title: Flute

text: The flute is a woodwind instrument, but modern flutes are made of metal. It was made of wood a long time ago. It doesn't need lip vibration like brass instruments. Flute players hold it horizontally and make a sound by blowing their breath over the edge of the hole of flute's head. This makes the air vibrate. Flutes need the second most amount of air for an instrument, next to the tuba. Flautists can change the pitch by pushing buttons or changing the direction of the breath. These buttons are called keys. The breath also can change the tone or the volume. Flute has many variations of the sound. The sound of flute is high, so composers often express it as a bird. A flute matches with many instruments such as violin and piano, and is often part of an ensemble.


title: Flute

text: There are many kinds of flute, so the material also varies. Most flutes are made out of silver. Gold, platinum, wood, and aluminum are also used. The price of flute depends on the material, but there are many different playing situations, so not only expensive flutes are useful.


title: Flute

text: In China, a simple flute is used, which has no keys. The Chinese flute sometimes has a thin piece of paper over one hole, which adds a bright raspiness to the sound.


title: Flute

text: There are other kinds of flute, that are played by blowing into the end, like a recorder. Some of these are tin whistle, flageolet, tabor pipe, and ocarina.


title: Flute

text: In Japan there is a kind of flute called a "shakuhachi", which is made from the bottom of a bamboo plant. It is blown at the end, but is not like the recorder because it does not have an opening that guides the air across a hole that makes the sound.


title: Flute

text: In South America, there is a flute called a "quena" that makes its sound the same way as the "shakuhachi".


title: Flute

text: The Pan pipes are a form of flute with no holes. It has more than one pipe connected together, with the bottom closed. The player blows across the top of one of the pipes to make a note. The pipes are in different sizes, so that each one makes a different note. They are named after Pan, who played this instrument in Greek myth.


title: Flute

text: There are flutes in many cultures. The flute has been described as "a musical weed which springs up everywhere".


title: Flute

text: The band Jethro Tull was founded by a flute player (Ian Anderson). It can be heard in many songs. One of them is the hit "Locomotive Breath".


title: Country

text: A country is a territory with distinct political boundaries and borders that claims sovereignty over a specific geographic area with a permanent population, controlled by its own government that enters relations with other states, or a piece of land that's under the control of its own government.


title: Country

text: There is no universally accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there actually are, however the minimum answer is 193 for the 193 United Nations members.


title: Country

text: Taiwan is also sometimes classified as a country. However, there is an ongoing disputes over Taiwan's sovereignty with the People's Republic of China.


title: Country

text: This can be developed on even further by adding the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, The Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Denmark which could add anywhere from three to eleven countries to the prior number.


title: Country

text: There are a number of disputed areas that have declared independence from their parent state and receive limited recognition. For example, Kosovo, Transnistria, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Northern Cyprus, Artsakh and Somaliland. These are just some of the many examples of territories with limited to no recognition that are sometimes classed as countries.


title: Country

text: There is a lot of controversy surrounding the above examples and quite often any one of these territories may be counted as countries purely based on opinion. If all of the above were added the list of U.N members there could be anything up to 211 countries based on the previous examples given.


title: Country

text: There are however many more territories with unique political circumstances that could also be counted.


title: Country

text: Depending on how loosely the dictionary definition for the word country is used there could be anything from 193 countries in the world or more. The matter is purely subjective depending on varying opinions and there has never been any consideration as to what the maximum number of countries in the world could be.


title: Country

text: There are multiple organisations that have their own lists of countries, one example being the Travellers Century Club which recognises 330 countries as of January 2022.


title: Country

text: Constituent country is a term sometimes used, usually by official institutions, in contexts in which a number of countries compose a long entity or grouping. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has used the term referring to the former Yugoslavia, and the European institutions like the Council of Europe often use it in reference to the European Union.


title: Country

text: A disputed territory is that territory whose sovereignty is jealously desired by two or more countries. Usually the administration of the territory is carried out by one of the countries that claims sovereignty, while the other country does not recognize the sovereignty over the territory of the other country. This does not usually happen in land or sea areas on which none possesses effective control, such as Antarctica, or only partially. It can also be considered as a disputed territory to those areas that are given by two different governments, and therefore are divided.


title: Christ the Redeemer (statue)

text: Christ the Redeemer (), is a statue of Jesus Christ in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It was built between 1922 and 1931 and stands tall. It sits on a pedestal on the peak of the


title: Christ the Redeemer (statue)

text: The first electric railway in Brazil was built in the late 1800s. At that time people would go to the top of the Corcovado Mountain to enjoy the panoramic view of the city below. Construction started in 1926 and took five years. During that time workers balanced themselves on scaffolds with no safety equipment. It was risky work but during the entire construction period, no workers were killed. Many regarded that as a miracle. The statue was finished in 1931. It was built to celebrate the 100 year anniversary of Brazil's independence from Portugal. The statue was built in France by the sculptor Paul Landowski. He never came to Rio to see the sculpture in place.


title: Christ the Redeemer (statue)

text: The statue underwent a $4 million renovation in 2010. Since then it has been damaged by lightning at least two times. Repairs in 2014 added more lightning rods to prevent future damage from lightning.


title: Statue of Unity

text: The Statue of Unity is a tribute to the Indian leader Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, unveiled on 31 October 2018. This statue is a patriotic symbol of the legacy of a man who spent his life in the struggle for freedom. As a mark of respect the government built the statue of sardar vallabhbhai naming it a statue of unity.this statue is located at his birthplace in Gujarat. The statue is designed by Ram V. Sutar. The total amount for the project is US $430 million. The statue stands 182 metres high, making it one of the tallest monuments in the world, second to the St. Louis Arch.


title: Statue of Unity

text: The Statue of Unity is at Sadhu Bet Island. A 12 km square lake will create the atmosphere of equality and diversity. A special trust called as “Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Rashtriya Ekta Trust” has been created for to manage the place. The statue is made with steel frame and reinforced concrete. For durability, the statue has been given bronze plating. The statue has a 153 m high viewing deck able to hold 200 visitors. It has a panoramic view of the Sardar Sarovar Dam.


title: Statue of Unity

text: It has been designed to withstand winds of velocity of 60 metres/second, and is also claimed to be earthquake resistant. A total of 22,500 tons of cement forms the core structure of this monument. The iron used in the construction was collected from old farm equipment throughout India. A team of 700 Indian workers worked on the cementing and casting.


title: Academic degree

text: An academic degree is a certification students get when they graduate from a university. It shows they successfully completed their classes, and passed a final examination.


title: Academic degree

text: It is an official credential. The length of courses, and the number of courses vary depending on which college is attended. In the U.S.A. high schools give out diplomas to graduating students. These are not degrees.


title: Academic degree

text: Some countries reward a licentiate degree which gives the degree holder the permission (licence) to teach and practice in the area concerned. Its level varies according to the country, mostly at bachelor's level or above.


title: Academic degree

text: In medicine, membership of specialist societies are also degrees, and Fellowships are higher degrees. Examples: MRCP = Member of the Royal College of Physicians. These degrees require postgraduate training and practical experience.


title: Academic degree

text: The college courses needed for a master's degree, or for a doctorate, are often highly advanced, difficult subjects, and they would be extremely difficult to understand unless a person had already attended the undergraduate courses. The reason the upper-level courses are so difficult, so hard to understand, is that they assume the person already knows, perhaps, 1,000 technical terms learned in earlier college courses. This is similar to having to know the Latin names of all 206 bones in the human body, as just part of those technical terms.


