title: Henry II of England

text: Henry's first son, William, Count of Poitiers, died as a baby. In 1170, Henry and Eleanor's fifteen-year-old son, Henry, was crowned king (another reason for Henry's arguing with Thomas Becket, who did not agree with the Henry being crowned). Young Henry never ruled and is not in the list of the kings and queens of England; he became known as Henry the Young King so he was not confused with his nephew Henry III.


title: Henry II of England

text: Henry and his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, had five sons and three daughters: William, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey, John, Matilda, Eleanor, and Joan. Henry tried to take Eleanor's lands from her (and from their son Richard). This led to conflict between Henry on the one side and his wife and sons on the other.


title: Henry II of England

text: Henry also had many children outside of his marriage, including William de Longespee, Earl of Salisbury, whose mother was Ida, Countess of Norfolk; Geoffrey, Archbishop of York, son of a woman named Ykenai; Morgan, Bishop of Durham; and Matilda, Abbess of Barking.


title: Henry II of England

text: Henry had constant struggles and battles against the French King Louis VII of France, but also many conflicts with his own wife and sons. His legitimate children were, he said, "the real bastards". When they were not fighting each other, they were fighting Henry. First Richard and young Henry fought their father for possession of lands they had been promised. They were defeated, and fined heavily. Later Eleanor and young Henry led a civil war against King Henry (1173/74). This Henry also won, just. Richard finally defeated Henry in a battle for Anjou (1189). Richard had the help of Philip II, who was now King of France.


title: Henry II of England

text: Weak, ill and deserted by all except an illegitimate son, Henry died in France in 1189 aged 56. He ruled for 35 years and was succeeded by Richard.


title: Peace

text: Peace is a time without any fights or wars. In a larger sense, peace (or peacefulness) can mean a state of harmony, quiet or calm that is not disturbed by anything at all, like a still pond with no ripples.


title: Peace

text: Many people and organizations want peace. One organization that was set up to bring peace among the nations and try to make war a thing of the past was the League of Nations after World War I. When it did not stop World War II, it was replaced by the United Nations which tries to make the world peaceful. This means that if any member is attacked or invaded by another country without attacking that country first, the other members will come to help the country that was attacked first. This idea was used by the United Nations to defend both South Korea and Kuwait when they were attacked.


title: Peace

text: Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote in a letter he sent from the Birmingham jail that, "True peace is not merely the absence of tension: it is the presence of justice." In other words, Real peace is more than just problems being gone: there must be fairness to have peace.


title: Peace

text: Alfred Nobel created an annual award, the Nobel Peace Prize, for the person who had done the most to bring peace to the world.


title: Peace

text: Buddhists think that peace can be gotten once all suffering ends.To get rid of suffering and get this peace, many try to follow a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths


title: Peace

text: Jews and Christians believe that true peace comes from a personal relationship with God. Jesus Christ (also called the "Prince of Peace" in the Book of Isaiah) said: "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid." ()


title: Peace

text: Inner peace (or peace of mind) refers to a state of being mentally and spiritually at peace, with enough knowledge and understanding to keep oneself strong in the face of stress. Being "at peace" is considered by many to be healthy and the opposite of being stressed or anxious. Peace of mind is generally associated with bliss and happiness.


title: Peace

text: Peace of mind, serenity, and calmness are descriptions of a disposition free from the effects of stress. In some cultures, inner peace is considered a state of consciousness or enlightenment that may be cultivated by various forms of training, such as prayer, meditation, Tai chi chuan or yoga, for example. Many spiritual practices refer to this peace as an experience of knowing oneself.


title: Peace

text: A movement that seeks to get ideals such as the ending of a particular war, minimize inter-human violence in a particular place or type of situation, often linked to the goal of achieving world peace. Means to achieve these ends usually include advocacy of pacifism, non-violent resistance, conscientious objector, diplomacy, boycotts, moral purchasing, supporting anti-war political candidates, demonstrations, and lobbying to create legislation on human rights or of international law.


title: Peace

text: Many different theories of "peace" exist in the world of peace studies, which involves the study of conflict transformation. The definition of "peace" can vary with religion, culture, or subject of study.


title: Peace

text: Peace is a state of balance and understanding in yourself and between others, where respect is gained by the acceptance of differences, tolerance persists, conflicts are resolved through dialog, people's rights are respected and their voices are heard, and everyone is at their highest point of serenity without social tension.


title: Subscript and superscript

text: Subscript is the text which a small letter/number is written after a particular letter/number. It hangs below its letter or number. It is used when writing chemical compounds. An example of subscript is N.


title: Subscript and superscript

text: Superscript is the small letter / number above a particular letter / number. An example of superscript is 2. The number 5 above the number 2 is an example of superscript. Superscript can be used for exponents in mathematics.


title: Subscript and superscript

text: In word-processing computer programs like Microsoft Word, the shortcut key for subscripts is Ctrl+= .


title: New Zealand

text: New Zealand (known as in the Māori language) is an island country in Oceania. It is a sovereign state in the south-western part of the Pacific Ocean. It is made up of two large islands (the North Island and the South Island) and many smaller islands. These islands are located to the southeast of Australia. New Zealand was one of the last places in the world that humans discovered, because it is a long way away from most of the world. During its time without humans, New Zealand was a great place for an unusual range of plants and animals to develop.


title: New Zealand

text: The current capital city of the country is Wellington, and the largest city is Auckland. Both of these cities are on the North Island. The largest city on the South Island is Christchurch.


title: New Zealand

text: The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand sign language. English has never been granted official language status in the NZ laws, but it is used as a default official language due to its wide usage.


title: New Zealand

text: In the Māori language, the country is called Aotearoa, which means "Land of the Long White Cloud". "Ao" means “cloud”, "tea" means “white”, and "roa" means “long”. The name "New Zealand" comes from “Zeeland” (which translates to "Sealand") in Dutch, after the islands were seen by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman. Zeeland is a province of the Netherlands.


title: New Zealand

text: New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. The head of state is Charles III. The Prime Minister is Jacinda Ardern, leader of the Labour Party.


title: New Zealand

text: New Zealand has made itself a "Nuclear Free Zone": They do not use nuclear power and do not allow nuclear weapons or nuclear powered vessels in their territory.


title: New Zealand

text: As of the 2018 census, 4,699,755 people lived in New Zealand. Most of them have European ancestors. The indigenous people of New Zealand, the Māori, have a population of 775,836, or 16.5%.


title: New Zealand

text: The people of New Zealand often call themselves Kiwis. This name is derived from the kiwi, a flightless native bird that is considered the country's national bird.


title: New Zealand

text: The North Island is smaller than the South Island, but most people (more than 3 million) live there. This might be because the North Island is usually warmer, and has more big cities.


title: New Zealand

text: About half of the people in New Zealand are religious. As of the 2018 census, 48.2% had no religion. The main religion in New Zealand is Christianity. Just over 2 million New Zealanders are Christian. The second most common religion is Hinduism, with 2.6%.


title: New Zealand

text: Most New Zealanders live in urban areas, with the other 27% living in small towns or farming communities.


title: New Zealand

text: Wellington is the capital of New Zealand. Auckland is the largest city, with around 1 million people.


title: New Zealand

text: Other cities in the North Island include Hamilton, Tauranga, Napier/Hastings, New Plymouth, Whanganui, and Palmerston North. South Island cities include Christchurch, Dunedin, Nelson, Invercargill and Timaru.


title: New Zealand

text: New Zealand sits at the boundary between the Australian and Pacific continental plates. When these two plates bumped into each other ('collided'), the Pacific plate moved under the Australian plate, north of the South Island. As a result, there has been lots of volcanic activity. South of the South Island, the Australian plate moves under the Pacific plate instead. The plates slide past each other in the South Island, where they have pushed up the Southern Alps. Because of these two colliding plates, New Zealand often has earthquakes. One of the best known is the 2010-2011 group of earthquakes that hit the Christchurch area.


title: New Zealand

text: The diagram shows that the North Island is on the Australian plate, but most of the South Island is on the Pacific plate. New Zealand is still geologically active, and will remain so as long as the islands are sitting above the plate boundary.


title: New Zealand

text: The oldest rocks in New Zealand date from the Cambrian period, 512 million years ago. New Zealand became part of the global super-continent Pangaea. When that split (End-Triassic/early Jurassic), New Zealand became part of the southern super-continent Gondwana. Finally Gondwana broke up, leaving the continents rather as they are today.


title: New Zealand

text: New Zealand was isolated from the rest of the world for a long time. It split from Australia 83 million years ago. Because of this, there are many plants and animals that only live in New Zealand. Before humans came to New Zealand, there were no mammals, except three species of bat and marine mammals such as seals, dolphins, and whales. Instead, New Zealand has many different kinds of bird. New Zealand has several species of flightless bird, including the kiwi and Kakapo. For the lizards, especially important is the Tuatara, the only living member of a whole order of reptiles.


title: New Zealand

text: New Zealand used to have more rare species, but some, mostly birds, were hunted to extinction early in its history. The giant Moa, "Dinornis", is a famous example. The group of birds which the moa belongs to had been in existence since the Cretaceous period. Humans arrived in New Zealand about a thousand years ago, when many moa were living, especially on the South Island. Archaeological sites with evidence of moa hunting are all over New Zealand. The moa became extinct about five hundred years ago. Extinctions closer to today have been caused by habitat change and introduced species like rats, dogs, cats, and possums, which kill the native birds and lizards, or eat their eggs.


title: Monk

text: A monk is a man who devoted part or all of his life to a religion. The word comes from Ancient Greek, and can be translated as "solitary". In Greek, the word can apply to women, but in modern English it is mainly used for men. The word nun is usually used for female monastics. Monks practice asceticism. They either live alone, or together with other monks who share the same ideals. Monks can be found in different religions, most often in Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism and Taoism.


