title: Life cycle

text: In some animals, the parent generation looks different from the child. The most common case is that there are two different forms. One form will have sexual reproduction, the others might not reproduce, or might reproduce asexually.


title: Life cycle

text: Some plants and a few other organisms have a system called "alternation of generations" which is not quite the same because one form is haploid and the other is dipoid.


title: Life cycle

text: Parasites are organisms that benefit from harming other organisms. The organism they profit from is usually called host. Many parasites have complex life cycles, where they need different hosts for different stages of their development. As an example, the cycle egg > snail host > mammal host is common for parasites of herbivorous mammals. Malaria is caused by single-celled parasites. These parasites go through two stages in their development. One stage is in the blood of mosquitoes, the other in the blood of humans.


title: Life cycle

text: Examples of this can also be found in the Cnidaria. These animals live in the sea or in freshwater and the structure of most is relatively simple. Some live as single animals, others form colonies. In a colony, many animals live together. Often, each animal in a colony is specialized, and needs the other animals of the colony to survive.


title: Life cycle

text: In a complete cycle, the offspring of a medusa will develop into a polyp, and the offspring of a polyp will be a medusa.


title: Life cycle

text: Sometimes the cycle is modified or incomplete. Anthozoa is a group of the Cnidaria which contains sea anemones and corals. In the anthozoa, there is only a polyp stage, and no medusa stage.


title: Life cycle

text: The box jellyfish form another small group in the Cnidaria. In the box jellyfish, the polyp transforms into the medusa. In some cases, only part of the polyp transforms, the part that is left regenerates to form a new polyp. People have also talked about the box jellyfish because many of them produce poison that is very effective, and that can be dangerous to humans.


title: Sulli

text: Choi Jin-ri (March 29, 1994 – October 14, 2019), better known by her stage name Sulli, was a South Korean singer-songwriter, actress and model. She played the young Princess Seonhwa of Silla in the SBS drama "Ballad of Seodong" (2005).


title: Sulli

text: In 2009, Sulli became a member of the South Korean girl group f(x). She left the group in 2015 to focus on her acting career. She made her solo debut album in June 2019 with the single album "Goblin".


title: Sulli

text: Sulli killed herself at her Seongnam apartment on October 14, 2019 at the age of 25. She suffered from depression and was a victim of constant cyber bullying.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: Fulk V (1092–1143), called ""le Jeune"" (the younger), was a French nobleman who was the Count of Anjou from 1109 to 1129. He was the Count of Maine ("jure uxoris") 1110–1129. Fulk was a crusader, Knight Templar and was the King of Jerusalem ("jure uxoris") from 1131 to his death.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: Fulk le Jeune, born in 1092, was the younger son of Fulk IV le Réchin and his fifth wife Bertrade de Montfort. She was the daughter of Simon de Montfort, Count de Montfort l'Amaury. As an infant he was probably taken with his mother to be raised at the French court. He was at the French court in 1106 when the news arrived of his , Geoffrey IV, Count of Anjou's death. King Philip I then made his step-son, Fulk V, the Count of Anjou. The French king then made Duke William of Aquitaine Fulk's guardian as Fulk was not yet old enough to rule on his own. However the duke put Fulk in prison. Nothing the king or queen threatened could get Duke William to release the boy. After a year his father, Fulk le Réchin finally paid the duke a ransom of several towns on the border with Poitou. Fulk le Réchin died two years later on April 14, 1109. Fulk V "je June" succeeded his father as the count of Anjou.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: In 1110 Fulk V le Jeune married Eremburge of Maine. When her father, Count Elias, died a few months later, Fulk V became the Count of Maine in right of his wife. But this brought him into immediate conflict with King Henry I of England who also claimed Maine. For a time Fulk was the first Angevin count to directly rule Maine. In 1113 Henry I arranged to meet with Fulk V at Alençon. There they arranged a peace agreement. To seal the agreement they made a marriage alliance. Fulk's infant daughter, Matilda, was promised in marriage to Henry's nine-year-old son, William Adelin. Fulk V remained the Count of Maine but he swore fealty to King Henry I as his overlord. Without his Angevin ally Fulk, King Louis VI of France was forced to make peace with King Henry I. King Louis confirmed the lordship (overlordship) of Maine to Henry I. Henry then attacked the lands of Robert de Bellême; joined by Fulk V. Bellême was defeated and Henry I returned to England. Fulk V returned to Anjou to deal with a revolt in Angers.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: In 1116 Louis IV raided into Normandy again. Louis had supported Henry I's nephew, William Clito as the Duke of Normandy. By 1117 King Louis IV of France, Count Baldwin VII of Flanders and Fulk V of Anjou were all supporting William Clito against Henry I of England. The next summer Henry I returned to Normandy and the war began. Fulk V defeated Henry I at La Motte-Gautier on the border of Maine. In October 1118 Fulk V again defeated Henry I at Alençon. Finally, after a series of defeats Henry I made peace with Fulk V. They sealed their truce by allowing the marriage of Fulk's daughter Matilda with Henry's son William William Adelin. Fulk V gave Maine as a dowry for his daughter Matilda. In 1120 Fulk V then made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He spent a year at Jerusalem. According to Orderic Vitalis he joined the Knights Templar. When he returned to Anjou Fulk left 100 knights behind for a year to help defend the Kingdom. He continued to pay the Templars a substantial yearly donation for the rest of his life.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: Fulk le Jeune returned to Anjou in early 1121. He learned that William Adelin, his new son-in-law William had drowned in the shipwreck of the White Ship. The treaty with Anjou then died with Henry's son. Fulk's daughter Matilda was safe; she had not been on the White ship. Fulk demanded her return to Anjou. But Henry delayed her return and kept part of her dowry. By 1122 she was back in Anjou. Fulk broke off all relations with Henry and made another marriage alliance with Henry's nephew and enemy, William Clito. William was to marry Fulk's daughter Sibyl. He again gave his new son-in-law the lordship of Maine as her dowry. As Henry dealt with his rebel Norman barons one by one, by 1124 Fulk V was William Clito's only supporter. Henry now did everything he could to get the pope to annul the marriage between William Clito and Sibyl. On 26 August 1124 Pope Calixtus II annulled the marriage of William Clito and Sibyl because they were too closely related.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: In 1126 Fulk le Jeune's wife, Eremburge, Countess of Maine and Anjou died. In Germany,Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor died. His wife the Empress Matilda was Henry I of England's only living legitimate child. Henry called her back to England. Henry made all his English and Norman barons swear that in case Henry had no sons they would make Matilda the Queen of England succeeding him. In 1127 Henry made peace again with Fulk le Jeune and offered a new marriage alliance. Fulk's son, Geoffrey was to wed the Empress Matilda and Maine would be settled on the new couple. In June 1128, Henry I came to Rouen and there knighted Geoffrey of Anjou. A week later the couple was married.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: About this same time Fulk le Jeune had received representatives of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem. king Baldwin II had no sons but he had four daughters. He offered the hand of his oldest daughter, Melisende, to Fulk le June along with the crown of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Fulk was well known in Jerusalem from his earlier visit and the money he sent the Knights Templar every year. In Jerusalem Melisende became officially the heiress of the kingdom. She would rule as Queen at her father's death. After the wedding of his son Geoffrey, Fulk le Jeune and his children all met at the Fontevraud Abbey where his daughter Matilda became a nun. They said their farewells and Fulk le Jeune set off for Jerusalem. Geoffrey V, nicknamed "la Bel" was to rule Anjou in his father's absence.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: In the spring of 1129 Fulk le Jeune arrived in Jerusalem. He and Melisende were married. As a part of their marriage contract at the death of her father, King Baldwin II, Fulk and Melisende were to rule Jerusalem together. As a dowry Fulk and Melisende received the two most valuable ports in the kingdom, Tyre and Acre. Fulk brought a large number of knights and foot soldiers with him from Anjou.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: In 1131, on the death of Baldwin II of Jerusalem, Fulk was crowned king. Melisende was crowned Queen at the same time. But from the beginning of their rule Fulk attempted to ruled alone. He tried to keep Melisende from having an active part in ruling Jerusalem. Fulk began replacing governors and with his own followers from Anjou. Many had served several of the Kings of Jerusalem. Their loss of favor with the new king caused a great deal of resentment. Between 1133 and 1134 a revolt started among the nobility of Jerusalem led by count Count Hugh II of Jaffa. Fulk called on Count Hugh to appear before him but Hugh refused. Fulk then took away Hugh's of Jaffa. Hugh was angry and joined with their enemies the Egyptians. But his followers left Hugh and came back to King Fulk. Hugh next submitted to King Fulk and was exiled for three years. The revolt was broken. During the revolt however, the Seljuks of Damascus were able to take back Banyas. But Fulk realized he could not exclude Melisende and from then on allowed her to share in ruling the kingdom.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: In 1132 Pons, Count of Tripoli was defeated by Seljuks and was under siege at the castle of Montferrand (Baarin). Fulk rushed to his aid and forced the enemy to retreat. In 1134 Fulk raided into Hauran (in present-day Syria and Jordan). But he was forced to retreat when Seljuks countered by attacking Jerusalem. In September the two sides agreed to a peace.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: In 1136 Fulk began building castles around the fortress city of Ascalon. This was to prevent raids on Jerusalem by the Egyptian Fatimids. He also built a castle at Beth Gibelin and placed it in the care of the Knights Hospitaller. Also in 1136 the Grand Master (leader) of the Knights Templar, Hugues de Payens, died. Fulk used his influence with the Templars to get one of his own Angevins, Robert of Craon, elected Grand Master. In 1137 Fulk was besieged at Montferrand. The Patriarch of Jerusalem marched an army to relieve the fortress. But Fulk did not know his own army was coming to his rescue. The Seljuks knew of this and quickly offered Fulk favorable terms. King Fulk surrendered the castle in exchange for his own freedom.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: In 1137 while the Christians and Muslims were engaged with each other a new force was entering the area. John, the Byzantine Emperor was moving against Antioch. He decided to take back the city and began attacking the walls. Too powerful for Fulk to deal with he decided to surrender Antioch to the Emperor. The Prince of Antioch, Raymond of Poitiers, had to surrender to the Emperor in person. Then, with the Byzantine flag above the city and Raymond still the Prince, the Emperor returned to Constantinople. Fulk, the King of Jerusalem, lost his control over Antioch.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: On 10 November 1143 Fulk died in a hunting accident falling from his horse. After Fulk's death Melisende took control of Jerusalem. She ruled as queen and as for their oldest son Baldwin III.


