is a name from the tribe of Judah. It is sometimes used to describe Haile Selassie, who is worshipped by Rastafarians. "Reincarnated", released in 2013, is his first reggae album.


title: Snoop Dogg

text: In 2018, Snoop Dogg released his first gospel album, "Bible of Love". It features appearances from Patti LaBelle, Fred Hammond, Rance Allen, Charlie Wilson, and others. On February 13, 2022, Snoop Dogg performed at the Super Bowl LVI halftime show. Later, he released the album, "BODR" (Bacc on Death Row).


title: January

text: January (Jan.) is the first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between December (of the previous year) and February (of the current year). It has 31 days.


title: January

text: January begins on the same day of the week as October in common years, and April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years, and July in leap years.


title: January

text: January and February were put on the calendar after all the other months. This is because in the original Roman calendar, winter did not have months. Although March was originally the first month, January became the new first month because that was when people chose the new consuls (Roman leaders). The month has 31 days.


title: January

text: January is a winter month in the Northern Hemisphere and a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of July in the other. Perihelion, the point in its orbit where the Earth is closest to the Sun, also occurs in this month, between January 2 and January 5. January begins on the same day of the week as October in common years and on the same day of the week as April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years and on the same day of the week as July in leap years. January is the only month of the year that always has a "twin" - a month that both begins and ends on the same day of the week as it does. In a common year, this is October, and in a leap year, July.


title: January

text: Every year, January both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.


title: January

text: In common years immediately before other common years, January starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, September and December of the following year. In common years immediately before other common years, January finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, April and December of the following year.


title: January

text: The first day of January is called New Year's Day. It is said that it became this date when Roman consuls took office on this day in 153 BC. Different calendars across Europe made this the start of the New Year at different times, as some observed it on March 25.


title: January

text: Reaching over from December, the Christmas season in Christianity also extends into this month. Eastern churches celebrate Christmas on January 6 or January 7, and Epiphany on January 18 or January 19 - In Western Christianity this occurs on January 6, with Christmas occurring on December 25.


title: January

text: January 1 is celebrated the Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God, that is a feast day of precept of the Blessed Virgin Mary.


title: Bisexuality

text: Bisexuality is a sexual orientation. Bisexual "(sometimes shortened to bi)" people are romantically or sexually attracted to both men and women. It can also mean attraction to more than one gender. Sometimes it is talked about as having romantic or sexual attraction to someone regardless of their sex or gender identity. This is also known as "pansexuality". Some bisexual people love men and women the same and some people love one more than the other.


title: Bisexuality

text: In 1948, Alfred Kinsey published the Kinsey scale. The Kinsey scale shows that sexuality is a continuum, meaning it moves little by little from heterosexuality to homosexuality. On the Kinsey scale, a "0" is someone who is only heterosexual. A "6" is someone who is only homosexual. Someone who is equally homosexual and heterosexual (bisexual) is a "3".


title: Bisexuality

text: In biology, bisexual can define an organism that has both male and female organs. This mostly refers to plants.


title: Kazi Nazrul Islam

text: Kazi Nazrul Islam (24 May 1899–29 August 1976) was a Bengali poet, musician and revolutionary. His nickname was "Rebel Poet". He was the first to make poems talking about intense spiritual rebellion against fascism and oppression. Nazrul is the national poet of Bangladesh. He is commemorated in India.


title: Kazi Nazrul Islam

text: He was born into a Muslim family in India, Nazrul received religious education. He worked as a muezzin at a local mosque. He learned of poetry, drama, and literature while working with theatrical groups. After being in the British Indian Army, Nazrul made himself a journalist in Kolkata (then Calcutta). He was against the British Raj in India. He talked about revolution through his poetic works. Some examples are "Bidrohi" ("The Rebel") and "Bhangar Gaan" ("The Song of Destruction"), as well as his publication "Dhumketu" ("The Comet"). His work in the Indian independence movement often led to going to jail by British authorities. While in prison, Nazrul wrote the "Rajbandir Jabanbandi" ("Deposition of a Political Prisoner").


title: Kazi Nazrul Islam

text: Nazrul's writings are about themes such as love, freedom, and revolution. He was against all bigotry, including religious and gender. Throughout his career, Nazrul wrote short stories, novels, and essays but is best known for his poems. He started new forms such as Bengali ghazals. Nazrul wrote and composed music for his nearly 4,000 songs. The are collectively known as Complete Works of Kazi Nazrul Islam, which are widely popular today. At the age of 43 (in 1942) he began suffering from an unknown disease. He was losing his voice and memory. It is often said, the reason was slow poisoning by British Government. He lived alone for many years. Invited by the Government of Bangladesh, Nazrul and his family moved to Dhaka in 1972. He died four years later.


title: Flag of the United States

text: The flag of the United States of America is a national flag. It has 7 red stripes and 6 white stripes. These 13 stripes represent the original thirteen colonies. The flag also has a blue "canton", a rectangle in the top left corner. There are 50 stars which represent the 50 states of America.


title: Flag of the United States

text: When a new state joins the United States, a new flag is made with an extra star. The new flag is first flown on the 4th of July (Independence Day).


title: Flag of the United States

text: The last states to join the United States were Alaska and Hawaii in 1959. Alaska joined on 3 January 1959, so the new flag with 49 stars was used from 4 July 1959. Hawaii joined on 21 August 1959, so the flag with 50 stars that is used today was not flown until 4 July 1960.


title: Flag of the United States

text: The colors in the flag are red, white and blue. The colors have no special meaning in the flag, but in the coat of arms, white stands for purity and innocence, red for bravery and strength, and blue for watchfulness, perseverance and justice.


title: Flag of the United States

text: The flag is also often called the Stars and Stripes, the Star-Spangled Banner, or Old Glory. The national anthem of the United States is a reference to the flag.


title: Flag of the United States

text: Since 1818, a star for each new state has been added to the flag on the Fourth of July immediately following each state's admission. In years in which multiple states have been admitted, the number of stars on the flag has jumped correspondingly. The greatest example so far was in 1890, when five states were admitted within the span of a single year (North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington in November 1889 and Idaho on 3 July 1890). This change has typically been the only change made with each revision of the flag since 1777, with the exception of changes in 1795 and 1818, which increased the number of stripes to 15 and then returned it to 13, respectively.


title: Flag of the United States

text: As the exact pattern of stars was not specified prior to 1912, and the exact colors not specified prior to 1934, many of the historical U.S. national flags (shown below) have had varied designs.


title: Algorithm

text: An algorithm is a set of instructions for solving logical and mathematical problems, or for accomplishing some other task.


title: Algorithm

text: A recipe is a good example of an algorithm because it says what must be done, step by step. It takes inputs (ingredients) and produces an output (the completed dish).


title: Algorithm

text: The words 'algorithm' and 'algorism' come from the name of a Persian mathematician called Al-Khwārizmī (Persian: خوارزمی, c. 780–850).


title: Algorithm

text: Informally, an algorithm can be called a "list of steps". Algorithms can be written in ordinary language, and that may be all a person needs.


title: Algorithm

text: For the purpose of computing, algorithms are written in pseudocode, flow charts, or programming languages.