title: Monk

text: The monks who live on their own are usually called hermits, those living with other monks do so in monasteries. Nuns living together do so in a convent.


title: Mustard plant

text: The word mustard is used to refer to several species of plants. These plants belong to the genera "Brassica" or "Sinapis". They have tiny seeds. These seeds can be used as a condiment. When they are first ground, and then mixed with water, vinegar and other ingredients, a condiment called mustard can be made. The seeds can also be pressed, to give a kind of oil called "mustard oil". Some kinds of mustard plants have edible leaves. These leaves are known as "mustard greens".


title: Mustard plant

text: Mild white mustard ("Sinapis hirta") grows wild in North Africa, the Middle East and Mediterranean Europe and has spread farther by long cultivation; brown or Indian mustard ("B. juncea"), originally from the foothills of the Himalaya, is grown commercially in the UK, Canada and the US; black mustard ("B. nigra") in Argentina, Chile, the US and some European countries.


title: Mustard plant

text: In addition to the mustards, the genus "Brassica" also includes cabbages, cauliflower, rapeseed and turnips.


title: Mustard plant

text: There has been recent research into varieties of mustards that have a high oil content for use in the production of biodiesel, a renewable liquid fuel similar to diesel fuel. The biodiesel made from mustard oil has good cold flow properties and cetane ratings. The leftover meal after pressing out the oil has also been found to be an effective pesticide.


title: Air conditioner

text: An air conditioner is a system or a machine that treats air in a defined, usually enclosed area via a refrigeration cycle in which warm air is removed and replaced with cooler air.


title: Air conditioner

text: In construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning is referred to as HVAC. Whether in homes, offices or vehicles, its purpose is to provide comfort by altering the properties of the air, usually by cooling the air inside. The main function of air conditioner is to change adverse temperature.


title: Air conditioner

text: In the 19th century British scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate.


title: Air conditioner

text: In 1842, American physician Dr. John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients. He hoped eventually to use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings and even considered cooling entire cities with a system of centralized air conditioning units.


title: Air conditioner

text: Air conditioning engineers broadly divide air conditioning applications into "comfort" and "process".


title: Air conditioner

text: Comfort applications aim to provide an indoor environment that remains relatively constant in a range preferred by humans despite changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads.


title: Air conditioner

text: Process applications aim to provide a suitable environment for an industrial or a commercial process, regardless of internal heat loads and external weather conditions. Although often in the same comfort range, it is the requirements of  the process that determines conditions, not human preference. Process applications include:


title: Air conditioner

text: In both comfort and process applications, the objective is not only to control temperature (although in some comfort applications this is all that is controlled) but also factors like humidity, air movement and air quality.


title: Air conditioner

text: In the refrigeration cycle, a pump transfers heat from a lower temperature source into a higher temperature heat sink. Heat will naturally flow in the opposite direction. This is the most common type of air conditioning. A refrigerated air conditioning system works in much the same way pumping heat out of the room in which it stands.


title: Air conditioner

text: This cycle takes advantage of the universal gas law "PV" = "nRT", where "P" is pressure, "V" is volume, "R" is the universal gas constant, "T" is temperature, and "n" is the number of molecules of gas (1 mole = 6.022×10 molecules).


title: Air conditioner

text: The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive a compressor. In an automobile the compressor is driven by a pulley on the engine's crankshaft, with both using electric motors for air circulation. Since evaporation occurs when heat is absorbed, and condensation occurs when heat is released, air conditioners are designed to use a compressor to cause pressure changes between two compartments, and actively pump a coolant around an enclosed system. The cooling liquid, or refrigerant is pumped into the cooled compartment (the evaporator coil). Low pressure then causes the refrigerant to evaporate taking the heat with it. In the other compartment (the condenser), the refrigerant vapour is compressed and forced through another heat exchange coil, condensed into a liquid which then rejects the heat previously absorbed from the cooled space.


title: Air conditioner

text: Air conditioning has as much influence on human health as any generic heating system. Poorly maintained air-conditioning systems (especially large, centralized systems) can occasionally promote the growth and spread of microorganisms such as "Legionella pneumophila," the infectious agent responsible for Legionnaire's disease. Air conditioning can have a positive effect on sufferers of allergies and asthma.


title: Air conditioner

text: In serious heat waves, air conditioning can save the lives of the elderly. Some local authorities have even set up public cooling centers for the benefit of those without air conditioning at home.


title: HTML

text: HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is a type of markup language. It is used to make webpages. Webpages can include writing, links, pictures, and even sound and video. HTML tells web browsers what webpages should look like. HTML also adds meta information to webpages. Meta information is information "about" about a webpage e.g., the name of the person who created the page. Web browsers usually do not show meta information.


title: HTML

text: HTML is often used with Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and JavaScript. CSS is used to change the way HTML looks. JavaScript tells websites how to behave. It can also change HTML and CSS.


title: HTML

text: HTML is made by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). There are many versions of HTML. As of September 2018, the current standard of HTML is called HTML 5 and is specifically at version 5.2.


title: HTML

text: HTML uses "elements" to let the browser know how a webpage is made of. Elements are shown as "tags" in the code, written with angle brackets: . Tags "usually" come in pairs: an opening tag defines the start of a block of content and a closing tag defines the end of that block of content. There are many kinds of tags, and each one has a different purpose. See Basic HTML Tags below for tag examples.


title: HTML

text: Some tags only work in certain browsers. For example, the codice_1 tag, which is used to make something appear when the person presses the right button of the mouse, only works on the Mozilla Firefox browser. Other browsers simply ignore this tag and display the writing normally. Many web page creators avoid using these "non-standard" tags because they want their pages to look the same with all browsers.


title: HTML

text: The text between and describes the web page, and the text between and is the page content. defines the browser page title.


title: Trumpet

text: A trumpet is a brass instrument used mainly in Classical music and jazz music. The most common type of trumpet is a B♭ trumpet, meaning that if the player plays a C, it will sound like a B♭ in concert pitch. The trumpet is played by blowing into the mouthpiece and making a "buzzing" sound. There are three keys called valves that the player can press to change the pitch.


title: Trumpet

text: The trumpet has been around for about 3000 years. An early example of a brass instrument like a trumpet is called a shofar, which is still used in religious ceremonies. Eventually people started making trumpet-like instruments with wood (for example, the cornetto), and later, with brass. Modern bugles are similar to early metal trumpets.


title: Trumpet

text: Many years ago, when the use of instrumental music was growing, trumpets became very important. Trumpets were long and without valves. This meant a player had to control the pitch of the sound with only his mouth, which was very difficult. Everyone respected trumpet players because trumpets were just so difficult to play.


title: Trumpet

text: The chromatic trumpet was developed in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, good valves made it easier to play notes on the trumpet. Still, trumpet is a difficult instrument to master.


title: Trumpet

text: Classical music is written for solo trumpet, and trumpets are included in orchestras. Trumpets play an important part in Jazz music, and other various popular genres. Sometimes, they also play short parts to emphasize sections in rock songs.


title: Trumpet

text: Some famous jazz trumpet players are Miles Davis, Louis Armstrong, Arturo Sandoval, Wynton Marsalis, Dizzy Gillespie, and Maynard Ferguson.


title: Zlatan Ibrahimović

text: Zlatan Ibrahimović (born 3 October 1981) is a Swedish footballer. He plays as a striker for Italian team AC Milan. He is considered one of the best strikers of all time. He has scored over 560 career goals, and he has scored at least 1 goal in the last four decades.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: Florence Nightingale, OM (12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910), was an English nurse. She helped create the modern techniques of nursing. She became a leader of the team of nurses who helped wounded soldiers during the Crimean War.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: She was the first female to receive the Order of Merit, one of the highest honours awarded by the British monarch. As a nurse she was given the name 'The Lady with the Lamp' because at night, she checked on the wounded soldiers and always carried 'The Lamp' with her. Florence Nightingale was a wonderful woman, coming from a wealthy family. She refused the aristocrat lifestyle her family expected from her and instead focused on helping the poor, the injured, and the sick. She helped make modern nursing possible. Nightingale was a prodigious and versatile writer, and lived to be 90 years old.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: In her lifetime she was concerned with spreading medical knowledge. Some of her books were written in simple English so that they could easily be understood by those with poor reading skills. She also was an early user of graphs and diagrams to display data.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: Nightingale was helped to understand statistics by her country's leading expert on public statistics, William Farr. He was a founder of medical statistics, and epidemiology. Farr worked with her on all the statistics from the Crimean War, which she publicised in her writing. She proved that more men had died from disease than fighting, a very important piece of information. The disease in question was mostly cholera. Cholera is caused by a bacterium spread by people drinking water contaminated by sewage. Unfortunately, both she and Farr believed the disease was caused by foul air: this was called the miasma theory.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: The miasma theory was refuted by John Snow, who discovered the real cause of an outbreak in London. The cause was foul water from a water pump in Broad Street, London. Snow's work was published in 1855, but it was 30 years before the germ theory was generally accepted. Farr publicly acknowledged he was wrong in 1866, but Nightingale never really gave up the miasma idea. London's cholera epidemics stopped once the authorities built sewage treatment plants, delivered cleaner water, and built a system of underground pipes that kept sewage from seeping into the water supply.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: Florence Nightingale was born into an upper class British family in 1820 in Florence, Tuscany, Italy. She was named after the town where she was born. The family moved back to London when Florence was a young girl. She was a Unitarian. Although her parents expected her to become a wife and a mother, in 1845 she decided to become a nurse. While she was training she campaigned for better conditions for poor people in Britain.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: In 1854 to 1856, during the Crimean War, Florence was working in Harley Street in London. After reading many reports about the poor treatment of sick and injured soldiers, she travelled to Crimea to see for herself and discovered the hospitals were crowded and dirty.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: She knew Sidney Herbert, who was Secretary of War during the Crimean War and he helped her. At the hospital in Istanbul where the injured soldiers were sent, Florence realized that soldiers died more often from diseases like cholera than from their injuries in war. She used her knowledge of maths and statistics to show the British


title: Florence Nightingale

text: government that providing better conditions for sick and injured soldiers would help them win the war. She was, however, quite wrong about how cholera spread.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: There is a syndrome named after her called "Florence Nightingale Syndrome". It occurs when a soldier falls in love with a nurse. While she was working in Crimea she became known as “The Lady with the Lamp” because she would walk around the hospital in the evening carrying a lamp and check on the soldiers.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: When she returned to England she started a school in 1860 for nurses at St. Thomas’ Hospital in London. She wrote her most important book "Notes on Nursing". She was a keen Christian but also believed that pagan and eastern religions also contained genuine worth. She was a strong opponent of discrimination against all types of Christians as well as against non-Christians. Nightingale believed religion helped provide people with the fortitude for arduous good work.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: In 1907, Florence Nightingale became the first woman to be awarded the Order of Merit by King Edward VII.