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: In 1110, Fulk married Ermengarde of Maine († 1126), the daughter of Elias I of Maine. Together they had:


title: Fulk, King of Jerusalem

text: His second wife was Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem, the daughter of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem and Morphia of Melitene. Together they had:


title: Aerial root

text: An Aerial root is a root which is above the ground. Different plants have grown them. They can have different functions:


title: Ladies' Code

text: Ladies Code (Korean: 레이디스 코드) was a South Korean girl group formed by Polaris Entertainment and 1TheK (formerly LOEN Music) in 2013.


title: Ladies' Code

text: The group originally consisted of five members; Ashley (애슐리), Sojung (소정), Eunb (은비), Rise (리세), and Zuny (주니). Their debut album was Code#01.


title: Ladies' Code

text: They won 2 awards one in Gaon Kpop Chart Awards as New Artist of The Year and MelON music awards as MBC music star award


title: Ladies' Code

text: In September 3 2014, at 1:20 kst time the group was invovled in a car crash which killed members Eunb and Rise, leaving the group as a trio.


title: Ladies' Code

text: In late 2015, Ladies' Code and the other Polaris artists held a memorial concert for the dead members.


title: Ladies' Code

text: In 2016, Ladies Code returned for the first time since the accident with the single album, "Myst3ry."


title: Park Chan-yeol

text: Park Chan-yeol (hangul: 박찬열; hanja: 朴燦烈; born November 27, 1992 in Seoul), better known by mononym Chanyeol, is a South Korean singer. He is a member of the South Korean boy band EXO.


title: Park Chan-yeol

text: Chanyeol was born November 27, 1992 in Seoul, South Korea. After watching the film "School of Rock" in elementary school, Chanyeol became interested in music and began to play drums. During his teenage years, he studied at Hyundai Senior High School in Apgujeong-dong. He participated in the band of his school, Siren. When he was in his first year of high school, Chanyeol formed a band with his best friends, Heavy Noise, having played in it for three years. At the age of sixteen, he was accepted into a private acting university. In the same year, he reached second position Smart Model Contest and became a trainee of S.M. Entertainment. Also in 2008, he participated in the clip "HaHaHa Song" of his companion of company TVXQ. The following year, she appeared in the Japanese version of the video "Genie" of the group Girls' Generation. He went on to dream of being a singer after listening to the song "Unconditional Kismet" of songwriter and music producer Yoo Young-jin.


title: Park Chan-yeol

text: On February 22, 2012, Chanyeol was officially introduced as one of the twelve members of the original formation of the South Korean-Chinese group EXO. The group debuted on April 8 of the same year with the release of extended play "MAMA". In April 2012, he participated in the music video for the song "Twinkle", debut single from the first sub-unit of Girls 'Generation,Girls' Generation-TTS. In October 2013, Chanyeol joined the cast of SBS's "Law of the Jungle" reality show during filming in Micronesia. He also composed and recorded a soundtrack titled "Last Hunter" for the show.


title: Park Chan-yeol

text: In 2014, Chanyeol wrote the rap of the Korean version of the "Run" track of EXO's extended extended play, "Overdose", and participated in the debut EPs of his companions Henry and Zhou Mi. In May 2014, he became a regular cast member of the first season of the SBS's "Roommate" reality show. He left the program in September of the same year because of scheduling conflicts.


title: Park Chan-yeol

text: In April 2015, Chanyeol made his film debut with South Korean film "Salut d'Amour" alongside actress Moon Ga-young, who later co-starred with him on the "EXO Next Door" web drama. In June of 2015, cast-wrote the Korean version of the track "Promise" of the reissue of the success of sales "EXODUS", titled "Love Me Right", next to its companions of group Chen and Lay. He later wrote the rap for "Lightsaber", the EXO promotional single for "", which was later included in the band's extended play "Sing for You".


title: Park Chan-yeol

text: In April 2016, Chanyeol wrote and performed rap for the song "Confession" of Yesung's debut EP, "Here I Am". On EXO's third studio album, "EX'ACT", released in May 2016, he co-wrote the lyrics for the track "Heaven." In June 2016, Chanyeol starred with actresses Yuan Shanshan and Seohyun in the South Korean-Chinese film "So I Married an Anti-fan". He and Yuan Shanshan also recorded a duet titled "I Hate You" as the soundtrack for the film. In October 2016, Chanyeol and singer Tinashe participated in the song "Freal Luv" by artists Far East Movement and Marshmello. The song, which he helped write and produce, was released on October 14. In December 2016, she collaborated with singer Punch on the song "Stay With Me," part of the soundtrack for the "Goblin" drama.


title: Park Chan-yeol

text: In January of 2017, Chanyeol participated in the drama "Missing 9". On February 22, he released a duet titled "Let Me Love You" with Junggigo.


title: Serie A

text: From 1929 to 2004, Serie A has got 16 or 18 teams. The Only Exception was in the years from 1946 to 1952, where in the Serie A there were 20-21 teams.


title: Serie A

text: The 6th or the 7th ranked club, depending if the winner of Coppa Italia is qualified yet, joins the preliminary round of the UEFA Europa Conference League.


title: Goldfinch

text: Goldfinch are finches of the genus Carduelis. They are small passerine birds of the family Fringillidae.


title: Goldfinch

text: The goldfinch breeds across Europe, North Africa, and western and central Asia, in open, partially wooded lowlands. It is resident in the milder west of its range, but migrates from colder regions. It will also make local movements, even in the west, to escape bad weather. It has been introduced to many areas of the world.


title: Goldfinch

text: The goldfinch's preferred food is small seeds such as those from thistles and teasels, but insects are also taken when feeding young. It also regularly visits bird feeders in winter. They nest in the outer twigs of tall leafy trees, or even in bamboo, laying four to six eggs which hatch in 11–14 days.


title: Goldfinch

text: In the winter goldfinches group together to form flocks of up to forty birds, occasionally more. The song is a pleasant silvery twittering.


title: Causality

text: Causality is a way to describe how different events relate to one another. Suppose there are two events "A" and "B". If "B" happens because "A" happened, then people say that A "is the cause" of B, or that B "is the effect of" A.


title: Causality

text: What looks very simple, is in fact a difficult problem. Many people have tried to solve it, they have come up with different solutions


title: Causality

text: Aristotle was a Greek philosopher. He also looked at the problem of causality. In his books "Posterior analytics" and "Metaphysics" he wrote:


title: Causality

text: Aristotle told people of two types of causes: proper (prior) causes and accidental (chance) causes. Both types of causes, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes; so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, and operating causes to actual effects. It is also essential that ontological causality does not suggest the temporal relation of before and after - between the cause and the effect; that spontaneity (in nature) and chance (in the sphere of moral actions) are among the causes of effects belonging to the efficient causation, and that no incidental, spontaneous, or chance cause can be prior to a proper, real, or underlying cause "per se".


title: Causality

text: All investigations of causality coming later in history will consist in imposing a favorite hierarchy on the order (priority) of causes; such as "final > efficient > material > formal" (Aquinas), or in restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or, to the efficient causality (deterministic or chance), or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena (the natural sciences describing "how" things happen rather than asking "why" they happen).


title: Causality

text: David Hume was another philosopher who looked at the relation between cause and effect. Hume thinks that there are certain things all such relations of cause and effect have in common.:


title: Causality

text: Hume says that if someone is used to always seeing the same things occur in the same order, he will get accustomed to them being in that order. When he sees one event occur, he will expect the other to occur as well:


title: Causality

text: Logic is the science that looks at how to build an argument. In Logic, there are usually two different types of causes. They are called "necessary cause" and "sufficient cause".


title: Peter Lawford

text: Peter Sydney Ernest Lawford (born Peter Sydney Ernest Aylen; September 7, 1923 – December 24, 1984) was an English-born American actor and singer. He was born in London.


title: Peter Lawford

text: He was a member of the "Rat Pack" along with Dean Martin. He was married to Patricia Kennedy. Lawford then became the brother-in-law to President John F. Kennedy. He had four children; including Christopher.


title: Peter Lawford

text: From the 1940s to the 1960s, he had a strong role in popular culture and starred in a number of popular movies.


title: Peter Lawford

text: Lawford died from cardiac arrest caused by renal failure and liver failure in Los Angeles, California, aged 61.


title: Helena, mother of Constantine I

text: Flavia Julia Helena (; AD c. ), or Saint Helena was Constantine the Great's mother and a Roman empress (). Helena was a wife or concubine of Constantius I before he became a Roman emperor. In Christianity, Helena is a saint because Christian historians during Late Antiquity wrote that she found the relics of the True Cross in Jerusalem. Helena's tomb was the Mausoleum of Helena outside Rome.


title: Swedish Empire

text: Swedish Empire was, between 1611 and 1718, one of the great powers of Europe. In modern historiography this period is known as the Swedish Empire, or "stormaktstiden" ("the era of great power"). It ended when Sweden lost the Great Northern War.