title: Algorithm

text: There is usually more than one way to solve a problem. There may be many different recipes to make a certain dish which looks different but ends up tasting the same when all is said and done. The same is true for algorithms. However, some of these ways will be better than others. If a recipe needs lots of complicated ingredients that you do not have, it is not as a good as a simple recipe. When we look at algorithms as a way of solving problems, often we want to know how long it would take a computer to solve the problem using a particular algorithm. When we write algorithms, we like our algorithm to take the least amount of time so that we can solve our problem as quickly as possible.


title: Algorithm

text: In cooking, some recipes are more difficult to do than others, because they take more time to finish or have more things to keep track of.


title: Algorithm

text: It is the same for algorithms, and algorithms are better when they are easier for the computer to do. The thing that measures the difficulty of an algorithm is called "complexity". When we ask how complex an algorithm is, often we want to know how long it will take a computer to solve the problem we want it to solve.


title: Algorithm

text: This is an example of an algorithm for sorting cards with colors on them into piles of the same color:


title: Algorithm

text: These are examples of algorithms for sorting a stack of cards with many different numbers, so that the numbers are in order.


title: Algorithm

text: This algorithm goes through the stack of cards, one card at a time. This card is compared to the next card in the stack. Please note that this position only changes in step 6. This algorithm is called bubble sort. It is slow.


title: Algorithm

text: Let us take a stack of the cards with the numbers "5 1 4 2 8", and sort it from smallest number to biggest one using this algorithm. In each step, the algorithm compares the elements written in bold. The top of the stack of cards is on the left-hand side.


title: Algorithm

text: ( 5 1 4 2 8 ) formula_1 ( 1 5 4 2 8 ) Here, the algorithm compares the first two elements, and swaps them.


title: Algorithm

text: ( 1 4 2 5 8 ) formula_1 ( 1 4 2 5 8 ) These elements are already in order, so the algorithm does not swap them.


title: Algorithm

text: Now, the stack of cards is already sorted, but our algorithm does not know this. The algorithm needs one whole pass without any swap to know it is sorted.


title: Algorithm

text: This is an easy-to-understand algorithm for sorting. Computer scientists called it "Bubble sort", because smaller elements will rise to the top, changing their position in each run. Unfortunately, the algorithm is not very good, because it needs a long time (many passes through the stack of cards) to sort it.


title: Algorithm

text: This algorithm uses another idea. Sometimes solving a problem is difficult, but the problem can be changed so it is made of simpler problems that are easier to solve. This is called recursion. It is more difficult to understand than the first example, but it will give a better algorithm.


title: Algorithm

text: This works with two stacks of cards. One of them is called A, the other is called B. There is a third stack that is empty at the start, called C. At the end, it will contain the result.


title: Algorithm

text: John von Neumann developed this algorithm in 1945. He did not call it "Sorting by numbers", he called it "Mergesort". It is a very good algorithm for sorting, compared to others.


title: Algorithm

text: The first algorithm takes much longer to sort the cards than the second, but it can be improved (made better). Looking at bubble sort, it can be noticed that cards with high numbers move from the top of the stack quite quickly, but cards with low numbers at the bottom of the stack take a long time to "rise" (move to the top).


title: Algorithm

text: This algorithm was developed by C. A. R. Hoare in 1960. It is one of most widely used algorithms for sorting today. It is called "Quicksort".


title: Algorithm

text: If players have cards with colors and numbers on them, they can sort them by color and number if they do the "sorting by colors" algorithm, then do the "sorting by numbers" algorithm to each colored stack, then put the stacks together.


title: Algorithm

text: The sorting-by-numbers algorithms are more difficult to do than the sorting-by-colors algorithm, because they may have to do the steps again many times. One would say that sorting by numbers is more "complex".


title: Simo Häyhä

text: Simo Hayha (December 17, 1905 – April 1, 2002) was a Finnish soldier. He has the highest recorded number of confirmed sniper kills in any major war. The Russian soldiers began to call him as "White Death". He had over 500 confirmed kills during Winter war, which lasted only 105 days.


title: Simo Häyhä

text: Simo Häyhä spent his last years in Ruokolahti, a small village in southeastern Finland, near the Russian border. He died at the age of 96 in 2002.


title: Simo Häyhä

text: Actor Steven Wiig portrayed Häyhä in the 2012 HBO docudrama "Hemingway & Gellhorn". Sabaton also wrote a song about Hayha.


title: Charles Sobhraj

text: Charles Sobhraj (born 6 April 1944), also known as the Bikini Killer, is a French thief, fraudster and serial killer. He preyed on Western tourists throughout Southeast Asia during the 1970s. He was nicknamed The Splitting Killer and The Serpent.


title: Charles Sobhraj

text: Sobhraj allegedly committed at least a dozen murders. He was convicted and jailed in India from 1976 to 1997. After his release, he retired as a celebrity in Paris. In 2004 he returned to Nepal, where he was arrested and tried. In 2005 Sobhraj received a sentence of life imprisonment.


title: Charles Sobhraj

text: In 2007 news media reported that Sobhraj's lawyer had appealed to the then French president Nicolas Sarkozy, for intervention with Nepal. In 2008 Sobhraj announced his engagement to a Nepali woman, Nihita Biswas. The authenticity of the couple's relationship was confirmed in an open letter from American conductor David Woodard to "The Himalayan Times".


title: Charles Sobhraj

text: Sobhraj is widely believed to be a psychopath. He enjoyed the attention, charging large amounts of money for interviews and movie rights. He has been the subject of four books and three documentaries. Sobhraj's return to Nepal, where he was still eagerly sought by authorities, is believed to be the result of him wanting attention.


The Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were nuclear attacks on the Empire of Japan during World War II (WWII). The United States and the Allies were fighting against Japan and slowly winning. Two nuclear weapons were dropped on Japan, one on the city of Hiroshima and the other on the city of Nagasaki. The generals wanted to bomb Kokura instead of Nagasaki, but it was too cloudy over Kokura that day. U.S. President Harry S. Truman ordered these attacks on August 6 and 9, 1945. This was near the end of WWII.


title: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

text: The atomic bombs had been created through the Manhattan Project. They created two bombs. The first bomb was called Little Boy, and was to be dropped on Hiroshima, and the second bomb was called Fat Man, and was to be dropped on Nagasaki. Nuclear bombs are much more powerful than other bombs. Six days after the explosion over Nagasaki, and after the Soviet invasion of Manchukuo, Japan surrendered to the Allied Powers on August 15. Japan signed the surrender paper on September 2. This officially ended the Pacific War and World War II.


text: Hiroshima and Nagasaki were chosen for several reasons. First, both cities were unsuitable for firebombing, mainly due to the river deltas preventing firestorms from being very effective. Second, both cities had areas which provided a good measurement for damage caused by the nuclear bombs. Third and finally, both cities contained strategic personnel and installations; Hiroshima was the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and 5th Division with 40,000 Japanese combatants stationed within the city's limit, and Nagasaki contained two large Mitsubishi armament factories and many other medium-to-small workshops and plants providing vital war components for Japan's war machine.