title: Florence Nightingale

text: Florence Nightingale died in her room peace fully in her sleep from heart attack in 1910 in London. There are many statues of her in Britain, including one in Waterloo Place in London and a Florence Nightingale museum, also in London.


title: Amy Stiller

text: Amy Belle Sawyer Stiller (born August 9, 1961) is an American actor, stand-up comedian and Bikram Yoga instructor.


title: Amy Stiller

text: She was born in New York, New York. She is the daughter of the Jewish-American comedians Jerry Stiller and Anne Meara, and the older sister of actor Ben Stiller. She graduated from the United Nations International School, in New York City, in 1979.


title: Dolphin

text: Dolphins are part of the toothed whales. Generally, they are among the smaller whales. Most live in salt water oceans, but some live in rivers there are oceanic dolphins and river dolphins. Dolphins are from to long, but the largest dolphin, the killer whale (or orca), can be up to long.


title: Dolphin

text: All dolphins live in groups called "pods". They are social animals at all stages of their life. They have some remarkable behaviours. A speeding group of dolphins is a sight to see. They "porpoise" in and out of the water at high speed. The function of this is not known for sure. It may be the fastest movement they are capable of. What they eat, almost exclusively, is fish. When they chase fish, the fish go into a "bait ball" to self-protect. In turn, the dolphins attack in a group and eat as many fish as they can.


title: Dolphin

text: The name 'dolphin' comes from the Ancient Greek δελφίς ("delphis") meaning "with a womb", because it was first thought to be a fish with a womb. It is now known to be a mammal, and quite an intelligent mammal. Dolphins breathe air. A dolphin's nose is on top of its head so the dolphin can easily breathe on the surface of the water. The skin of a dolphin has no scales. It is soft and smooth. However, it is very firm, due to how much muscle they have. Dolphins use echolocation to find their food.


title: Dolphin

text: The skin of a bottlenose dolphin is gray, smooth, and rubbery. They are always social. They can help each other fight off predators. Dolphins have fought off sharks in this way. They can kill large sharks by ramming them over and over again with their snouts and heads. They look after the young, when the mothers need to leave their calves to hunt for food. The young need to breathe more often than the adults, and the food may be in deeper waters.


title: Dolphin

text: Three of the four species of river dolphins live in fresh water rivers. The La Plata dolphin lives in saltwater estuaries and the ocean. Water pollution and the loss of habitat are a threat to some dolphins, especially those living in rivers and estuaries.


title: Dolphin

text: Dolphins (and other cetaceans) sleep in the water. There is danger from animals that eat dolphins. Dolphins sleep differently than a person. Dolphins have two sides of their brain, which they use to sleep. One side sleeps, while the other side stays awake. Dolphins do things while asleep:


title: Dolphin

text: Dolphin groups or species have their own way of sleeping. Pinnipeds, like seals, can sleep like dolphins.


title: Dolphin

text: The brain of a dolphin is like a human brain in size and development. Dolphins have reasonable eyesight. They can watch a thing in the water, and they can see colors, too. They can also see in dark places.


title: Dolphin

text: A dolphin's hearing is better than their sight. There are small holes behind the eyes, and they are the ears of a dolphin. Dolphins can hear a sound underwater. They can know the direction of the sound very well.


title: Dolphin

text: Dolphins have long played a role in human culture. Dolphins are common in Greek mythology and there are many coins from ancient Greece which feature a man or boy or deity riding on the back of a dolphin. The Ancient Greeks welcomed dolphins; spotting dolphins riding in a ship’s wake was considered a good omen. In Hindu mythology, the Ganges River Dolphin is associated with Ganga, the deity of the Ganges river.


title: Dolphin

text: Dolphin meat is eaten in a few countries, including Japan and Peru (where it is referred to as "chancho marino", or "sea pork"). Japan may be the best-known and most controversial example, but eating dolphin is not that common.


title: Dolphin

text: Dolphin therapy is sometimes used for people with mental or physical handicaps. It involves contact with trained dolphins. It is not agreed whether this is any better than the usual treatments.


title: Sky

text: The sky is the appearance of the atmosphere around the surface of the planet from our point of view. We see many objects that are actually in space such as the Sun, the Moon, and stars because they are in the sky. On a clear day the sky appears blue. At night it appears from very dark blue to black. The deepness of the blue increases as we look toward the horizon, and up to the point above us.


title: Sky

text: The sky, which is made up of gas molecules, is blue because of the random scattering of sunlight by the molecules. Rayleigh scattering defines the amount of scattering of light rays. Blue light scatters much more than red, which is why the sky appears blue on a clear day. Depending on the time of day, the sky may appear different colors. At dawn or dusk the sky may appear red, orange, or even green and purple depending on how low the sun is and how close it is to night.


title: Sky

text: Other planets have skies too. Because the types of gases in their atmospheres are different, they have different sky colors. For example, the sky on Mars is red.


title: Sky

text: Many things can be seen in the sky. There are objects from space like the Sun, Moon, and stars. There are also many weather events seen in the sky. For example, these can be clouds, rain, lightning, or fog. Weather is caused by different patterns and temperatures in the atmosphere. Other things that can be seen in the sky are birds, other flying animals, and aircraft.


title: April

text: April is the fourth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, and comes between March and May. It is one of four months to have 30 days.


title: April

text: April always begins on the same day of week as July, and additionally, January in leap years. April always ends on the same day of the week as December.


title: April

text: April's flowers are the Sweet Pea and Daisy. Its birthstone is the diamond. The meaning of the diamond is innocence.


title: April

text: April comes between March and May, making it the fourth month of the year. It also comes first in the year out of the four months that have 30 days, as June, September and November are later in the year.


title: April

text: April begins on the same day of the week as July every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. April ends on the same day of the week as December every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.


title: April

text: In common years, April starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, April starts on the same day of the week as January of the previous year, and in leap years and years immediately after that, April finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.


title: April

text: In years immediately before common years, April starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year.


title: April

text: April is a spring month in the Northern Hemisphere and an autumn/fall month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of October in the other.


title: April

text: It is unclear as to where April got its name. A common theory is that it comes from the Latin word "aperire", meaning "to open", referring to flowers opening in spring. Another theory is that the name could come from Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love. It was originally the second month in the old Roman Calendar, before the start of the new year was put to January 1.


title: April

text: Quite a few festivals are held in this month. In many Southeast Asian cultures, new year is celebrated in this month (including Songkran). In Western Christianity, Easter can be celebrated on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25. In Orthodox Christianity, it can fall between April 4 and May 8. At the end of the month, Central and Northern European cultures celebrate Walpurgis Night on April 30, marking the transition from winter into summer.


title: Stone

text: A stone is a piece of rock. It is a mass of hard, compacted mineral. The word is often used to mean a small piece of rock.


title: Stone

text: The word "stone" also refers to natural rock as a material, especially a building material. Natural stones used as building material include granite, marble and sandstone. Manufactured, artificial products, such as concrete or clay bricks, are not stone.


title: Stone

text: Stone was one of the first materials used to make tools and buildings. It is a very sturdy material. It is less affected by weather than wood or brick. Depending on the type of rock, stone weathers away much more slowly. A stone in the river is reshaped by the water and sediment flowing around it.


title: Stone

text: Stones can be used as primitive weapons. A person can throw it at an enemy or animal, or use it to cause more damage in hand-to-hand combat.


title: The Gherkin

text: 30 St Mary Axe is a skyscraper in London's financial district, the City of London. It was formerly named the Swiss Re Building, after Swiss Reinsurance Company. The tower is also known as "The Gherkin". The building was finished in December 2003. It was opened at the end of May 2004. Swiss Re Tower has 41 floors. The tower is tall. It is on the site of the former Baltic Exchange, which was badly damaged in 1992 by the explosion of a bomb by the Provisional IRA.


title: The Gherkin

text: 30 St Mary Axe was designed by Norman Foster and Arup engineers. It was built by Skanska in 2001–2003.


title: The Gherkin

text: The building has become an iconic symbol of London. It is one of the city's most well known examples of modern architecture.


title: Microsoft Paint

text: Microsoft Paint, also called MS Paint or simply Paint is a computer program made by Microsoft. It allows people to create picture files as well as edit picture files saved on their computer. Microsoft Paint is also a program for adding texts to images saved on a computer. There are various tools to help people edit photos, including:


title: Microsoft Paint

text: The program has a color palette displayed on the bottom left of the screen, as well as an "Edit Colors..." menu, allowing users to create all the shades they need.


title: Microsoft Paint

text: Using the selection tools (the 2 tools at the top if the tools bar), users can select all or part of an image and then cut, copy, delete and paste it.


title: Microsoft Paint

text: Many digital artists or editors prefer programs like Photoshop, but many on a tighter budget or with less time on their hands use Paint. Because of this, there are many Internet tutorials to help enhance the creative skill of every Microsoft Painter.