title: Academic degree

text: In many countries these degrees are shown by letters which the person is allowed to put after their name, e.g. John Smith, BA. A bachelor's degree is usually the degree received at the end of a first degree. While the student is studying for a degree he or she is an "undergraduate". When he graduates he is a "graduate". He may continue with his studies and receive a master's degree or do some original work and write a thesis to get a doctor's degree (which does not mean a Doctor of Medicine).


title: Academic degree

text: An "undergraduate" degree is for all students who do not have a Bachelor's Degree. It requires four years of study including General Education, Electives, and Major courses that prepare students to work in their specialized program. The undergraduate degrees are as follows:


title: Academic degree

text: A "professional degree" is also a graduate degree and requires the person already have a Bachelor's Degree. It is required by law to be licensed to work in a particular profession. It includes:


title: Savitribai Phule

text: Savitribai Phule (3 January 1831 – 10 March 1897) was a social reformer of India. She was a poet from Maharashtra. She is known as the "first female teacher of India". She worked on improving the rights of women in India with her husband. Her husband's name was Jyotirao Phule. They started the first Indian girls school in Pune, at Bhide wada in 1848. She tried to end social class and unfair treatment based on sex in Indian society. She was an important person of the social reform in Maharashtra.


title: Savitribai Phule

text: Savitribai Phule was born on 3 January 1831 in the village of Naigaon in Satara District, Maharashtra. Her birthplace was about from Shirval and about from Pune. Savitribai Phule was the oldest daughter of Lakshmi (her mother) and Khandoji Nevase Patil (her father). They were from the Mali Community. Savitribai and Jotirao did not have any children of their own. It is said that they took Yashawant in their family. Yashawant was the son of a Brahmin woman whose husband had died.


title: Savitribai Phule

text: At the time of marriage, Savitribai was not able to read or write. Jyotirao taught Savitribai at their home.<ref name="O'Hanlon 2002 https://archive.org/details/casteconflictide00ohan/page/n131 118"></ref> She completed her primary education with Jyotirao. She registered herself in two training programs to become a teacher. Later, Savitribai Phule started teaching girls at the Maharwada in Pune. Soon Savitribai and with Sagunabai started their own school at Bhide Wada. Sagunabai was a coach of Jyotirao Phule. Tatya Saheb Bhide was inspired by these works. School course at Bhide Wada included traditional western course of mathematics, science, and social studies. By the end of 1851, Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule were running three different schools for girls in Pune. These three schools had almost one hundred and fifty students registered. Teaching of these three schools was better than government schools. As a result of this, the number of girls in these schools went up to the number of boys in government schools.


title: Savitribai Phule

text: Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule's success came with much oppose. The opposers were the persons who did not like change. The Phules faced strong opposition from powerful castes (Brahmin) because they belonged to the week caste (Mali). Education was not for the Sudra castes for thousands of years. For this reason, Brahmins started to oppose works of Jyotirao and Savitribai. Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule were living at home of father of Jyotirao til 1849. Father of Jyotirao asked them to leave his home In 1849 because their work was a sin as per the Manusmriti and Brahmanical texts.


title: Savitribai Phule

text: They moved in the family of Usman Sheikh. Usman Sheikh was a friend of Jyotirao. In the 1850s, Savitribai and Jyotirao Phule established two educational trusts - The Native Female School, Pune and the Society for Promoting the Education of Mahars, Mangs, and Etceteras. These two trusts had many schools of Savitribai Phule.


title: Savitribai Phule

text: Jyotirao talked about Savitribai and his work in an interview. This interview was given to the Christian missionary periodical, Dnyanodaya, on 15 September 1853. He said


title: Savitribai Phule

text: She taught children from different castes. She opened a total of 18 schools with her husband. They also opened a care centre called Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha (literally, "Child-killing Prohibition Home") for pregnant rape victims. Balhatya Pratibandhak Griha helped deliver and save their children.


title: Savitribai Phule

text: Savitribai and her adopted son, Yashwant, opened a clinic. This clinic was for the victims of an outbreak of the bubonic plague (Third Pandemic). The clinic was in Pune. Savitribai died a heroic death. She tried to save the son of Pandurang Babaji Gaekwad. She came to know that Gaekwad's son had got the plague. Savitribai Phule ran to him. She carried him on her back to the hospital. In the process, she was infected. She died at 9:00pm on 10 March 1897.


title: Tower Bridge

text: Tower Bridge is a drawbridge in London. It crosses the River Thames near the Tower of London. It allows ships through the bridge deck when is raised at an angle in the centre.


title: Tower Bridge

text: The north side of the bridge is Tower Hill, and the south side of the bridge comes down into Bermondsey, an area in Southwark. Tower Bridge is far more visible than London Bridge, which people often mistake it for. Many tourists go to London to see the Tower Bridge. It has its own exhibition centre in the horizontal walkway. This gives one of the best vantage points in London.


title: Tower Bridge

text: The "bascules" are the surfaces raised to allow tall ships to pass through: this happens about 900 times per year. The bridge's decks (bascules) can be raised to 83 from the horizontal.


title: Tower Bridge

text: The City of London Corporation held a competition for the design in 1876. Over 50 designs were entered, and in 1884 Horace Jones and John Wolfe Barry's design was chosen.


title: Tower Bridge

text: In June 2012, the bridge was highlighted on the route of Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee Pageant on the Thames.


title: Tower Bridge

text: The bridge is in length with two towers, each high, built on piers. The central span of between the towers is split into two equal bascules or leaves, which can be raised to an angle of 83 to allow river traffic to pass. The bascules, weighing over 1,100 tons each, are counterbalanced to minimize the force required and allow raising in five minutes. The bascules are raised by huge hydraulic pumps which were first powered by steam engines. In 1976 these were replaced by oil and electricity. The bridge is made from more than 11,000 tons of steel, and covered with Cornish granite and Portland stone.


title: Tower Bridge

text: The two side-spans are suspension bridges, each long, with the suspension rods anchored both at the abutments and through rods contained within the bridge's upper walkways. The pedestrian walkways are above the river at high tide. These walkways allow people to still cross the river, even when the bridge is raised. They were closed in 1910 because not enough people used them, but were reopened in 1982.


title: Lambda

text: Lambda (uppercase/lowercase Λ λ) is a letter of the Greek alphabet. It is used to represent the "l" sound in Ancient and Modern Greek. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 30. Letters that came from it include the Roman L and Cyrillic Л.


title: Lambda

text: In mathematics, the lowercase λ is used as a variable for eigenvalues in linear algebra, and as the parameter of both exponential distribution and Poisson distribution. In physics, the same symbol is used as a variable representing wavelength.


title: God

text: God is a being or spirit worshipped as a deity. He is considered to be the creator of the universe in some religions. Theists believe that God created everything that exists and has ever existed. Some theists think God is immortal (cannot die) and has power without limits. Deism is the belief that God exists, but God does not very often change or never changes things in the universe. Pantheism is the belief that the universe "is" God, while atheism is the belief that there are no deities. Agnostics think we cannot know for sure whether God or gods exist, but still might (or might not) believe at least one deity exists. People who believe that the word ""God"" should be defined before taking a theological position are ignostic.


title: God

text: In some religions, there is only one deity, God. This is called monotheism. Some monotheistic religions are the Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), the Bahá'í Faith, and Sikhism. In other religions there are many gods. This is polytheism. Some polytheistic religions are Hinduism, Shinto, Taoism, paganism, Wicca and some variants of Buddhism. Some say that there is one God who can come in many forms, or that there is one God that is more powerful than the other gods.


title: God

text: In philosophy and theology, people normally write about a God that has a personality but no body and is everywhere at once; that God made the world and time and is separate from the world; that no-one made God; that God knows everything and has all power; that God is both free and good; and that God is perfect and the start of all morality.