text: Several other cities were selected for similar reasons and some of those were rejected due to bad weather. As with other Japanese cities, these targets were mixed in with civilian homes, schools, and temples. Sources said that at least 54% of the deaths in Hiroshima were combatants and slave laborers while 72% of the deaths in Nagasaki were war industry employees and slave laborers, however these figures at various points mix soldiers, enslaved POWs and victims of Japanese occupations and do not necessarily correspond to the overall population of the cities and the overall casualties


text: Many say that the atomic bombs actually saved many lives in the long run because it prevented the invasion of Japan. However, Japan had lost a huge part of its food resources and the majority of its navy. Many of these people suggest that Japan may have lacked the strength to carry out major fighting. US military commanders made statements during and immediately after 1945 that they believed Japan was effectively defeated prior to the dropping of the bomb. Before the bombs, Japan offered to surrender, on condition that their leaders had to stay in charge. America said the Emperor of Japan leader could stay in power, but the Japanese had to take orders from American soldiers placed in Japan, making it an occupied territory. More people would have been killed in a full battle in Japan. Some give different guesses of deaths in an invasion and deaths by the atomic bombs, and say that the bombings were not necessary. People still argue about this. No nuclear weapon has ever been used against a target since August 9, 1945.


text: The decision to use nuclear weapons on Japan was made after an analysis showed that more than a million people—combatants and civilians of both nations—would die if Japan was invaded by Allied forces. The nuclear bombings, while shocking and unprecedented, actually paled in comparison with the "Operation Meetinghouse" firebombing of Tokyo on March 9/10, 1945, which killed 100,000 civilians and destroyed 16 square miles in a single night. Doing nothing or waiting for surrender was not an option because hundreds of thousands of combatants, civilians, and prisoners of war were dying each month in the territories of the Empire of Japan.


text: Partly because of the atomic bombings, Japan adopted the Three Non-Nuclear Principles after the war. These principles said that Japan could not create or try to get nuclear weapons. A scientist Albert Einstein wrote a letter about the atomic bomb on August 2, 1939. But he said later, "I made one great mistake in my life, when I signed a letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made."


title: Athelstan

text: Athelstan or Æthelstan, (893/4–27 October 939), called the Glorious, was the first King of England. He reigned from 924 to 939. He was the son of King Edward the Elder. Athelstan's reign is sometimes overlooked but it was of great importance to political developments in the 10th century.


title: Athelstan

text: Athelstan was the son of Edward the Elder, and grandson of Alfred the Great. His father succeeded, after some difficulty, to the Kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons formed by Alfred. His father had also been the King of Mercia. When Edward died Athelstan quickly became King of Mercia but he was not immediately accepted as King of England. His brother, Ælfweard, had more support in England but died soon after Edward. This made it easier for Athelstan to become king.


title: Athelstan

text: For Athelstan it was very important to have many allies. A year after his crowning he married one of his sisters to the Viking King of Northumbria, Sithric. However, Sithric died only a year later, and Athelstan seized Northumbria. This move made him king of more land than any other before him, roughly the same as modern England. Historical records indicate that the other rulers in Great Britain accepted him as king at Bamburgh around this time.


title: Moldovan language

text: Moldovan () is the official language of Moldova. It is almost the same as Romanian. The main difference is that Moldovan was written in the Cyrillic alphabet because Moldova was part of the Soviet Union until 1989. In 1989, Moldova became its own country and started to use the Latin alphabet, which is used in Romania. On 5 December 2013, the Moldovan government chose Romanian as the official language.


title: Moldovan language

text: In the unrecognized state of Transnistria, one of the official languages is still Moldovan and is still written with the Cyrillic alphabet. The other official languages are Russian and Ukrainian.


title: Beijing

text: Beijing is the capital of the People's Republic of China. The city used to be known as Peking. It is in the northern and eastern parts of the country. Having more that 21 million residents, it is one of the most populous capital cities.


title: Beijing

text: The city of Beijing has played a very important role in the development of China. Many people from different cities and countries come to Beijing to look for better chances to find work. Nearly 15 million people live there. In 2008 Beijing hosted the Summer Olympic Games, and will host the 2022 Winter Olympic Games. It will be the only city to host both.


title: Beijing

text: Beijing is well known for its ancient history. Since the Jin Dynasty, Beijing has been the capital of several dynasties (especially the later ones), including the Yuan, Ming, and Qing. There are many places of historic interest in Beijing.


title: Beijing

text: The Mandarin Chinese name of the city is "Běijīng", which means "The Northern Capital". It got this name when the Yongle Emperor of the Ming family of rulers moved most of his government from Nanjing ("The Southern Capital") in the early 1400s. In Chinese, Beijing's name is written Today, people spell it "Beijing" because they use the pinyin way of spelling, which shows what the name should sound like in Mandarin. People used to spell it "Peking" because that was the spelling used by some of the first people from Europe to visit the Ming and write home about it; the Jesuits' work was made popular by their French brother Du Halde. It then became the official Chinese Postal Map spelling around 1900 and continued to be used until pinyin became more popular.


title: Beijing

text: Beijing was also known as Beiping ("City of Northern Peace") between 1928 and 1949, when the Nationalists moved the Chinese capital to Nanjing and Chongqing.


title: Beijing

text: The center of Beijing was settled in the 1st millennium BC. In those days, the Kingdom of Yan (燕, Yān) set up their capital where Beijing is today. They called it Ji (蓟, Jì). After the Kingdom of Yan was destroyed, the city became smaller, although it was still an important place.


title: Beijing

text: Beijing became more important again in the 10th century, when the Jin dynasty set its capital there. This city was destroyed by Mongol forces in 1215. Then in 1267, Mongols built a new city on the north side of the Jin capital, and called it "Great Capital" (大都, Dàdū), which was the beginning of modern Beijing. When Kublai Khan the Mongolian monarch, set up the Yuan dynasty, this city became his capital.


title: Beijing

text: The Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty and Qing dynasty all made Beijing their capital. When the Qing dynasty lost power and the Republic of China was set up, the new Republic moved its capital from Beijing to Nanjing. When the People's Republic of China seized power, Beijing became the capital of China again.


title: Beijing

text: Beijing is the education center of People's Republic of China. More than 500 famous universities of China are in Beijing. They also include 5 of the top universities: Peking University, Tsinghua University, China People University, Beijing Normal University, and Beihang University. Beijing is also education center of China for teaching Chinese as a foreign language. The standard Chinese pronunciation is based on Beijing dialect, so over 70% foreigners who want to study Chinese go to Beijing for their studies.


title: Scheherazade

text: The story, which was written many hundreds of years ago, tells of a Arabian king who married a young girl every night. At the end of every night he would send his new wife to have her head chopped off. He had already killed 3000 women in this way.


title: Scheherazade

text: Then, one day, Scheherazade heard about the king. She said she wanted to spend the night with him. Her father disagreed, but she still went. She spent all night telling him a story. At the end of the night she stopped the story at an exciting moment. The king wanted to hear the end of the story, but Scheherazade said he would have to wait until the next night to hear the rest.


title: Scheherazade

text: The next night she finished the story and began another one, which she again stopped when it was dawn. The king had to wait another night to hear the rest of the story. Scheherazade kept this up for 1001 nights. She told him 1001 stories. In the end the king had fallen in love with Scheherazade and they already had three children, so he did not have her executed.


title: Scheherazade

text: The main part of these stories is formed by an old Persian book called "Hezar-afsana" or the "Thousand Myths" (Persian: هزارافسانه).


title: Theresa May

text: Theresa Mary, Lady May (née Brasier; born 1 October 1956) is a British politician and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 2016 to 2019.


title: Theresa May

text: She was born in Eastbourne, Sussex, and grew up in Oxfordshire. She is the Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Maidenhead in the House of Commons. She was the Home Secretary in the David Cameron government. In 2018, she was elected as Commonwealth Chair-in-Office.


