title: American literature

text: There are many popular literary genres. Humorist David Sedaris writes funny short stories about his personal life and odd things about strangers.


title: American literature

text: Shel Silverstein and Dr.Seuss wrote rhyming poems for children’s books. Judy Bloom writes emotional stories about young girls for young readers. R.L.Stine writes scary stories (Goosebump Series) about monsters and ghosts for boys and girls. Stephen King writes horror novels for adults about murder, monsters, and kidnapping.


title: Controversy

text: A controversy is a prolonged public dispute or debate, with people having different opinions. There may be several groups of people who have different opinions and who cannot agree. Examples for controversial topics are the question of whether abortion should be legal, or whether research on embryonic stem cells should be permitted. Controversies can happen when there is not a lot of understanding about a topic. A controversy may also happen when different people interpret the same information differently based on their own biases.


title: Controversy

text: Any opinion that has opposing sides or points of view can become a controversy. In the winter of 2015, consumers argued over the color and design of Starbucks Christmas cup. Some suggested a boycott of the coffee brand to protest.


title: Cathode

text: A cathode is a type of electrode through which electrons move. Electrodes are an electrical conductor (usually a metal) that is connected to something that is not a metal. Electric current is a flow of charges through a conductor. There are two theories; one theory is conventional current flow and the other is actual current flow. The anode delivers conventional (or customary) current (which travels in the opposite direction as electrons) and the cathode receives that current. This means that electrons come out of the anode and electrons go into the cathode.


title: Cathode

text: This lets an electric current go into an electrical device such as a battery or other electrical cell. It can also end in a vacuum, like in a cathode ray tube. In this case, the electrons may go into open space.


title: Cathode

text: In other words, a cathode is a positive electrode on a battery and a negative electrode on an electrolytic cell. Electric current is perceived as flowing in the opposite direction that the electrons are flowing. So electrons go into the + (positive) terminal of a battery, but electric current goes out. Electrons go into the + (positive) terminal of an electrolytic cell, but electric current goes out.


title: Cathode

text: An electrode through which electrons flows out of the device is termed a cathode because it is negatively charged. A cathode is a negative electrode on a battery and a negative electrode on an electrolytic cell.


title: Moat

text: A moat is a body of water around a castle or town to keep people out. The moat was introduced between 1154 and 1485. At first, moats were simple and used only for protection. Later on, moats became more complicated and were used for show.


title: Moat

text: Moats are deep, wide ditches filled with water. They were usually built near sources of water that flowed into the moats, filling them with water. The moats were filled with water for a few reasons. It made enemies swimming across the moat easy targets. It also made it impossible for enemies to dig underneath the castle walls, which was a common method of attack. It also prevented fires from destroying the castle.


title: Moat

text: The word "moat" comes from the French word "motte", which means hill. Moats were first used in the Medieval period, from 1016 to 1164. Castles were built on the top of high hills. The area at the bottom of the hill was eventually called the moat.


title: Moat

text: Castle moats were usually between 5 and 40 feet deep, and they were not always filled with water. Not all moats contained water, as a simple dry, wide ditch could prove an obstacle. These were called dry moats.


title: Moat

text: In many stories, moats are filled with alligators or crocodiles. This is a myth. However, moats were sometimes filled with fish or eels for food.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: Gabriel Borić Font (born 11 February 1986) is a Chilean politician and activist. Boric is the 37th and current President of Chile since 2022. He was a member of the Chamber of Deputies from 2014 until 2022.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: During the 2019 civil unrest in Chile, Boric was one of the politicians who helped create a referendum to change the Constitution.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: In 2021, he was selected as the presidential candidate of the Apruebo Dignidad coalition. He defeated José Antonio Kast in the second round of the presidential election, winning 55.9% of the votes. He is the youngest president in Chile's history and the second youngest state leader in the world. He is also the first Chilean president born during the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: Gabriel Borić Font was born in Punta Arenas in 1986. He has two brothers, Simón and Tomás. He moved to Santiago to study at University of Chile's law school in 2004. He failed his law exams and never graduated with a law degree.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: In 1999 and 2000, Boric was part of the Federation of Secondary School Students of Punta Arenas. While at university, he joined the Autonomous Left. He was an advisor to the Students' Union of the Law Department in 2008 and became its president in 2009. He also represented students as a university senator from 2010 to 2012.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: Boric ran for Deputy in 2013 as an independent candidate to represent District 60. He was elected with 15,418 votes (26.2%), the highest number received by any candidate in the region. Boric was mentioned as one of the most popular politicians in Chile according to different opinion polls.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: In the 2017 general election, Boric ran for re-election as an independent candidate supported by the Humanist Party. He won by 18,626 votes (32.8%).


title: Gabriel Boric

text: Boric was the nominee for President of Chile in the 2021 election. In November 2021, he advanced to the second round facing José Antonio Kast. He was elected the 37th President a month later on 19 December after winning almost 56% of the vote. He is the youngest president of Chile ever elected. He was inaugurated on 11 March 2022.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: Boric announced the ministers of his cabinet in January 2022. Fourteen out of twenty-four ministers are women, making it the first cabinet in the Americas where more than half of its members are women. He also nominated the first openly LGBT ministers in Chile's history. He also hired Maya Fernández Allende, the granddaughter of former president Salvador Allende, in his cabinet.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: On his first day, Boric pushed for a law to create a 40-hour working week and increase the minimum wage. Also, he has proposed workers' representatives and gender equality on boards of large companies. He has proposed the creation of a state company for lithium mining, increase the royalties paid by mining companies and protect the environment.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: During the first months of government Boric and people working with his government have had threats and physical aggression. In April, Boric was attacked by a man who attempted to throw a stone at him. On May one of Boric's bodyguards was kidnapped and shot in the arm by unknown assailants.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: Boric made his first presidential trip in April 2022, to Argentina, where he met with President Alberto Fernández. In Argentina, Boric said that any territorial issues with Argentina would be solved and supported Argentina's rule over the Falkland Islands.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: In April 2022, polling showed that Boric's disapproval rate had passed his approval rate. Another poll that same month, found a similar increase in the disapproval of presidency. The rise in disapproval is because of high inflation and violence in Araucanía.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: In May 2022, Boric decided to send troops to the southern part of the country, during the rising violence in the Mapuche conflict. Boric lost support from the Communist Party of Chile with this move.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: Boric has been open about his mental health issues such as obsessive–compulsive disorder. He took leave from congress for a few weeks after being hospitalized for it in 2018. He is known for being a fan of rock and heavy metal music. Boric is known for having visible tattoos and was the first Latin American head of state to have visible tattoos.


title: Gabriel Boric

text: Boric has been in a relationship with anthropologist and sociologist Irina Karamanos since 2019. They have a pet dog, called Brownie. They live in Punta Arenas.


title: Rate of fire

text: Rate of fire is how fast a weapon can fire or launch its projectiles. It is usually measured in rounds per minute (RPM or round/min), or per second (RPS or round/s). Pistols usually have a very slow RPM, which large machine guns may get up to 1000 RPM. The "M61 Vulcan", a gatling-gun, could fire around 6000 RPM in tests.


title: Kuntala Kumari Sabat

text: Kuntala Kumari Sabat was born on 8 February 1901, at Jagadalpur in Bastar region. Her parents were Daniel and Monica. Shortly after her birth, her parents went to Burma with family. So Kuntala Kumari passed her early childhood at Burma with her parents. Then she returned to Khurda with her mother Monica after her father got remarried at Burma. So Kuntala Kumari stayed at Khurda with her mother for a short period. She completed her early school education at Ravenshaw Girl’s School and higher study at Medical School, Cuttack. Kuntala Kumari composed poems during her school days. She came out successfully from the medical school and became popular as a doctor with her sincerity and simplicity. Although a physician by profession, she knew the colonial treatment of the anatomy of an enslaved nation better than her own degree.


title: Kuntala Kumari Sabat

text: Kailash Rao was her literary teacher who guided her literary activities. Kuntala Kumari enrolled herself as a member of ‘Nava Vidhan’, the ‘Brahmo Society’. She got wide applause when poems, ‘Anjali’ came out. She won approbation from almost all the literary figures of Orissa. A leading cultural association of women conferred on her the title ‘Utkal Bharati’. Gopal Chandra Praharaj and Pallikabi Nanda Kishore Bal loved her and adopted her as their daughter. Kuntala Kumari joined a maternity welfare centre, which was newly opened at Cuttack in 1925. Later she left for Delhi on 1st July 1928. The same year she got married to Krishna Prasad. New phase of life began, yet she did not leave her writings. She had written in English, Kuntala Kumari Sabat : A True Patriotic Litterateur and Reflection of Her Literary Works on Gandhian Movement Dr. Janmejay Choudhury Bengali and Hindi and contributed to a number of nonOriya journals and edited a number of Hindi journals at Delhi. During her stay at Delhi, she presided over the ‘All India Arya Mahila Sammilani’ at Bareli. During this time also she was invited by the Allahabad University and Benaras Hindu University to deliver lectures. She was the president of the students federation at Aligarh. She was made the chair-person of a reputed social organisation founded by Harbilash Sarada for the introduction of widow marriage and abolition of child marriage. While at Delhi she took steps to encourage, publish and project Oriya literature. At Delhi, Kuntala Kumari was also associated with eminent writers like , Yeasshpal Jee Jain, S.H. Batsayan and a host of Hindi writers. ‘Hindi Pracharini Sabha’ conferred on her the title of ‘Bharat Kavinetri.’