title: God

text: There are different names for God in different religions. Some examples are Yahweh, Elohim in Judaism and Christianity, Allah in Islam, Baha in Bahá'í Faith, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.


title: God

text: In English, people write the words "god" and "gods" are in lowercase letters. People that believe in only on god (monotheists) like to write "God" with a capital letter. Some people that believe in more than one god (polytheists) also like to use capital letters when writing about their gods. Most people that believe in God or gods do not believe in the gods of other religions.


title: God

text: Many people have asked themselves if God exists. Philosophers, theologians, and others have tried to prove that it exists. Others have tried to disprove the hypothesis. In philosophical terminology, such arguments are about the epistemology of the ontology of God. The debate exists mainly in philosophy, because science does not address whether or not supernatural things exist.


title: God

text: There are many philosophical issues with the existence of God. Some definitions of God are not specific. Arguments for the existence of God typically include metaphysical, empirical, inductive, and subjective types. Some theories try to explain order and complexity in the world without evolution or scientific method. Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive arguments. Conclusions sometimes include: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost certainly does not exist" ("de facto" atheism); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism); "God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (deism or theism); and "God exists and this can be proven" (theism). There are many variations on these positions, and sometimes different names for some of them. For example, the position "God exists and this can be proven" is sometimes called "gnostic theism" or "strong theism".


title: God

text: By the year 2000, approximately 53% of the world's population were part of one of the three main Abrahamic religions (33% Christian, 20% Islam, less than 1% Judaism), 6% with Buddhism, 13% with Hinduism, 6% with traditional Chinese religion, 7% with various other religions, and less than 15% as non-religious. Most of these religious beliefs involve God or gods. Some religions do not believe in a god or do not include the concept of gods.


title: God

text: Abrahamic religions are very popular monotheistic ones. Well-known Abrahamic religions include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Monotheistic means the people in these religions believe there is only one God. The name of God is usually not allowed to be said in Judaism, but some Jews today call him YHWH (Yahweh) or Jehovah. Muslims say the word Allah, which is the Arabic word for "God".


title: God

text: Believers in the Abrahamic religions (except Islamic believers) believe that God has created human beings in his image, but this idea is not easily understood by humankind. One artistic idea is that of an wise elder man in use since the Renaissance.


title: God

text: The Christian Bible talks about God in different ways. Within Christian canon the Old Testament talks about "God the Father", whilst the Gospels in the New Testament are about Jesus, or "God the Son". Many Christians believe that Jesus was God's incarnation on Earth. Christians consider the Holy Spirit to be God as well, the third person of God.


title: God

text: In the New Testament, there are three beings who are said to be God in different forms: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (also known as the Holy Ghost). This is called the Trinity. Although the word "Trinity" is not in the Bible, the word used for God in chapter one of Genesis is actually plural, and the phrase "in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit' is used in the New Testament, (e.g. Matthew 28:19). Another word that Christians believe has exactly the same meaning as "Trinity" is the word "Godhead", which "is" in the Bible.


title: God

text: Christians believe that God incarnated in a human body, through the normal birth process, normally growing up into a man named Jesus or (Yeshua), coming to Earth specifically to give every person an opportunity of salvation from their own evil, called sin. The effect of personal evil far transcends the repercussions humans cause to one another in the world, but affects one's relationship with God the Father, and that aspect of the self cannot be addressed through one's own self-improvement efforts, but requires God to intervene in order to set one right. When Jesus prayed and talked to God, he called him "Father," and taught others to do the same.


title: God

text: Jesus also taught that one must be born again in order to receive God's Spirit, otherwise one remains separated from God, acting merely from their own mind, thus being vulnerable to deception by human philosophies or the many spiritual philosophies which do not come from God but from fallen angels, which are within various false religions. After a person consciously accepts the free gift of eternal life, which Jesus's sacrifice offers, God comes to live in the individual, as God lived in humankind before the Fall.


title: God

text: In Hinduism, there is only one God, named Brahman, but Brahman is said to have taken on many different incarnations. Some of these are Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Shiva, Kali, Parvati, and Durga. To many outsiders, the worship of God's different incarnations is considered to be the worship of many gods. However, it is really only the worship of one God in different ways.


title: God

text: Some Hindus also believe that the spirit of God lives in everyone. This idea is called Advaita Vedanta, which is the Hindu term for Monism.


title: God

text: Religions like Buddhism and Confucianism involve the worship of many gods, or sometimes no gods at all.


title: God

text: In Shinto, there is not a single specific God, as is in most religions, but instead, a wide variety of deities called "kami", they are the spirit and essence of all nature things, both animate and inanimate, even including rocks, trees and poetry, for example. As Shinto is a polytheistic religion, it is usually believed that there are "eight-million Kami" (八百万の神 yaoyorozu-no-kami), in the Japanese language, the number "eight-million" is normally used to mean infinity.


title: God

text: Philosophers can talk about God or god; sometimes they talk about a specific god, but other times they are just talking about the idea of god.


title: God

text: One of the earliest Western philosophers to write about God in a monotheistic way was the Greek Aristotle, who describes god as the Supreme Cause. Aristotle saw God as a being that makes everything happen, but is not influenced by anything else.


title: God

text: The idea of an "all powerful" God raises some interesting questions. One of them is called the God paradox. It asks whether God can make a mountain (or rock) that is so heavy he cannot lift it. The question considers if a god "who can do anything" could do two things that are mutually contradictory.


title: God

text: There have been several attempts to prove the existence of God with logic. Blaise Pascal said that it is better to believe there is a god, than to believe there isn't. This argument is known as Pascal's wager today. Note that Blaise Pascal was a mathematician, and he used this argument to illustrate the concept of expected value in statistics. Other attempts known as the ontological argument, the cosmological argument, and teleological argument today. Kurt Gödel formulated an argument for the existence of God using modal logic in the 1970s.


title: Deforestation

text: Deforestation is when forests are destroyed by cutting trees (logging) and not replanting them. The most common reason is to clear the land to make farms and ranches. They also cut trees for firewood and lumber and to make room for cities. Deforestation destroys the habitat of many animals, leading to their death. The loss is more severe in so called primary forests, which are forests that have yet been untouched by humans. Deforestation also releases sequestered carbon.


title: Deforestation

text: Land has other uses besides growing trees. The biggest uses of land that was once forested are for farming and ranching. Some land is also used for roads and buildings, especially in urban area.As the population grows, people need to remove more trees. They also use the wood from the trees as lumber to make buildings and other things, or they burn the trees as firewood.


title: Deforestation

text: Forests are often planted to protect against natural disasters. When forests are lost, very often the soil they protected is also lost. This loss of soil is called erosion.


title: Deforestation

text: Trees are also important for carbon sequestration. When the trees burn or rot, the carbon in them returns to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. Since carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, deforestation causes global warming. Tropical deforestation is responsible for about 20% of world greenhouse gas emissions. Deforestation continues.


The road to hell is paved with good intentions is an idiom or proverb. It is about the difference between what someone intends to do and what they actually do. In other words, the road to failure is made easier by good intentions.


title: The road to hell is paved with good intentions

text: In the mid-12th century, Bernard of Clairvaux wrote, ""L'enfer est plein de bonnes volontés et désirs"" (hell is full of good wishes and desires). The sentence has been repeated many times in other languages and contexts.


text: In 1775, Samuel Johnson commented on "the unhappy failure of resolves" when he is reported saying, "Sir, hell is paved with good intentions."