title: Theresa May

text: On 12 December 2018, 48 Conservative MPs had submitted letters of no confidence to the Chairman of the 1922 Committee Sir Graham Brady, triggering a vote of no confidence. Despite this, May won the confidence vote after 200 MPs vowed support to her leadership. On 15 January 2019 after her Brexit proposal failed in the House of Commons by a 432 to 202 vote, Opposition Leader Jeremy Corbyn filled a motion of no confidence in her ministry, which failed in a 325 to 306 vote.


title: Theresa May

text: In March 2019, May said she would resign as Prime Minister if Parliament passed her Brexit deal, to make way for a new leader in the second phase of Brexit.


title: Theresa May

text: On 24 May 2019, she announced that her resignation as party leader would take effect on 7 June and she would leave her position as Prime Minister when her replacement is selected. She was replaced by Boris Johnson.


title: Theresa May

text: May was born on 1 October 1956 at Maternity Home in 9 Upperton Road in Eastbourne, Sussex. May is the only child of Zaidee Mary (née Barnes; 1928–1982) and Hubert Brasier (1917–1981). Her father was a Church of England clergyman. May was educated at Oxfordshire primary and grammar schools in the State sector, and graduated the University of Oxford in 1977.


title: Theresa May

text: From 1977 and 1983 May worked at the Bank of England, and from 1985 to 1997 as a financial consultant and senior advisor in International Affairs at the Association for Payment Clearing Services. May's parents died during this period, her father in a car accident in 1981 and her mother of multiple sclerosis a year later. May served as a councillor for the London Borough of Merton from 1986 to 1994, where she was Chairman of Education (1988–90) and Deputy Group Leader and Housing Spokesman (1992–94).


title: Theresa May

text: She first became a Conservative Party MP at the 1997 general election and was promoted to the shadow cabinet in 1999. She held several positions in the shadow cabinet, including Chairman of the Conservative Party (July 2002-November 2003) and Shadow Leader of the House of Commons (December 2005-January 2009).


title: Theresa May

text: In December 2010, May declared that deployment of water cannon by police forces in mainland Britain was an operational decision which had been "resisted until now by senior police officers." She rejected their use following the widespread rioting in Summer 2011. In 2010, May promised to bring the level of net migration down to less than 100,000. In February 2015, "The Independent" reported, "The Office for National Statistics (ONS) announced a net flow of 298,000 migrants to the UK in the 12 months to September 2014—up from 210,000 in the previous year."


title: Theresa May

text: At the Conservative Party Conference on 4 October 2011, while arguing that the Human Rights Act needed to be amended, May gave the example of a foreign national who the Courts ruled was allowed to remain in the UK, "because—and I am not making this up—he had a pet cat".


title: Theresa May

text: In May 2012, she said she supported same-sex marriage. She recorded a video for the Out4Marriage campaign.


title: Theresa May

text: In July 2013, May decided to ban the stimulant khat, against the advice of the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD). The council said that there was "insufficient evidence" it caused health problems.


title: Theresa May

text: May was a candidate in the upcoming election for leadership of the Conservative Party. May described herself as a candidate who will unify the party after a 'divisive' referendum (Brexit). She won the first ballot on 5 July 2016 by a large margin with 50% of the votes. On 7 July, May won the votes of 199 MPs, facing the vote of Conservative Party members in a contest with Andrea Leadsom.


title: Theresa May

text: Leadsom's withdrawal from the contest on 11 July led to May being set to be appointed party leader and hence, Prime Minister, an office she assumed on 13 July 2016.


title: Theresa May

text: After being appointed by the Queen on 13 July 2016, May became the United Kingdom's second female Prime Minister, after Margaret Thatcher. She is the first female Prime minister of the 21st century.


title: Theresa May

text: May told the media on 12 July 2016 that she was "honoured and humbled" to be the party leader and to become prime minister. Responding to some calls for a general election (reported by the news media) to confirm her mandate, "sources close to Mrs May" said there would be no such election according to the BBC.


title: Theresa May

text: A big issue May had to tackle during her premiership is Brexit, after Britain voted to leave the European Union. May has led talks with the European Union to plan how the split will happen.


title: Theresa May

text: May has also dealt with the war in Iraq and Syria. She has used Britain's military to fight ISIS in both countries. British troops have been in the Battle of Mosul, helping Iraq's military and the Kurdish forces.


title: Theresa May

text: On 18 April 2017 Theresa May surprised people by saying she wanted to have a snap general election on 8 June . The next day the House of Commons voted in favour of holding the general election in June.


title: Theresa May

text: At the start of the campaign the Conservatives had a large lead in the polls. As the campaign went on, the Labour Party gained more support and started to rise in the polls. On the day of the election the Conservatives did worse than expected and May lost her majority in the House of Commons.


title: Theresa May

text: On 12 December 2018, the chairman of the 1922 committee received enough formal request letters to warrant what some Westminster system countries call a Leadership spill, which was promptly scheduled for the following evening. Many say this is because of the Brexit deal and the way May is handling the deal. Before the vote, May said later that day that she would not lead her party in the next general election. May would go on to win the confidence vote.


title: Theresa May

text: On 15 January 2019 Theresa May's government was defeated in the house of commons by a majority of 203 in a vote on her deal to leave the European Union. This is the largest majority against a United Kingdom government ever.


title: Theresa May

text: On 24 May 2019, May announced that she would resign as Conservative Party leader effective on 7 June and that she will remain as Prime Minister until her replacement is picked.


title: Rihanna

text: Robyn Rihanna Fenty (born 20 February 1988), professionally known as Rihanna, is a Barbadian singer, actress, fashion designer and businesswoman. She started her music career in 2003. She has released eight studio albums and three DVDs. Rihanna has won many awards. These include five American Music Awards, eighteen "Billboard" Music Awards, two BRIT Awards, and nine Grammy Awards. She has had fourteen number-one singles on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart. In 2012, the American magazine "Time" named Rihanna one of the most influential people in the world.


title: Rihanna

text: Her third album, "Good Girl Gone Bad" (2007) made her popular in the music business. The chart-topping single "Umbrella" earned Rihanna her first Grammy Award. Her next albums "Rated R" (2009), "Loud" (2010), "Talk That Talk" (2011), and "Unapologetic" (2012) became very popular. From these albums, her best known singles were "Rude Boy", "Only Girl (In the World)", "What's My Name?", "S&M", "We Found Love", "Where Have You Been" and "Diamonds".


title: Rihanna

text: Rihanna was honored as a National Hero of Barbados on the first day of the country's independence in November 2021.


title: Rihanna

text: Fenty was also ranked the fourth most powerful celebrity in 2012. She earned $53 million between May 2011 and May 2012, according to "Forbes". In 2013, Fenty was given the first ever Icon Award at the American Music Awards. Fenty's seventh album "Unapologetic" (2012) became her first number-one album in the United States. It won Best Urban Contemporary Album at the 2014 Grammy Awards. In 2015, a movie called "Home" was released. Fenty voiced one of the main characters in it and was also the executive producer of the movie's soundtrack.