title: Kuntala Kumari Sabat

text: As a disciple of Gandhi she claimed independence as the birth right of Indian people. She took up the task of awakening the women. She encouraged them to join the National Movement under Gandhian leadership. She writes –


title: Kuntala Kumari Sabat

text: ‘Senapati Aaji Deichhanti Daka Utha bharatara Biraputrajaka, Apurba Asahayoga Ranagune Arte Antakasi para Janejane, Bharatara Jete Viragunamani Chaliasu Senapati Dakasuni.’


title: Kuntala Kumari Sabat

text: During the noncooperation movement she gave a clarion call to the people of Orissa to fight for freedom. She was the voice of modern Orissa. In a real sense she was a visionary and a rebel. She expressed her concern for the suffering mankind and wanted to free mankind from exploitation


title: Kuntala Kumari Sabat

text: No doubt, Kuntala Kumari had a lot of patriotic fervour in her. She had derived a special pride in herself by portraying Gandhi, Nehru and the spinning wheel in her lucid poems. This instilled a lot of confidence to visualise a free India through the veil of the darkened British rule. She was imbibed with the true spirit of a colonial poet’s vision to awaken public consciousness like Bankim’s immortal Bengali song. The Oriya youths plunged headlong into the noncooperation movement being addicted to her war songs. It ignited the sparks in them spontaneously, so to say rapidly. Although Kuntala Kumari had a brief span of life time of thirty eight years, her creations outlived her to pioneer the cause of rooting out British misrule in India. She composed beautiful numerous patriotic poems and songs. Her first collection of poems came out in 1922. Then it was followed by ‘Uchhwas’ – 1924, ‘Archana’ – 1927, ‘Sphulinga’ – 1929, ‘Ahwan’ – 1930, ‘Prem Chintamani’ – 1930, ‘Oriyanka Kandana’ – 1937, ‘Garjat Krishaka’ – 1939.4 Her love for man, nature and nation is reflected in her poems. She had a deep hatred for superstitions and conventions, raised her voice against high and mighty. She always tried to protest against injustice and inequalities. She renounced the heartless religious dogmas and practices. She comprehended the image of glorious past of Orissa. At times it carries the romantic strain of love for liberty, equality and fraternity.


title: Kuntala Kumari Sabat

text: She composed the inaugural song of ‘Utkal Sammilani’, chaired by Acharya P.C. Roy in 1924. the poems in the anthology ‘Archana’ echoes the voice of poor and lowly, the depressed and the marginalized. Her poetic longing for brave new world is expressed in most of her poems. Some of her poems published in ‘Sphulinga’, inspired the youth of Orissa and infused dynamism in them. The volume ‘Ahwan’ captures the spirit of Gandhi’s clarion call to people to join the struggle for freedom. In her poems ‘Sphulinga’ she wants to inspire his fellowmen to get lessons from the history and to get out of the present set up and dullness. Her poems in Ahwan created tremendous sensation. Her fame as a patriot and poet spread over the country. She had a transterrestrial longing for an ideal world, a golden era ruled by love, justice and beauty. The yearning for liberty is always marked in her poems like ‘Garjat Krishaka’. She expressed the poetic anguish over a cause of the elitish exploitation on the toiling mass. The entire gamut of Kuntala Kumari’s poetic works oscillate between her love for her land and people and the love for God. The poetic identification with the sufferings of common men presents twofold note at one moment she protests and revolts and at the next, she discovers the mystical design in everything and everywhere. In nature, and all its creation see could she the face of God. Her poetry, in some degree, reveals all the romantic traits : “Love of nature, love of beauty, imagination, love of past and a wearied sadness.” No doubt she has enriched the Oriya literature by her pen. Her commitment to explore the possibilities of a free world with faith in love, beauty, truth, goodness and wisdom. Her noble sentiments and her feelings for the sublime have given her poems a universal appeal. Her writings were regularly published in the ‘Samaj’ and ‘Sahakar’ under the title ‘Delhi letters’. She expresses the socio-political life of pre-independent India and makes a zealous attempts to reform the tradition ridden society. In the novel, ‘Na-tundi’, She expresses real thing of the land. ‘Raghu Arakhit’ is one of her most outstanding works. It narrates the social character regarding marriage, where a compensation was given to the bride’s family.


title: Kuntala Kumari Sabat

text: Kuntala Kuamri’s voice was more reflected in her poetry anthologies AHWAN (the call) and Gadajata Krishaka (Feudatory Farmer). The following stanza provides enough stimulus to adorn the spirit of mankind. Oh ! my compatriot !! The man is not born to die of reminiscence or to sink in somewhere It is never a human fate That gets terminated through a happiness living After being condemned to the fretful glooms of failure in a deprived morbid prison of ever – disciplined humiliating; Thus great Earth is never a decaying caravan or a lady nurturing death. Her poetry was a great leap towards strengthening the debilitation of Oriya race against the mighty Britishers. It is definitely a great voice to heal up the wounded psyche of several Oriyas condemned to a bonded earth under ‘British Raj’.6 She was a rebel no doubt and simultaneously a visionary. She stirred the conscience of the people through her writings. Her poems kindled a new spirit in the hearts of the people and inspired them to fight relentlessly against the Britishers.


title: Kuntala Kumari Sabat

text: One of the session of Utkal Sammilani was held at Balasore on 2nd August 1931 with Kuntala Kumari in chair. Jahnabi Devi was the chairperson of the reception. Nearly twelve hundred people all over Orissa attended. This meeting was also attended by more than a thousand women. In her speech as the chairman of the Reception Committee Jahnabi Devi refuted the universally accepted view of women’s inability to stand on their own.8 In this session a central executive committee, named “All Orissa Women’s Association” was set up. Here sincere efforts were made to work out a programme for the improvement of condition of women of Orissa. In an essay entitled “Kabi O Lekhakara Udeshya”, she raised the status of a poet by declaring that she is not limited to any time and clime. A true creative artist moves high above such human limitations : “The poet or the writer is nature’s representative. He is not confined to any particular nation or time. He belongs to all the nations, to all time and all humanity.9 Her death on 23rd August 1938 was a great loss for the people of Orissa. Her brief life was a saga of relentless struggle against evil and darkness. She was a talented woman poet from Orissa, second to none in her bold utterances for the cause of Indian freedom. Although she spent major part of her short life outside the state, she had enough inclination to intercede the causes of its Gods and Goddesses, aquatic landscapes, rural surroundings, and the people irrespective of rich and poor alike. Therefore, time and tide has not thrown her into the limbo of oblivion. Her ideas and concern for common man got reflected in her works. Her life and creatives made her a legendary personality in her lifetime itself. She championed the cause of a world-free from evil and injustice. Her passion for justice, equality, liberty and fraternity was astounding. Throughout her life she fought against injustice and exploitation.


title: Pike (weapon)

text: A pike is a pole weapon. It is a very long heavy thrusting spear formerly used by infantry. A pike is not intended to be thrown. Pikes were used regularly in European warfare starting in the early Middle Ages. Until around 1700 pikes were used by foot soldiers in close order formations.


title: Pike (weapon)

text: The pike was a long weapon that got longer over time. It could be as long as 20 feet (6 m). It had a wooden shaft with an iron or steel . It had metal along the sides for three feet (1m) behind the tip so it would not be cut off by a sword or axe.


title: Pike (weapon)

text: When many pikes were used together they allowed for a great concentration of spearheads an enemy would have great difficulty getting through. The length also kept the soldier at a greater distance from the enemy. But the length also made pikes difficult to use in close combat. were usually arranged in a very tight formation several lines deep. The earliest of these were called a phalanx formation. It was used by the Macedonians under Philip II of Macedon. It was used by the armies of the Pharoahs in ancient Egypt. It was later used by the Swiss pike columns but this formation was probably based on the Scottish Schildrons. The armies of William Wallace and Robert the Bruce used it to great success against the heavy cavalry of kings Edward I of England and his son Edward II of England.


title: Derby

text: Derby is a city in the East Midlands region of England. It is on the banks of the River Derwent in the south of Derbyshire. In the 2001 census, 233,700 people lived there. At that time, Derby was the 18th largest place in England.


title: Derby

text: The Roman camp of 'Derventio' was probably near to Derby. The site of the old Roman fort is at Chester Green. Later the town was one of the 'Five Boroughs' of the Danelaw.


title: Derby

text: Modern research into the history and archaeology of Derby has shown that the Vikings and Anglo-Saxons probably co-existed, occupying two areas of land surrounded by water. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (c. 900) says that "Derby is divided by water". These areas of land were known as Norþworþig and Deoraby, and were at the "Irongate" (north) side of Derby.


title: Derby

text: In World War I, Derby was targeted by German Zeppelin air bombers. They killed five people in a 1916 raid on the town.


title: Derby

text: All Saints Church was designated as a cathedral in 1927. That showed that the town was ready for city status.


title: Derby

text: In the 1920s and 1930s, slums were cleared out and people were moved to new council estates in the suburbs. There were also houses for sale there. Rehousing, council house building and private housing developments continued on a large scale for some 30 years after the end of World War II in 1945.


title: Derby

text: Derby became a high profile town internationally in sport following the appointment of Brian Clough as manager of Derby County F.C. in 1967. Promotion to the Football League First Division was achieved in 1969, and County won of the English league three years later. Following the Clough's resignation in 1973, his successor guided County to another league title in 1975, but this is the club's last major trophy to date; relegation followed in 1980 and top flight status was not regained until 1987, since when Derby have spent a total of 10 seasons (across two spells) in the top flight. The club moved from its century-old Baseball Ground in 1997 to the new Pride Park Stadium.


title: Derby

text: Derby was awarded city status on 7 June 1977 by Queen Elizabeth II. Until then, Derby had been one of the few towns in England with a cathedral but not city status.


title: Derby

text: Despite its strategic industries (rail and aero-engine), Derby suffered comparatively little damage in both world wars (contrast Bristol and Filton). This may in part have been due to the jamming of the German radio-beam navigations systems (X-Verfahren and Knickebein), camouflage and decoy techniques ('Starfish sites') were built, mainly south of the town, e.g. out in fields near Foremark.