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Bhagat Singh ( — 23 March 1931) was an Indian socialist revolutionary. He is considered to be one of the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian Independence Movement.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Singh was born to Vidyavati Kaur and Sardar Kishan Singh, in a Sikh Jat family on 28 September 1907 in Lyallpur, Punjab in British India. His family had earlier been involved in revolutionary activities against the British Raj.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: His uncle Swaran Singh had participated in the freedom struggle against the British. When in 1907, an another uncle of Bhagat, Ajit Singh was arrested and exiled to Rangoon in Burma (Myanmar), Swaran asked the people of Punjab to force the government for his release and due to his efforts Ajit Singh was released from Rangoon jail in October 1907.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: After coming back from jail, Ajit Singh decided to start a major revolt against the British. He began agitating the farmers and peasants to start a movement against them. The movement called 'Pagdi Sambhal Jatta' was launched in 1908.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The British came to know of his intentions and arrested him on 13 January 1911, when he was attending the Lohri festival celebration at his relative's house. In February, Ajit Singh escaped from jail and ran away home, only to inform about his planning to start a mass struggle abroad India. Ajit Singh bid farewell to his family and fled to Iran in March.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In 1912, Bhagat joined the District Primary School in Lyallpur and received his elementary education there till class 5th. In 1917 his family shifted to Lahore for his higher education. In Lahore, he was admitted to the Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (D.A.V) School, and he received rest of his elementary education from there. When he was in 8th standard, the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (13 April 1919) took place. The very next day (on 14 April) he went to the bagh telling at his home that he was going to school. After running about 12 miles from Lahore, Bhagat reached Amritsar. At 2 pm, as Bhagat entered the bagh's compound he saw blood scattered all over the ground. The turbans and torn clothes of panic-stricken people laid lifeless on the ground. The walls of the compound were red with blood. As it was curfew in Punjab those days, the blood hadn't been cleaned. Bhagat had taken a glass bottle with him before leaving from home. He took a handful of blood-stained soil and put it in the bottle. He reached home and put the bottle infront of the Sikh gurus potrait and prayed to him for peace and solace for the victims of the massacre and he pledged to teach the British a lesson.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In 1920, Mahatma Gandhi launched the Non-cooperation movement to encourage a mass protest against the British and to boycott their trade in India and to end their cooperation with the British rule. Many people joined the movement and discarded the use of foreign goods and clothes. The people boycotted schools and colleges. The factories, industries, shops & hospitals run by government were all boycotted. Many students also left British schools and joined Indian schools.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Bhagat Singh also actively participated in the movement. He along with a group of people used to burn foreign clothes publicly and used to boycott foreign schools, he was only 14 years old.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In February 1922, In Chauri Chaura village of Gorakhpur in United Provinces, non-violent actvists of the town lead a march to a nearby liquor shop to picket it. Some policemen began thrashing the activists. The protesters became angry and they burnt down the police station where the policemen were hidden killing all 22 policemen inside. Mahatma Gandhi was shocked to hear about the incident and he suspended the non- cooperation movement realising that the people had still not understood the message of non-violent protest against the British. This created much chaos around the common people as they thought that if Gandhi had not suspended the movement they would have easily gained freedom.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: When Bhagat came to know about this, he was disappointed with Gandhi's decision to suspend the movement and he lost confidence in the philosophy of non-violence.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In 1923, He joined the National College in Lahore. There he studied as well took part in many extracurricular activities. In August 1923, an essay competition was held at the college by Punjab Hindi Sahitya Sammelan. The topic was to write about any of the special acknowledgements about Punjab. Bhagat Singh wrote an essay on the following topic:


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Besides this, a month later he joined a Dramatics Society near the college campus and began to organize functions and shows.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In late October, the society organized a show for the governor of Punjab. When the governor Edward Douglas Maclagan arrived the theatre, the audience present there consisting mainly of college students didn't show courtesy to the governor. He became so angry with the irrespective treating that he walked out of the theatre, but Bhagat Singh didn't mind and performed the show infront of the limited audience.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: While studying in National College, he used to spend most of his time in the College Library reading books about armed revolution in foreign countries.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: He was inspired by the Russian revolutionaries who believed that armed revolt can only bring freedom. His first act which brought to notice was that occured in March 1924. It is said that one of his friend's bullock cart driver was beaten harshly by some English officials as the sign the outside the office of the officials read - 'Indians are not allowed'. He took revenge and along with Sukhdev he attacked the officials car and beated them with clubs and sticks and escaped unnoticed in the night.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In April, his father asked him to get married for which he refused. His father pressurised him for it, so one night, he quietly left his home for going to Kanpur. Before leaving he wrote a letter to his father:


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Bhagat Singh worked for Ganesh Shankar Vidyarthi in the newspaper Pratap Press in Kanpur for some months. Then he met Chandra Shekhar Azad and they began to work together for freedom struggle.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In early 1925, his father called him home as his grandmother was very ill. He wrote to him for coming home, promising he would not force him to get married:


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In March 1925, he accepted his father's wish returned to Lyallpur but had to soon escape from there as police had came to know of his whereabouts. He went to Delhi and started publishing the Daily Veer Arjun Newspaper for 6 months.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In October, he returned to Kanpur to free the Kakori prisoners who had been arrested after the train robbery in Kakori (9 August) along with their leader Ram Prasad Bismil. The prisoners were temporarily kept in Kanpur Station Cell before being shifted to different Central Jails.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: On 22 November, along with Azad, Bhagat went to the Station Cell unnoticed and broke the lockups and freed one their comrade but the police soon arrived there and they had to run away. Thus the plan failed.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In March 1926, he organized the Naujawan Bharat Sabha to encourage the young men of his country to fight for there freedom. He began to address big public meetings and asked them to overthrow the British rule from India. He also took the help of Dramatics Society for the purpose of spreading his message.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: On 16 October, when the Dussehra festival fair was held in Lahore Maidan. At 7:10 pm a bomb exploded in crowded section of Maidan when the Ramleela procession was being taken out. About 10 people died in this explosion and about five times of that were injured. People rushed out of the Maidan to save their lives.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The British Government took advantage of the incident and arrested Bhagat on the pretext that he was involved in the bomb incident on 29 May 1927. The real reason for his arrest was to stop him from instigating people against the British rule.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: It was later found that the bomb explosion was caused by a man named Channadin who was bribed by the Lahore police to get an excuse for arresting the revolutionaries.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: He was released for a security deposit of ₹ 60,000 for having found no evidence against him, about a month later.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: He became involved in numerous revolutionary activities. He quickly gained prominence in the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) and became one of its chief leaders. Eventually, the name of the organization was changed to Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) on 9 September 1928.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: A Commission known as Simon Commission was appointed by the British Government to look after the administration of India for further political reforms. The commission which reached India on 3 February 1928 decided to tour the whole India to gain the first hand information of the adminstrative system. But there were no Indians in the commission, this angered many Indian political leaders who lead protests against the commission. The nationalist leaders lead protest marches wherever the commission went with the slogan 'Simon Go Back'.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The Commission reached Lahore on 30 October 1928. Here, the protest march was being lead by Lala Lajpat Rai. As the members of commission got down from the train at Lahore Railway Station. The protesters began yelling 'Simon Go Back', soon the protest turned violent and the police had to resort to lathi charge to stop the protest. The SP of Lahore James A. Scott began to beat Lalaji with a baton. Lalaji became wounded from the batoning but he continued to yell 'Simon Go Back...Simon Go Back...Simon Go Back...' Lalaji was wounded and he fell to the ground, before he fell he is said to have announced:


title: Bhagat Singh

text: 18 days later, Lalaji succumbed to his wounds. Bhagat Singh who was also in the protest march was the witness to this incident and decided to take revenge.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: To avenge this, Bhagat made a plan by calling a meeting at Mozang House (an HSRA hideout). On the night, of 10 December the plan to kill the SP Scott was made. Jaigopal was asked to keep a watch on Scott for five days and report the time to fix for execution of plan.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: On 15 December, the last meeting was held in which Sukhdev presented a map of the Police Headquarters of Lahore where Scott used to work. Bhagat and Rajguru were chosen to execute the plan. Jaigopal was told to signal Bhagat and Rajguru as he sees Scott coming out of the office. The plan was now ready to be executed.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: On 17 December, Bhagat along with Rajguru & Chandrashekhar Azad went to the area of Police Headquarters. Bhagat and Rajguru hid behind a tree nearby. Jaigopal also came riding on his bicycle and acted as he was repairing it to wait for Scott. On 1620 hours, as another police officer ASP Saunders came out of the office Jaigopal mistook him for Scott and signaled Bhagat and Rajguru. As soon as Saunders approached the tree, Rajguru came out and shot him in the head which wounded him and Bhagat shot thrice in his chest and killed him.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The Head Constable Chanan Singh chased Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Azad but was wounded by Azad's covering fire.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The traffic inspector Fern who was standing there controlling the traffic saw them running and started chasing them. Bhagat fired at Fern but he ducked down to prevent the shot and thus the shot missed. The four then escaped through the D.A.V college backdoor to arranged safehouses.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Next day, Posters appeared all over the walls of Lahore informing the public about the revenge action against the British-


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The rest of the matter of the poster contained the motives behind the murder of the officer and warning given to the Intelligence Department and Bureaucracy. It was signed by Balraj (a pseudonym of Chandrashekhar Azad).


title: Bhagat Singh

text: When the news of Saunder's murder reached the British government in Lahore. The government launched a search operation in the whole of Lahore. The CID was asked to keep a watch on every person departing and arriving in Lahore.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: On 18 and 19 December many people were arrested on suspicion of the murder. Many people were beated mercilessly and caught and jailed without warrant.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The HSRA decided that it is not safe for Bhagat to be in Lahore as he would be soon caught by the police if so. So they planned Bhagat's escape from Lahore to reach Calcutta.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: On the evening of 19 December Sukhdev requested Durga Bhabhi (wife of Bhagwati Vohra, member of HSRA) to accompny Bhagat to escape from Lahore. Durga Bhabhi agreed willingly.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: To avoid recognition Bhagat had shaved his beard and cut his long hair (a violation of Sikh customs) and had wore an English outfit. He asked Durga Bhabhi to wear an English outfit too. Rajguru was asked to become the porter at the station.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: At about 6:00 am, Bhagat along with Durga Bhabhi and Rajguru, who acted as their porter and Azad reached the Railway Station and boarded the first train from Lahore to Calcutta.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In Calcutta, Bhagat and Chandra Shekhar Azad met Jatindranath Das, a scholar and a scientist in January 1929. Jatin was asked to make bombs, arsenals and other weapons for the HSRA. The HSRA set up a bomb factory in Agra for the purpose. In March, the arsenals were tried and tested in secret near the Yamuna River.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In April, the British Government introduced two bills called as Public Safety Bill and Trade Dispute Bill. The first was for the purpose of curbing mass protests that were taking place in many parts of the country and the second was for lowering the pension of the mill workers and farmers by 10%.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Meanwhile, the Bombay Textile Mill workers announced a strike on 15 February to protest against low wages paid by the Sir Nusserwanjee Wadia, the owner of the mill. The workers remained on strike for many days. They also barred the Wadia's entry in the mill. Wadia reported the problem to his friend who was a British officer. The officer agreed to help him. On 1 April, he came with a large cavalry force to disperse the protesting workers to make way for Wadia. First the officer requested the workers to end the strike but they refused to do so. The officer then ordered the cavalry to lathi-charge on the workers. Many were injured in this lathi-charge.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: To put a stop on the strikes of workers, the government decided to pass the bills as soon as possible. They decided to pass the bills on 8 April with the special powers of the Viceroy Lord Irwin in the Central Assembly.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Bhagat Singh decided to protect the rights of the farmers of his country to protest against unjust laws of the government and decided to halt the passing of bills.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: He made a plan to bomb the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi. He partnered with Batukeshwar Dutt for this task.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: On 8 April, as the Speaker Vithalbhai Patel stood up to announce the passing of bill at 1230 hours, He bombarded the assembly with two bombs making sure that this will not harm any person. They were shouting slogans of revolution and threw pamphlets.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: After the bombarding, they surrendered. Bhagat along with Dutt was jailed. They were kept in Delhi Central Jail (present day Maulana Azad Medical College, Delhi) from 22 April to 13 June.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The trial for Delhi Assembly Bomb case began on 7 May with an introductory hearing with the Presiding Judge Justice Frank Ernest Bran Pool. In the next hearing, a month later on 6 June, lawyer Asaf Ali defended Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt. Asaf tried his best to defend the revolutionaries but in vain as on 12 June, both were sentenced to transportation for life in Delhi Jail.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: In the Court hearings, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt made a statement to clarify their motives for bombing and about the repressive action of government against the labourers and farmers of the country who have a large participation in the economic development of the country. The typewriter had written the whole statement. Here is a small part of the statement.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The next day, the police came to know about his involvement in the murder of ASP Saunders and soon made preparations to transfer him to Mianwali Jail and Dutt to Lahore Central Jail.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The same day, Bhagat reached Mianwali Jail. He was kept in this jail while all other HSRA revolutionaries were kept in Lahore's Borstal Jail.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The next day, as Bhagat got to know that the English prisoners and thieves were treated with dignity and were given healthy food but there was discrimination with Indian prisoners and revolutionaries and given unhygienic food as well.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Bhagat began his longest (112 days) hunger strike in jail which lasted from 15 June to 5 October 1929. Together many other revolutionaries began hunger strike that day.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: 2. Indian prisoners should be given books and newspapers to read and clean clothes to wear as given to the English.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The demands were refused many times by the jail authorities and the police forced the prisoners to break their hunger strike treacherously.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: They would often beat the prisoners to drink milk or swallow food to halt the hunger strike but the prisoners were adamant.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The Lahore Conspiracy Case trial began on 10 July 1929, in the Lahore Jail court house. Bhagat Singh had been shifted a day earlier to this jail for the trial. The Presiding Judge was Justice Rai Sahib Pandit Sri Kishen. There were in total 14 accused and 2 approvers in the case. Jaigopal later turned approver.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Meanwhile, Jatin Das who had begun his hunger strike 28 days after Bhagat, died on 13 September 1929 due to weakness. Thousands of people attended his funeral in Lahore and felt proud for the brave revolutionary Jatin Das. He was cremated at Calcutta on 16 September.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: At last, on 5 October the Jail authorities agreed to the prisoners' demands and they ended their hunger strike.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Rajguru gets arrested at a motor garage in Pune on 30 September 1929 and is presented in the court hearing on 18 October.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: On the other hand, The Conspiracy Case trials went on with no decision for months. Jaigopal betrayed the HSRA by telling that Bhagat was involved in the murder of Saunders. On 21 October 1929, as Jaigopal spoke the truth a revolutionary Prem Dutt became so angry he insulted him and threw his slipper on his head. Jaigopal fainted and collapsed in the witness box.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Prem Dutt was handcuffed but the revolutionaries protested so Magistrate Rai Saheb ordered all of them to be handcuffed but they did not budge. The police started beating them and forced to be handcuffed. They were badly wounded due to this. Many had to be taken away from the court on stretcher.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: To speed up the slow-moving trial, Lord Irwin declared emergency on 1 May 1930. Arrests of the accused were speeded up and the arrested ones were to pass through trials of the special tribunal. The tribunal was appointed by the Viceroy on 30 April. Three judges - Justice Coldstream, Justice G. C. Hilton and Justice Agha Hyder justified the case.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The trials of the special tribunal began on 5 May 1930 at the court of special magistrate in Poonch House. The location had been shifted from the Lahore Jail. The accused were forcibly taken to the trials as they had refused to come to the court. The revolutionaries knew well that the presiding judge is British and he will no doubt give them a harsh punishment. On the 8th day of the trial, the revolutionaries were again harshly beaten with sticks and were dragged to the court for trial. The revolutionaries boycotted the trials from that day on and did not present themselves in the court. They demanded that Justice G. C. Hilton must be removed and an indian judge preside the case. But the government denied their wish. In June, they removed Justice Agha Hyder (who had tried to stop the police from beating the revolutionaries as he had sympathy for them) and presiding judge Justice Coldstream and made Justice G. C. Hilton the presiding judge and appointed Justice Abdul Qadir and Justice Tapp instead.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Thus, the trials continued in the absence of the accused. They were only conducted on the basis of testimonies of the 3 government approvers Jaigopal, Hans Raj Vohra & Phonindra Nath Ghosh.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The testimonies were utilised as prime evidence against the accused and were thus used to give the judgement in the case.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru was ordered to be hanged on 27 October 1930 at 8 am, but due to consideration process of many of the mercy appeals filed, the sentence was delayed. Finally the date was decided as 24 March 1931.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Many of the politicians appealed to the government to reduce the punishment of the three comrades especially Madan Mohan Malviya, Mohammed Ali Jinnah and Subhash Chandra Bose who had positive views about the revolutionaries.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Especially, Mahatma Gandhi asked the Viceroy Lord Irwin to cancel the hanging of three revolutionaries but he refused to do so.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: On 22 March, the Jailor decided to bring forward the hanging time 11 hours earlier to prevent public protest outside the Jail.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The families of the three were not allowed to meet them on 23 March. The father of Bhagat, Kishan Singh with his wife waited outside for a long a time to get a last glimpse of his brave son but even they were denied.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: At 7:20 pm, the Jailor P. D. Chopra arrived with other officers to take them to the gallows. At that time, Bhagat was reading the Biography of Russian leader Lenin. He called out to Bhagat to get ready as they were getting late. He replied 'wait a minute, one revolutionary is meeting the other'. He threw the book towards the ceiling and stepped out of the cell.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Then while going towards the gallows the three comrades Bhagat, Sukhdev and Rajguru sang the patriotic song 'Mera Rang De Basanti Chola'.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: At 7:28, the three arrived at the hanging fort where several officers including Jail Doctor Narinder Singh Sodhi, IG Prisons Fredrick Barker, Officer Charles Stead and Deputy Commissioner Allan Arbuthnot Lane Roberts, were waiting for them. Jail Warden Chhatar Singh was also present. Bhagat said to Lane Roberts 'Sir, today you will see how bravely the great sons of India embrace death'.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: After hanging, their bodies were carried away secretly to Ferozepore through the backdoor of the Jail.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Late at night, the authorities reached the Satluj river banks in Ferozepore where they burnt the bodies of the three revolutionaries.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: Soon a big crowd armed with fire torches arrived the river banks. The authorities were frightened and they fled from the scene. The people in the crowd then informed Bhagat's father Kishan Singh about the incident who along with Vidyawati came rushing to Ferozepore. Kishan Singh wept with grief along with pride at the same time for his brave son. The next day, the people and Kishan Singh cremated the body of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru.