title: NKVD

text: The NKVD People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (Russian : НКВД ; Народный Комиссариат Внутренних Дел) as a government department in the Soviet Union operated from 1934-1946 . It was the law enforcement agency which did the will of the All Union Communist Party. The NKVD underwent many organizational changes; between 1938 and 1939 alone, the NKVD's structure changed three times. It was lead by Genrikh Yagoda (1891-1938) (Chief from 1934-1938) Nikolai Yezhov (1895-1938) (Chief from 1936-1938) and Lavrentiy Beria (1899-1953) (Chief from 1938-1945). Both Yagoda and Yezhov were executed in 1938 and 1940. Beria was removed from power and executed in 1953.


title: NKVD

text: The public face of the NKVD was the regular police force, which acted in a similar way to other police forces. In addition to its state security and police functions, some of its departments handled other matters, such as transportation, fire guards, border guards (NKVD border troops), etc. These jobs were usually assigned to the Ministry of the Interior (MVD).


title: NKVD

text: However, it is the classified (secret) activities for which it was really feared. This was the work of the Main Directorate for State Security, known as the GUGB. The NKVD also included the Soviet secret police. The GUGB protected the state security of the Soviet Union. This was done by massive political repression, including the use of sanctioned political murders and assassinations, especially in the era of Joseph Stalin, during the Great Purge.


title: NKVD

text: After World War II, and especially after the end of the Soviet Union, there was a flood of books on the deeds of Stalin and the NKVD.


title: NKVD

text: In occupied territories, the NKVD carried out mass arrests, deportations, and executions of traitors, Nazi collaborators, and other dangerous people. Resistance movements included the Polish Armia Krajowa (which was neither pro-nazi or communist), and leftover Ukrainian Nazi units (aiming to remain separate from the Soviet Union).


title: NKVD

text: NKVD officers executed tens of thousands of Polish political prisoners in 1939–1941, including the Katyń massacre. NKVD units were also used to quell the post-Nazi partisan war in the western Ukraine (Mostly in the Lviv region), and the "Forest Brothers" in the Baltics (which lasted until the early 1950s).


title: Painting

text: Painting is using colors to make visual art. It is also the word for a painted work of art. Many kinds of paints are used to create art. They include watercolors, acrylics and oils. Other artists like working with pencil or chalk. Sometimes charcoal can be used.


title: Painting

text: Famous paintings are often kept in art galleries, like the National Gallery in London and the Louvre (Paris) where one of the most famous paintings in the world hangs, the "Mona Lisa", painted by Leonardo da Vinci. People do not have to go to a famous gallery to view art. There are private art galleries in many cities around the world.


title: Painting

text: There is a basic difference between drawing and painting. In drawing, a single layer is the entire image. In painting, one layer is painted over another to get the final image. As a result, most of the time the image will not be clear until it gets to the final stage.


title: Jew

text: A Jew is a person who is of Jewish or who has converted to the Jewish religion. Jews typically consider themselves as a people and not only as adherents of a religion, therefore a Jew is not only one that practices the religion of Judaism, but it is also one who is of Jewish ethnic heritage. Jews originated as an ethnoreligious group in the Middle East. According to traditional Jewish law, called Halakha, someone is Jewish if their mother was a Jew or if they have converted to Judaism. Judaism has been described as a religion, a race, an ethnic group, a culture, a nation, and an extended family.


title: Jew

text: Israel is the only modern country with a Jewish majority, but there are Jewish minorities in many places in the world. Most of them live in large cities in the United States, Argentina, Europe and Australia. Both Israel and the U.S. have over five million Jews. In the Soviet Union there were more than two million Jews, but many of them moved to Israel, the U.S. and other Western countries since the collapse of the Soviet Union.


title: Jew

text: Jews have been victims of various persecutions. The most well known happened during the Second World War, when almost six million Jews were killed by the Nazis. It is known as the Holocaust.


title: Jew

text: All ethnic (non-convert) Jews have genetic heritage from the Levant (the region now known as Israel and/or Palestine). Within all of the world's Jews, there are Jewish ethnic groups. The two biggest are called Ashkenazi (who have historically lived in Central and Eastern Europe) and Sephardic (who have historically lived in lands around the Mediterranean Sea, particularly Spain and Portugal). Jews from the Middle East, the Caucasus, and Central Asia are called Mizrahi Jews. There are also Ethiopian Jews, Indian Jews (Bene Israel) and Chinese Jews (Kaifeng Jews). Many of these groups have moved from one place to another. For example, many Ashkenazi Jews live in the United States, and many Sephardic and Mizrahi Jews live in France.


title: Jew

text: Jews speak the languages of the countries where they live. Hebrew is the language of Judaism because it is the language in which the Bible was written. It is still used for prayers. In Israel, Ivrit, which is the name for the new Hebrew language, is the common language. There are also other Jewish languages such as Yiddish and Ladino which are still spoken and written by some Jews.


title: Jew

text: The Jewish scriptures say that Judaism began with a man named "Abram" who lived in the city of Ur, in present-day Iraq. According to the Midrash, Abram strongly believed that the people in Ur were wrong to pray to different gods and statues. He believed that there was really only one god who was not a statue. The Torah tells that God spoke to Abram and told him to leave Ur with his family and move to Canaan, where he started a new religion. God told him that his name would be changed to Abraham. The Midrash also says that angels taught Abraham a new holy language, which Jews believe is the language today known as Hebrew. Hebrew continues to be the language of Judaism. Abraham's grandson Jacob is said to be the one who first had the name of "Israel".


title: Jew

text: When the Jews were turned into slaves in Egypt, God told Moses to ask for the 12 tribes of Israel to be freed. Pharaoh said "No" time and again and each time he did God sent many terrible punishments to the Egyptians to make him to free the Hebrews. Finally, the Pharaoh let the Hebrews go free, but then decided to send the Egyptian army to capture the Jews back. To help them escape God commanded the Red Sea to open a path for them. The waters then returned and drowned the Egyptian army. The Torah says that after this, Moses met with God on Mount Sinai and received the Ten Commandments and the Torah from God.


title: Jew

text: The Hebrews or Israelites, in twelve tribes, began a country called Israel in Canaan. They fought many wars against other peoples in the area. The name "Jew" comes from the name of one of these tribes, Judah. Later Judah was conquered by Babylonia in the early 6th century BC, and its people were taken captive to Babylon. They were allowed to go back to Judah again when Babylon was conquered by the Persian Empire. Some Jewish people stayed in Babylon (now Iraq) and others also lived in other countries.


title: Jew

text: By 50 BC, Judah (then called Judea) was ruled by the Roman Empire. During this time, the main language of Judea was Aramaic. The Jews did not like the Roman government or customs, and often made trouble for the Romans. In 70 AD, after a revolt against the government by the Jewish community, the Romans destroyed Judea's capital city, Jerusalem and sent almost all Jews into exile.


title: Jew

text: After this, the Jewish people did not have their own country. They were a small minority in almost every place they lived. This time is called the Diaspora, when Jews spread around the world. They lived in many other countries. Jews living in Spain and Portugal used the language Ladino (also called "Judeo-Spanish"). Jews living in Germany, Poland, Russia, and other countries in Central-Eastern Europe spoke the language Yiddish. Jews living in North Africa spoke Judeo-Arabic or Haketia, the local name for Ladino. Jews have lived in most, but not all, places in the world, including India, China, Yemen, and Ethiopia. Even today, Jews who do not live in Israel are often said to live "in the Diaspora". In some places, like India, Jews lived without any problems. In other places, like most of Europe and Islamic countries, there was bigotry or even hatred against Jews and they lived under discriminatory laws. Sometimes Jews suffered from outright persecution (that is: systematic hatred and violence), sometimes they were forced to dress in special, ugly clothes, pay higher taxes than others, not build higher houses than others, not to ride a horse or donkey, wear certain badges etc. In Europe, where the Roman Catholic church forbade Christians from lending money against interest, some Jews worked as bankers and money-lenders, and became known as skillful bankers.


title: Jew

text: One nomad nation, the Khazars, converted to Judaism in the 8th century. The Khazar khanate, which was in the modern Ukraine and Byelorussia, was the only independent Jewish state before modern day Israel. The Khazar state was destroyed by the Eastern Vikings (Rus) in 987.


title: Jew

text: The Jewish people have always believed that they have a special mission from God. They do things in their own ways, such as having special rules about food and eating, not working on the Shabbat, keeping their own holidays, and not marrying people from other religions. Because of this, people in many different times and countries have thought that the Jews were strange, and maybe dangerous. Many countries made laws that the Jews could not work in some jobs or live in some places. Sometimes Jewish people were killed because of their religion. The word "antisemitism" describes the hatred for Jews.


title: Jew

text: During the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazi, or "National Socialist" government of Germany conquered most of Europe. They did terrible things to the Jewish people. The Nazi government killed more than six million Jewish people. Before they were killed, often by means of a gas chamber, many of the Jews were made to be forced workers, and some of them were forced to help in the killing and capturing of the others.


title: Jew

text: In 1948, after World War II, the United Nations made the country of Israel for the Jews in Palestine, which is in the same place as the original Israel, in the Middle East. The land had been part of the Ottoman Empire before World War I. Then Britain controlled the area under the oversight of the United Nations. Many Jews moved back to Israel, then called Palestine, starting in the late 1800s. When the country of Israel was made in 1948, there were about 600,000 Jews in it. Today there are about 5,600,000 Jews in it.


title: Jew

text: When Jews moved back to Palestine, there were some people living there now. Most of them did not want to live in a Jewish country. This was the beginning of the Israeli-Arab or Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which continues today.


title: Jew

text: Jews have come to Israel from all over the world, bringing different languages, music, food, and history to create a unique culture. Israel is the only country in the world where most people are Jews and where Hebrew is the main language.