title: Derby

text: Derby's main football club is Derby County who've won the FA Cup and the Football League. There are also three senior non-league football clubs based in the city. Derby also had a short lived baseball team, which played at Derby's former ground.


title: Derby

text: Arthur Keily the marathon runner and Olympian was born in Derbyshire in 1921 and has lived his whole life in Derby. In Rome in 1960 he broke the English Olympic record, recording a time of 2hours 27mins.


title: Derby

text: Derby has the first public park in the country to have an arboretum, which is south of the city centre. The arboretum was set up by the philanthropic landowner and industrialist Joseph Strutt in 1840. The arboretum's website states that the arboretum's design was the inspiration for the vision of great urban parks in the USA, notably Central Park in New York City.


title: Derby

text: There are four museums: Derby Museum and Art Gallery; Pickford's House Museum; The Silk Mill and The Royal Crown Derby Museum.


title: Minguo calendar

text: The Republic of China calendar () is a method of numbering years. It is used by Taiwan as well as other territories which are under control of the Republic of China. The Minguo calendar was also used by Mainland China from 1912 until the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949. There have been legislative proposals by pro-Taiwan Independence parties, like the Democratic Progressive Party to get rid of the Republican calendar and replace it with the Gregorian calendar.


title: San Fernando, Pampanga

text: San Fernando is a city in the Philippine province of Pampanga. It is the capital of that province. It is north of Manila, east of Subic Bay in the Zambales province, and south of Clark Air Base in Angeles City.


title: San Fernando, Pampanga

text: The city is named after Fernando VI of Spain. Its patron saint is Saint Ferdinand III of Castile and León. It is known as the "Christmas Capital of the Philippines". The city holds the annual Giant Lantern Festival every December where large lanterns are displayed in competition.


title: UNIX

text: UNIX is a computer operating system. It was first developed in 1969 at Bell Labs. Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and others created it. They used assembly language to write it. In 1972, the Unix code was rewritten with the new C programming language. The Unix operating system is a multiuser and multiprocessing system. This means it can run several application programs at the same time, for more than one user at the same time. It also is able to operate well in a network of computers. Computer security is also important in Unix, because many people can have access to it, both by using a computer directly or over a network.


title: UNIX

text: Many ideas in Unix were new. Other operating systems copied them. Today, there are many operating systems that have some of the ideas of Unix in them. For this reason, some people talk about a "Unix philosophy" of doing things. Linux is one of these systems with many of the Unix ideas in it. Linux does not use code from UNIX. Linux only shares some of the ideas and the names of commands. So, Linux is not a UNIX operating system. Instead it is called "Unix-like".


title: UNIX

text: There can be many different users in a Unix and Unix-like operating system. Most of them have a personal area where they can put things. This is called a user account.


title: UNIX

text: One way of using a Unix system is with the command line interface. Users run commands and programs by typing text characters. This takes time to learn, but it is a very powerful and flexible way of working. It is still used by most Unix administrators. These commands are run in a shell, which can change slightly between one system and another.


title: UNIX

text: A graphical user interface (GUI) is the other method. The X Window System is a very common GUI for Unix systems. The X Window System is only a shell of a graphical interface. It has many protocols. The X Window System itself does not let the user to move and resize windows. Users need a window manager or desktop manager to do that.


title: UNIX

text: Like most other graphical user interfaces, they use windows, dialog boxes, support the use of a computer mouse, and are designed to be easy to use.


title: UNIX

text: There are many thousands of programs available for the X Window System. Programs like word processors and spreadsheets are available including free and open-source software.


title: UNIX

text: The first group is all those that share some kernel code with the original from Bell Labs at AT&T. This includes the commercial UNIX types: Solaris or AIX.


title: UNIX

text: The second group includes free operating systems that usually have BSD in their name, like FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and NetBSD. These are based on free BSD. Mac OS X is also based on BSD.


title: UNIX

text: There are also free systems based on the Linux kernel. These do not share any code with the original UNIX. BSD systems share very little code with the original Unix because much of the code has been rewritten over many years. Many people use the terms "Unix and Unix-like systems" to be clear.


title: UNIX

text: Most applications can run on any modern Unix or Unix-like system. KDE and GNOME were developed for Linux and later changed to run on commercial types of Unix.


title: Orthography

text: Orthography is an official or correct way to write a particular language. It includes rules of spelling. Orthography may also include rules about punctuation, capitalization, and diacritics (e.g. accents). In English, spelling is a problem for all learners, and is the main issue in orthography.


title: Orthography

text: Some languages have someone to decide the correct spelling, such as the Académie française. English does not. English orthography was the work of the early printers. They had to decide how particular words would be spelled in their books. Gradually the number of alternative spellings began to drop. The word which is "merry" today was spelled in about 30 ways in written sources from the 9th to the 16th century.


title: Orthography

text: English orthography, or English spelling, is the way the 26 letters of the alphabet are used to write down the 36 (IPA) sounds of English. The first manuscripts in Old English were written using the Latin alphabet. It had 24 letters.


title: Orthography

text: No alphabet fits its language exactly. One reason for this is that there are always more sounds than letters. In English there are far more vowel sounds than vowels. The ancient Greeks, who were the first to use letters for vowels, decided to use only a few letters for their vowel sounds. This choice influenced all later alphabets:


title: Orthography

text: English would need about 20 vowels to represent the vowel phonemes (~sounds) in common use, and some languages do have more letters for vowels. The Georgian language has a total of 41 letters. A shorter alphabet works by using two or three letters for a single sound, or one letter for several sounds.


title: Orthography

text: The English alphabet has only three consonants which have one sound, cannot be produced by other combinations and are never silent: n, r and v. The English language uses 22 to 26 consonant phonemes.


title: Orthography

text: The other reason that alphabets never exactly fit languages is dialect. A spoken language varies from place to place and from time to time. This is very obvious with English, as the pronunciation is so different in different parts of the world. A written language will always be less flexible than its spoken parent. It has a different function, and is produced mechanically. It must serve everyone who speaks the language, and it does this by keeping the spelling similar from one time to another.


title: Orthography

text: Therefore, all alphabets have sounds which are difficult to represent with the letters in use. And English also has other problems: sounds that can be written in different ways, and spelling which can be pronounced in different ways. This all gives rise to problems of spelling.


title: Orthography

text: Differences between American English and British English spelling came about mainly as the result of one man. Noah Webster (1758–1843) wrote a "Grammar", a "Spelling" book, and finally an "American dictionary of the English language". In the course of this, he proposed a number of simplifications in spelling. In his dictionary, he chose "s" over "c" in words like "defense", he changed the "re" to "er" in words like "center", he dropped one of the Ls in "traveler". At first he kept the u in words like colour or favour but dropped it in later editions. He also changed "tongue" to "tung": that did not stick. His main reason was to help children learn to read and write. Webster's dictionary contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before.


title: Orthography

text: Webster did create a slightly different identity for American English. But, because his efforts did not address some of the most glaring problems, his variations make little difference to the way the language is used. An example of the real problems in English orthography is the word ending "-ough", which is pronounced several different ways: tough, bough, cough... The root causes of spelling variation are historical. Loan words come with their own (foreign) spelling. Some French loan words are still spelled in the French way; others have been changed.


title: Orthography

text: English spelling reform has been proposed by many people since Webster, such as George Bernard Shaw, who proposed a new phonetic alphabet for English. In some cases Webster's changes have been widely adopted in Britain: the spelling "programme" came from the French; US "program" is clearly simpler, and more consistent with word endings in English. In our modern world, English orthography is still a problem. In some countries (notably, France) a national committee can give advice and direction as to spelling. English has long escaped from national custody.


title: Orthography

text: Modern British spelling and use was greatly influenced by the two great English dictionaries, Samuel Johnson's "A dictionary of the English language" (1755), and James Murray's "Oxford English Dictionary". Johnson's dictionary was hugely influential, abroad as well as at home. The dictionary was exported to America.


title: Orthography

text: Some people argue which language is the easiest to spell. People who learn a second language tend to think that their first (native) language is the easiest. However, for the learner, programmatic languages, with well-defined rules, are easier to start with than English. The spelling of the English language is by far the most irregular of all alphabetic spellings and thus the most difficult to learn. English is, in its origin, a Germanic language. From its early roots as Anglo-Saxon, it has borrowed words from many other languages: French (a Romance language) and Latin are the most frequent donors to English.


title: Orthography

text: Languages that use phonetic spelling are easier to learn to spell than others. With phonetic spelling the words are spelled as they are pronounced. The Italian word "orologio" for instance is pronounced oh-ro-LO-jo ("gi" always making a "j" sound.) In English, one comes across the word "knife". In "knife", the "k" is not spoken, even though in English it's more common to pronounce "K"s when they are in words.


title: Orthography

text: One of the problems we have is that similar sounding words may be spelt quite differently. Rough and ruff; meet and meat; great and grate. Words with complicated spelling may be pronounced simply: Leicester is pronounced 'Lester'. Even what rules we do have are frequently broken. ""i" before "e" except after "c"" has over 100 exceptions. Almost all these problems have come about for historical reasons. English has been changing for the last thousand years, and as the language changes, so parts of it get stuck with different spellings.


title: Orthography

text: English has a huge number of words, but its spelling comes from many different sources. "The large and varied lexicon of English has been bought at the expense of an increasingly deversified graphology".