title: Bhagat Singh

text: The Government of India has made memorials and released postage stamps to honour these brave martyrs of India.


title: Literature

text: Literature is a group of works of art made up of words. Most are written, but some are passed on by word of mouth. Literature usually means a work of poetry, theatre or narrative. There are many different kinds of literature, such as poetry, plays, or novels. They can also be put into groups through their language, historical period, origin, genre, and subject. The word "Literature" comes from the Latin word "Literatura" (English: "Learning", "Writing", "Grammar").


title: Literature

text: Most of the earliest works were epic poems. Epic poems are long stories or myths about adventures. "Ramayana" and "Mahabharta", two Indian epics, are still read today. "Odyssey" and "Iliad" are two famous Greek poems by Homer. They were passed down through speaking and written down around the 8th century BC.


title: Pop music

text: Modern pop music grew out of 1950s rock and roll, (for example Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley and Little Richard) and rockabilly (for example Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly). In the 1960s, The Beatles became a famous pop music group. In the 1970s, other styles of music were mixed with pop music, such as funk and soul music. Pop music generally has a heavy (strong) beat, so that it is good for dancing. Pop singers normally sing with microphones that are plugged into an amplifier and a loudspeaker.


title: Pop music

text: There are also many more people working on pop music who are not seen on the stage or in the video. These people include the studio staff (people who help the musicians to record CDs and music videos in music studios), production staff (people who help make the music recordings sound good), distribution staff (people who help sell the music to stores) and retail staff (people that sell the music to people at CD stores).


title: Pop music

text: Tour staff help the band to travel around the country (or around the world) for their concert tours. Some tour staff help by carrying heavy musical instruments onto the stage. Other tour staff drive buses or cars, so that the band can get to the concert. Some tour staff operate sound equipment, such as the large amplifiers and loudspeakers that are used to amplify (make louder) the band's music for the audience.


title: Pop music

text: Promotional staff help to market or promote the band's music, so that more people will know about the band, and buy the band's CDs. Some promotional staff travel to radio stations and give the band's CD to radio station managers or DJs (disk jockeys: the people who announce songs on the radio). Other promotional staff write press releases (short articles) about the band which are sent to the newspapers.


title: Pop music

text: Pop music came from the Rock and Roll movement of the early 1950s, when record companies recorded songs that they thought that teenagers would like. Pop music usually uses musical from the other types of music that are popular at the time. Many different styles of music have become pop music during different time periods. Often, music companies create pop music styles by taking a style of music that only a small number of people were listening to, and then making that music more popular by marketing it to teenagers and young adults.


title: Pop music

text: In the 1950s, recording companies took blues-influenced rock and roll (for example Chuck Berry and Bo Diddley) and rockabilly (for example Carl Perkins and Buddy Holly) and promoted them as pop music. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, record companies took folk music bands and musicians and helped them to create a new type of music called folk rock or acid rock. Folk rock and acid rock mixed folk music, blues and rock and roll (for example The Byrds and Janis Joplin). In the 1970s, record companies created several harder, louder type of blues called blues rock or heavy metal, which became a type of pop music (for example the bands Led Zeppelin and Judas Priest).


title: Pop music

text: In the late 1970s and early 1980s, a type of nightclub dance music called Disco turned into a popular type of pop music. Record companies took an experimental, strange-sounding type of music called New Wave music from the 1980s and turned it into pop music bands such as "The Cars." In the 1990s record companies took an underground type of hard rock called Grunge (for example the band Nirvana). Michael Jackson was also a very influential artist for pop music. His album, "Thriller", is the best-selling album of all time. He also wrote some other very influential songs, such as "Bad", "Give In to Me", "Will You Be There", "Heal the World", "We Are the World", "Black or White", and "Billie Jean", just to name a few. By the 21st century (after the demise of disco in the 1980s) Contemporary R&B became pop music. Examples of Contemporary R&B artists that have a wide pop appeal are Usher, Beyoncé, Rihanna, Chris Brown and more. Pop rappers Flo Rida and Kesha were mainstream in the late 2000s and the early 2010s. Modern pop singers include Ariana Grande, Katy Perry and Lady Gaga. Nicki Minaj blended pop and hip hop in the early 2010s.