title: Rihanna

text: Her eighth studio album, "Anti", was released to the streaming service Tidal and entered the "Billboard" 200 album chart at number 27. It was a limited-time free download sponsored by Samsung. It was certified Platinum in the U.S. only two days after it was released. The next week, after the album was released to other marketplaces, it reached number one on the "Billboard" 200. "Anti" features the "Billboard" Hot 100 number-one single "Work" (featuring Drake) and the top-ten hit "Needed Me". She also recorded a song, "This Is What You Came For", with Scottish DJ Calvin Harris. It reached the top ten on charts around the world. The following year, she was featured on DJ Khaled's song "Wild Thoughts", which reached number two on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Rihanna

text: Fenty created a line of beauty products called Fenty Beauty. On June 4, 2019, Natalie Robehmed of "Forbes" wrote that Fenty had become the world's richest female musician, with a net worth of $600 million. Her net worth was updated in August 2021 to $1.7 billion.


title: Rihanna

text: On September 25, 2022, it was announced that Fenty would be the headliner of the Super Bowl LVII halftime show on February 12, 2023.


title: Rihanna

text: Robyn Rihanna Fenty was born in Saint Michael, Barbados to Monica (of Guyanese ancestry) and Ronald Fenty (of Irish and West Indian ancestry). She has two younger brothers, Rorrey and Rajad Fenty. She grew up in Bridgetown.


title: Rihanna

text: On May 19, 2021, American rapper ASAP Rocky confirmed that he and Rihanna were in a relationship. On January 31, 2022, it was revealed that Rihanna was pregnant with the couple's first child. She gave birth to a boy four months later.


title: Rihanna

text: On 8 February 2009, Rihanna was assaulted by her then-boyfriend Chris Brown after Brown was sending messages to a girl. Rihanna got angry and Brown beat her up. The LAPD leaked a photograph to TMZ which showed Rihanna with cuts and bruises on her face. On 22 June 2009, Brown pled guilty to the felony assault. He was ordered to five years probation and to stay fifty yards way from Rihanna, unless it is at a public event, at which it was ten yards. In February 2011, the restraining order was changed to allow both singers to appear at awards shows together in the future.


title: Turkmen language

text: Turkmen (, Cyrillic: , Persian: ) is the national language of Turkmenistan. It is spoken by about 7,000,000 people in Turkmenistan and by an about 380,000 more people in Northwestern Afghanistan and 500,000 in Northeastern Iran.


title: Christian Bale

text: Christian Charles Philip Bale (born 30 January 1974) is an English actor. He is from Haverfordwest in Pembrokeshire. Bale is best known for playing Batman in Christopher Nolan's "The Dark Knight Trilogy". He began in a movie of Steven Spielberg's Empire of the Sun. He also played in "American Psycho" and "The Machinist". In 2010, Bale won an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award for his performance in "The Fighter". He played Dick Cheney in the biopic movie "Vice", and won another Golden Globe Award. He is married to Sandra Blažić since 2000 and they have two children together.


title: Indus Valley civilization

text: The Indus Valley civilization was a Bronze Age civilization(3300–1300 BC; mature period 2700–1700 BC)


title: Indus Valley civilization

text: It developed along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River and even that areas are now in modern Pakistan, north-west India and Afghanistan. The civilization started during the Bronze Age and the height of its development was between 2500 BC and 1500 BC. Including the civilizations directly before and after, it may have lasted from the 33rd to the 14th century BC.


title: Indus Valley civilization

text: The Indus Valley civilization covered a large area from Balochistan (Pakistan) to Gujarat (Republic of India). The first city to be discovered by excavation (digging up) was Harappa and therefore this civilization is also known as 'Harappan Civilization'.


title: Indus Valley civilization

text: They were good builders. The ruins of the site shows skillful design. Their buildings had two or sometimes more storeys. The bathrooms were attached to the rooms. One of the unique features of the city was its elaborate drainage system. A brick-lined drainage channel flowed alongside every street. Removable bricks were placed at regular intervals for easy cleaning and inspection.


title: Indus Valley civilization

text: The harappan traders used seals on the knots of the sacks to be transported to make sure that they were not opened during the journey. Nobody knows how to read their writing system.


title: Indus Valley civilization

text: In 1842 Charles Masson wrote a book that mentioned the sites of Indus Valley Civilisation. Few people paid attention. Later, in 1921-22, John Marshall organised the first archaeological dig at Harappa.


title: Computer network

text: A computer network is a group of two or more computers that are linked together. Networks are usually used to share resources, exchange files or communicate with other users.


title: Computer network

text: A network is a set of nodes connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending or receiving data from or to the other node in the network.


title: Computer network

text: Other devices are often needed for the network to work correctly. Examples for such devices include hubs and switches. Different kinds of network can be connected to each other with a router. In general, networks that use cables to connect can operate at higher speeds than those using wireless technology.


title: Computer network

text: Computers in a network can be near each other, or far. A Local Area Network (LAN) connects computers which are close together. Building a LAN is easier than connecting different networks (by a Wide Area Network). The largest Wide Area Network is the Internet.


title: Computer network

text: Computers can be part of several different networks. Networks can also be parts of bigger networks. The "local area network" in a small business is usually connected to the "corporate network" of the larger company. These connections may allow access to the "Internet". For example, a shop may use it to show merchandise on its Web site through a web server, or to convert received orders into shipping instructions.


title: Computer network

text: A network must be connected with appropriate hardware. This can be wired or wireless. For a simple LAN, computers, media and peripherals are sufficient. WANs (wide area networks) and some large LANs (local area networks) need some additional devices like a bridge, gateway or router to connect different small or large networks.


title: Computer network

text: A network needs a communication protocol (a system for exchanging messages between computing systems.) Microsoft Windows, Linux and most other operating systems use TCP/IP. Apple Macintosh computers used Appletalk in the 20th century, but use TCP/IP now.


title: Computer network

text: One large network of communication technology would be difficult to implement. As a result, we split up various components of the network into smaller modules or layers. The standard model of a network is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model set by the International Organization Standard (ISO).


title: Computer network

text: Other network models exist, though they are all split into similar layers. Each layer uses the services that the layer below provides, while providing services for the layer above it. Each layer can only communicate with the same layer on the destination device.


title: Computer network

text: OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) is a 7-layer network model specified by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) norm and is widely used all around the world. The concept of a seven-layer model was provided by the work of Charles Bachman, Honeywell information Services. Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences with the ARPANET, NPLNET, EIN and CYCLADES networks and the work in IFIP WG6.1.


title: Computer network

text: The physical layer defines electrical and physical specifications for devices. It also specifies modulated and baseband transmission.


title: Computer network

text: Baseband is digital data in their raw form (in binary, the language understood by the computer in the form of 0s and 1s - 1001 1101 1010 0011). This allows very fast and reliable transmission over short distances; however, the media tend to make the bits interfere with each other, the range of baseband transmission is very limited. It becomes worse with increasing speed. Baseband technology is frequently used on LAN.


title: Computer network

text: In telecommunications, modulation is the process of conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit stream or an analog audio signal, inside another signal that can be physically transmitted. The device that provides modulation of the baseband signal is called a modulator, and the device that provides demodulation of the modulated signal back to baseband is called a demodulator. Today, the modulator and demodulator are integrated into one device called Modem (modulator-demodulator). Frequently used on WAN, WLAN, WWAN.


title: Computer network

text: The data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical layer.


title: Computer network

text: The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a different network using the IP address.


title: Computer network

text: An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. At present there are two versions of protocols in use – IPv4 and IPv6.