title: Orthography

text: Some languages have a high correspondence between phonemes and letters. That means they get close to one letter for each sound. If there was a perfect correspondence, that language would have "phonemic orthography". English is highly non-phonemic. It has almost every kind of deviation known:


title: Orthography

text: This field of study is called "orthographic depth". The orthographic depth of an alphabetic script is the degree to which a written language deviates from simple one-to-one letter–phoneme correspondence. It shows how easy it is to predict the pronunciation of a word from its spelling. Shallow orthographies are easy to pronounce based on the written word, and deep orthographies are difficult to pronounce based on how they are written. In shallow orthographies, the spelling-sound correspondence is direct: given the rules of pronunciation, one is able to "say" the word correctly.


title: Orthography

text: Most other international languages have similar problems: in French, Arabic or Hebrew, new readers have difficulty learning to decode words. As a result, children learn to read more slowly. In both Spanish and Italian there is a more direct connection between spelling and pronunciation. Those are languages with low orthographic depth.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The Battle of the Bulge (16 December 1944 – 25 January 1945) was a major German attack near the end of World War II, in Belgium, France and Luxembourg. The attack surprised Allied forces. It became the worst battle in terms of casualties for the United States. It also used up huge amounts of Germany's war-making resources.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The press made up "Battle of the Bulge" to describe the way the Allied front line bulged inward on wartime news maps and became the best known name for the battle.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The German attack was supported by several other operations. Germany's goal was to split the British and American Allied line in half, capture Antwerp, and then encircle and destroy four Allied armies. They hoped this would force the Allies to negotiate a peace treaty. Then Hitler could focus on the eastern front of the war.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The attack was planned in secret. Germany moved troops and equipment in the dark. The U.S. intelligence staff predicted a major German attack, but this still surprised them. The Allied forces were overconfident and too focused on their own attack plans, and they also didn't have good aerial reconnaissance.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The Germans attacked a weakly defended section of the Allied line. They took advantage of the overcast weather conditions, which made the Allies' air forces unable to fly. Violent resistance blocked German access to key roads. The thick forests helped the defenders.This slowed down the German advance and allowed the Allies to add new troops. Improved weather conditions permitted air attacks on German forces, which led to the failure of the attack.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: After the defeat, many experienced German units lacked men and equipment. The battle involved about 610,000 American men, of whom some 89,000 were casualties, including 19,000 killed. It was the largest and most deadly battle fought by the United States in World War II.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: After moving from Normandy at the end of July 1944 and landing in southern France on 15 August 1944, the Allies advanced toward Germany more quickly than expected.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Allied troops were tired from weeks of continuous fighting and supplies were very low. While the supply situation improved in October, the lack of troops was still a major problem.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: General Eisenhower and his staff chose the Ardennes region, held by the First United States Army, as an area that could be held by as few troops as possible. The Ardennes were chosen because the terrain offered good defence and there were not many roads.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The speed of the Allied advance and a lack of deep-water ports made it hard for the Allies to supply their troops. Beach supply operations using the Normandy landing areas could not supply enough provisions. The only port the Allies had captured was Cherbourg, near the original invasion beaches, but the Germans had wrecked and mined it.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: It took the Allies many months to build up their ability to move cargo. The Allies captured the port of Antwerp, Belgium, fully intact, in the first days of September, but it was not working until 28 November. The Scheldt River had to be cleared of both German troops and naval mines.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The limitations led to disagreements between General Dwight D. Eisenhower and Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery over whether Montgomery or American General Omar Bradley in the south would get access to supplies.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: German forces remained in control of several major ports on the English Channel coast until May 1945. The destruction of the French railway system prior to D-Day made it hard for the Germans to respond to the invasion. It was also a problem for the Allies, as it took time to repair the tracks and bridges.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: A trucking system brought supplies to front-line troops, but transportation took huge amounts of fuel to reach the front line near the Belgian border. By early October the Allies stopped major attacks to improve their supply lines.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Montgomery and Bradley both asked for delivery of supplies to their armies so they could continue to attack the Germans. Gen. Eisenhower wanted Montgomery's northern forces to open the port of Antwerp and capture the Ruhr area, the industrial part of Germany.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: With the Allies paused, German Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt was able to reorganize the German armies into an organized defense.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Field Marshal Montgomery's Operation Market Garden only achieved some of its goals. Its gains in territory left the Allied supply situation worse than before. In October the Canadian First Army fought the Battle of the Scheldt, opening the port of Antwerp to shipping. As a result, by the end of October the supply situation got better.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Despite a pause in fighting after the Scheldt battles, the Germans had serious problems. While operations continued in the autumn, notably the Lorraine Campaign, the Battle of Aachen and fighting in the Hürtgen Forest, the situation in the west changed little.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The Allies were slowly pushing towards Germany, but they did not get there. The Western Allies already had 96 divisions at or near the front, with ten more divisions coming from the United Kingdom. Additional Allied airborne units remained in England. The Germans had a total of 55 divisions.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Adolf Hitler promised his generals 18 infantry and 12 armored or mechanized divisions. The plan was to use 13 infantry divisions, two parachute divisions and six panzer divisions from reserves. On the Eastern Front the Soviets' Operation Bagration during the summer had destroyed much of Germany's Army Group Center.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The operation ended only when the advancing Red Army forces ran out of supplies. By November, Soviet forces were preparing for a winter attack.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Meanwhile, the Allied air attacks of early 1944 had made the German Air Force unable to fly. This meant that the German Army had little battlefield intelligence and no way to stop Allied supplies. The daytime movement of German forces was easily noticed and stopping supplies combined with the bombing of the Romanian oil fields meant Germany had no oil and gasoline.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: One of the few advantages held by the German forces in November 1944 was that they were no longer defending all of Western Europe. Their front lines in the west had been shortened and were much closer to the German borders. This reduced their supply problems despite Allied control of the air.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Additionally, their telephone and telegraph network meant that radios were no longer necessary for communications, which lessened the effectiveness of Allied Ultra code breaking. Nevertheless, some 40—50 coded messages were sent per day by ULTRA. They recorded the quadrupling of German fighter forces and noticed that an attack was planned. ULTRA also picked up information about a lot of rail and road movements in the region.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: German leader Adolf Hitler felt that his mobile reserves allowed him to do one major attack. Although he realised nothing could be accomplished in the Eastern Front, he still believed an offensive against the Western Allies could succeed.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Hitler believed he could split the Allied forces and make the Americans and British to settle for a separate peace, independent of the Soviet Union.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Success in the west would give the Germans time to design and produce more advanced weapons (such as jet aircraft, new U-boat designs and super-heavy tanks) and permit the build-up of forces in the east.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Given the reduced manpower of their land forces, the Germans believed that it was better to attack in the West against the smaller Allied forces rather than against the vast Soviet armies. Even the destruction of entire Soviet armies would still have left the Soviets with more soldiers.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Several senior German military officers, such as Field Marshal Walter Model did not think the attack would work. They offered different plans, but Hitler would not listen. The plan needed bad weather, including heavy fog and low-lying clouds, which would make it hard for Allied planes to fly. Hitler originally set the attack for late November, before the start of the Russian winter offensive.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: In the west supply problems began slowing down Allied operations, even though the opening of the port of Antwerp in late November improved the situation. The positions of the Allied armies stretched from southern France all the way north to the Netherlands. The Germans wanted to attack the thin line of Allied forces. They thought this would stop Allied advances on the Western Front.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Several plans for major Western attacks were prepared. A first plan was for an attack on the U.S. forces around Aachen, to encircle the U.S. Ninth Army. A second plan was for a "blitzkrieg" attack through the weakly defended Ardennes Mountains. This aimed at splitting the armies along the U.S.—British lines and capturing Antwerp.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Hitler chose the second plan. He liked the idea of splitting the Anglo-American armies. There were many disputes between Montgomery and Patton. Hitler hoped he could make use of these disagreements. If the attack captured Antwerp, four complete armies would be trapped without supplies behind German lines.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Both plans aimed at on attacks against the American forces. Hitler believed the Americans were not able to fight well. He thought that the American people would lose hope upon hearing of an American loss.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: "Generalfeldmarschall" (Field Marshal) Walther Model and Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt were ordered to lead the attacks.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Model and von Rundstedt both believed aiming for Antwerp was too difficult, given Germany's lack of resources in late 1944. At the same time they felt that being just defensive would only delay defeat. They developed plans that did not aim to cross the Meuse River; Model's being "Unternehmen Herbstnebel" (Operation Autumn Mist) and von Rundstedt's "Fall Martin" ("Plan Martin").


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The two field marshals showed their plans to Hitler, who rejected them in favor of his "big solution".