title: Jew

text: Jewish history continues today in both Israel and the Diaspora. Outside of Israel, there are many Jews in the United States, Great Britain, Canada, France, Russia, Ukraine, Germany, Argentina, Brazil, South Africa, and Australia. There are smaller numbers of Jews living in other parts of the world.


title: Jew

text: Some of the major problems faced by the Jewish people today include resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and dealing with high rates of assimilation (loss of Jewish identity) in some countries, like the United States.


title: Jew

text: Many Jewish people have done great things in science, literature, business, and the arts. Some of the most famous include:


title: Dove

text: The common names "pigeon" and "dove" are often used interchangeably. In ornithology, "dove" tends to be used for smaller species and "pigeon" for larger ones. The wild ancestor of the domestic pigeon is the "rock dove". The feral pigeon is common in many cities.


title: Dove

text: There are more than 300 species in the family. They usually make nests of sticks, and their two white eggs are incubated by both the male and the female parent. Doves feed on seeds, fruit and plants.


title: Dove

text: Unlike most other birds, the doves and pigeons produce a type of milk. It is produced in their crop, and called crop milk. Both sexes have this highly nutritious milk to feed their young.


title: Dove

text: Pigeons and doves are distributed everywhere on Earth, except for the driest areas of the Sahara Desert, Antarctica and its surrounding islands and the high Arctic. They have colonised most of the world's oceanic islands. They are in eastern Polynesia and the Chatham Islands in the Pacific, Mauritius, the Seychelles and Réunion in the Indian Ocean, and the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Dove

text: The family has adapted to most of the habitats available on the planet. Doves may be arboreal or terrestrial or partly terrestrial. Species live in savannas, grasslands, deserts, temperate woodlands and forests, mangrove forests, and even the barren sands and gravels of atolls. Some species have large natural ranges.


title: Dove

text: The largest range of any species is that of the rock dove. This species lives in Britain and Ireland, northern Africa, across Europe, Arabia, Central Asia, India, the Himalayas and up into China and Mongolia. The range of the species increased dramatically after it was domesticated, because the species went feral in cities around the world. It lives in cities across most of North America, South America, sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, Japan, Australia and New Zealand.


title: Dove

text: The species is not the only pigeon to have increased its range due to the actions of man; several other species have become established outside of their natural range after escaping captivity. Other species have also increased their natural ranges due to habitat changes by humans.


title: Dove

text: The dodo and the Rodrigues solitaire are two famous flightless birds on the Mascarene Islands in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar. They are extinct, but were alive before sailors found the islands. They had no fear of humans, whom they had never seen. The sailors hunted them, and killed them for food. Both species are now extinct. Animals introduced by man may also have hunted them. Their anatomy (osteology) and DNA sequence analyses show that they belong to the Columbidae family.


title: Dove

text: In the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, doves were used as symbols for the Canaanite mother goddess Asherah, the Phoenician goddess Tanit, and the Roman goddesses Venus and Fortunata.


title: Dove

text: The Christian symbol of a dove with an olive branch in its beak represents peace and comes from Genesis 8:6 - 12, also John 1:32–34. The Christian stories came after very similar myths from earlier cultures.The Chaldean myth the "Epic of Gilgamesh", Utnapishtim releases a dove and raven to find land; however, the dove merely circles and returns. Only then does Utnapishtim send forth the raven, which does not return, and Utnapishtim concludes the raven has found land.


title: Dove

text: Several species of pigeons and doves are used as food, and probably any might be. The powerful breast muscles of the family make excellent meat. Domesticated or hunted pigeon were used as food in Mesopotamia, Ancient Rome and medieval Europe. It is familiar meat within Jewish, Arab, Assamese and French cuisines. According to the Tanakh, doves are kosher, and they are the only birds that may be used for a "korban" (offering). Other kosher birds may be eaten, but not brought as a "korban". It is also eaten in Asian cuisines, such as Chinese and Indonesian cuisine. Young pigeons in cuisine are known as "squabs".


title: Dove

text: In Europe, the wood pigeon is commonly shot as a game bird. Rock pigeons were originally domesticated as a food species, and many breeds were developed for their meat-bearing qualities. The extinction of the passenger pigeon in North America was partly due to shooting for food. Mrs Beeton's "Book of Household Management" has recipes for roast pigeon and pigeon pie, a popular, inexpensive food in Victorian industrial Britain.


title: Unicorn

text: A unicorn is a legendary and mythical creature. It looks like a pony with one long, single and white horn on its head. The word "unicorn" means literally "one-horn". It comes from the Latin word "ūnus", which means "one", and "cornu" which means "horn", which term is in itself borrowed from the earlier Greek word "monokerōs" (also 'one horned').


title: Unicorn

text: Unicorns are found in many stories and myths from different parts of the world, especially China and India. Its blood and horn usually have mystical powers. In Western culture, its horn is said to have power (often called "alicorn" in medieval literature) to heal wounds and sickness, and to neutralize poison.


title: Unicorn

text: In mythology and heraldry unicorn symbolizes innocence, purity and feminine power. It is often seen as the counterpart of lion, which symbolizes the masculine virtues.


title: Unicorn

text: A Narwhal is an animal that is about 8 feet long. They live in the water around Canada and Greenland. Narwhal’s horns were said to be the horns of unicorns by some. People would sell the horn of a narwhal to others and say it was a horn of a unicorn.


title: Unicorn

text: Christian legends say the Unicorn is as small as a normal sized goat. They are so fearful that no hunter can catch them. Only a maiden that goes into the forest alone can catch a unicorn. The unicorn will come and fall asleep in the maiden’s lap. Around the time of the Middle Ages, some stories of unicorns became more popular. People bought what were said to be the horns of a unicorn at very high prices. They were mostly a tusk of a walrus or a horn from a narwhal.


title: Unicorn

text: The term unicorn is also used in business to refer to a business startup valued at a billion dollars or more.


title: Unicorn

text: In "On the Nature of Animals" ("Περὶ Ζῴων Ἰδιότητος", "De natura animalium"), Aelian, quoting Ctesias, adds that India has also a one-horned horse (iii. 41; iv. 52), and says (xvi. 20) that the "monoceros" () was sometimes called "cartazonos" (), which may be a kind of the Arabic "karkadann", meaning "rhinoceros".


title: Buckingham Palace

text: The Palace is the main official residence where the British monarch lives and works. The palace is a setting for state occasions and royal hospitality. It has been a focus for the British people at times of national rejoicing and crisis.


title: Buckingham Palace

text: Buckingham Palace was built in 1703 by John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normandy, as a townhouse residence in London. It was bought by the British royal family in 1761. It became the official London home of the family in 1837 and was greatly expanded in the 19th century. It has 775 rooms, 19 staterooms, and 78 bathrooms. Leading up to it is a ceremonial road called The Mall. A German bomb damaged the Palace during the London blitz.


title: Right-wing politics

text: Someone who is "right-wing" usually supports tradition and keeping things the way that they already are. The right-wing supports tradition and authority. The right-wing in some countries, like the United States, often supports social conservatism, liberal conservatism or social liberalism (libertarianism), and a capitalist economy where the government has little influence. Usually the right-wing thinks of society as similar to a living thing, what is called "organic society". They believe that society's customs and traditions are a collection of things that we have learned from the past and are useful and should be maintained as much as possible.


title: Right-wing politics

text: People who are very right-wing are called "reactionary", and want to either return to the way things were before, such as neoreaction, or more often start as a reaction against left-wing ideas which are spreading in a country.


title: Decade

text: A decade (pronounce: DEK-aid) is a period of 10 years. The word comes from the Ancient Greek word for ten: "deka". 10 decades make a century, while 100 decades make a millennium. A decade is any 10-year period: There are different ways to refer to different groupings of ten years. For example, the period from 2001 to 2010 can be described as the 1st decade of the 21st century, the period from 2011 to 2020 is the 2nd decade of the 21st century, and the 3rd decade of the 21st century is the period from 2021 to 2030. An individual who has been alive two full decades is referred to as being in their 20s for the next decade of their life, from age 20 to 29. Decades are also considered specific groups of ten years sharing the same tens digit, identified by name, as in the nineteen-eighties (1980s) referring to the period from 1980 to 1989 and the nineteen-nineties (1990s) referring to the period from 1990 to 1999. Sometimes this is shortened to just the decade, where the context is clear, as in the eighties (80s) or the nineties (90s). No apostrophe is used before the s in the names of these decades.


title: Decade

text: Some decades also have nicknames, such as the Roaring Twenties (1920s), the Gangsta Rap Nineties (1990s) (US), the Naughty Nineties (1890s) (UK), and the Swinging Sixties (1960s).


title: Bulgaria

text: Bulgaria (officially called the Republic of Bulgaria) is a country in south-eastern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. Bulgaria is the south of the River Danube and west of the Black Sea. To the south of Bulgaria is European Turkey, Greece, and North Macedonia. To the north of the Danube is Romania, while to the west of Bulgaria is Serbia.


title: Bulgaria

text: The capital and the biggest city is Sofia. Their money is called the lev. The Bulgarian government is a member of the European Union and NATO. Rumen Radev became President in 2017. The population of Bulgaria is a little more than 7 million people.


title: Bulgaria

text: Bulgaria has its own language, called Bulgarian. It is a type of Slavic language. It is related to languages like Serbian and Russian. Bulgaria borders Romania, Serbia, North Macedonia, Greece, Turkey, and the Black Sea. One of the national heroes of Bulgaria is Vasil Levski who led the fight for independence in the late 1800s.


title: Bulgaria

text: In what is now Bulgaria, many different people and different cultures lived over time. This includes Neolithic, Hamangia culture, Vinča culture, eneolithic, Varna culture (5th millennium BC) and the Bronze Age Ezero culture.


title: Bulgaria

text: The Thracians lived in the area of modern Bulgaria (in Thrace or ). King Tere united the people in Odrysian Kingdom around 500 BC.