title: Pop music

text: Many bands and artists are looked as influential in music history, but the English band The Beatles are the most looked upon band in history because of many of their songs being different types of pop and rock music (even metal and punk). Michael Jackson, The Bee Gees, Nirvana (band) are many of the artists and bands that look at The Beatles as a massive influence on their music.


title: Piano

text: The piano is an acoustic, keyboard and stringed musical instrument in which the strings are struck by wooden hammers that are coated with a softer material (modern hammers are covered with dense wool felt; some early pianos used leather). It is played using a keyboard, which is a row of keys (small levers) that the performer presses down or strikes with the fingers and thumbs of both hands to cause the hammers to strike the strings. It was invented in Italy by Bartolomeo Cristofori around the year 1700 (the exact year is uncertain).


title: Piano

text: The piano has been an extremely popular instrument in Western classical music since the late 18th century. The piano was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, Italy. He made his first piano in 1709. It developed from the clavichord which looks like a piano but the strings of a clavichord are hit by a small blade of metal called a “tangent”. In the piano the strings are hit by a block of wood called a hammer. The early keyboarded instruments, such as the clavichords, harpsichords and organs that were used at that time, had a much shorter keyboard than they do today. Gradually the keyboard became longer until it had the 88 notes (7 octaves plus three notes) of the modern piano.


title: Piano

text: At first the instrument was called the “fortepiano”. This means “loud-soft” in Italian. It was given this name because it could be played either loudly or softly, depending on how hard the note was hit (the harpsichord could not do this, and the clavichord could only make a tiny difference between louder and softer). Later this name changed to “pianoforte”. This is normally shortened to “piano”. The word “fortepiano” is sometimes used to describe the pianos of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In some languages, such as Russian, “fortepiano” is the normal word for a piano.


title: Piano

text: Although the piano was invented at the beginning of the 18th century, it was not until 50 years later that it started to become popular. The first time the piano was played in a public concert in London was in 1768 when it was played by Johann Christian Bach. The upright piano was invented in 1800 by John Isaac Hawkings. Seven years later T. Southwell invented “over-stringing”. This means that the strings for the low notes go diagonally across the soundboard so that they can be longer and make a much bigger sound.


title: Piano

text: The early pianos had strings that were fastened to a frame made of wood. They were not very heavy, but they were not very strong or loud, so they could not be heard very well in a big concert hall. In 1825 the cast-iron frame was invented in America. This made the piano much stronger so that it could make a bigger sound and the strings were not likely to break.


title: Piano

text: One of the most known fortepiano builders was Johann Andreas Stein from Augsburg, Germany. Stein developed the "Viennese" action, popular on Viennese pianos up to the mid-19th century. Another important Viennese piano maker was Anton Walter. Mozart’s own Walter fortepiano is presently at the Mozart Museum in Salzburg, Austria. Haydn also owned Walter piano, and Beethoven expressed a wish to buy one. The most famous early-romantic piano maker was Conrad Graf (1782–1851), who made Beethoven's last piano. His instruments were played by Chopin, Mendelssohn and Schumann. Johannes Brahms had preferred pianos by Johann Baptist Streicher. The English piano school builders included Johannes Zumpe, Robert Stodart and John Broodwood. Prominent piano makers among the French during the era of the fortepiano included Erard, Pleyel (Chopin’s favorite maker) and Boisselot (Liszt’s favorite).


title: Piano

text: The production of this older type of instrument had stopped in the end of the 19th century. In the second half of the 20th century people started to be more interested in period instruments, including harpsichord and fortepiano. Some of the more known fortepiano builders included in this 20th-century fortepiano revival have been Philip Belt, Margaret F. Hood, Christopher Clark and Paul McNulty.


title: Piano

text: A piano has a keyboard with white keys and black keys. When a key is pressed down, the damper comes off the string and a hammer hits the string. It hits it very quickly and bounces off so that the string is free to vibrate and make a sound. Each key is a level that makes a hammer inside the piano hit a string inside, producing a sound. Each string has a different length and so produces-a different note. When the player takes their finger off the key the damper falls back onto the string and the sound stops. The strings are stretched very tightly across the frame, passing over a bridge on the way. The bridge touches the soundboard. This means that the vibrations are sent to the soundboard. The soundboard is a very important part of the piano. If it is damaged the piano will not make a sound.


title: Piano

text: The mechanism which makes the hammer bounce off the string very quickly is called the “escapement”. In 1821 Sebastian Erard invented a kind of double escapement. This made it possible to repeat the note very quickly. The hammer only touches the string for about one thousandth of a second. The hammers are covered with felt which is a mixture of wool, silk and hair.


title: Piano

text: At the bottom of every modern piano, there are at least two pedals, which are levers that the pianist presses down with his or her feet to change the sound. Many pianos have three pedals, but a few have even more. Each pedal changes the sound in a different way.


title: Piano

text: The damper pedal is the most important pedal, and so many composers often write down in a piece of music when the pianist should press and when he or she should let go of the damper pedal. In most classical music, there is a sign that says "Ped." where the pedal should be pressed, and one that looks like an asterisk where the pedal should be let go. Pedal marks can also appear as a straight line under the staff. Often, the pianist will let go of the pedal and press it again right away; this is called "changing pedal". Sometimes, the music will simply say "con pedale", which in Italian means "with pedal". It means that the damper pedal should be used, but the pianist should know when to change the pedal.


title: Piano

text: Another sign, which tells a pianist to press the soft pedal is "una corda," (Italian for "one string"). It is held down until another sign, "tre corde" (meaning "three strings"), appears, telling the pianist to let go of the soft pedal. In early pianos, it was possible to press the pedal a little way so that the hammers hit two strings, then press it further so that they hit only one string.


title: Piano

text: There is no sign for the sostenuto pedal, so it is up to the pianist on whether to use it in a specific piece of music.


title: Piano

text: Once the piano became popular in the late 18th century many composers wrote music for the piano. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart started to learn on harpsichords when he was very small, but the piano was becoming popular when he was a young man and he wrote many sonatas and concertos for the piano. Franz Joseph Haydn also wrote a lot of piano music. Ludwig van Beethoven was a very famous pianist before he became very famous as a composer. His piano compositions include 5 concertos and 32 sonatas. In the Romantic period many composers wrote for the piano. They include Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Franz Liszt and Frederic Chopin. Later composers include Sergei Rachmaninoff, Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich and Bela Bartok.


title: Piano

text: Some famous piano players from the early days of the piano include Dussek, Mozart, Muzio Clementi, John Field and Chopin. In the 19th century Franz Liszt was a very great influence on the piano by composing and performing very difficult music. Other great pianists include Clara Schumann and Anton Rubinstein. 20th century pianists include Artur Schnabel, Vladimir Horowitz, Josef Hofmann, Wilhelm Kempff, Dinu Lipati, Claudio Arrau, Artur Rubinstein, Sviatoslav Richter and Alfred Brendel. Among the greatest pianists today are Vladimir Ashkenazy, Daniel Barenboim, Leif Ove Andsnes, Boris Berezovsky and Evgeny Kissin.


title: Piano

text: Pianists who play popular music include Liberace, Jerry Lee Lewis, Little Richard, Elton John, Billy Joel, Thelonious Monk, Tori Amos and Ray Charles. Perhaps the greatest jazz pianist was Fats Waller.


title: Piano

text: Also a number of modern harpsichordists and pianists have achieved success in fortepiano performance, including Paul Badura-Skoda, Malcolm Bilson, Andras Schiff, Kristian Bezuidenhout, Ronald Brautigam, Alexei Lubimov, duet Katie and Marielle Labeque, Yuan Sheng, Gary Cooper, Jörg Demus, Richard Egarr, Richard Fuller, Robert Hill, Geoffrey Lancaster, Vladimir Feltsman, Robert Levin, Steven Lubin, Bart van Oort, Trevor Pinnock, Viviana Sofronitsky, Andreas Staier, Melvyn Tan, Jos van Immerseel and Olga Pashchenko.