title: Computer network

text: The transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within OSI.


title: Computer network

text: Commonly united into one layer in simplified network models, its main purpose is to interact with applications, encrypting and establishing dedicated connections if necessary.


title: Computer network

text: Latency, incorrectly called ping, is a value that measures how much time packets need to travel to their destination. It is measured in milliseconds (ms). The tool that measures latency is called ping, commonly using special ICMP packets which are smaller than standard data packets so they do not weight the network by their presence.


title: Computer network

text: Capacity is a measure of transfer capacity of a network and is measured in bits per second (bps or b/s), today commonly Mbps or Mb/s. It shows us how many data units are transferred each second. At present, the average bandwidth is far higher than is necessary and it is not a limiting factor in most cases.


title: Computer network

text: Broadcast is a special transmission that is not meant for a single device but is addressed to all devices in specific network. It is mostly used to automatically issue IP addresses to devices by a DHCP server and to create an ARP table that maps the network and speeds up the traffic.


title: September

text: September (Sep.) is the ninth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between August and October. It has 30 days. Its name comes from the Latin word "sept" for "seven" (it was the seventh month of the year, before January and February were added to the beginning of the year.)


title: September

text: September always begins on the same day of the week as December, but never ends on the same day of the week as any other month.


title: September

text: In the old Roman calendar, September was the seventh month, which is where it got its name ("Septem" means "seventh"). The ninth month at the time was November ("Novem" means "ninth"). With Julius Caesar's calendar reform, September became the ninth month, with 30 days. September comes after August and before October.


title: September

text: September begins on the same day of week as December every year, as each other's first days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart. No other month in any year ends on the same day of the week as September: this month and May are the only two months with this property.


title: September

text: In common years, September starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the previous year, and in leap years, October of the previous year. In common years, September finishes on the same day of the week as April and December of the previous year, and in leap years, July of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, September starts on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.


title: September

text: In years immediately before common years, September starts on the same day of the week as June of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and November of the following year. In years immediately before common years, September finishes on the same day of the week as March and June of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, August and November of the following year.


title: September

text: September is one of two months to have an equinox (the other is March, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), where both day and night are roughly of equal length, occurring either on the 22nd or 23rd, halfway between the June and December solstices. In the Northern Hemisphere, Autumn (Fall) begins in this month, while in the Southern Hemisphere, this is the beginning of Spring. For meteorologists, the people who study the weather, these seasons begin on September 1 in those hemispheres. In most Northern Hemisphere countries, school starts in this month, following the summer holidays.


title: September

text: In Ancient Greece, September was called "Boedromion". The Anglo-Saxons called it "Gerstmonath", meaning "Barley month", referring to the harvest. In other countries, it is referred to as "Autumn Month", such as in Finland (Syyskuu) and German-speaking parts of Switzerland (Herbstmonat).


title: Northern Europe

text: Northern Europe is the northern part of the European continent. Most people see the following states as part of it:


title: Northern Europe

text: Europe, the planet's 6th largest continent, includes 47 countries and assorted dependencies, islands and territories.


title: Northern Europe

text: Before the 19th century, the term 'Nordic' or 'Northern' was commonly used to mean Northern Europe in a sense that included the Nordic countries, European Russia, the Baltic countries (at that time Livonia and Courland) and Greenland.


title: Northern Europe

text: In earlier eras, when Europe was dominated by the Mediterranean region (i.e. the Roman Empire), everything not near this sea was termed Northern Europe, including Germany, the Low Countries, and Austria. In medieval times, the term (Ultima) Thule was used to mean a semi-mythical place in the extreme northern reaches of the continent.


title: Northern Europe

text: In a European Union context, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Germany, Ireland, Austria, Luxembourg, Belgium, Netherlands, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are officially seen as belonging to a Northern group.


title: Himachal Pradesh

text: Himachal Pradesh () is a state in northern India. Shimla is the capital of Himachal Pradesh. It covers an area of , although the border with China is still disputed. The land contains high mountains. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the North Indian zone. It borders to Jammu and Kashmir to the north.


title: Himachal Pradesh

text: The State of HP is divided into three Divisions, namely Mandi Division, Kangra Division, Shimla Division. The divisions are further sub-divided into 12 districts. These are further divided into 73 sub-divisions, 172 tehsils and 35 sub-tehsils.


title: Rho

text: Rho (uppercase/lowercase Ρ ρ) is the 17th letter of the Greek alphabet. It is used to represent the "r" sound in Ancient and Modern Greek. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 100. Letters that came from it include the Roman R and Cyrillic Р.


title: Rho

text: In statistics, the lowercase Rho ("ρ") is used to represent population correlation. In physics, the same letter is used to represent density.


title: Pretoria

text: Pretoria is one of the three capital cities of the African country of South Africa. It is the executive (administrative) and de facto capital of the country. The other two capitals are Cape Town (legislative) and Bloemfontein (judicial). The city is in the northern part of Gauteng Province, South Africa.


title: Pretoria

text: Pretoria is between the Highveld and the Bushveld, about 50 km north of Johannesburg in the north-east of South Africa. It is in a warm, well sheltered valley. The valley is surrounded by the hills of the Magaliesberg mountain range. Pretoria has a humid subtropical climate (Cwa in the Köppen climate classification). Snow is a very rare event. It only snows in Pretoria once or twice in a century.


title: Pretoria

text: The city has a population of about 1.9 million people. The main languages spoken in Pretoria include Tswana, Ndebele, Afrikaans, and English.


title: Pretoria

text: Nguni-speaking settlers were probably the first people to live in the river valley that later became the location of the city of Pretoria.


title: Pretoria

text: Pretoria was founded in 1855 by Marthinus Wessel Pretorius. He was a leader of the Voortrekkers. Pretoruis named the city after his father Andries Pretorius. Andries Pretorius had become a hero of the Voortrekkers after the Battle of Blood River. The city became the capital of the South African Republic (ZAR) on May 1, 1860.


title: Pretoria

text: During the First Boer War, the city was attacked in December 1880 and March 1881. The peace treaty which ended the war was signed in Pretoria on August 3, 1881 at the Pretoria Convention.


title: Pretoria

text: The Second Boer War (1899 to 1902) caused the end of the South African Republic. After this war, the United Kingdom took control of South Africa. During the war, Winston Churchill was imprisoned in the Staats Model School in Pretoria. He later got free and went to Mozambique. The city surrendered to British forces on June 5, 1900. The war ended in Pretoria with the signing of the Peace of Vereeniging on May 31 1902.


title: Pretoria

text: In 1910, Pretoria then became the administrative capital of all of South Africa, with Cape Town the legislative capital. Between 1860 and 1994, the city was also the capital of the province of Transvaal. On 14 October 1931, Pretoria got official city status. When South Africa became a republic in 1961, Pretoria stayed its administrative capital.


title: Pretoria

text: Pretoria was at one time seen as "the capital of Apartheid South Africa". This was changed when Nelson Mandela became the country's first black President.


title: Pretoria

text: Pretoria is an important industrial centre. It has many industries including iron and steel as well as automobile, railroad and machinery manufacture.


title: Sovereign state

text: A sovereign state is a country with borders where people live, and where a government makes laws and talks to other sovereign states. The people have to follow the laws that the government makes. Most sovereign states are "recognized" which means other sovereign states agree that it is really a sovereign state. Being recognized makes it easier for a sovereign state to talk to and make agreements (treaties) with other sovereign states. There are hundreds of recognized sovereign states today - see List of sovereign states.