title: Bulgaria

text: The last Hellenistic Thracian kingdom became part of the Roman Empire in the 1st century AD. The lands of Bulgaria were then part of the Roman Empire.


title: Bulgaria

text: Eurasian Avars, South Slavs and Huns settled all over the territory of modern Bulgaria during the 6th century.


title: Bulgaria

text: The Bulgars arrived in Thracia in the 7th century. The Bulgars established the First Bulgarian Empire in 681 AD, after a war with the Romans in which the Bulgarians had success. In 1018, the Romans overcame the Bulgarians in war, the Bulgarian state ended, and Bulgaria became part of the Roman Empire again.


title: Bulgaria

text: The Second Bulgarian Empire started in a rebellion about 1185 AD. The state had Tarnovo as the capital.


title: Bulgaria

text: The Ottoman Empire took over in 1396 and ruled Bulgaria for about 500 years. The Ottomans had very strict rules and the Bulgarians suffered. The Bulgarians rebelled several times against the Turkish rulers.


title: Bulgaria

text: Under the Ottoman Rule Turks and Muslim Gypsys was settled elswhere in Bulgaria, also some of the Rhodope Mountains Bulgarians became Muslim and called Pomak. After the loss of the Crimean Khanate in 1783 Muslim Crimean Tatars and Muslim Crimean Gypsys who called themself Turkoman went to Ottoman Bulgaria in Dobruja part.


title: Bulgaria

text: In 1876, there was the April Uprising, a Bulgarian rebellion against the Ottoman Empire. In the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), the Russian Empire overcame the Ottomans. In 1878, Bulgaria became, in part, independent, although the Ottomans controlled its foreign policy.


title: Bulgaria

text: Bulgaria pulled away from Ottoman Empire's influence with the help of the Russian Empire who were already fighting the Ottomans. But it was not until 1908 that the whole country of Bulgaria was united as modern Bulgaria.


title: Bulgaria

text: Bulgaria joined the side of Germany in World War I and lost. Bulgaria had hoped to get part of the lands Bulgaria lost in the Balkan Wars.


title: Bulgaria

text: During the first year of World War II Bulgaria said it was neutral and refused to join sides with Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union. Bulgaria's military and economy were had a close connection with Germany. Bulgaria's leaders signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany in March 1941. This let German forces go through Bulgaria to reach Greece.


title: Bulgaria

text: Bulgaria's troops invaded Greece and Yugoslavia just after the governments of those countries surrendered. Bulgaria occupied the lands of modern North Macedonia and parts of Greece. (Both areas had been part of Bulgaria before the Balkan Wars.) The Bulgarian government also sent Jews to concentration camps and ghettoes in the Holocaust. The king of Bulgaria, Tsar Boris III, died after talking to Hitler in August 1943. Before the Tsar died, the Kingdom of Bulgaria had sent at least 11,343 Jews to the extermination camps.


title: Bulgaria

text: In 1944 when it became clear that the Allied Powers would win the war, Bulgaria had to find another solution. Their leaders declared that they withdrew from the Axis forces and helped the German army leave the Balkans through Bulgaria. The Soviet Union didn't respect Bulgaria's claim to be neutral. The Red Army invaded Bulgaria in September 1944. At the same time, a new pro-Soviet government took power in Sofia. At this point, the Jews were released from the ghettoes and concentration camps in Bulgaria. The new government joined the Allies, and the military started to attack the German army, which the Bulgarian government had helped to leave Bulgarian lands.


title: Bulgaria

text: The Soviets replaced the royal monarchy with Communism in 1947 before they withdrew from Bulgaria in 1949. For 40 years, under their leader Todor Zhivkov, Bulgaria was very close to the Soviet Union and followed their instructions. Bulgaria invaded Czechoslovakia to stop the Prague Spring in 1968.


title: Bulgaria

text: Shortly after the fall of the Berlin Wall, on 10 November 1989, the Bulgarian Communist Party gave up their rule and allowed the country to elect leaders of their own choice. But in a few years, Bulgaria had serious money problems under the new socialist government. Since that time Bulgaria has recovered in many ways and is much more stable. It is still one of the poorest countries in Europe. Problems in the administration, a weak court system, and organized crime are the biggest issues for Bulgaria.


title: Bulgaria

text: Bulgaria's economy was dependent on the COMECON market. This was a group of communist countries (Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Romania) that agreed to work together. This group fell apart in 1989 with the fall of communism in Europe. While this was good for personal freedom, it was too much of a change for the businesses and jobs. Also, Yugoslavia, their neighbor, fell into a civil war as their country broke apart, and that did not help Bulgaria. Living standards fell by 40 percent as people lost their jobs and their savings were not worth much, and even some newborn babies were sent to orphanages when their parents could not take care of them.


title: Bulgaria

text: In 1994 Bulgaria had a short economic boom. But that slowed down in 1996 from bad finance deals and other banking problems. In 1997 there was high inflation (the money could not buy as much as it did before). Retired people had little income (their pension did not go up as fast as inflation did) and their savings were not worth very much. Many retired people were begging in the streets for food. But since then the economy has grown steadily. People from outside the country started putting money into businesses and houses, and Bulgarians learned how to make their own businesses.


title: Bulgaria

text: Today Bulgaria has Europe's lowest income and corporate tax, 10 percent for both individuals and businesses. This makes Bulgaria a very good place for business. Bulgaria also has skilled and educated workers. The average monthly salary in Bulgaria is still cheap at 400 euro or $541 USD.


title: Bulgaria

text: The state no longer has free health care. This system has been replaced by an insurance plan that people pay for, and drug costs are based on income. Private health care is encouraged nowadays. Help for people who lose their jobs is no longer automatic, but some help is available, based on family status and length of unemployment.


title: Bulgaria

text: The retirement age for men is 64 years and for women 61 years. It will be 63 years and 9 months for woman and 65 years and 3 months for man in 2032.


title: Bulgaria

text: Since 1999, Bulgaria has been divided into 28 provinces or regions. Each province is named after its local capital. The provinces are divided into municipalities, there are 264 in total.


title: Bulgaria

text: There are 6 Bulgarian development regions of 27 smaller provinces. See List of settlements in Bulgaria for a list of all large locations.


title: Bulgaria

text: In Bulgaria there are 5,664,624 citizens of Christian Bulgarians and Muslim Pomaks, 1,200,000 citizens of Muslim Turks and Crimean Tatarians and 800,000 Citizens of Christian and Muslim Roma/Gypsies.


title: Digestive system

text: The digestive system is the parts of the body that digest food. It is also called the gastrointestinal system. It breaks down food into simple chemicals which can be absorbed into the blood stream. From the blood stream, nutrients go to the liver, which is a kind of chemical factory for the body. The liver adjusts the nutrients so that the mix is what the body needs.


title: Digestive system

text: In the stomach, gastric acid is introduced. This is basically dilute hydrochloric acid. It is very reactive and has a pH level of 1.5 to 3.5. The stomach has a layer of mucus to protect itself from the acid.


title: Digestive system

text: The digestive system also gets rid of waste material. The gastrointestinal system starts at the lips and ends at the anus. Animals like worms, insects, mammals, birds, fish, and people all have digestive systems.


title: Digestive system

text: The digestive system is not just the gut, but also other organs which help us digest food. For example, digestive enzymes are needed to break down carbohydrates and meat into substances which an be absorbed.


title: Digestive system

text: Food does not go through these organs. But they help the gut digest the food. They also have other work. For example, the pancreas, thyroid, liver, and parathyroids are also endocrine glands that make hormones like insulin.


title: Digestive system

text: There are many diseases that affect the gastrointestinal system. Doctors who study the gastrointestinal tract are called gastroenterologists.


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: The Id, ego, and super-ego are ideas created by Sigmund Freud. They are three concepts used to explain the way the human mind works.


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: Freud describes the human mind as interaction of id, ego, super-ego. The ego, and to some extent the super-ego, is conscious or on the surface. The id remains unconscious. Together they make up the personality.


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: According to this model of the psyche, the id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trends; the ego is the organized realistic part; and the super-ego plays the critical and moralising role.


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: The id, ego and super-ego are functions of the mind, "not" parts of the brain. They do not correspond one-to-one with actual structures of the kind dealt with by neuroscience.


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: The id represents a constant in the personality as it is always present. The id is governed by the 'pleasure principle'.


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: Early in the development of his theory Freud saw sexual energy as the only source of energy for the id. After the tragedy of World War I, however, Freud felt it necessary to add another instinct to the id. So, he proposed thanatos, the death instinct. Thanatos accounts for the instinctual violent urges of humankind. Obviously, the rest of the personality would have somehow to deal with these two instincts. By adding thanatos, he could describe more mental phenomena. His idea of id had wide influence.


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: The ego is the sense of self and the surface of the personality, the part you usually show the world. The ego is governed by the 'reality principle', or a practical approach to the world. It seeks to turn the id’s drive to behaviour which brings benefits in the long term rather than grief.


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: The ego separates out what is real. It helps us to organise our thoughts and make sense of them and the world around us.


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: But the ego "serves three severe masters...the external world, the super-ego and the id". Its task is to find a balance between primitive drives and reality while satisfying the id and super-ego. "Thus the ego, driven by the id, confined by the super-ego, repulsed by reality, struggles...[in] bringing about harmony among the forces and influences working in and upon it, and readily 'breaks out in anxiety".