title: Tumblr

text: Tumblr is a blogging site that began in New York City in 2007. David Karp and Marco Arment began it. The site allows users to post text, images, videos, links, quotes and audio to a short-form blog, called a tumbleblog. Users can follow other users, or choose to make their tumblelog private. Tumblr focuses on being easy to use. The site has about 91.7 million posts a day and gains about 15,000 new users on a day on average. In 2013, Yahoo bought Tumblr for $1.1 billion. After the sale to Yahoo, David Karp remained as CEO.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: Giuseppe Verdi (born Roncole near Busseto, 9 or 10 October 1813; died Milan 27 January 1901) was an Italian composer of operas.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: Verdi and Richard Wagner were the greatest composers of opera in the 19th century although they were completely different from one another. When Verdi was a young man the most famous opera composers in Italy were Gaetano Donizetti and Vincenzo Bellini who wrote in the bel canto tradition. This meant that their operas had beautiful tunes which were written for singers to show off their voices, even if what they sang did not suit the story. During his long life, Verdi changed opera so that it did not have to obey old-fashioned rules.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: The small village where Verdi was born lies in the valley of the Po River in the north of Italy. It was a poor district. His father was an innkeeper who had a small farm. The young boy must have been very talented. He was given a small harpsichord which he kept all his life. At the age of 9 he often played the organ for church services in the village when the organist was away.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: A few years later he composed music for the amateur orchestra in Busseto. A man called Antonio Barezzi knew many important people and he helped Verdi a lot. Later Verdi married a daughter of a friend. Barezzi sent him to Milan so that he could study, but Verdi had not been taught the piano properly and he did not get a place in the music conservatory. He had some private lessons and learned a lot about opera as well as about literature and politics. In 1839 he composed an opera: "Oberto, conte di San Bonifacio", which was performed in La Scala, the world-famous opera house in Milan. It is not one of his greatest operas, but it helped him to become well-known and he was asked to write three more operas for La Scala. When his next opera was produced it was not a success: the audience did not like it and they hissed and booed. There was also tragedy in his personal life at this time: his two children and his wife all died.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: Verdi managed to overcome his unhappiness in 1842 when he produced his opera "Nabucco". This was a great success and made him world-famous. He started to work very hard, composing two operas a year. He not only had to write the music but organize all the people to perform it. It was a huge workload. His opera "Ernani" (1844) was one of the best from this period. In 1847 he had another big success with "Macbeth". This opera, based on Shakespeare’s famous play, is still one of the best-loved of all operas. He was becoming a success.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: For centuries Italy had been a collection of several countries, each with their own ruler. In the 1850s there was a lot of political unrest in the country. Verdi often wrote music for large choruses in his operas. The words of these choruses were often about fighting for freedom, and it was often thought that the songs were encouraging people to revolt. The song "Va pensiero" from his opera "Nabucco" was about the Hebrew slaves who were captive in Babylon. People chanted it in the streets with the words suitably changed. Verdi became a great national hero. Italy eventually became one country in 1861.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: Giuseppina Strepponi was the soprano who sang the part of Abigaille in "Nabucco". Verdi fell in love with her. She had lived with another man and had three children so she felt that she was not good enough for Verdi. They eventually married in 1859. She was a great support to him until her death in 1897 although Verdi was not an easy husband to live with. He moved back to Busseto with her. He continued to travel a lot but did not let his wife come with him, leaving her behind in Busseto where she was not happy because many people there did not like her.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: Three more famous operas were written at this time: "Rigoletto" in 1851 and "Il trovatore" ("The Troubadour") and "La traviata", both in 1853. These operas have many tunes which became famous. They are full of exciting drama in which the characters are very skilfully described by the music. The music is not divided so clearly into recitative and aria like it had been for two centuries. Instead, the music is developing all the time, the arias run straight into the following music. He had a brilliant sense of drama, but he often had to fight hard to stop producers making changes to what he had written.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: Verdi often had trouble with the censors (the officials who decide whether the opera should be allowed to be performed). His opera "Rigoletto" was based on a story called "Le roi s’amuse" by Victor Hugo. The attempted murder of a king was not thought to be a suitable subject. Verdi had to change the king into a duke in his story and make some other changes before the opera could be performed. The story of his opera "Traviata", based on a novel by Alexandre Dumas fils, was also thought to be immoral. At the first performance the audience laughed because the heroine, who is supposed to be dying of tuberculosis, then called "consumption", was very fat. However, the opera soon became enormously popular.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: Regarding the instruments that Giuseppe Verdi was using for composing, there are a few known pianos that he had in different periods of his life. The instrument that Giuseppe Verdi was playing as a kid at the Bazezzi’s house, was a piano by Anton Tomaschek. Later, from the time of Rigoletto in 1851 to Aida in 1871 he was using the Viennese 6-pedal piano from Johann Fritz. This exact piano can be seen in the composer's Villa Verdi in the Italian province of Piacenza.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: Verdi had become very famous by now, and was asked to compose for the Opéra in Paris. He had to write operas in the French style: operas with five acts and a ballet based on a serious story. None of the operas he wrote at this time for Paris belong to his best works. He was more inspired when writing for the Italian theatres. "Simon Boccanegra" has a complicated plot, but the characters are described beautifully by the music. "Un ballo in maschera" (The masked ball) was about the murder of King Gustav III of Sweden. Again the censors did not like it and he had to change the story to a setting in Boston which rather spoiled the story. In the 1860s his best works were "La forza del destino" ("The Force of Destiny"), written for St Petersburg, "Don Carlos" written for the Paris Opéra, and "Aida" for the new opera house in Cairo in Egypt. "Aida" is considered one of his most perfect works. The first performance was not without difficulties: Verdi was having a long argument with the conductor Mariani who refused to go to Cairo to conduct it. The argument was made worse by the newspapers who accused Verdi of taking Mariani’s girlfriend. This caused a great scandal.


title: Giuseppe Verdi

text: Verdi retired in the 1870s. He was a rich man who owned a lot of land. He gave a lot of money to charities, particularly to one charity for elderly musicians. Even in retirement he was persuaded by his publishers to write two more operas. He became fascinated by Shakespeare and he wrote "Otello" to a libretto by Arrigo Boito. This was a brilliant libretto and it helped him to write a great masterpiece in which every little detail of the story is beautifully described by the music. His very last opera, "Falstaff" (1893) is based on Shakespeare’s "Merry Wives of Windsor". Verdi continued to write a few religious pieces in his old age. He died of a stroke in Milan in 1901.


title: Cameroon national football team

text: The Cameroon national football team (French: "Équipe nationale du camerounaise de football") is the national football team of Cameroon.


title: Cameroon national football team

text: The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: The FIFA World Rankings is a ranking of men's football teams selected by FIFA. Currently, the team ranked #1 is Belgium. The rankings were first made in 1993. The first team to receive first place was Germany.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: A points system is used, with points being awarded based on the results of all FIFA-recognized full international matches.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: FIFA announced in June 2018 that the ranking system would be updated following the 2018 World Cup. The calculation method to be adopted will be closely modeled after the Elo rating system and rankings of its member associations will be updated on a game-by-game basis. The weighting designated for each confederation for ranking purposes was removed. However, the new method does not account for home or away games and margin of the victory, unlike the Elo rankings. This produced a more altered ranking table, with Germany falling to 15th and 2018 World Cup champions France moving to the top of the ranking.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: When the system was created, Germany began as the top-ranked team following their dominant period in which they had reached the three previous FIFA World Cup finals, winning one of them. Brazil took the lead in the run up to the 1994 FIFA World Cup after winning eight and losing only one of nine qualification matches, while on the way scoring twenty goals and conceding just four. Italy then led for a short time on the back of their own equally successful World Cup qualifying campaign, after which the top place was re-claimed by Germany.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: Brazil's success in their 1993 qualifying campaign returned them to the lead for a brief period. Germany led again during the 1994 World Cup, until Brazil's victory in that competition gave them a large lead that would stand up for nearly seven years, until they were surpassed by a strong France team that captured both the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2000 UEFA Euro.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: Success at the 2002 FIFA World Cup restored Brazil to the top position, where they remained until February 2007, when Italy returned to the top for the first time since 1993 following their 2006 FIFA World Cup win in Germany. Just one month later, Argentina replaced them, reaching the top for the first time, but Italy regained its place in April. After winning the Copa América 2007 in July, Brazil returned to the top, but were replaced by Italy in September and then Argentina in October.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: In July 2008, Spain took over the lead for the first time, having won UEFA Euro 2008. Brazil began a sixth stint at the top of the rankings in July 2009 after winning the 2009 Confederations Cup, and Spain regained the title in November 2009 after winning every match in qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: In April 2010, Brazil returned to the top of the table. After winning the 2010 World Cup, Spain regained the top position and held it until August 2011, when the Netherlands reached the top spot for the first time, only to drop it the following month.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: In July 2014, Germany took over the lead once again, having won the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In July 2015, Argentina reached the top spot for the first time since 2008, after reaching both the 2014 FIFA World Cup Final, as well as the 2015 Copa America Final. In November 2015, Belgium became the leader in the FIFA rankings for the first time, after topping their Euro 2016 qualifying group. Belgium led the rankings until April 2016, when Argentina returned to the top. Brazil returned to the No. 1 spot in April 2017 for the first time since just prior to the 2010 World Cup, because they had already qualified for the 2018 World Cup as they were 1st in their qualification group with 4 match days still left to go. However, Germany regained the top spot in July after winning the Confederations Cup.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: In the summer of 2018, FIFA updated their rating system by adopting the Elo rating system. The first ranking list with this system, in August 2018, saw France retake the top spot for the first time after nearly 16 years, having won the 2018 FIFA World Cup. One month later, for the first time, two teams were both leaders as Belgium reached the same ranking as France. This lasted only one month, and from September 2018 until now (), Belgium is leading the FIFA ranking.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: The Best Mover of the Year was awarded to the team who made the best progress up the rankings over the course of the year. In the FIFA rankings, this is not simply the team that has risen the most places, but a calculation is performed in order to account for the fact that it becomes progressively harder to earn more points the higher up the rankings a team is.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: The calculation used is the number of points the team has at the end of the year ("z") multiplied by the number of points it earned during the year ("y"). The team with the highest index on this calculation received the award. The table below shows the top three best movers from each year.


title: FIFA World Rankings

text: While an official award has not been made for movements since 2006, FIFA has released a list of the 'Best Movers' in the rankings since 2007.


title: Islamic terrorism

text: Islamic terrorism is a kind of terrorism. The terrorists claim their religion, Islam, or how they interpret it is their motivation.