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The phrase "Battle of the Bulge" was made up by contemporary press to describe the way the Allied front line bulged inward on wartime news maps.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: After the war ended, the U.S. Army issued the Ardennes-Alsace medal to units that took part in operations in northwest Europe. The medal covered the Ardennes sector where the battle took place and units further south in the Alsace sector.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: OKW decided by mid-September, on Hitler's orders, that the attack would be started in the Ardennes, as was done in 1940. Many German generals objected, but the attack was planned and carried out. In 1940 German forces had passed through the Ardennes in three days before attacking the enemy, but the 1944 plan called for battle in the forest. The main forces were to advance westward to the Meuse River, then turn northwest for Antwerp and Brussels.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The thick forests of the Ardennes would make movement difficult. There was open ground beyond the Meuse where the Germans could move quickly to the coast.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Four armies were selected for the operation. First was the Sixth Panzer Army, under SS General Sepp Dietrich—newly created on 26 October 1944, it used the most senior and the most experienced "Waffen-SS": the 1st SS Panzer Division "Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler" as well as the 12th SS Panzer Division "Hitlerjugend". The 6th Panzer Army was the northernmost attack force. It was ordered to capture Antwerp.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The Seventh Army, under General Erich Brandenberger, was ordered to the southernmost attack. This Army was made up of only four infantry divisions, with no armoured groups. As a result, they made little progress throughout the battle.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Also participating in a secondary role was the Fifteenth Army, under General Gustav-Adolf von Zangen. It was located on the far north of the Ardennes battlefield. It was ordered to hold U.S. forces in place. It could also attack if conditions were right.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: For the attack to be successful, four elements were needed: the attack had to be a complete surprise; the weather conditions had to be poor to stop Allied air superiority; the progress had to be rapid. Allied fuel supplies would have to be captured because the Wehrmacht was short on fuel. The General Staff estimated they only had enough fuel to cover one-third to one-half of the ground to Antwerp.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The plan originally called for just under 45 divisions, including a dozen panzer and panzergrenadier divisions forming the armored spearhead and various infantry units to form a defensive line. By this time, however, the German Army suffered from a manpower shortage and the force had been reduced to around 30 divisions.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Although it retained most of its armor, there were not enough infantry units because of the defensive needs in the East. These 30 newly rebuilt divisions used some of the last reserves of the German Army. Among them were "Volksgrenadier" units formed from a mix of veterans and recruits formerly regarded as too young or too old to fight. Training time, equipment and supplies were inadequate during the preparations. German fuel supplies were inadequate. Materials and supplies that could not be transported by rail had to be horse-drawn to conserve fuel. The mechanized and panzer divisions would depend heavily on captured fuel. As a result, the start of the attack was delayed from 27 November to 16 December.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Before the offensive the Allies were not aware of German troop movement. During the liberation of France, the French resistance had provided information about German movements. Once they reached the German border, this information was not available. In France, orders had been relayed within the German army using radio messages coded by the Enigma machine. These could be picked up and decoded by Allied code-breakers at Bletchley Park, to give the intelligence known as ULTRA.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: In Germany such orders were typically transmitted using telephone and teleprinter, and a special radio silence order was made on all communications about the attack. The major crackdown in the "Wehrmacht" after the 20 July plot to kill Hitler resulted in much tighter security and fewer information leaks. The foggy autumn weather also prevented Allied reconnaissance aircraft from seeing the Germans on the ground.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: German units in the area were given charcoal instead of wood for cooking fires to cut down on smoke and reduce chances of Allied observers realizing a troop build up was underway.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Allied High Command considered the Ardennes a quiet sector. Allied intelligence services said that the Germans were unable to launch any major attacks this late in the war. The Allies thought that the Germans were getting ready for defence. The Allies thought that a new defensive army was being formed around Düsseldorf in the northern Rhine. The Germans tricked the Allies by increasing the number of flak batteries in the area and making more radio transmissions in the area.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The attack, when it came, completely surprised the Allied forces. The U.S. Third Army intelligence chief, Colonel Oscar Koch, the U.S. First Army intelligence chief and the SHAEF intelligence officer had warned that the Germans might attack the U.S. VIII Corps area. These warnings were ignored by the U.S. 12th Army Group.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Because the Ardennes was considered a quiet sector, the Allies used it as a training ground for new units and a rest area. The U.S. units deployed in the Ardennes thus were a mixture of inexperienced troops (such as the U.S. 99th and 106th "Golden Lions" Divisions), and veteran troops sent to that sector to rest (the 28th Infantry Division).


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Two major special operations were planned for the attack. By October it was decided that Otto Skorzeny, the German commando was to lead a task force of English-speaking German soldiers. These soldiers were to be dressed in American and British uniforms. They would go behind American lines and change signposts, misdirect traffic, cause disruption and seize bridges across the Meuse River between Liège and Namur.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: By late November, another special operation was added: Col. Friedrich August von der Heydte was to lead a "Fallschirmjäger" (paratrooper) "Kampfgruppe" in Operation Stösser, a night-time paratroop drop behind the Allied lines aimed at capturing an important road near Malmedy.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: German intelligence had set 20 December as the expected date for the start of the upcoming Soviet attack.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: After the 20 July plot attempt to kill Hitler's life, and the advance of the Red Army, Hitler and his staff left the Wolfsschanze headquarters in East Prussia. After a brief visit to Berlin, Hitler travelled on his "Führersonderzug" (train) to Giessen on 11 December, taking up residence in the Adlerhorst command complex at Kransberg Castle.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Von Rundstedt set up his operational headquarters near Limburg, close enough for the generals and Panzer Corps commanders who were to lead the attack to visit Alderhost.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: In a personal conversation on 13 December between Walther Model and Friedrich von der Heydte, who was put in charge of Operation "Stösser", von der Heydte gave Operation "Stösser" less than a 10% chance of succeeding. Model told him it was necessary to make the attempt.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: On 16 December 1944, at 5:30 am, the Germans began the attack with a 90-minute artillery attack using 1,600 artillery pieces. The Americans thought was that this was an attack resulting from the Allies' recent attack in the Wahlerscheid sector to the north.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: In the northern sector Dietrich's 6th Panzer Army was held up for almost 24 hours by a single platoon and four U.S. Forward Artillery Observers. They then attacked Losheim Gap and Elsenborn Ridge to get through to Liège and Antwerp.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Heavy snowstorms occurred in the Ardennes area. This kept the Allied aircraft grounded, but it also slowed the German advance. There were massive traffic jams and fuel shortages.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: von Manteuffel's Fifth Panzer Army attacked towards Bastogne and St. Vith. In the south, Brandenberger's Seventh Army moved towards Luxembourg.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Only one month before 250 members of the Waffen-SS had tried to recapture the town of Vianden from the Luxembourgish resistance during the Battle of Vianden. The SS lost.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The battle for Elsenborn Ridge was an important part of the Battle of the Bulge. The attack was led by one of the best equipped German divisions on the western front, the 1st SS Panzer Division (LSSAH).


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The division made up the lead unit for the entire German 6th Panzer Army. SS Obersturmbannführer Joachim Peiper led Kampfgruppe Peiper, consisting of 4,800 men and 600 vehicles.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The attacks by the Sixth Panzer Army's infantry units in the north did badly because of strong resistance by the U.S. 2nd and 99th Infantry Divisions.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: On the first day, a German battalion of 500 men was held up for 10 hours. The infantry of the 9th Fallschirmjaeger Regiment, 3rd Fallschirmjaeger Division had been ordered to attack the village first.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: A single 18-man platoon from the 99th Infantry Division and four Forward Air Controllers held up the battalion of about 500 German paratroopers until sunset causing 92 casualties among the Germans.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: This stopped the German advance. Kampfgruppe Peiper, at the head of the SS Oberstgruppenführer Sepp Dietrich's Sixth Panzer Army had been ordered to take the Losheim-Losheimergraben road. Peiper did not begin his advance until nearly 4:00 pm, more than 16 hours behind schedule.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Kampfgruppe Peiper reached Bucholz Station in the early morning of 17 December and captured portions of the 3rd Battalion of the 394th Infantry Regiment. They seized a U.S. fuel depot at Büllingen, where they refuelled before continuing westward.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: To the north, the 277th Volksgrenadier Division attempted to break through the U.S. 99th Infantry Division and positions of 2nd Infantry Division.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The 12th SS Panzer Division, reinforced by additional infantry (Panzergrenadier and Volksgenadier) divisions, took Losheimergraben and attacked the villages of Rocherath and Krinkelt.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Their intention was to control the villages of Rocherath-Krinkelt which would clear a path to Elsenborn Ridge. This would give the Germans control of the roads to the south and west and ensure supply to Kampfgruppe Peiper's armored force.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The American defense prevented the Germans from reaching the supplies near the Belgian cities of Liège and Spa. After more than ten days of battle, they pushed the Americans out of the villages, but were unable to move them from the ridge. The V Corps of the First U.S. Army prevented the German forces from reaching the roads to their west.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The 99th Infantry Division was outnumbered but it caused a lot of German dead and wounded. The division lost about 20% of its strength, including 465 killed and 2,524 evacuated due to wounds, injuries or fatigue. German losses were much higher. In the northern sector, this included more than 4,000 deaths and the destruction of sixty tanks and big guns. Historian John S.D. Eisenhower wrote, "... the action of the 2nd and 99th Divisions on the northern shoulder could be considered the most decisive of the Ardennes campaign."


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Kampfgruppe Peiper entered Honsfield, one of the 99th Division's rest centres. They killed many, destroyed a number of American armored units and vehicles, and took several dozen prisoners who were murdered. Peiper easily captured the town and of fuel for his vehicles. Peiper then advanced north-west towards Büllingen. Peiper turned south to detour around Hünningen.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: At 12:30 on 17 December, Kampfgruppe Peiper was near the hamlet of Baugnez when he met the 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion, U.S. 7th Armored Division. After a battle the Americans surrendered. They were sent to stand in a field. The SS troopers suddenly opened fire on the prisoners. A few survived, and news of the killings of prisoners of war was sent through Allied lines. Following the end of the war, soldiers and officers of Kampfgruppe Peiper, including Joachim Peiper and SS general Sepp Dietrich, were put on trial at the Malmedy massacre trial.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Following the Malmedy massacre, on New Year's Day 1945, after having previously received orders to take no prisoners, American soldiers shot sixty German prisoners of war near the Belgian village of Chenogne (8 km from Bastogne).