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: The Super-ego aims for perfection and the ideal outcome. It comprises that part of the personality, mainly unconscious, which includes the individual's ego ideals, spiritual goals, and the psychic agency (commonly called "conscience") that criticises and prohibits his or her drives, fantasies, feelings, and actions.


title: Id, ego, and super-ego

text: The superego consists of two parts, the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience is the familiar metaphor of angel and devil on each shoulder. The conscience decides what course of action one should take. The ego-ideal is an idealized view of one's self. Comparisons are made between the ego-ideal and one's actual behavior. Both parts of the super-ego develop through experience with others or via social interactions. According to Freud, a strong super-ego serves to inhibit the biological instincts of the id, while a weak super-ego gives in to the id's urgings. Further, the levels of guilt in the two cases above will be high and low, respectively.


title: Northern Hemisphere

text: The Northern Hemisphere is the part of the planet that is north of the equator. It has about 90 percent of the world's population and most of the world's land. All of North America and Europe are in the Northern Hemisphere. Most of Asia, two-thirds of Africa and 10 percent of South America are also in this hemisphere. The three largest countries by population; China, India, and the United States, are in the Northern Hemisphere.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Ancient Greek civilization, also commonly called Ancient Greece, was a large place in the northeast of the Mediterranean Sea, where people spoke the Greek language. It was much larger than the country of Greece we know today. The civilization of the Greeks thrived from the archaic period of the 8th/6th centuries BC to 146 BC. The period ended with the Roman conquest of Greece in the Battle of Corinth.


title: Ancient Greece

text: For most of this time, the Greeks did not have one government or ruler. They did, however, have a common language and culture. The Greek language is an Indo-European language.


title: Ancient Greece

text: There were many city states, each with its own constitution. Athens, Sparta and Corinth were powerful city-states. Some had kings, and some, like Athens, had a form of democracy. As time went on, the most-powerful cities collected other cities into groups known as "leagues". This applied to many of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, most of which had close ties to one or another of the three colossal cities.


title: Ancient Greece

text: In the middle of this period, there was Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Athenian leadership successfully repelled the threat of Persian invasion in the Greco-Persian Wars. The Athenian golden age ended with the defeat of Athens at the hands of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War in 345 BC.


title: Ancient Greece

text: In the last, Hellenistic, period, Greece was unified by the conquests of Alexander the Great. The city-states continued, under the overall influence of Macedonia.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Greek culture had some influence on the Roman Empire, the premier power of the Ancient World. In this way, classical Greece was part of the foundation of Western civilization. Greek was also the language of the Byzantine Empire.


title: Ancient Greece

text: In the 8th century B.C., the Greeks learned how to read and write a second time. They had lost literacy at the end of the Mycenaean culture, as the Mediterranean world fell into the Dark Ages. The Greek Dark Ages (~1100 BC–750 BC), or Bronze Age collapse, is a period in the history of Ancient Greece and Anatolia from which there are no written records, and few archaeological remains.


title: Ancient Greece

text: The Greeks learned about the alphabet from another ancient people, the Phoenicians. They made some adjustments to it. In particular, the Greeks introduced regular letters for vowels, which was necessary for their language. Their alphabet was, in turn, copied by the Romans, and much of the world now uses the Roman alphabet.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Ancient Greece had one language and culture but was not unified until 337 BC, when Macedonia defeated Athens and Thebes. That marked the end of the Classic period and the start of the Hellenistic period. Even then, the conquered cities were merely joined to Philip II of Macedon's Corinthian League; they were not occupied and ruled themselves.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Ancient Greece consisted of several hundred more-or-less independent city states. This was different from other societies, which were tribal, or kingdoms ruling over relatively large territories.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Undoubtedly the geography of Greece—divided and sub-divided by hills, mountains and rivers—contributed to the nature of ancient Greece. On the one hand, the ancient Greeks had no doubt that they were 'one people'; they had the same religion, same basic culture, and same language. Yet each city-state or "polis" was independent; unification was something rarely discussed by the ancient Greeks. Even when, during the second Persian invasion of Greece, a group of city-states allied themselves to defend Greece, most "poleis" remained neutral, and after the Persian defeat, the allies quickly returned to infighting.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Later, in the Classical period, the leagues were fewer and larger, and dominated by one city (particularly Athens, Sparta and Thebes). Often cities would be compelled to join under threat of war (or as part of a peace treaty). After Philip II of Macedon 'conquered' the heartlands of ancient Greece, he did not attempt to annex the territory or unify it into a new province. However, he did force most of the cities to join his own Corinthian League.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Some cities were democratic, some were aristocratic, and some were monarchies. Some had many revolutions in which one kind of government replaced another. One famous Greek kingdom is Macedon, which became briefly the largest empire the world had seen at the time by conquering the Persian empire (including ancient Egypt) and reaching into modern-day India. Other famous kingdoms are Epirus and Thessaly.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Monarchies in ancient Greece were not absolute because there was usually a council of older citizens ("the senate", or in Macedonia "the congress") who gave advice to the King. These men were not elected or chosen in a lottery like they were in the democratic city-states.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Citizens that could participate in government in Ancient Greece were usually men who were free-born in that city. Women, slaves and (usually) residents born elsewhere, did not have the right to vote. Details differed between cities. Athens is an example: The residents of Athens were of three groups: citizens, metics (resident aliens) and slaves. Citizens were residents whose forebears had been Athenians for three generations. Male citizens had the rights of free men and could be chosen to fulfill any official state position. "Of the estimated 150,000 residents of the city-state of Attica, only about one fifth held the privilege of citizenship". Women who were citizens in Athens could not participate in political offices, but in Sparta they could.


title: Ancient Greece

text: The number of Greeks grew and soon they could not grow enough food for all the people. When this happened, a city would send people off to start a new city, known as a colony.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Because the terrain was rough, most travel was by sea. For this reason, many new cities were established along the coastline. First new cities were started in Anatolia (Asia Minor) and later along the Black Sea, in Cyprus, in southern Italy, in Sicily, and around what today is Benghazi in Libya. They even started a city, Naucratis, on the river Nile in Egypt. The cities of today, Syracuse, Naples, Marseille and Istanbul started as the Greek cities Syracusa, Neapolis, Massilia and Byzantium.


title: Ancient Greece

text: By the 6th century BC some cities became much more important than the others. They were Corinth, Thebes, Sparta, and Athens.


title: Ancient Greece

text: The Spartans were very well-disciplined soldiers. They defeated the people who lived near them and those people had to farm the land for the Spartans. These "helots" had to give the Spartans part of the food they grew and so the Spartans did not have to work. Instead, they learned how to be better soldiers. There were not many Spartans but there were many helots. Spartan military strength controlled the helots. The Spartans had two hereditary kings who led them in war. At home they were also ruled by a group of old men called the Gerousia (the Senate).


title: Ancient Greece

text: Athens became a democracy in 510 BC. The men came to a place in the center of the city and decided what to do. It was the first place in the world where the people decided what their country should do. They would talk and then vote on what to do at the Boule (the parliament). But the women did not vote. Athens had slaves. These slaves were owned by their masters and could be sold to someone else. The Athenian slaves were less free than the Spartan helots. Every year, Athenian citizens elected eight generals who led them in war.


title: Ancient Greece

text: In 499 BC, the Greek cities in Anatolia rebelled. They did not want Persia to rule them anymore. Athens sent 20 ships to fight the Persians on the sea. The Greeks in Anatolia were defeated. The Persian King, Darius decided to punish Athens. He sent soldiers and ships to fight Athens.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Athens asked for help from Sparta. Sparta wanted to help but could not; they had a religious festival at that time. Athens sent her soldiers against the Persian soldiers: at the Battle of Marathon (490 BC) they defeated the Persians. Then the help from Sparta came.


title: Ancient Greece

text: At the Battle of Thermopylae The Spartans were led by Leonidas, and resisted the huge Persian army. After a couple of days, a traitor called Ephialtes led the Persians around the pass behind the Greek army. Realizing that defeat was inevitable, Leonidas released many of his men. Those who stayed knew it would be a fight to the death. Leonides kept elite "hoplites" (foot soldiers) who had living sons at home. There were also allied Thespians and Thebans who volunteered to stay.


title: Ancient Greece

text: On the third day, Leonidas led his 300 Spartan hoplites and their allies against Xerxes and his mighty army. The Spartan-led forces fought this Persian force to their deaths in order to block the pass long enough to keep Xerxes and his army occupied while the rest of the Greek army escaped.


title: Ancient Greece

text: After Thermopylae, many Greeks wanted to go south to the Peloponnese. Because the Isthmus of Corinth, the way into the Peloponnese, is very narrow, many wanted to fight the Persians there.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Athens was north of Corinth and she had a navy. Athens' leader Themistocles wanted to fight the Persians by the island of Salamis. Xerxes decided to send his fleet against the Greek fleet before the Greek ships could go to the Peloponnese. The Greek fleet defeated the Persians at the Battle of Salamis. Xerxes then went home with many of his soldiers but a Persian army stayed in Greece. This army was defeated at the Battle of Platea in 479 BC.


title: Ancient Greece

text: After the Persians were defeated at Platea, the Spartans did very little. However, Persia was still dangerous. Athens asked the Greek cities on the islands in the Aegean and in Anatolia to join her. The cities agreed because they were afraid of Persia. These cities formed the Delian League and Athens was their leader. Many of the cities of the Delian League had to pay Athens tribute money. Athens used the money to build many ships and the Parthenon. Sparta was still strong on land, but Athens was stronger on the sea. Several times there was war between Athens and Sparta. Then Athens decided to send many ships to Sicily to fight against the city Syracuse. Sparta sent help to Syracuse, and Athens was defeated. None of the Athenian ships came back.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Now Sparta wanted to build ships to fight Athens. It took a long time for Sparta to defeat Athens, but then at the Battle of Aegospotami, the Spartans destroyed most of Athens's ships. The Athenians used an advanced type of ship called triremes. These ships had their combat systems and were propelled by oarsmen. On the front of the Trireme was a large bronze battering ram. The oarsmen would row the trireme at an enemy boat, and ram a hole into its hull. This was the most effective way for the trireme to destroy other boats. The soldiers (hoplites) on the trireme would board the enemy ship and capture it. Nevertheless, the Athenian fleet of triremes was destroyed in a battle in 405 BC. Athens surrendered the following year and the war was over. Athens never recovered its previous domination.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Men, when not working, fighting or discussing politics, could (at festive times) go to Ancient Greek theatre to watch dramas, comedies or tragedies. These often involved politics and the gods of Greek mythology. Women were not allowed to perform in the theatre; male actors played female roles.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Women did domestic work, such as spinning, weaving, cleaning, and cooking. They were not involved in public life or politics. Women from rich families however, had slaves to carry out domestic work for them.