title: Islamic terrorism

text: Some Islamic scholars say that it is wrong to kill innocent people. Some Islamic terrorist groups are Al-Qaeda, Boko Haram, and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. However, there are hundreds of and many more terrorist attacks .


title: Islamic terrorism

text: However, it is stated in the Qur'an that "You must not go too far; Allah loves not those who do.""You must resist them until the persecution is done away, and prayers are only to Allah; if they cease fighting, you must not invade anyone but the unrighteous." Islamic terrorists use these verses as their to commit acts of terror against non-Muslims as well as Muslims from other branches of Islam.


title: West Midlands (region)

text: The official region contains the large conurbation that includes Birmingham and Wolverhampton and includes also the mainly rural shire counties of Herefordshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Warwickshire and Worcestershire.


title: West Midlands (region)

text: (Unofficially the West Midlands region also spreads as far as Cheshire, Gloucestershire and Oxfordshire, but these are not part of the official region.)


title: West Midlands (region)

text: There is some confusion in the use of the term "West Midlands", as the name is also used for the much smaller West Midlands county, and is still used by various organisations within that area such as West Midlands Police and West Midlands Fire Service.


title: West Midlands (region)

text: The official representative body of the region is the West Midlands Regional Assembly which has limited administrative functions such as regional planning and economic development. The assembly is not an elected body, but is made up of members appointed from local councils across the region, and members from regional interest groups such as business and environmental groups and trade unions.


title: West Midlands (region)

text: Coal mining used to be the main industry of the Black Country. Nationally famous companies in the West Midlands are Cadbury's in Bournville, Birmingham; the brewing companies such as Coors Brewers in Burton on Trent, as well as Marmite; JCB is based in Staffordshire.


title: Reducing agent

text: A reducing agent is a chemical that gives away electrons to another chemical compound, the oxidizing agent. For example, zinc is a reducing agent. When it reacts with an oxidizing agent, it gives up two electrons, changing its oxidation state from 0 to +2. All chemical elements have an oxidation state of 0.


title: All Saints (group)

text: The All Saints are an English-Canadian pop group. They were founded in 1993. The members of All Saints are British Melanie Blatt, Shaznay Lewis and Canadian sisters Natalie and Nicole Appleton. The group were one of the most successful pop groups in the UK in the 1990s with nine Top 10 singles, two platinum albums and two gold albums. The groups biggest hit was the 1997 single "Never Ever".


title: Root of a function

text: The fundamental theorem of algebra says every polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one (complex) root. Using the fundamental theorem of algebra and the polynomial remainder theorem together shows that every complex polynomial of degree "n" has exactly "n" complex roots, and some of them may be equal.


title: 20th Century Studios

text: 20th Century Studios, Inc. (formerly known from 1914 to 1931 as Fox Film, 1933 to 1935 as 20th Century Pictures 1935 to 1985 and 1985 to 2020 (and informally) as Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation or Twentieth Century Fox or 20th Century Fox Film Corporation) is a large American company that makes movies ("motion picture studio"). It is in the Century City area of Los Angeles, California, USA, just west of Beverly Hills.


title: 20th Century Studios

text: Before 2013, 20th Century Fox was a subsidiary of News Corporation before it was split into two companies. After that, one of those companies, 21st Century Fox, became the studio's owner. On December 14, 2017, The Walt Disney Company said that it has acquired many of 21st Century Fox's subsidiaries, including 20th Century Fox. Thus, the studio is now owned by Disney and became 20th Century Studios.


title: 20th Century Studios

text: 20th Century Studios was formed in 1935 when Fox Film Corporation and Twentieth Century Pictures joined together to form the company. 20th Century Fox Television is a part of the company that makes television series.


title: 20th Century Studios

text: In 1935, Twentieth Century Pictures, Inc. and Fox Film Corporation merged together to form "Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corporation" (the hyphen between "Century" and "Fox" was dropped in 1985), or simply "20th Century Fox". During the Golden Age of Hollywood it was one of the "Big Five" studios (the other were MGM, Paramount Pictures, RKO Radio Pictures and Warner Bros. Pictures). From 2013-2019, it was a subsidiary of 21st Century Fox Inc., which was a company formed when News Corporation split up into two companies. As of July 2018, their two most financially successful movies are "Avatar", released in 2009, and "Titanic" (under international rights), released in 1997. Both movies were directed by James Cameron. Fox's most highly acclaimed movie, according to review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes (jointly owned by Universal and Warner Bros.), is "All About Eve", released in 1950 and directed by Joseph L. Mankiewicz. In December 2017, Disney announced its plans to buy most of 21st Century Fox's assets, which included a bidding war with Comcast; the acquisition process was completed on March 20, 2019, with the last pre-Disney release from the studio being "Alita: Battle Angel", released on February 14, 2019. The remaining assets Disney didn't acquire, notably the Fox network and Fox News, were spun-off into a new company called Fox Corporation. On January 17, 2020, Disney announced that it would be dropping the word "Fox" from the company name, presumably to avoid confusion with Fox Corporation, renaming it to "Twentieth Century Studios," along with Searchlight Pictures. However, the studio was still legally incorporated and traded as Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation until December 4, 2020. As of December 4, 2020, the company has been using 20th Century Studios, Inc. as copyright for 20th Century Studios and Searchlight Pictures, while the company has been using 20th Television, Inc and 20th Centuary Fox in Australia under Gerard Bevan Group CEO and VP. for the copyright of 20th Television productions as a Disney subsidiary.


title: Soil erosion

text: Soil erosion is the washing or blowing away (by water or wind) of the top layer of soil (dirt). This is a serious problem for farmers. If the soil has eroded, the crops that make food will not grow very well.


title: Soil erosion

text: Erosion also leaves large sinkholes in the ground, which can weaken buildings and even cause them to collapse. Urban areas are usually protected from soil erosion, so not many buildings collapse from erosion.


title: Colour theory

text: Colour theory or color theory is a guide colour mixing and the visual effects of colour combinations.


title: Colour theory

text: There are also definitions (or categories) of colours based on the colour wheel: primary colour, secondary and tertiary colours. Colour theory principles first appeared in the writings of Leone Battista Alberti (c. 1435) and the notebooks of Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1490).


title: Colour theory

text: The foundations of pre-20th-century colour theory were built around "pure" or ideal colours, as sensory experiences rather than the physical world. This has led to a number of inaccuracies in the colour theory principles.


title: Colour theory

text: There is a difference between the behaviour of light mixtures, called additive color mixing, and the behavior of paint, ink, dye, or pigment mixtures, called subtractive color mixing. The absorption of light by material substances follows different rules from the perception of light by the eye.


title: Colour theory

text: A second problem is the failure to describe the important effects of strong light. The appearance of colours reflected from a surface (such as paints or inks) is not the same as mixed colours of light. "Colours" such as browns or ochres cannot appear in mixtures of light. A strong lightness contrast between a mid-valued yellow paint and a surrounding bright white makes the yellow appear to be green or brown, while a strong brightness contrast between a rainbow and the surrounding sky makes the yellow in a rainbow appear to be a fainter yellow, or white.


title: Colour theory

text: Another problem is the tendency to describe colour too simply, for example as a contrast between "yellow" and "blue". Most colour effects are due to contrasts on the attributes that define all colours:


title: Colour theory

text: Thus, the visual impact of "yellow" vs. "blue" hues in visual design depends on the relative lightness and saturation of the hues.


title: Colour theory

text: Many colour theorists have said that three "pure" primary colours can mix "all possible colours". They think any failure of paints or inks to match this ideal performance is due to the impurity or imperfection of the colourants. But any three real "primary" colours of light, paint or ink can mix only a limited range of colours, which is always smaller than the full range of colours we can see.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: Symmetric-key algorithms is a method in cryptography. It is when the keys for decryption and encryption are exactly the same shared secret. You can generate the secret randomly, or from a password, or through a secret key-exchange procedure like Diffie-Hellman.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: Symmetric-key algorithms are very important because they are faster on computers than the other kind:public-key algorithms. In public-key cryptography (asymmetric-key cryptography) the key for encryption can be given to the public with no problem, and everyone can send you secret messages. The key for encryption is "open" because, in practice, it cannot be used to get the key for decryption. This is very useful, but public-key cryptography algorithms are very slow on computers, so they are only used to send a secret key. Then symmetric-key algorithms are used for everything else because they are faster.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: There are two kinds of symmetric-key algorithms, called stream ciphers and block ciphers. Stream ciphers encrypt a message as a stream of bits one at a time. Block ciphers take blocks of bits, encrypt them as a single unit, and sometimes use the answer later too. Blocks of 64 bits have been commonly used; though modern ciphers like the Advanced Encryption Standard use 128-bit blocks.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: Examples of popular symmetric cyphers include Twofish, Serpent, AES (aka Rijndael), Blowfish, CAST5, RC4, TDES, and IDEA.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: In history, some cryptanalysis methods exploited symmetry, so symmetric systems were less secure. Some attacks are called known-plaintext attacks, chosen plaintext attacks, differential cryptanalysis and linear cryptanalysis.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: Other terms for symmetric-key encryption are secret-key, single-key, shared-key, one-key and eventually private-key encryption. This last term does not have the same meaning that the term "private key" has in public-key cryptography.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: Unlike symmetric algorithms, asymmetric key algorithms use a different key for encryption than for decryption. Meaning, a user knowing the encryption key of an asymmetric algorithm can encrypt messages, but cannot calculate the decryption key and cannot decrypt messages encrypted with that key. A short comparison of these two types of algorithms is given below:


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: Symmetric-key algorithms are generally much less "computationally intensive" than asymmetric key algorithms. In practice, asymmetric key algorithms are typically hundreds to thousands times slower than symmetric key algorithms.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: One disadvantage of symmetric-key algorithms is the requirement of a "shared secret key", with both parties holding the same copy at each end.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: In order to ensure secure communications between everyone in a group of n people a total of "n"("n" - 1)/2 keys are needed, which is the total number of possible communication channels.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: To limit the impact of a potential discovery by a cryptographic attacker, they should be changed regularly and kept secure during distribution and in service. The process of selecting, distributing and storing keys is known as key management, and is difficult to achieve reliably and securely.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: In modern cryptosystems designs, both asymmetric (public key) and symmetric algorithms are used to take advantage of the best of both.