title: Sovereign state

text: There is no rule to say what exactly makes a state. Usually, the things a state must have are mainly political, not legal. The Czechs and the Poles were seen as separate states during World War I, even though they did not exist as states yet. L.C. Green explained this by saying that "recognition of statehood is a matter of discretion, it is open to any existing state to accept as a state any entity it wishes, regardless of the existence of territory or an established government."


title: Sovereign state

text: This means that it is up to any state that already exists to treat any other group as a state. This recognition can be direct or implied. When a state does this, it usually means that the group will also be treated as a state for things that happened in the past. Sometimes it means that the state wants diplomatic relations with the other group, but not always.


title: Sovereign state

text: Sovereignty is a word that is often used wrongly. Lassa Oppenheim said that there is no idea whose meaning is more controversial than sovereignty. No one argues the fact that from the time the idea of sovereignty was first used in political science until now, there has never been one meaning that everyone agreed on. Justice Evatt of the High Court of Australia says that "sovereignty is neither a question of fact, nor a question of law, but a question that does not arise at all."


title: Sovereign state

text: Although the word sovereignty often includes all types of government, ancient and modern, the modern state has some links to the type of government first seen in the 15th century, when the term "state" also first meant what it does today. Because of this, the word is often used to refer only to modern political systems.


title: Sovereign state

text: We often use the words "country", "nation", and "state" as if they mean the same thing; but there is actually a difference:


title: Sovereign state

text: Because the meaning of the words has changed over time and past writers often used the word "state" in a different ways it is difficult to say exactly what a state is. Mikhail Bakunin used the word simply to mean a governing organization. Other writers used the word "state" to mean any law-making or law enforcement agency. Karl Marx said that the state was what was used by the ruling class of a country to control the rule. According to Max Weber, the state is an organization who are the only people allowed to use violence in a particular area.


title: Sovereign state

text: In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna the Final Act only recognized 39 sovereign states in Europe. Because of this, they said that in future new states would have to be recognized by other states. In practice, this meant recognition by one or more of the most powerful countries.


title: Sovereign state

text: This constitutive theory was developed in the 19th century to describe what is and is not a state. With this theory, the need to follow international law depends on whether other sovereign governments recognize the group. Because of this, new states could not become part of the international community or be bound by international law immediately, so recognized nations did not have to respect international law in their dealings with them.


title: Sovereign state

text: "International Law does not say that a State is not in existence as long as it isn't recognised, but it takes no notice of it before its recognition. Through recognition only and exclusively a State becomes an International Person and a subject of International Law".


title: Sovereign state

text: One of the major issues is the confusion that happens when some states recognize a new group, but other states do not. Hersch Lauterpacht, one of the main people who supported the theory, suggested that it is a state's job to grant recognition as a possible solution. However, a state may use any set of rules when judging if they should give recognition.


title: Sovereign state

text: One of the criteria most commonly used by micronations is the Montevideo Convention. The Montevideo Convention was signed on December 26 1933 by the United States, Honduras, El Salvador, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Argentina, Venezuela, Uruguay, Paraguay, Mexico, Panama, Bolivia, Guatemala, Brazil, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Colombia, Chile, Peru and Cuba but it never received international consensus. The Montevideo Convention has four conditions that a group "should" meet to become a state:


title: Sovereign state

text: According to this, the existence of a state does not depend upon recognition by other states. Whether or not an group meets the conditions is decided by other states when they decide if they are going to treat that group as a state. Usually, new states are formally recognized by at least a few other states.


title: Sovereign state

text: Most sovereign states are states "de jure" and "de facto". This means they exist both in law and in real life. However, sometimes states are only "de jure" states. This means that other states see a group as the true government of a place where they have no actual control. Many European states had governments-in-exile during the Second World War which still had relations with the Allies, even though their countries were under Nazi occupation. An example today is the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, which is a United Nations observer, has bi-lateral diplomatic relations with 104 states. It has no land of its own, only embassies and consulates. Other states may have sovereignty over a place, but are not recognized by other states, these are "de facto" states only. Many people agree that Somaliland is such a state.


title: Waltzing Matilda

text: "Waltzing Matilda" is one of Australia's best known songs. The bush ballad, a country folk song, has been called "the unofficial national anthem of Australia".


title: Waltzing Matilda

text: The title, Waltzing Matilda, is Australian slang for walking through the country looking for work, with one's goods in a "Matilda" (bag) carried over one's back.


title: Waltzing Matilda

text: The song tells the story of a traveling farm worker making a drink of tea at a bush camp and capturing a sheep to eat. When the sheep's owner arrives with three policemen to arrest the worker for taking the sheep (a crime punishable by hanging), the worker drowns himself in a small watering hole. The worker's ghost stays to haunt the site.


title: Waltzing Matilda

text: The words to the song were written in 1895 by a poet and nationalist Banjo Paterson. It was first printed as sheet music in 1903. There are many stories about the song and how it was written. The song has its own museum, the Waltzing Matilda Centre in Winton, Queensland.


title: Waltzing Matilda

text: The music, based on a folk song, was written by Christina Macpherson. Paterson wrote the words while staying at the Dagworth Homestead, farm in Queensland. While he was there the owners played him an old Celtic folk tune called "The Craigeelee". Paterson decided that it would be a good tune to write words for and completed during his stay at the farm.


title: Waltzing Matilda

text: The tune is probably the Scottish song "Thou Bonnie Wood Of Craigielea", which Macpherson heard played by a band at the Warrnambool steeplechase. Robert Tannahill wrote the words in 1805 and James Barr wrote the music in 1818. In 1893 it was arranged for brass band by Thomas Bulch. The tune may have been based on the melody of "Go to the Devil and Shake Yourself", written by John Field (1782–1837) sometime before 1812. It is sometimes also called: "When Sick Is It Tea You Want?" (London 1798) or "The Penniless Traveller" (O'Neill's 1850 collection).


title: Waltzing Matilda

text: There is also an idea that tune may be similar to "The Bold Fusilier" (also called "Marching through Rochester"), a song sung to the same tune and dated by some back to the eighteenth century but first printed in 1900.