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: By the evening the Germans had pushed north to fight the U.S. 99th Infantry Division. Peiper's forces were late because of the American resistance and because when the Americans fell back, they blew up bridges and emptied fuel storaged.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Peiper's unit was delayed and his vehicles needed fuel. They took 36 hours to advance from Eifel to Stavelot.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Kampfgruppe Peiper attacked Stavelot on 18 December but was unable to capture the town before the Americans emptied a large fuel depot. Three tanks attempted to take the bridge, but the lead tank was disabled by a mine. 60 grenadiers advanced forward but were stopped by American fire. After a tank battle the next day, the Germans entered the village when


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Peiper rushed toward the bridge at Trois-Ponts, leaving the most of his force in Stavelot. When they reached it at 1130 on 18 December, retreating U.S. engineers blew it up.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Peiper went north. At Cheneux, he was attacked by American fighter-bombers, destroying two tanks and five halftracks. The group got moving at dusk at 1600. Of the two bridges now remaining between Kampfgruppe Peiper and the Meuse, the bridge over the Lienne was blown by the Americans as the Germans approached.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Peiper turned north and stopped his forces in the woods between La Gleize and Stoumont. He learned that Stoumont was strongly held and that the Americans were bringing up new troops from Spa.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: To Peiper's south, the advance of Kampfgruppe Hansen had stopped. SS Sturmbannführer Knittel crossed the bridge at Stavelot, but the Americans recaptured Stavelot. Peiper and Knittel both were at risk of being cut off.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: At dawn on 19 December, Peiper attacked the American defenders of Stoumont. He sent infantry from the 2nd SS Panzergrenadier Regiment in an attack and a company of Fallschirmjäger. He followed this with a Panzer attack, gaining the eastern edge of the town.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: An American tank battalion arrived but Peiper finally captured Stoumont at 1030. Knittel joined up with Peiper and reported the Americans had recaptured Stavelot to their east. Peiper ordered Knittel to retake Stavelot.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: He thought Kampfgruppe did not have enough fuel to cross the bridge west of Stoumont. On the same evening the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division under Maj. Gen. James Gavin arrived at La Gleize.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Kampfgruppe Sandig, which had been ordered to take Stavelot, launched another attack without success. Sixth Panzer Army commander SS-Oberstgruppenführer Sepp Dietrich ordered Hermann Prieß, commanding officer of the I SS Panzer Corps, to help Peiper's Kampfgruppe, but Prieß was unable to break through.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Small units of the U.S. 2nd Battalion of the 119th Regiment attacked the Kampfgruppe Peiper during the morning of 21 December. They were pushed back and a number captured, including their battalion commander, Maj. Hal McCown.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Attempting to withdraw from Cheneux, American paratroopers from the 82nd Airborne Division engaged the Germans in violent fighting. The Americans shelled Kampfgruppe Peiper on 22 December.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Although the Germans had run out of food and had no fuel, they continued to fight. A Luftwaffe resupply mission went badly, parachuting supplies to American troops in Stoumont.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: In La Gleize, Peiper set up defences. He decided to break through back to the German lines on 23 December. The men of the "Kampfgruppe" abandoned their vehicles and heavy equipment.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Operation Stösser was a paratroop drop into the American rear in the High Fens (; ; ) area. The goal was the "Baraque Michel" crossroads.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: It was the German paratroopers' only nighttime drop during World War II. The II Parachute Corps sent 100 men from each of its regiments. They had little time to train together.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The parachute drop was a failure. Von der Heydte ended up with around 300 troops. Their force was too small and too weak to counter the Allies. They withdrew towards Germany and attacked the rear of the American lines. Only about 100 of his tired men finally reached the German rear.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Another, much smaller massacre was committed in Wereth, Belgium, on 17 December 1944. Eleven black American soldiers, after surrendering, were tortured and then shot by men of the 1st SS Panzer Division, belonging to Kampfgruppe Knittel. Men from Third Company of the Reconnaissance Battalion were responsible.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The Germans did better when the Fifth Panzer Army attacked positions held by the U.S. 28th and 106th Infantry Divisions. The Germans lacked the strength that they had in the north, but they still had more troops and weapons than the 28th and 106th divisions. They surrounded two regiments (422nd and 423rd) of the 106th Division and forced their surrender.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The official U.S. Army history states: "At least seven thousand [men] were lost here and the figure probably is closer to eight or nine thousand."


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: In St. Vith, it was hard for von Manteuffel's and Dietrich's forces. The defenders resisted the German attacks. This slowed down the German advance.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Montgomery ordered St. Vith to be evacuated on 21 December. U.S. troops got into trenches, which made the German advance hard. By 23 December, U.S. troops were ordered to retreat west of the Salm River. Since the German plan called for the capture of St. Vith by 18:00 on 17 December, they were behind schedule.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: To protect the river crossings on the Meuse, Montgomery ordered units to hold the bridges on 19 December.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The German advance in the center was the most successful. Fifth Panzer Army was led by the 2nd Panzer Division while Panzer Lehr Division came up from the south. The Ourthe River was passed at Ourtheville on 21 December.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Lack of fuel held up the advance for one day, but on 23 December the attack continued towards the towns of Hargimont and Marche.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Hargimont was captured the same day, but Marche was defended by the American 84th Division. Gen. Lüttwitz, commander of the XXXXVII Panzer Corps, ordered the Division to turn west towards Dinant and the Meuse. 2nd Panzer Division was still advancing quickly.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: On 22/23 December the woods of Foy-Notre-Dame were reached, near Dinant. On 24 December the furthest point was reached. Panzer Lehr Division took the town of Celles. Farther north, parts of 2nd Panzer Division were close to the Meuse.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: An Allied force prevented the German forces from approaching the Dinant bridge. By late Christmas Eve the advance in this sector was stopped by Allied forces.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: For Operation Greif, Otto Skorzeny got English-speaking Germans in American uniforms behind the Allied lines. Although they failed to take the bridges over the Meuse, they caused confusion and rumors spread quickly. Even General George Patton was worried and described the situation to General Dwight Eisenhower.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Checkpoints were set up all over the Allied rear, greatly slowing the movement of soldiers and equipment. American MPs at these checkpoints asked troops about things that every American was expected to know.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The tightened security made things very hard for the German soldiers to move about, and a number of them were captured. Even during interrogation, they spread lies. when asked about their mission, some of them claimed they had been told to go to Paris to either kill or capture General Dwight Eisenhower.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Because Skorzeny's men were captured in American uniforms, they were executed as spies. This was the standard practice of every army at the time. Skorzeny said that he was told by German legal experts that as long he doesn't order his men to fight in combat while wearing American uniforms, such a tactic was a legitimate trick.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Skorzeny and his men wore their German uniforms underneath their American ones in case of capture. Skorzeny was tried by an American military tribunal in 1947 at the Dachau Trials for violating the laws of war from his leadership of Operation Greif, but was acquitted.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: In Operation Währung, a small number of German agents went behind Allied lines in American uniforms. They tried to bribe rail and port workers to cause problems with Allied supply operations. However, this operation was a failure.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Further south attacking divisions crossed the River Our. The 112th Infantry Regiment kept German troops from using the Our River bridges around Ouren for two days, before withdrawing.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The 109th and 110th Regiments of the 28th Division did badly. They had so few troops that the Germans got around their positions. Both resisted and slowed down the German schedule by several days. Panzer groups captured villages and advanced near Bastogne within four days.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The battles for the villages and American strongpoints, and transport confusion on the German side, slowed the attack down. This allowed the 101st Airborne Division to reach Bastogne on 19 December. The defense of Bastogne made it impossible for the Germans to take the town. The "panzers" went past on either side, cutting off Bastogne on 20 December.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: In the south, Brandenberger's three infantry divisions were stopped by divisions of the U.S. VIII Corps. Only the 5th Parachute Division of Brandenberger's command was able to move forward.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Eisenhower and his commanders realized by 17 December that the fighting in the Ardennes was a major offensive and not a small attack, and they ordered many new troops to the area.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Within a week 250,000 troops had been sent. Gen. Gavin of the 82nd Airborne Division ordered the 101st to hold Bastogne. The 82nd had to battle the SS Panzer Divisions.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: By the time the senior Allied commanders met on 19 December, the town of Bastogne and its 11 roads had been held by the Germans for several days.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Two separate westbound German columns got stopped by defensive positions up to ten miles from the town.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Gen. Eisenhower realized that the Allies could destroy German forces much more easily when they were out in the open. Patton had ordered his staff to prepare three plans for a northward turn.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: On 20 December, Eisenhower removed the First and Ninth U.S. Armies from Gen. Bradley's 12th Army Group and placed them under Montgomery's 21st Army Group.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: By 21 December the Germans had surrounded Bastogne, which was defended by the 101st Airborne Division and Combat Command B of the 10th Armored Division. Conditions inside the town were tough. Food was scarce, and by 22 December artillery ammunition was restricted to 10 rounds per gun per day.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The weather cleared the next day, however, and supplies (ammunition) were dropped over four of the next five days.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Despite German attacks, the town held. The German commander, Lt. Gen. Heinrich Freiherr von Lüttwitz, requested Bastogne's surrender. When Brig. Gen. Anthony McAuliffe was told of the Nazi demand that he surrender, he refused.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Both 2nd Panzer and Panzer Lehr moved forward from Bastogne after 21 December. The 26th VG received one panzergrenadier regiment on Christmas Eve for its attack the next day. Because it lacked troops and those of the 26th VG Division were tired, the XLVII Panzer Corps concentrated its attack on several locations on the west side.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The attack was defeated and all the tanks destroyed. The next day, 26 December, Gen. Patton's 4th Armored Division broke through and opened a passage to Bastogne.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: On 23 December, the weather conditions started improving, allowing the Allied air forces to attack. They bombed the German supply points in their rear. P-47 Thunderbolts started attacking the German troops on the roads.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Allied air forces also helped the defenders of Bastogne, dropping medicine, food, blankets, and ammunition. A team of volunteer surgeons flew in by military glider and began operating.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: By 24 December, the German advance was stopped near the Meuse. Units of the British XXX Corps were holding the bridges at Dinant, Givet, and Namur and U.S. units were about to take over.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The Germans had no supplies, and shortages of fuel and ammunition were becoming serious. Up to this point the German losses had been light, especially in armor, which was almost unharmed with the exception of Peiper's losses.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: On the evening of 24 December, General Hasso von Manteuffel recommended to Hitler a stop to all operations and a withdrawal. Hitler said no.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: However, confusion at the Allied command prevented a strong response. In the center, on Christmas Eve, the 2nd Armored Division attempted to attack the 2nd Panzer Division at the Meuse.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The 4th Cavalry Group attacked the 9th Panzer Division at Marche. As result, parts of the 2nd Panzer Division were cut off. On 26 and 27 December the trapped units of 2nd Panzer Division made two break-out attempts.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Further Allied attacks near Marche led the Germans to know that no further action towards the Meuse was possible.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: In the south, Patton's Third Army was battling to help the US troops in Bastogne. At 16:50 on 26 December, the Company D, 37th Tank Battalion of the 4th Armored Division, reached Bastogne, ending the siege.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: On 1 January, in an attempt to keep the offensive going, the Germans launched two new operations. At 09:15, the "Luftwaffe" launched "Unternehmen Bodenplatte" (Operation Baseplate), a major campaign against Allied airfields in the Low Countries. Hundreds of planes attacked Allied airfields, destroying or severely damaging some 465 aircraft. However, the "Luftwaffe" lost 277 planes, 62 to Allied fighters and 172 mostly because of an unexpectedly high number of Allied flak guns, set up to protect against German V-1 flying bomb attacks and using proximity fused shells, but also by friendly fire from the German flak guns that were uninformed of the pending large-scale German air operation. The Germans suffered heavy losses at an airfield named Y-29, losing 24 of their own planes while downing only one American plane. While the Allies recovered from their losses in just days, the operation left the "Luftwaffe" weak and ineffective for the remainder of the war.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: On the same day, German Army Group G ("Heeresgruppe G") and Army Group Upper Rhine ("Heeresgruppe Oberrhein") launched a major offensive against the thinly stretched, line of the Seventh U.S. Army. This offensive, known as "Unternehmen Nordwind" (Operation North Wind), was the last major German offensive of the war on the Western Front. The weakened Seventh Army had, at Eisenhower's orders, sent troops, equipment, and supplies north to reinforce the American armies in the Ardennes, and the offensive left it in dire straits.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: By 15 January, Seventh Army's VI Corps was fighting on three sides in Alsace. With casualties mounting, and running short on replacements, tanks, ammunition, and supplies, Seventh Army was forced to withdraw to defensive positions on the south bank of the Moder River on 21 January. The German offensive drew to a close on 25 January. In the bitter, desperate fighting of Operation Nordwind, VI Corps, which had borne the brunt of the fighting, suffered a total of 14,716 casualties. The total for Seventh Army for January was 11,609. Total casualties included at least 9,000 wounded. First, Third and Seventh Armies suffered a total of 17,000 hospitalized from the cold.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: While the German offensive had ground to a halt, they still controlled a dangerous salient in the Allied line. Patton's Third Army in the south, centered around Bastogne, would attack north, Montgomery's forces in the north would strike south, and the two forces planned to meet at Houffalize.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The temperature during January 1945 was extremely low. Weapons had to be maintained and truck engines run every half-hour to prevent their oil from congealing. The offensive went forward regardless.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Eisenhower wanted Montgomery to go on the counter offensive on 1 January, with the aim of meeting up with Patton's advancing Third Army and cutting off most of the attacking Germans, trapping them in a pocket. However, Montgomery, refusing to risk underprepared infantry in a snowstorm for a strategically unimportant area, did not launch the attack until 3 January, by which time substantial numbers of German troops had already managed to fall back successfully, but at the cost of losing most of their heavy equipment.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: At the start of the offensive, the First and Third U.S. Armies were separated by about . American progress in the south was also restricted to about a kilometer a day. The majority of the German force executed a successful fighting withdrawal and escaped the battle area, although the fuel situation had become so dire that most of the German armor had to be abandoned. On 7 January 1945, Hitler agreed to withdraw all forces from the Ardennes, including the "SS Panzer" divisions, thus ending all offensive operations. However, considerable fighting went on for another 3 weeks; St. Vith was recaptured by the Americans on 23 January and the last German units participating in the offensive did not return to their start line until 25 January.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Winston Churchill, addressing the House of Commons following the Battle of the Bulge said, "This is undoubtedly the greatest American battle of the war and will, I believe, be regarded as an ever-famous American victory."