title: Symmetric-key algorithm

text: Asymmetric algorithms are used to distribute symmetric-keys at the start of a session. Once a symmetric key is known to all parties of the session, faster symmetric-key algorithms using that key can be used to encrypt the remainder of the session. This simplifies the key distribution problem, because asymmetric keys only have to be distributed authentically, while symmetric keys need to be distributed in both an authentic and confidential manner.


title: Semi-vegetarianism

text: Semi-vegetarianism means eating seafood or poultry, or both, but no red meat. People who eat red meat on rare occasion are "flexitarians". Real or semi-vegetarians, though, usually resent "flexitarian", looking down on this term and calling it cheating.


title: Semi-vegetarianism

text: People who have semi-vegetarian diets are usually doing so for health reasons, including avoiding heart disease, diabetes and strokes.


title: Cruelty to animals

text: Cruelty to animals is when a person harms or even kills an animal or pet. There is a fine in some countries and in more serious cases one can go to jail. The animal that suffers could be stolen, or it could be the owner abusing their own pet. Some ways in which people could abuse the animal would be by locking it, keeping it tied to a chain, giving it little or no food or water, kicking and hurting it, yelling and scaring it or leaving it outside in cold or hot weather for a long period of time. Sometimes people will also abandon their pet. Some examples of animal cruelty are neglect, hoarding, or physical abuse.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (born Hamburg 3 February 1809; died Leipzig 4 November 1847) was a German composer.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: His grandfather was the German-Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn. He was one of the great composers of the Romantic period. He loved the music of earlier composers like Bach, Handel and Mozart and he built on the traditions they had made. Mendelssohn was a child prodigy. He was already composing great music when he was a teenager. He wrote music for orchestra, piano, organ as well as chamber music and music for singing. His violin concerto is one of the most popular concertos ever written and is played by all the famous violinists. Two of his tunes are known by almost everybody: the hymn tune "Hark the Herald Angels Sing", and the "Wedding March" which is played so often at the end of weddings.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: Mendelssohn’s family had plenty of money. They were also very interested in music, literature, painting etc. His grandfather Moses Mendelssohn was famous in German national literature. His father was a banker and his mother came from a family who owned a lot of factories in Berlin. The young Felix was educated at home by his parents. Although the family was Jewish his parents had Felix baptized and his father became a Christian a few years later. The Mendelssohn family added the name of Bartholdy to their name at this time.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: Soon Felix was being taught by private tutors including Ludwig Berger who taught him the piano. He also learned music theory and composition. He played the piano at a concert when he was nine, and started to compose little plays with music (called a Singspiel in German). In 1821 he was taken to meet the famous writer Goethe in Weimar. It was to be the first of several visits and Goethe’s way of thinking and his works of German literature had a big influence on the young Mendelssohn. He composed several works at this time including Singspiels, symphonies and chamber music. He traveled with his father and met many famous musicians.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: In 1825 the family moved to Berlin. They had regular concerts on Sunday mornings in their large house. Many rich and famous people were invited to their private concerts. In October 1825 he wrote a "String Octet" (a piece for eight string instruments) which is one of his best works. He studied the music of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) whose music people had almost forgotten. He found the music of Bach’s "St Matthew Passion" and conducted a performance of it in 1829. It was a famous performance in music history, because people suddenly realized how great Bach was. Bach’s music has never been forgotten again since then.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: During the years 1829 to 1835 Mendelssohn traveled all over Europe. He visited London several times and he also performed Beethoven’s "Emperor Concerto" there. He travelled to Scotland where he sailed to Fingal’s Cave in the Inner Hebrides. This inspired him to write the overture called "The Hebrides". When he was returning the stagecoach had an accident and he hurt his knee. He stayed with the composer Thomas Attwood for some time before he could return to Berlin. Next he travelled to Italy where he wrote the "Italian Symphony". In Italy he met Hector Berlioz and on his way back he met Chopin.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: He spent some time in Düsseldorf where he performed several oratorios by Handel as well as his own music. In Frankfurt am Main he stayed with a family who had two daughters. He married one of them, Cécile Charlotte Sophia Jeanrenaud, in 1837. They had a happy marriage and had five children.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: Felix and his young wife went to live in Leipzig where he became the conductor of the famous Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra. This was one of the highest musical jobs in Germany. He conducted a lot of music by 18th century composers who had been forgotten. He also gave the first performance of Schubert's which had been discovered by Robert Schumann nine years after Schubert’s death. Mendelssohn got some of the most famous musicians to come to Leipzig and perform with the orchestra: Clara Schumann, Franz Liszt, Anton Rubinstein, the young violinist Joseph Joachim and the Swedish soprano Jenny Lind. Mendelssohn improved the playing of the orchestra, making them one of the best orchestras in the world. He also made sure that the players were paid well.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: In the early 1840s Mendelssohn spent some time in Berlin. The new king, Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia, was very keen on music and had lots of ideas about new plans for concerts. He wanted Mendelssohn to be in charge of this. The king wanted to see Greek plays performed and Mendelssohn had to write incidental music for the performances of "Antigone".


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: In June 1842 Mendelssohn was twice received by Queen Victoria at her palace in London. Mendelssohn thanked the Queen by dedicating his "Scottish Symphony" to her. He continued to conduct in Leipzig and helped to make Berlioz’s music famous in Germany. He became director of the new Conservatoire in Leipzig. In Berlin the king asked him to provide incidental music for Shakespeare's play " A Midsummer Night’s Dream ". He had already written some of this music 17 years earlier but now he finished it and performed it in 1843.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: For his piano performances Mendelssohn was using instruments from a Viennese piano maker Conrad Graf. Mendelshohn was so pleased with this instrument, that he decided to order from Graf two more pianos: one for himself and one for his brother’s bride.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: During his last years Mendelssohn suffered from bad health. He continued to work and travel as much as he could, but after a stroke in 1847 he died in Leipzig aged 38. His body was taken by a special train to Berlin where he was buried near the grave of his sister Fanny.


title: Felix Mendelssohn

text: Mendelssohn’s most famous works are his 5 symphonies (especially the "Scottish" and "Italian" symphonies), his concertos (especially his violin concerto), his overtures (especially "The Hebrides") and his Incidental Music to "A Midsummer Night’s Dream" which includes the famous "Wedding March". He wrote some very good chamber music: string quartets and piano trios and two very famous oratorios: "Elijah" and "St Paul". His piano music includes a large collection of short pieces called "Songs without Words" (German: "Lieder ohne Worte") which many pianists like to play. His organ music shows his love for J.S.Bach, often sounding more Baroque than Romantic. After his death Mendelssohn’s music became less popular for a time. This may have been because of the rise of anti-semitism in the mid-19th century, it may also have been because some musicians played Mendelssohn’s music in a rather delightful way. But many great musicians saw his greatness and his music is well-loved today.


title: Anjou

text: Anjou () is a former county, duchy (1360) and province centred on the city of Angers in the lower Loire Valley of western France. Its traditional Latin name was "Andegavia".


title: Anjou

text: Anjou, or then the Angevin march (border lands) formed the border between Neustria and Aquitaine. It also bordered between Neustria and Brittany. Sitting on a black slate rock was the Roman of Angers. It guarded the rivers Mayenne and Loire that flowed around it.


title: Anjou

text: Anjou became a part of England from 1151-1199, when Henry II inherited the county. He became the Count of Anjou in addition to his other titles. His (third) son Richard the Lionheart became count after his father. At the peak of its power the Angevin Empire spread from Ulster to the Pyrenees. Richard had no legitimate issue, so in 1199 Anjou passed to his nephew, Arthur of Brittany. He was the son of Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany. The Crown of England passed to Henry II’s fifth son and Richard’s youngest brother, John. Arthur was taken prisoner by King John in 1203 and was never seen again. In 1204, Anjou was taken back by Philip II of France. It was later elevated to a duchy for Prince Louis, the second son of John II of France. It remained a duchy until the French Revolution. Today, Anjou corresponds largely to the present-day "département" of Maine-et-Loire.


title: Robert Shaw (actor)

text: Robert Archibald Shaw (9 August 1927 – 28 August 1978) was an English actor, novelist, playwright and screenwriter. Shaw is remembered for his roles in "From Russia with Love" (1963), "A Man for All Seasons" (1966), "The Sting" (1973), the original "The Taking of Pelham One Two Three" (1974), "Black Sunday" (1977), "The Deep" (1977) and "Jaws" (1975), where he played the shark hunter Quint. Robert Shaw was born in Westhoughton, near Bolton, Lancashire.


title: Robert Shaw (actor)

text: Shaw was married three times and had ten children, one of whom was adopted. His first wife was Jennifer Bourke (1952-63) with he had four daughters. His second wife was the actress Mary Ure (1963-75) with he had two sons and two daughters; this marriage ended with her death from an overdose. His third and last wife was Virginia Jansen (1976-78) with he had one son and adopted Jansen's son from a previous relationship. One of Shaw's sons by Mary Ure is the actor Ian Shaw.


title: Robert Shaw (actor)

text: Shaw died from a heart attack on August 28, 1978 while on the set of "Avalanche Express" in Tourmakeady, County Mayo, Republic of Ireland.


title: Glasnost

text: Glasnost () was a policy that called for increased openness in government institutions and activities in the Soviet Union. It was introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the second half of the 1980s. Glasnost is often paired with Perestroika (restructuring), another reform instituted by Gorbachev at the same time. The word "glasnost" has been used in Russian at least since the end of the 18th century.