title: Waltzing Matilda

text: There are no "official" words to "Waltzing Matilda", and slight differences can be found in the sources. This version uses the famous "You'll never catch me alive said he" variation introduced by the Billy Tea company. Paterson's original words use 'drowning', which the tea company felt was too negative.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Michael "Mick" Collins ( 16 October 1890 – 22 August 1922) was an Irish revolutionary leader. He was a Minister for Finance and Teachta Dála (TD "member of parliament") for Cork South in the First Dáil of 1919. He was also the Director of Intelligence for the Southern IRA, and member of the Irish delegation during the Anglo-Irish Treaty negotiations. After that he was both Chairman of the Provisional Government and Commander-in-chief of the National Army. Throughout this time, at least as of 1919, he was also President of the Irish Republican Brotherhood. Under the rules of the Brotherhood this meant that he was President of the Irish Republic. Collins was shot and killed in August 1922, during the Irish Civil War.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: He was born on his family farm named Woodfield in Sam's Cross near Clonakilty, West Cork. Michael Collins was the third son and youngest of eight children. Most biographies state his date of birth as 16 October 1890; however, his tombstone gives his date of birth as 12 October 1890. His father, also named Michael, was a member of the republican Fenian movement, but had left and settled down to farming. Collins was six years old when his father died.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: After leaving school aged 15, Collins took the British Civil Service examination in Cork in February 1906. In 1910, he moved to London where he became a messenger at a London firm of stock brokers, Horne and Company. While in London he lived with his elder sister, and studied at King's College London. He joined the London GAA and, through this, the Irish Republican Brotherhood, a secret, oath-bound society dedicated to achieving Irish independence. In 1915, he moved to the Guaranty Trust Company of New York where he remained until his return to Ireland the following year.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Michael Collins first became known during the Easter Rising in 1916. A skilled organiser and very intelligent, he was highly respected in the IRB. When the Rising itself took place on Easter Monday, 1916, he fought alongside Patrick Pearse and others in the General Post Office in Dublin.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Collins, like many of the other participants, was arrested, almost executed. He was imprisoned at Frongoch internment camp. Collins became one of the leading figures in Sinn Féin after the Rising. This was a small nationalist party which the British government and the Irish media mistakenly accredited the Rising to. By October 1917, Collins had become a member of the executive of Sinn Féin and Director of Organisation of the Irish Volunteers. Éamon de Valera was president of both organisations.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Collins was nominated in the 1918 general election to elect Irish MPs to the British House of Commons in London. Collins won for Sinn Féin, becoming MP for Cork South. However, unlike their rivals in the Irish Parliamentary Party, Sinn Féin MPs had announced that they would not take their seats in Westminster, but instead would set up an Irish Parliament in Dublin.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: That new parliament, called "Dáil Éireann" (meaning "Assembly of Ireland") met in the Mansion House, Dublin in January 1919, although De Valera and leading Sinn Féin MPs had been arrested.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: In de Valera's absence, Cathal Brugha was elected Príomh Aire ('Main' or 'Prime', Minister', but often translated as 'President of Dáil Éireann'). He was replaced by de Valera, when Collins helped him escape from Lincoln Prison in April 1919.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: The Irish War of Independence began on the same day that the First Dáil met on 21 January 1919. An ambush party of IRA volunteers acting without orders and led by Seán Treacy attacked a group of Royal Irish Constabulary men. They were escorting a shipment of gelignite to a quarry in Soloheadbeg, County Tipperary. Two policemen were shot dead during the fight. This incident is considered to be the first action taken in the Irish War of Independence.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: In 1919, Collins had a number of roles. In the summer he was elected president of the IRB, Director of Intelligence of the Irish Republican Army. He also became the Minister for Finance. His ministry was able to organise a large bond issue in the form of a "National Loan" to fund the new Irish Republic. Collins and Richard Mulcahy were the two main organisers for the Irish Republican Army, in as far as it was possible to direct the actions of disorganised guerrilla units.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: In 1920, the British offered a prize of £10,000 (equivalent to GB£474,000.00 / €535,026.83 in 2017) for information leading to the capture or death of Collins. His fame had so transcended the IRA movement that he was nicknamed "The Big Fellow".


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: In July 1921, the British suddenly offered a truce. Arrangements were made for a conference between the British government and the leaders of the as-yet unrecognised Irish Republic.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: In August 1921, Eamonn de Valera made the Dáil upgrade his office from Prime Minister to President of the Irish Republic. This made him on the same level as George V in the negotiations. Eventually, however, he said that as the King would not attend, then neither would he. Instead, with the reluctant agreement of his cabinet, de Valera assembled a team of delegates to go in his place. The team was headed by Vice-President Arthur Griffith with Collins as Deputy.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: The negotiations resulted in the Anglo-Irish Treaty which was signed on 6 December 1921. In it, a new state was agreed upon, called the "Irish Free State". The agreement made an all-Ireland state possible. The six-county region in the northeast could opt out of the Free State if they wanted to. If this happened, an Irish Boundary Commission was to redraw the Irish border. The Irish Free State was established in December 1922, and as expected, Northern Ireland opted to remain part of the United Kingdom proper.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Although it was not the republic he was fighting for, Collins concluded that the Treaty offered Ireland "the freedom to achieve freedom." He knew that the treaty, and in particular the issue of partition, would not be popular in Ireland. When he signed the treaty, he said "I have signed my own death warrant."


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Sinn Féin split over the treaty, and the Dáil debated the matter bitterly for ten days until it was approved by a vote of 64 to 57. The Supreme Council of the IRB, which was informed in detail about the Treaty negotiations voted unanimously ("without exceptions") to accept the Treaty. The only exception was the later COS of the IRA Liam Lynch.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: First, Éamon de Valera, President of the Irish Republic until 9 January, had been unhappy that Collins had signed any deal without his and his cabinet's authorisation.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: Second, the contents of the Treaty were bitterly disputed. De Valera and many other members of the republican movement did not want Ireland to be a dominion of the British Empire. They did not like the "symbolism" of having to give a statement of faithfulness to the British king.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: The dividing of Ireland between the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland was not as controversial. One of the main reasons for this was that Collins was secretly planning to launch a guerrilla war against the Northern State. In the early months of 1922, he had sent IRA units to the border, and arms and money to the northern units. In May–June 1922, he and IRA Chief of Staff Liam Lynch organised an attack of both pro- and anti-treaty IRA units along the new border. This offensive was officially called off under British pressure on 3 June and Collins issued a statement that "no troops from the 26 counties, either those under official control [pro-treaty] or those attached to the [IRA] Executive [anti-treaty] should be permitted to invade the six county area."


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: The new Provisional Government () was formed under Collins, who became "President of the Provisional Government of Southern Ireland" (i.e., Prime Minister). He also remained Minister for Finance of Griffith's republican administration after de Valera stepped down.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: In the months leading up to the outbreak of civil war in June 1922, Collins tried to heal the split in the nationalist movement and prevent civil war. De Valera, having opposed the Treaty in the Dáil, withdrew from the assembly with his supporters. Collins secured a compromise, "The Collins/De Valera Pact", whereby the two factions of Sinn Féin, pro- and anti-Treaty, would fight the soon-to-be Free State's first election jointly and form a coalition government afterwards. This Pact was agreed without Griffith's knowledge and he opposed it as a potential betrayal of the Treaty. For a time it appeared that a split would occur in the pro-Treaty ranks but Griffith relented realizing that Collins held all the power. His friendship with Collins did not survive. [ANTHONY J. JORDAN IN "ARTHUR GRIFFITH with James Joyce & WB Yeats - Liberating Ireland". Westport Books. pp. 173–5 & 188-189.]


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: To try and find a compromise, Collins proposed that the Free State would have a republican constitution, with no mention of the British king. However, the British did not sign the proposed republican constitution. They argued they had signed the Treaty in good faith and its terms could not be changed so quickly.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: On 14 April 1922, a group of 200 anti-Treaty IRA men occupied the Four Courts in Dublin in defiance of the Provisional government. Collins, who wanted to avoid civil war at all costs, did not attack them until June 1922, when British pressure also forced his hand. After a final attempt to persuade the men to leave, Collins borrowed two 18 pounder artillery pieces from the British and bombarded the Four Courts until the men surrendered.


title: Michael Collins (Irish leader)

text: This led to the Irish Civil War as fighting broke out in Dublin between the anti-Treaty IRA and the provisional government's troops.