title: Ancient Greece

text: The ecumene (US) or oecumene (UK) is an ancient Greek term for the known world. In Greek antiquity, it was the parts of the world known to Greek geographers. That was basically the Mediterranean world. Europe, Asia and Africa (basically just North of the Atlas mountains and Egypt). The Greeks were well aware of the Persian Empire, and Alexander's army got as far as parts of Pakistan.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Under the Roman Empire, it came to mean civilization itself, which by then was wider than the Greeks supposed.


title: Ancient Greece

text: The famous Olympic games were held at Olympia every four years. They were for men only, and women were not allowed to attend, even as spectators. The sports included running, javelin throwing, discus throwing and wrestling. The Games were unusual because the athletes could come from any Greek city.


title: Ancient Greece

text: Another competition, the Heraean Games, was held for women. It was also held at Olympus at a different time from the men's event.


title: Ancient Greece

text: The rules for girls in Sparta were different from other cities. They were trained in the same events as boys because Spartans believed that strong women would produce strong babies who would become future warriors. Their girl athletes were unmarried and competed nude or wearing short dresses. Boys were allowed to watch the athletes, in the hopes of creating marriages and offspring.


title: Descendants of Charles II of England

text: The descendants of Charles II of England, Stuart monarch of the Kingdom of England, Kingdom of Scotland and Kingdom of Ireland, are numerous; lines of his many illegitimate children exist to this day. Though Charles's wife Catherine of Braganza was barren, he stayed with her but had numerous mistresses. Some of Charles's illegitimate children were born before his marriage. This article deals with the most senior figures who were descended from Charles' illegitimate male children; the names of his daughters are also mentioned.


title: Descendants of Charles II of England

text: Although some of Charles' children made claims to the throne, most notably his first son James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, their illegitimacy meant that after Charles' death, his brother James, Duke of York became king instead. Over the years several of Charles' senior descendants have made names for themselves, including Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton who became Prime Minister of Great Britain, cricket pioneer Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond, parliamentary reformer Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond.


title: Descendants of Charles II of England

text: Diana, Princess of Wales was descended from two of Charles' illegitimate sons; Henry Fitzroy, 1st Duke of Grafton and Charles Lennox, 1st Duke of Richmond. This means should her son Prince William, Duke of Cambridge take to the British throne as he is expected to, William would become the first blood descendant of Charles II to do so. Though William is part of the royal House of Windsor, rather than the House of Stuart.


title: Descendants of Charles II of England

text: Catherine Pegge and Charles II also had a daughter together called Catherine FitzCharles but she died young or became a nun.


title: Descendants of Charles II of England

text: Barbara Palmer, 1st Duchess of Cleveland was perhaps the most notorious of Charles' mistresses. Some of the children claimed by Palmer as belonging to Charles are in doubt. Anne Lennard, Countess of Sussex was claimed to be Charles' and he recognised her, though some sources regard Roger Palmer as her father. Palmer claimed Lady Barbara FitzRoy was Charles' daughter, however he never recognised her and most sources consider John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough her likely father. Palmer and Charles had a daughter together Charlotte Lee, Countess of Lichfield and three sons who were recognised by Charles, their lines are featured below.


title: Descendants of Charles II of England

text: The two had one daughter; Lady Mary Tudor. Mary went on to marry Edward Radclyffe, 2nd Earl of Derwentwater; after Edward's death, she married Henry Graham, and upon his death she married James Rooke.


title: Middle Ages

text: The Middle Ages were a period of about a thousand years in European history. They started around the year 476 , when the Western Roman Empire ended, and continued until around the time Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World in 1492. This period of time is called the 'Middle Ages' because it took place between the fall of Imperial Rome and the beginning of early modern Europe. It is often separated into the Early Middle Ages, the High Middle Ages, and the Late Middle Ages.


title: Middle Ages

text: Sometimes people use other names, like “the Medieval Age,” to describe the Middle Ages. Another name for the Middle Ages is “the Age of Faith,” because Christianity and Islam were becoming much more popular. The early Middle Ages has also been called “the Dark Ages” because past scholars wrongly believed that there was very little culture, good literature, or art, or progress during this period.


title: Middle Ages

text: Very few people in the Middle Ages could read, so there are not many records from this period. Because of this, historians do not know as much about the Middle Ages as about earlier times.


title: Middle Ages

text: During the Middle Ages, many people’s lives were short, difficult, and poor. The fall of the Roman Empire, and the invasions of barbarian tribes, devastated Europe. The Romans had made a lot of progress in science, technology, engineering, medicine, and literature. During the Middle Ages, a lot of this new knowledge was lost. There were mass migrations, wars, and plagues. For around 300 years, there was continuous violence. After that, the development of feudalism decreased some of the violence.


title: Middle Ages

text: In 800 ce, Charlemagne became Emperor of the Romans. He promoted order, education, and civilization. Slowly, Europe began to regain what it had lost. Still, the Late Middle Ages were a difficult time. Wars and the Bubonic Plague killed millions of people in Europe and Asia.


title: Middle Ages

text: Europe changed during the Middle Ages. Independent, unified nation states formed across the old Western Roman Empire. These new nations included England, Scotland, Hungary, Spain, Portugal, Poland, Lithuania, Denmark, Norway, and France (which evolved from the realm of the Franks).


title: Middle Ages

text: In 330 AD, the Roman Emperor Constantine created the Byzantine Empire (also called the Eastern Roman Empire). He made the capital city Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire controlled Asia Minor and Northern Africa, and sometimes southern Spain and southern Italy. However, its lands were slowly eaten away by enemies like the Turks and the Franks.


title: Middle Ages

text: The Byzantine Empire survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire and lasted until 1453. Constantinople was a walled city on a peninsula. This made it difficult for invaders to take over. Finally, in 1453, the Ottoman Empire captured Constantinople. They gave the city its present-day name: Istanbul. This was the end of the Byzantine Empire.


title: Middle Ages

text: The Islamic prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the early 7th century. Soon after his death in 632 CE, Islam split into two branches. These were the Sunni Muslims and the Shi'a. Most Muslims (about 85%) are Sunni. Shi'a Muslims live mostly in modern-day Iran and Iraq. The Sunni-Shi'a split has been compared to the Protestant Reformation within the Christian Church much later, in 1517.


title: Middle Ages

text: After the Prophet Muhammad’s death, Arab Muslims began to take over many Christian territories and convert them to Islam. Over time, they took control of modern-day Iraq, Syria, Egypt, North Africa and Spain. (France and other European countries stayed under Christian rule.) Eventually, the Muslim Ottoman Empire conquered parts of eastern Europe too. Many Muslim states held of vast areas of land, making them superpowers of the Middle Ages. Islam spread along the major trade routes of the old world. Many traders and travelers became Muslim.


title: Middle Ages

text: The Middle Ages were a golden age of knowledge in Muslim territories. While Europe was struggling greatly, the Islamic world was making great progress in the arts, agriculture, economics, industry, law, literature, navigation, philosophy, sciences, and technology. Many Muslim caliphs and Sultans gathered the ancient texts of great classical empires. (For example, the Caliphs of Andalusian Cordoba gathered ancient Roman texts, and the Anatolian Seljuk Sultans gathered ancient Greek texts.). During this Islamic Golden Age, a Persian Muslim helped to develop algebra.


title: Middle Ages

text: During the Middle Ages, trade between countries became much more common. Most trade ran along the Silk Road, a trade route that connected Europe to the Middle East and East Asia. Arab traders brought things back and forth between Europe and East Asia along the Silk Road.


title: Middle Ages

text: Items that were light, easy to carry, and valuable traveled the furthest distances. During the high Middle Ages, wealth began to return and consumers began to demand luxuries again. Traders brought silk, porcelain, spices, incense, gold and gems thousands of miles across deserts, mountains and plains to reach Europe. They also brought glass from Europe to Asia.


title: Middle Ages

text: Not all items traveled along the entire Silk Road. Traders carrying heavier, less valuable items would travel shorter distances. Food, for example, would mostly travel only within a few villages.


title: Middle Ages

text: Trade was greatly interrupted several times during the Crusades (1095-1291) due to Mongolian invasions, wars between Muslims and Christians, and (later) the Black Plague. Histories think the Mongols brought the plague with them from Asia. This disease devastated the world population from 1347 to 1351. It killed almost a third of the world's population (although the Americas were not affected).


title: Middle Ages

text: Buddhism is a non-theistic religion (meaning its followers do not believe in a god). It is based on philosophy. It began in India. However, Muslim invaders drove Buddhism out of India. This forced Buddhism to flee east. There are very few Buddhists in India today, but Buddhism eventually took up strong roots in China.


title: Middle Ages

text: During the Middle Ages, the Mongols created the world's largest contiguous empire. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, the Mongols took over territories in much of Asia, the Middle East, and far eastern Europe. Because the Mongol Empire was so large and powerful, there was little war within the empire. This period is now called the "Pax Mongolica (pax" is Latin for “peace”). Like the earlier Roman "Pax Romana", the Pax Mongolica was a time of relative peace and stability. This made it possible for trade, technologies, and ideas to travel safely throughout Eurasia. International trade and diplomacy along the Silk Road expanded greatly.


title: Middle Ages

text: Around the time of his death in 1227, Genghis Khan’s empire had gotten too big to survive. It collapsed under its own size (like Alexander the Great's did in Ancient Greece). The former Mongol Empire was split four ways. This allowed the Chinese to become the dominant power in the Far East once again. Later, under the Yuan Dynasty, the Chinese also retook control of northern China.