title: Glasnost

text: The word was often used by Gorbachev for policies he believed might reduce corruption at the top, and moderate the abuse of power by the Central Committee. Russian human rights activist and dissident Lyudmila Alexeyeva explained glasnost as a word that "had been in the Russian language for centuries. It was in the dictionaries and lawbooks as long as there had been dictionaries and lawbooks. It was an ordinary, hardworking, nondescript word that was used to refer to a process, any process of justice of governance, being conducted in the open".


title: Glasnost

text: Glasnost can also refer to the specific period in the history of the USSR during the 1980s when there was less censorship and greater freedom of information.


title: Dodi Fayed

text: Emad El-Din Mohamed Abdel Mena'em Fayed (; , 15 April 1955 – 31 August 1997), better known as Dodi Fayed ( ), was an Egyptian movie producer. He was born in Alexandria, Egypt. He was the son of billionaire Mohamed El Fayed.


title: Dodi Fayed

text: Fayed was the first cousin of the late "Washington Post" Saudi journalist, Jamal Khashoggi, who was killed in Turkey in 2018.


title: Dodi Fayed

text: Fayed was the producer of "Chariots of Fire", "Breaking Glass", "F/X", "F/X2", "Hook", and "The Scarlet Letter".


title: Dodi Fayed

text: On August 31, 1997, Fayed was killed in a car crash in Paris with Diana, Princess of Wales, with whom he was in a romantic relationship.


title: Northwest Territories

text: The Northwest Territories is a territory in Northern Canada. 44,541 people live there as of 2018. It is 1,171,918 square kilometers.


title: Northwest Territories

text: The capital of the Northwest Territories is Yellowknife. Yellowknife was the capital since 1967. The Northwest Territories have many geographical features, like the Great Bear Lake, the Mackenzie River and Nahanni River, which is a national park and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Northwest Territories

text: The Northwest Territories entered the Canadian Confederation in 1870. The Hudson's Bay Company gave the land to the Dominion of Canada. The Northwest Territories have one person in the House of Commons and the Canadian Senate. A lot of parts of the Northwest Territories were given to other provinces, including British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec. In 1999, the eastern part of the Northwest Territories became the territory of Nunavut.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: Gilgit Baltistan (), previously known as the Northern Areas, is the northern-most autonomous territory of Pakistan. In terms of land area it is bigger than Sierra Leone but smaller than Panama. It was part of the former Princely state of Kashmir and Jammu in 1800s and later leased to British eventually liberated after a planned liberation movement led by Gilgit Scouts.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: It borders Azad Jammu and Kashmir in the south Indian-administered Kashmir in southeast where KPK province of Pakistan to the west, and internationally borders Afghanistan to the north, although Tajikistan is separated by fourteen kilometres via Wakhan Corridor, the People's Republic of China to the northeast.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: Gilgit Baltistan, which became a single administrative unit in 1970, was formed from the amalgamation of the Gilgit Agency, the Baltistan District of the Ladakh Wazarat, and the states of Hunza and Nagar. Gilgit Baltistan remains part of the Kashmir dispute. The Government of Pakistan since Independence regards the entire area of Jammu and Kashmir as "territory in dispute" to be resolved by a plebiscite to be held throughout the former state in order to determine the area's final accession to either India or merger with Pakistan. Gilgit Baltistan is governed by a Governor and a Chief minister, the latter elected by a legislative assembly. Gilgit Baltistan covers 64,817 km² (28,174 mi²).


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: Gilgit Baltistan historically belonged to the erstwhile princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. Soon after the partition of India in 1947, Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir signed the Instrument of Accession, thereby acceding to the Indian Union. Hence, whole Kashmir is legitimately an inherent part of India. This territory has been under Pakistan’s unlawful control ever since the Pakistan Army orchestrated the tribal invasion of the territory in October 1947.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: The regions of Baltistan, and Ladakh (including Kargil) and Chitral are also considered to be a part of Balawaristan by nationalist parties of Gilgit. The peoples' do not consider areas of Gilgit and Baltistan to be legally or constitutionally part of Pakistan or India. Nor do they regard neighboring regions of Ladakh wazarat to be legitimately part of India or Pakistan. They demand freedom not just for regions within Pakistan, but also Indian held areas. They also assert that as per UNCIP resolutions, (Pakistan and India) must withdraw their occupational armed forces and handover the control of the disputed region to the people of Gilgit Baltistan, under the supervision of the United Nations, until a final settlement of the whole Jammu and Kashmir issue is reached, as per a United Nations sponsored plebiscite that would be held in both Pakistan and Indian-administered Kashmir."


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: On 29 August 2009, the "Gilgit-Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order 2009", was passed by the Pakistani cabinet and later signed by the country's President. The order granted self-rule to the people of the former Northern Areas, now renamed "Gilgit-Baltistan", by creating, among other things, an elected legislative assembly. There has been criticism and opposition to this move in Pakistan, India, and Gilgit-Baltistan.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: Gilgit Baltistan United Movement—while rejecting the new package—demanded that an independent and autonomous legislative assembly for Gilgit-Baltistan should be formed with the installation of local authoritative government as per the UNCIP resolutions, where the people of Gilgit-Baltistan will elect their president and the prime minister.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: In early September 2009, Pakistan signed an agreement with the People's Republic of China for a mega energy project in Gilgit-Baltistan which includes the construction of a 7,000-megawatt dam at Bunji in the Astore District. This also resulted in protest from India, although Indian concerns were immediately rejected by Pakistan, which claimed that the Government of India has no locus standi in the matter.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: On 29 September 2009, the Pakistani Prime Minister, while addressing a huge gathering in Gilgit-Baltistan, announced a multi-billion rupee development package aimed at the socio-economic uplifting of people in the area. Development projects will include the areas of education, health, agriculture, tourism and the basic needs of life.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: ""You are getting your identity today. It is your right and has been your demand, and today we are fulfilling it."" Gilgit–Baltistan thus gained "de facto" province-like status without constitutionally becoming part of Pakistan. The official poistion of Pakistan has rejected Gilgit–Baltistani calls for integration with Pakistan on the grounds that it would prejudice its international obligations with regard to the Kashmir dispute.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: In 1982 the Pakistani President General Zia ul Haq proclaimed that the people of the Northern Areas were Pakistanis and had nothing to do with the State of Jammu and Kashmir.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: An attempt in 1993 by the High Court of Azad Kashmir to annex Gilgit–Baltistan was quashed by the Supreme Court of Pakistan, after protests by the predominantly Shia population of Gilgit–Baltistan, who feared domination by the Sunni Kashmiris.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: The Government of Gilgit Baltistan also known as the State Government of the Northern Areas, is the highest governing authority of the territory and its 10 districts. It consists of an executive, led by the Governor of Gilgit Baltistan, a judiciary and a legislative branch.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: Like other provinces in Pakistan, the head of state of Gilgit Baltistan is the governor. The governor is chosen by the President of Pakistan on the advice of the central government. The governor's post is largely ceremonial. It does not have much power. The Chief Minister is the head of government and is holds most of the executive powers.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: The Gilgit Baltistan Legislative Assembly is a 33-seat unicameral legislative body. It was formed as part of the "Gilgit–Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order, 2009". This order gave the region self-rule and an elected legislative assembly. Before this, the region had been directly ruled from Islamabad.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: Gilgit–Baltistan borders the Wakhan corridor of Afghanistan to the northwest, China's Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang to the northeast, the disputed territory of Jammu and Kashmir to the south and southeast, the Pakistani-controlled state of Azad Jammu and Kashmir to the south, and Pakistan's Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: Gilgi-Baltistan is home to five of the "eight-thousanders" and to more than fifty peaks above 7000 meters. Gilgit and Skardu are the two main hubs for expeditions to those mountains. The region is home to some of the world's highest mountain ranges—the main ranges are the Karakoram Mountains and the western Himalayas. The Pamir mountains are to the north, and the Hindu Kush lies to the west. Amongst the highest mountains are K2 (Mount Godwin-Austen) and Nanga Parbat, the latter being one of the most feared mountains in the world.


title: Gilgit-Baltistan

text: The Deosai Plains are located above the tree line, and constitute the second-highest plateau in the world at 4,115 meters (14,500 feet) after the Chinese region of Tibet. The plateau lies east of Astore, south of Skardu and west of Ladakh. The area was declared as a national park in 1993. The Deosai Plains cover an area of almost 5,000 square kilometres. For over half the year (between September and May), Deosai is snow-bound and cut off from rest of Astore & Baltistan in winters. The village of Deosai lies close to Chilum chokki and is connected with the Kargil District of Ladakh in the Kashmir disputed region through an all-weather road.


title: Lunisolar calendar

text: A lunisolar calendar is a calendar that uses lunar months but solar years. The Hebrew calendar and the Chinese calendar are lunisolar calendars used today.


title: Macaronesia

text: The Macaronesian islands, or simply Macaronesia is a modern name for several groups of islands of volcanic origin in the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Europe and Africa. They belong to three countries: Portugal, Spain, and Cape Verde.


title: Macaronesia

text: Macaronesia ( 'blessed', 'happy' and 'island'; 'blessed/fortunate islands'). This term was used by Ancient Greek geographers for islands to the west of the Strait of Gibraltar.


title: Macaronesia

text: The modern use of the term Macaronesia goes to the botanist Philip Barker Webb in the 1830s for botanical descriptions. The name is occasionally misspelled "Macronesia" in analogy with Micronesia.


title: Macaronesia

text: The following groups of islands (archipelagos) are commonly counted as being part of the Macaronesia - from north to south:


title: Macaronesia

text: Spanish is spoken in the Canary Islands and Portuguese in the rest of the islands. Cape Verde was a colony of Portugal but it is independent since 1975.


title: Macaronesia

text: The islands of Macaronesia are volcanic in origin, and are thought to be the product of several geologic hotspots.


title: Macaronesia

text: The climate of the Macaronesian islands goes from Mediterranean in the Azores and Madeira to arid in Cape Verde. The Portuguese archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira have a generally cooler climate and higher rainfall than the Canary Islands and Cape Verde.


title: Macaronesia

text: Even if the distances between the different groups of islands are large, the plants and animals are similar and there are many endemic plants that are found only in these islands.