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: As the Ardennes battles began, Montgomery commanded of the American First and Ninth armies. This was approved by Eisenhower, as the northern armies had lost all communications with Bradley, who was based in Luxembourg. The northern side had lost all communications with the US command and with nearby units. Without radio or telephone communication Montgomery managed to improvise a way of communicating orders.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: On the same day as Hitler's withdrawal order, 7 January, Montgomery held his press conference. Montgomery praised the "courage and good fighting quality" of the Americans. He also praised Eisenhower.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Then Montgomery described the battle for a half-hour. Coming to the end of his speech he said he had used the whole power of the British Group of Armies. He called the battle "the most interesting, I think possibly one of the most interesting and tricky battles I have ever handled."


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Despite his positive remarks about American soldiers, the Americans thought he took credit for the success of the campaign. They thought he made it sound like he had rescued the Americans.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Patton and Eisenhower both felt he did not describe the share of the fighting played by the British and Americans in the Ardennes. They thought that he did not tell about the part played by Bradley, Patton and other American commanders. Montgomery did not mention of any American general beside Eisenhower. This was seen as insulting.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Montgomery saw his error and later wrote: "I think now that I should never have held that press conference."


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Bradley and Patton both threatened to resign unless Montgomery's command was changed. Eisenhower had decided to fire Montgomery. Eisenhower allowed Montgomery to apologize.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: Casualty estimates from the battle vary widely. The official U.S. account lists 80,987 American casualties, while other estimates range from 70,000 to 108,000. According to the U.S. Department of Defense the American forces suffered 89,500 casualties including 19,000 killed, 47,500 wounded and 23,000 missing.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: An official report by the United States Department of the Army lists some 108,347 casualties, including 19,246 killed, 62,489 wounded and 26,612 captured and missing. The Battle of the Bulge was the most violent battle that U.S. forces experienced in World War II; the 19,000 American dead were unsurpassed by those of any other engagement. British losses totaled 1,400.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The German High Command's official figure for the campaign was 84,834 casualties, and other estimates range between 60,000 and 100,000.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The Allies continued to push on in the battle. In early February, the Allies launched an attack all along the Western front: in the north under Montgomery toward Aachen; in the center, under Courtney Hodges; and in the south, under Patton.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The German losses in the battle were serious in several ways. The last of the German reserves were now gone, the Luftwaffe had been destroyed and the remaining German forces in the West were being pushed back to the defenses of the Siegfried Line.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: The initial success of Hitler's Ardennes offensive, launched 16 December 1944, caused Churchill to ask Stalin on 6 January 1945 for Soviet help by launching a Soviet attack. On Friday, 12 January, the Soviets began the Vistula–Oder Offensive, planned to begin on 20 January.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: During World War II, most U.S. black soldiers still served only as truck drivers and as stevedores. In the midst of the Battle of the Bulge, General Eisenhower was short of replacement troops so he allowed African American soldiers to join the white military units to fight in combat for the first time. More than 2,000 black soldiers had volunteered to go to the front.


title: Battle of the Bulge

text: This was an important step toward a racially integrated United States military. A total of 708 African Americans were killed in combat during World War II.


title: Special wards of Tokyo

text: In 1889, 15 wards were established in the city of Tokyo. The number of wards grew to 35 in 1932. The number of wards became 23 in 1947.


title: Special wards of Tokyo

text: The traditional districts of Tokyo evolved as the city grew during the Edo period. There are many districts in Tokyo's special wards.


title: Lead acid battery

text: A lead acid battery is a secondary cell, meaning that it is rechargeable. It is very common in cars and trucks. It contains plates of lead and lead(IV) oxide in a sulfuric acid solution. The lead(IV) oxide oxidizes the lead plate, making an electrical current.


title: Lead acid battery

text: Lead-acid batteries are the cheapest rechargeable batteries and can produce much power. They contain toxic lead, though, and should be recycled. They are wet cells, and the dangerous acid can spill out. Sealed lead acid batteries are batteries where the sulfuric acid is in a gel which stays in, even when the battery is turned up side down.


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: Dr Khandaker A.N.M Abdullah Jahangir (Bengali: ড. খোন্দকার আব্দুল্লাহ জাহাঙ্গীর) is Bangladeshi Islamic Scholar, Professor, Writer and preacher of Islam. He was professor of Islamic University, Kushtia. He write many book on Islami, his notable books are "Hādīsēra nāmē jāliẏāti" (Eng: Fraud in the name of Hadith). He discusses contemporary issues of Islam on various TV channel of Bangladesh. He used to hold Islamic Mahfil and Waj in different parts of the country.


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: Jahangir was born in 1 February 1961 in the village of Gobindpur-Dhopaghat village in Jhenaidah Sadar Upazila at Jhenaidah District. His Father name is Khandaker Anwaruzzaman and mother's name is Begum Lutfunnahar.


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: He was educated up to class five at Bhutiargati Government Primary School in Jhenaidah. Then he passed Dakhil in 1973, Alim in 1975 and Fadil in 1977 from Jhenidah Siddikia Kamil Madrasah. Then He complete his Kamil degree from Government Madrasah-e-Alia, Dhaka on Al-Hadith department. He went to Saudi Arabia for higher study and he get chance Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh. He complete Honors in 1986 and Masters in 1992 from this university. Then He complete his PhD in 1997 at the same university. Studying university He was educated by , , and .