title: Macaronesia

text: The islands have a unique biogeography, and are home to several distinct plant and animal communities. The laurel forests, known as "laurisilva", of Macaronesia are a type of mountain cloud forest with species of a vegetation type which originally covered much of the Mediterranean Basin when the climate of the region was more humid and evolved to adapt to island conditions. These forests once covered most of the Azores, Madeira, and parts of the Canary Islands ("Canaries") between 400–1200 m altitude (the eastern Canaries and Cape Verde being too dry).


title: Macaronesia

text: Cutting the trees for timber and wood, clearing vegetation for grazing and agriculture, and the introduction of plants and animals by humans has displaced much of the native vegetation. The laurisilva has been reduced to small pockets. As a result, many of the endemic biota of the islands are seriously endangered or extinct.


title: Three-body problem

text: The three-body problem is a problem in the field of physics that experts find interesting. The goal is to find how three things move when they attract each other with gravity. It would be for instance the problem of the movement of the Sun, the Earth and the Moon. Physicists do not have a general solution that always works.


title: Three-body problem

text: "Relativistic" refers to the theory of Albert Einstein called Relativity. This theory must be used when things move at great speed. But as long as things move at small enough speed, you can use every day classical mechanics, and this is called "non-relativistic movement". You know if the speed is great or small enough by comparing to the speed of light "c," which is the highest possible speed.


title: Three-body problem

text: In non-relativistic physics, one must know the place and velocity of the three things. One must also know their masses. Then one uses Newton's laws of motion to learn how the things move.


title: Three-body problem

text: When a thing is moving, it has energy of movement. Scientists use a short-cut when they talk about this energy, they call it 'E.'


title: Three-body problem

text: In a field called General relativity, experts say that movement with higher velocities causes the radiation of gravitational waves. In this case, the thing moving loses energy, and this makes calculation more difficult. Experts say that the system is "not conservative".


title: Three-body problem

text: Experts in another field called Quantum mechanics, say, in addition, at high speed the creation and annihilation of particles becomes possible, so, it is not possible to keep the number of particles constant.


title: Three-body problem

text: The three-body problem also happens in astronomy. The problem consists in calculating the course of three bodies, that influence each other with gravitation. The first to state the problem was Isaac Newton, in "Principia". Usually, two of the bodies are large, and the third is small. In the case where the two bodies have the same gravitational force, and that the bodies all have the same mass can be solved exactly. If this is not the case, the problem is solved through iteration and approximation. Many different patterns of motion can occur.


title: Soft drink

text: Soft drinks (also known as pop, soda, tonic, soda pop, fizzy drinks, or minerals) are "fizzy" drinks made from concentrates and sugar. When they are made, carbon dioxide gas is added which makes them "fizzy". This process is called carbonation. Some soft drinks have flavors. Some popular types of soda are Sprite, Mountain Dew, 7 Up, Pepsi, Dr Pepper and Coca-Cola. Most soft drinks are sweetened with sugar, that is what makes them so unhealthy.


title: Landmarks

text: Originally, a landmark literally meant a prominent, easily identified geographic point, (like a mountain, a cliff, or a river) used by explorers and others to find their way back or through an area.


title: Landmarks

text: In modern use, it includes anything that can be recognized easily, such as a monument, building, or other structure. In American English it is the main word used to call places that are tourist attractions because they are beautiful, or big, or they have historical importance. Some, such as National Landmarks, are on official lists of landmarks. Landmarks in the British English are normally used for casual navigation, such as giving directions to someone to get somewhere. This is done in American English as well.


title: Landmarks

text: Landmarks also can be of two different categories: natural (e.g., physical features such as waterfalls and mountains), and structures constructed by humans. Many of them are World Heritage Sites.


title: Girls Just Want to Have Fun

text: "Girls Just Wanna Have Fun" is a song by Cyndi Lauper. It was the first single by Lauper. The single reached number one in over ten countries. It received a Grammy Award nomination for Record of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. Cap'n Lou Albano was in the music video for the song.


title: Girls Just Want to Have Fun

text: The song was covered by Miley Cyrus. The Miley Cyrus version is off her album "Breakout". It has been covered on either an album or in live concert by over 30 other artists.


title: Protein structure

text: Protein structure describes how protein molecules are organised. This structure is what makes proteins work.


title: Protein structure

text: Proteins are important biological macromolecules present in all organisms. They are polymers formed from 20 possible amino acids by RNA translation. Protein structures range in size from tens to several thousand amino acids.


title: Protein structure

text: After translation, proteins fold into specific shapes. This is not done by chemical bonds but by weaker forces such as hydrogen bonds. To understand how proteins work, it is often necessary to discover their three-dimensional structure. To do this biophysics uses techniques such as X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, and dual polarisation interferometry.


title: Protein structure

text: A protein may switch from one shape to another as it does its job. The alternative states of the same protein are called conformations. An enzyme, for instance, will have at least two conformations: one with its co-enzyme and one without. The form with its coenzyme will have two conformations: one with its substrate and one without.


title: Protein structure

text: Proteins are molecules that consist of one or more chains of amino acids. Each different protein has a set of amino acids in a particular order. The primary structure is the sequence of the amino acids of a single polypeptide chain from its start (N-terminus) to its end (C-terminus). The amino acids are held together by a specific type of covalent bond, known as a peptide bond, which are made during the process of protein biosynthesis or translation.


title: Protein structure

text: Secondary structure is the most simple structure made by proteins' polypeptide chains. There are two main types of secondary structure: alpha helix and beta strand (beta sheet). Alpha helices are coils that turn in a clockwise rotation. Beta strands are chains of amino acids that lie beside each other to make a beta sheet. These two types of secondary structure were suggested in 1951 by Linus Pauling and coworkers. Unlike the polypeptide chain, which is bonded through covalent peptide bonds, secondary structure is formed by hydrogen bonds.


title: Protein structure

text: This is the shape (spatial organization) of an entire protein molecule. Protein folding is largely self-organising. It is mainly decided by the protein's primary structure. This is called Anfinsen's dogma. However, the environment in which a protein is made and folded also effect its final shape.


title: Protein structure

text: If proteins are built of more than one polypeptide, this gives another level of structure. The quaternary structure, is how the polypeptide subunits fit together. Haemoglobin, for example, has two alpha and two beta chains. Both the alpha chains and beta chains are coded for by a cluster of six or seven genes, which provide the code for different versions of the molecule.


title: Raven (wrestler)

text: Scott Anthony Levy (born September 8, 1964), better known by his ring name Raven, is an American wrestling producer, wrestling writer, and occasional author, actor and professional wrestler. He currently works for different independent promotions. During his career he has held multiple championships across the world.


title: Raven (wrestler)

text: He is a three-time World Champion. He won the ECW World Heavyweight Championship twice and the NWA World Heavyweight Championship once. He also held the WCW United States Championship once. He is the record holder for most reigns as WWF/E Hardcore Champion with 39 reigns.


title: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

text: Comte Henri Marie Raymond de Toulouse-Lautrec-Monfa (24 November 1864 – 9 September 1901) was a French painter of the Post-Impressionist period. He was born into a noble family, but lived for most of his life among the actors, dancers and prostitutes of Paris. He is famous for painting the lives of these people, the entertainment of Paris, and many portraits.


title: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

text: In a 2005 auction at Christie's auction house a new record was set when "La blanchisseuse", an early painting of a young laundress, sold for $22.4 million U.S.


title: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

text: Henri Marie Raymond de Toulouse-Lautrec Monfa was born in Albi in the Midi-Pyrénées region of France. He was the oldest child of Count Alphonse and Countess Adèle de Toulouse-Lautrec. His mother and father were cousins. This is thought to have been a reason for his weakness and bad health. His younger brother was born on 28 August 1867, but died the following year.


title: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

text: Henri had two accidents when he was 13 and 14. He fractured (broke) the thigh bones of both his legs. They took a long time to heal, and never grew again. No-one knows exactly what caused this problem. As an adult he had a man-sized body but child-sized legs and was 1.54 m (5 ft 1 in) tall,


title: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

text: As a young man, Toulouse-Lautrec was not able to do many of the things that other men of his age liked doing. He had been good at drawing from the time he was a child. He spent his time drawing and painting instead of joining in sports and hunting. He travelled to Paris where he met other artists as well as writers, actors and dancers. The "night life" (entertainment) of Paris had so many colourful scenes and people to paint. His paintings are famous for showing the scenes of modern life in a way they had never been shown before.


title: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

text: Toulouse-Lautrec lived in Montmartre, a part of Paris that was famous for its "bohemian" people: artists, poets, philosophers and poor students. He was called "the soul of Montmartre". He often visited the nightclubs such as the Moulin Rouge. He also spent a lot of time at the brothels in that area, and lived for a time at the brothel at des Moulins where he was a good friend to many of the women there.


title: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

text: Toulouse-Lautrec painted scenes of the lives of these people, which were very shocking to some people in the polite society of Paris. As well as showing the dancing, singing, acting and circus performances that many people enjoyed, he also showed people in bed together, the sad faces of people who were addicts and the half-naked prostitutes lined up for STD medical examination. Many of his pictures were of women in lesbian relationships.


title: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

text: He painted the singer Yvette Guilbert, the dancer Jane Avril and the dancer Louise Weber, who was known as "La Goulue" ("Greedy-Guts"), famous for the leg-kicking dance called the "Can-Can", which is still danced at the "Moulin Rouge" to this day. Toulouse-Lautrec gave painting lessons to Suzanne Valadon, who was one of his models and may have also been his girlfriend.


title: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

text: Henri Toulouse-Lautrec was an alcoholic for most of his adult life. He was put into a psychiatric hospital shortly before his death. He died from syphilis and problems caused by his alcoholism at his family's home in Malromé. He was nearly 37 years old. He is buried in Verdelais, Gironde, a few kilometres from his birthplace.


title: Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

text: Throughout his working life of less than 20 years, Toulouse-Lautrec created 737 canvases, 275 watercolors, 363 prints and posters and 5,084 drawings. He also made some ceramics and stained glass After Toulouse-Lautrec's death, his mother, the Countess Adèle Toulouse-Lautrec, and his art dealer Maurice Joyant made his art famous. His mother gave money for a museum of his works to be built in Albi, his birthplace.


title: Dental caries

text: The term dental caries refers to tooth decay or cavities in teeth. The decay comes from normal bacteria in your mouth. When you eat sugar, these bacteria create acid which create caivities in your teeth. Dental caries usually lead to substandard breath and bad taste. Personal hygiene caring consists of brushing and flossing daily.


title: Dental caries

text: After the enamel, the strong outer layer of your teeth, and the dentin are destroyed, the cavity reaches the dental pulp and nerves of the tooth, the tooth becomes sensitive since the nerves are exposed. Cavity may infect the jaw and sometimes cause a tooth abscess.


title: Dental caries

text: If carbohydrates (sugar) remain in your mouth for enough time, caries-causing bacteria may form a biofilm called plaque on the tooth surface and attack the tooth.


title: Collagen

text: Collagen is a group of naturally occurring proteins. In nature, it is found exclusively in animals, especially in the flesh and connective tissues of mammals.


title: Collagen

text: It is the main component of connective tissue, and is the most abundant protein in mammals. It makes up about 25% to 35% of the whole-body protein content.


title: Collagen

text: Collagen, in the form of elongated fibrils, is mostly found in fibrous tissues such as tendon, ligament and skin, and is also abundant in cornea, cartilage, bone, blood vessels, the gut, and intervertebral discs.


title: Collagen

text: Collagen makes up 1% to 2% of muscle tissue, and accounts for 6% of the weight of strong, tendinous muscles.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: The Battle of Gettysburg (locally , with an "ss" sound), was fought July 1–3, 1863. The battle took place in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. It was the battle with the largest number of casualties in the American Civil War. Gettysburg is often called the war's turning point. Union Major General George G. Meade's Army of the Potomac stopped attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. This ended Lee's second invasion of the North. Lee began to move his men back to Virginia on July 4. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day battle.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: That November, a cemetery for those who died there was opened at the Gettysburg National Cemetery. President Abraham Lincoln gave a speech called the Gettysburg Address at the ceremony to open the cemetery and honor the dead soldiers on both sides.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: Lee's army won an important battle at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863. Afterwards, he led his army north through the Shenandoah Valley. His plan was to start his second invasion of the North (called the Gettysburg Campaign). Lee had several objectives in mind. He intended to take Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, the state capital. This, he hoped, would embarrass the Lincoln administration and force Northern politicians to give up the war. At this point, Lee was playing politics. He knew that if he was successful in Pennsylvania it would encourage the Northern peace movement. He hoped it would get foreign recognition for the Confederacy. It could also force the Union to negotiate for peace, allowing the Confederate states to become an independent country. Lee badly needed supplies and intended to get them in Pennsylvania. In addition to being the state capital, Harrisburg was also the site of Camp Curtin, the largest training camp for Union soldiers. It was a major railroad center. More importantly it was a major supply depot and also a prisoner of war camp.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: In the North, Lincoln told Major General Joseph Hooker to have the Union army follow Lee's army. But Hooker was very reluctant to go after the Confederates. Finally, Lincoln lost all confidence in him. On June 28, three days before the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln appointed General Meade to replace Hooker. Had the Confederacy won, confederate force would have had access to Philadelphia or Baltimore. Vice President Hannibal Hamlin went to Lincoln to discuss a prisoner of war trade five days before the Battle of Gettysburg.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: Neither Lee nor Meade intended a battle take place at Gettysburg and neither were there when the battle started. On June 30, 1863, Confederate General Henry Heth had a division at Cashtown, Pennsylvania, Lee's gathering place before moving on to Harrisburg. Heth sent his division to nearby Gettysburg to look for, as he later wrote in his report, "army supplies (shoes especially), and return the same day." This started the myth that the Battle of Gettysburg started over shoes. Heth did this without scouting ahead to see what was at Gettysburg. The job of scouting belonged to the Confederate cavalry under J.E.B. Stuart. But they had been gone for over a week. So, blind to what was ahead of them, his soldiers ran directly into a Union cavalry division commanded by General John Buford. This started the fighting even though Heth and other commanders were under orders from Lee not to start a battle. But, as each side brought in more troops, it became a full-scale battle. Lee started moving much of his army there. One of his goals was to fight the Union army and destroy it. Now, he would have to do it at Gettysburg.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: About 5.30 a.m. on the morning of July 1, the battle started. Heth probed ahead cautiously to a point about two miles west of Gettysburg. Buford's cavalry was deliberately slowing his progress. At about 10 a.m. the Union I Corps arrived commanded by General John F. Reynolds. They set themselves up along McPherson's Ridge to oppose Heth's Confederates. During the fighting Reynolds was killed but the Confederates were driven back. Meanwhile, both sides brought up reinforcements. The Union set up defenses of the town with I Corps defending the western approaches with XI Corps to the north. The flanks were covered by Buford's cavalry. One Union division was held in reserve on Cemetery Ridge. In the afternoon, when Lee arrived, the Confederates still did not know the strength of the Union forces they were facing. They also had not scouted the terrain. One division of Ewell's Corps had attacked the Union I Corps just after noon. At about 2 p.m. Heth's division joined Ewell's troops in the attack on I Corps. At about 3 p.m., another of Ewell's Confederate divisions, commanded by General Jubal Early, attacked the flank of the Union XI Corps. By 4 p.m., both of the Union corps retreated through Gettysburg and took up positions on Cemetery Ridge. So far, the Union had lost about 9,000 men including about 3,000 who had been captured. The Confederates had lost about 6,500 men by this point. So the first day of battle was technically a Confederate victory numbers-wise. But Federal troops held the high ground as more reinforcements were still arriving. Based on the first day's fighting, Lee was convinced he could defeat Meade at Gettysburg.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: Late in the day, Lee sent the famous order to Confederate General Richard S. Ewell to take cemetery ridge "if practicable.” While he had been awaiting orders from Lee, Ewell had ridden out to take a closer look at Cemetery Ridge. Based on what he saw and the confusing order, he decided it was not practicable to take the hill and set up camp. Instead, he decided to leave the assault for the next day. This was the first major mistake of the battle for the South. The Army of the Potomac would end the day with around 21,900 men strongly positioned on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Ridge. The Army of Northern Virginia would have around 27,000 men from Benner's Hill to Seminary Ridge.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: On the second day of battle, most of both armies had arrived. The Union line held the high ground in a defensive formation that looked like a fishhook. On July 2, Lee ordered General James Longstreet, commander of the Confederate I Corps, to attack the Union left flank as early in the day as possible. At the same time General A. P. Hill's corps was to attack the Union center. General Ewell was to make diversionary attacks and "if practicable" attack the Union Army's right flank. Lee felt that if everything went according to his plan and the Union line was destroyed, the battle, and possibly the war, would be won on the second day. Lee's coordinated attack required getting all the infantry into position and moving up artillery to support them. Longstreet had the furthest to go and midway in their march realized the Union lines could see them. They went back and had to take a different route. Longstreet could not get his corps into position until about 4 p.m. when he began his attack. His attack on the Union line lasted for over three hours but could not break the Union line. Hill's Corps failed to be effective in the center. Ewell did not attack Cemetery Ridge as instructed in Lee's confusing order, but made some progress in taking Culp's Hill.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: Union Major General Daniel Sickles, a political general commanding III Corps, disobeyed Meade's orders and moved his troops forward to the Peach Orchard. He had been ordered to take up a position on Little Round Top connecting with Union forces on both his right and left. By doing this he left a large hole in the Union line. He marched to a position nearly in front of the Union line with no support on either side. Within an hour, his entire III Corps was nearly wiped out by Longstreet. Sickles was badly wounded by a cannonball and lost a leg. Being wounded was all that saved him from a court-martial. Sickles' blunder nearly lost the entire battle for the Union.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: On the night of July 2, Longstreet's largest division commanded by General George Pickett arrived and was placed in the center of the Confederate line. Lee's plan for the next day was to attack on both the Union right and left, just as he had done the day before. Lee was still certain he could break the Union line and win the battle. That day Stuart's cavalry had caught up with Lee's army and Lee ordered Stuart to ride around the East side of Gettysburg and attack the Union rear. Ewell had also been reinforced and was ordered to take Culp's Hill the next morning.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: Meade ordered the Union XII Corps to drive Ewell's forces off the captured trenches on Culp's Hill. They were to move at daylight the next morning. He was determined the remainder of the Union Army would hold its position and wait for Lee to attack.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: Ewell began fighting on Culp's Hill at first light. Lee rode to Longstreet's headquarters only to find Longstreet had misunderstood his orders. He was planning a turning movement against the Union left. Now, with no hope of a coordinated attack, Lee changed the plan. Longstreet was to attack the Union center on Cemetery Ridge. Ewell's forces failed in their counterattacks and were forced to withdraw from Culp's Hill by about 11:00 a.m. Lee pinned all his hopes on Longstreet's attack on the center. Longstreet had the last fresh division in Lee's army. It was made up of three brigades, commanded by generals James L. Kemper, Richard B. Garnett, and Lewis A. Armistead, led by Pickett.


title: Battle of Gettysburg

text: First, a bombardment by about 140 Confederate cannons on the Union lines was ordered. The bombardment started about 1 p.m. About 80 Union cannons returned fire. The cannons duel lasted for between one and two hours, depending on the source (most say about an hour). The Confederate artillery chief, General Edward Porter Alexander, had only intended it to last for about 25 minutes. But he then realized it had done little damage to the Union line so he continued. But he also had to worry about running out of ammunition and not have enough to support the charge that was Pickett was about to make. When the Union guns fell silent, Porter thought he had knocked them out. But it was a trick by the Union artillery chief. His guns were waiting for the charge the Union forces knew was coming. Alexander sent word to Pickett he could start his attack.