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: In addition to his studies at the Madrasa, he passed the SSC, HSC examinations from Government Hossain Shaheed Suhrawardy College, Magura and secured the first place in the Jessore Board. At that time, those who had won the first place in various education boards of Bangladesh, then President Ziaur Rahman took them on a boat trip as part of the state honors. Abdullah Jahangir was also among them.


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: Studying at the university, he received two consecutive Student awards from the King of Saudi Arabia and the then Governor of Riyadh, Salman bin Abdul Aziz. In Bangladesh, He learned from Ayub Ali, Ubaidul Haq, Miya Muhammad Kasemi, Mawlana Abdur Rahim and so on.


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: After finishing Kamil at Dhaka Alia Madrasa, he taught Nasna Nurnagar Siddiquia Dakhil Madrasah, Jhenaidah for about two years. In his university life, he worked as a clerk and translator at the Northern Riyadh Islamic Center from 1993 to 1996. Complete his education life in Saudi Arab, He back Bangladesh and join as lecturer in 1998 at Islamic University in Al Hadith department. In 1999, he received advanced training in Islamic development and Arabic from Indonesia. In 2009, he was promoted to the post of Professor in the same department of the Islamic University, Bangladesh. He also taught as a part-time Hadith teacher at the Darussalam Madrasa in Dhaka.


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: He was the Imam of Jhenaidah Jame Mosque and Central Eidgah Maidan till his death. He was a popular speaker in the Waz mahfil. He used to visit remote areas of Bangladesh and recite the pure message of Islam to the people.


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: Jahangir write many book about three language. His "Hādīsēra nāmē jāliẏāti" book (Bengali: হাদিসের নামে জালিয়াতি) and Rāhē bēlāẏāta (Bengali: রাহে বেলায়েত) is very popular in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan. He write more than 30 books and 50 article in national and international journal. His selective Books are below:


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: He establish many social and educational institute in his locality and abroad the country. There are:


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: He was married to Fatima, daughter of Pir Abdul Kahhar Siddiqui of Furfura Sharif. There are one son and three daughters. Many people and native Islamic scholars have praised him.


title: Khandaker Abdullah Jahangir

text: Abdullah Jahangir died in a road accident on the spot on May 11, 2016 on the Dhaka-Khulna highway in Magura in the collision of his microbus and covered-van. Many people condoled his death.


title: Dentistry

text: Dentistry is a specialty in medicine, which is practiced by a dentist. Dentists find out what's wrong, fix, and help prevent problems with teeth. A dentist has other people that help him with their job. Dental hygienists help people keep their teeth clean. A dental assistant helps the dentist when they are treating a patient. Dental surgeons will perform surgery to fix large or dangerous problems with people's teeth. There are also dentists called orthodontists, who can move people's teeth using braces. Dental surgeons and orthodontists are called specialists.


title: Suite (music)

text: In music, a suite (pronounce "sweet") is a collection of short musical pieces which can be played one after another. The pieces are usually dance movements. The French word “suite” means “a sequence” of things, i.e. one thing following another.


title: Suite (music)

text: In the 17th century many composers such as Bach and Handel wrote suites. They were collections of dances: usually an allemande, a courante, a sarabande and a gigue. Sometimes other dances were included as well, e.g. a minuet, gavotte, passepied or bourree. Sometimes the first movement was not a dance movement but an introduction. It may have been called a prelude or even overture. Some of Bach’s suites were called "Partitas". The French composer François Couperin called his suites "Ordres".


title: Suite (music)

text: Bach wrote suites for orchestra which he called "overtures". Handel wrote two very famous collections of dance movements for orchestra: "Water Music" and "Music for the Royal Fireworks". These are also suites although they are not given that title. He also wrote 22 suites for keyboard, and Bach wrote "French Suites", "English Suites" and "Partitas" for keyboard as well as partitas for unaccompanied violin and suites for unaccompanied cello.


title: Suite (music)

text: Earlier composers, e.g. Renaissance composers, had also written suites, but the word “suite” was not used until around the middle of the 17th century.


title: Suite (music)

text: By the 1750s composers had stopped writing suites. They were more interested in the symphony and concerto,


title: Suite (music)

text: In the late 19th century, the word "suite" started to be used again. Composers who had written opera's or ballets with lots of popular dance movements often made an arrangement of these movements for orchestra so that it could be played at concerts. Tchaikovsky wrote the "Nutcracker Suite" which includes the most popular dances from his ballet "The Nutcracker". Some composers used the word "suite" for pieces with movements which had a common theme: Gustav Holst called "The Planets" a suite, as each movement is about one of the planets. French composers of the Impressionist period such as Ravel and Debussy wrote suites for piano.


title: Rajiv Gandhi

text: Rajiv Ratna Gandhi (; 20 August 1944 – 21 May 1991) was the seventh Prime Minister of India. He served as prime minister from 1984 to 1989. He took office after the 1984 murder of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, his mother. He became the youngest Indian prime minister.


title: Rajiv Gandhi

text: Gandhi remained Congress President until the elections in 1991. While campaigning for the elections, he was murdered by a suicide bomber. He was 46 years old.


title: Wives of King Henry VIII

text: Henry VIII had six wives, Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn, Jane Seymour, Anne of Cleves, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr (in that order). All of his wives, except for Catherine Parr, died or got divorced by Henry VIII.


title: Wives of King Henry VIII

text: Catherine of Aragon was his first wife. She was married to Henry for almost 24 years, but they divorced after failing to produce a son.


title: Wives of King Henry VIII

text: Henry fell in love with Anne of Cleves's portrait, however when he met her, she didn't look like she did on her picture, thus causing Henry and Anne to get divorced.


title: Wives of King Henry VIII

text: At only 19 years old, Catherine Howard was next in line for the hand of the king. However, after Henry finds out about Catherine's affair, she lost her ring and got beheaded.


title: Wives of King Henry VIII

text: Last in line was Catherine Parr. She was the last of the six wives and outlived Henry. Almost a year and a half later, after Henry's death, Catherine Parr died after giving birth to her daughter, Mary.


title: Rowlatt Act

text: The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes of 1919 (popularly known as the Rowlatt Act) was a law passed in 1919 by British India. Under this law, the government got many powers, including the ability to arrest people and keep them in prisons without a trial. They also obtained the power to stop newspapers from reporting and printing news. The people called this act the Black Act. Indians protested against this law in many places. This act was stopped by an Indian freedom fighter Mahatma Gandhi


title: Rowlatt Act

text: Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch a nationwide, non-violent civil disobedience against the unjust Rowlatt Act. It began with a hartal on 6 April 1919. Rallies were organised in various cities, workers went on strike in railways workshops and shops closed down. Alarmed by the popular upsurge and scared that lines of communication such as railways and telegraph would be disrupted. The British administration decided to clamp down on nationalism. Local leaders were picked up from Amritsar and Mahatma Gandhi was barred from entering Delhi. On 10 April, 1919 the police in Amritsar fired upon a peaceful procession, provoking a widespread attack on banks, post offices and railway stations.


title: Aragon

text: Aragon is an autonomous community in the northeast of Spain. In the various dialects of Spain it is: in ; in ; in .


title: Aragon

text: Aragon covers the area of the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. It is named after the Aragón river, a tributary of the Ebro.


title: Aragon

text: Aragon has three provinces (from north to south): Huesca, Zaragoza and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza (sometimes called "Saragossa" in English).


title: Aragon

text: Aragon is one of the 17 Spanish autonomous communities. It has a surface area of , 9.4 percent of the territory of Spain. By area, it is the fourth largest Spanish autonomous community after Castile and León, Andalusia and Castile-La Mancha.


title: Aragon

text: Aragon is bordered to the north by France (Nouvelle-Aquitaine region). Within Spain, the community is bordered to the east by Catalonia (Lerida and Tarragona provinces), to the south by Valencian Community (Castellón and Valencia provinces) and Castile-La Mancha (Cuenca and Guadalajara provinces), and to the west by Castile and León (Soria province), La Rioja and Navarre.


title: Aragon

text: Most of Aragon has an altitude of . The highest point is the Aneto peak with high; it is the highest mountain of the Pyrenees.


title: Aragon

text: Most of the Aragonese rivers are tributaries of the Ebro, Spain's largest river in volume and which divides Aragon into two. Some important tributaries on the left side of the river (rivers that come from the Pyrenees) are the Aragón, born in Huesca but flows into the community of Navarre, the Gállego and Cinca, which joins the Segre just before ending up in the Ebro. Right tributaries are the rivers Jalón, Huerva and Guadalupe.


title: Aragon

text: On the Ebro, near the border with Catalonia, lies the Mequinenza Reservoir, with a length of about 110 km, and that is popularly known as the "Sea of Aragon".


title: Aragon

text: In the middle of Aragon, which is only above sea level, the annual average temperature is around . To the north and south of the Ebro valley, where the elevation rises to above sea level, the temperature drops by two degrees. In the mountains, between , the temperatures are between .


title: Aragon

text: Aragon consists of three provinces named after their capitals: Huesca, Teruel and Zaragoza. Each province is divided in "comarcas" (a "comarca" is a local administrative division) and these are divided in municipalities.


title: Aragon

text: Aragon has a population, in 2013, of 1,347,150, for a population density of inhabitants/km, one of the lowest in Spain. The most densely populated areas are around the valley of the Ebro river, particularly around Zaragoza, and in the Pyrenean s (the hills at the base of the Pyrenees), while the areas with the fewest inhabitants tend to be those that are higher up in the Pyrenean mountains, and in most of the southern province of Teruel.


title: Aragon

text: The province of Zaragoza is the one with more inhabitants, with 978,638 people living there, representing % of the population of Aragon.


title: Aragon

text: The city with more people living in it is the capital, Zaragoza (620,419). The other provincial capitals Huesca and Teruel have, respectively, 47,923 and 31,506 inhabitants.