title: Piano

text: The piano has been a very popular instrument ever since the mid 18th century when it soon replaced the clavichord and the harpsichord. By the early 19th century the sound that the piano made was big enough to fill large concert halls. Smaller pianos were made for use in people’s homes. At first these included square pianos and giraffe pianos, later on the upright pianos became popular for home use. Pianos are not often used in orchestras (if they are, they are part of the percussion section). They may, however, be used for piano concertos (pieces for solo pianist accompanied by orchestra). There is a vast amount of music written for piano solo. The piano can also be used together with other instruments, in jazz groups, and for accompanying singing.


title: Zones of Nepal

text: Nepal is divided into 14 administrative zones ("anchal") and 77 districts ("jillā"). The 14 administrative zones are grouped into five development regions.


title: Zones of Nepal

text: In 1962, Nepal reorganized into 14 administrative zones but, around 1995, zones fell into disuse, so the already existing development regions effectively became the primary subdivisions.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: The Eiffel Tower (French: La Tour Eiffel, ], IPA pronunciation: "EYE-full" English; "eh-FEHL" French) is a landmark in Paris. It was built between 1887 and 1889 for the Exposition Universelle (World Fair). The Tower was the Exposition's main attraction.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: The Eiffel Tower cost 7,799,401.31 French gold francs to build in 1889, an amount equal to $1,495,139.89 at that time. Today, its cost would equal to $36,784,020.11. It took 2 years, 2 months and 5 days to build it. The tower is tall, but this height does not include the aerial (antenna) on the top; the total height of the structure is . It has a square base that is long on each side. The second story platform is off , and the surface to be painted is . Since it has been built it has been repainted 18 times, each of these 18 paint jobs there were only 25 painters hired to do the job. Three separate colors of paint are used on the structure in order to enhance the impression of height, with the lightest at the top.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: There are 20,000 sparkling lights and of cables covering the structure. The paper used to print the visitors' tickets in one year weighs . The top of the tower leans away from the sun as the metal facing the sun heats up and expands, it can move as much as and grow taller. The tower was also built to sway slightly in the wind.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: The Eiffel Tower was built by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel for the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution. Even though Gustave Eiffel is credited for the Eiffel Tower it was actually two lesser known people who came up with the original drawing of it. These people were Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier. These two men were the chief engineers of Eiffel’s engineering firm. The main architect was Stephen Sauvestre.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: Koechlin, Nouguier, Sauvestre, and Eiffel submitted the plans to compete for the spot on the champ de mars plot of land, to serve as the expositions entrance. It would also determine the 1889 world's fair centerpiece in Paris. There were 107 bids submitted to construct the Eiffel Tower. Fifty people worked on the design, and more than 100 built the parts. One hundred and thirty two workers assembled the parts on site.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: The first digging for the foundations began on January 28, 1887 and all construction was concluded on March 31, 1889. When the tower was built, it was only meant to be kept for 20 years. People did not like the Eiffel Tower and wanted it taken down because they thought is was an ugly structure polluting the scenery of the Paris sky. After the 20 years, the tower became the property of Paris again.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: By this time, the city had learned that the tower could be used to help with communications. There was also a metrology lab that had been installed for studies on everything from gravity to electricity. The military used the tower as a wireless telegraph transmitter for communication during battle. The tower was used in the capture of the spy "Mata Hari" during World War I after a message was intercepted. Today, it is used to send radio and television signals to the capital city of Paris and beyond. After people learned about the many benefits the tower provided, no one wanted it to be taken apart.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: The Eiffel Tower joined the green energy movement by building two wind turbines on the second level. These wind turbines produce of electricity.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: There were 50 architects, engineers, and draftsmen that created 5,300 drawings of the Eiffel Tower before the construction started. Once they had a plan, there were 18,000 pieces built and prepared in Eiffel's factory outside of town. These pieces were created to the accuracy of 1/10 of a millimeter. These pieces were put together to form new pieces that were 5 meters long to be transported to the building site.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: There were 132 workers there to assemble the pieces on site. All the pieces were put into place and hooked together by thermally assembled rivets. There were 4 men needed to assemble a single rivet: one person to heat the rivet up, another to hold it in place, a third to shape the head, and a fourth person to beat the rivet with a sledge hammer.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: Only of the 2.5 million rivets were assembled on site. The work on the foundations took 5 months. The workers only used spades, and the rubble was taken away by horses and steam locomotives.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: There was no problem in building the pillars on the Champ de Mars side of the tower. But on the Seine River side of the tower, foundations used compressed air and corrugated steel caissons five meters under water. The deepest foundations are 15 meters under ground. The feet of the tower are set in each of these foundation ditches. These foundations support the four pillars or truss frames.


title: Eiffel Tower

text: The difficulty building the first floor was in bringing building materials and people up to it with a point of departure as in the elevators. The elevators had to be positioned at a slanting angle to meet the horizontal beams on the first floor. The elevator had to use hydraulic jacks to move and erect the elevator up the slanted legs. Currently the hydraulic jacks are not in use due to more advanced technology. The second floor was assembled with cranes that took the same route as the elevators. There was no troubles from this point onward in the construction.


title: Wool

text: Wool is the hair of certain mammals. Most wool comes from sheep and goats, but wool is also taken from camels, llamas, and special rabbits. Wool is a natural material. People use wool fiber to make clothing, blankets, and other things to keep warm. It is usually used to make outer clothing but is also used to make blankets, socks, sweaters and fine clothing. Rabbit wool is called angora wool. Cashmere and mohair come from goats, qiviut from musk oxen, and other types of wool from camelids.


title: Wool

text: Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped and elastic. Wool fabrics clean easily. Wool also absorbs moisture and insulates against heat and cold.


title: Wool

text: Wool can be spun or made into yarn. The yarn is used to weave fabric or material. The yarn of wool can also be knitted into fabric or clothing like jumpers.Alpaca, mohair, angora, camel, cashmere and vicuna are all separate types of wool.


title: Wool

text: Wool can also be made into felt after it is boiled in hot water and rubbed together. Felt is a kind of fabric that is not woven. Felt can be used to make clothes to keep warm in cold weather.


title: Wool

text: Australia is the world's largest producer of raw wool, growing about 30 percent of the total world supply. Less wool is produced than in the middle 20th century, because people use more synthetic fibers.


title: Wool

text: Sheep were domesticated (tamed) in southwestern Asia about 11,000 years ago and now about 1 billion are now widely bred around the world.


title: Wool

text: Wool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the upper layer of the skin called the epidermis and push down into the second skin layer called the dermis as the wool fibers grow. Follicles can be classed as either primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber, Kemp (wool), medullated fibers and true wool fibers. Secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp and elasticity. Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out.


title: Wool

text: Rag is a sturdy wool fiber made into yarn and used in many rugged applications such as gloves. Worsted is a strong, long-staple, combed wool yarn with a hard surface. Woolen is a soft, short-staple, carded wool yarn typically used for knitting


title: Solar energy

text: Solar energy is the transformation of heat, the energy that comes from the sun. It has been used for thousands of years in many different ways by people all over the world. The oldest uses of solar energy is for heating, cooking, and drying. Today, it is also used to make electricity where other power supplies are not there, such as in places far away from where people live, and in outer space.


title: Solar energy

text: It is becoming cheaper to make electricity from solar energy. Because the Sun always gives heat and light, solar energy can be considered a renewable energy and an alternative to non-renewable resources like coal and oil.


title: Solar energy

text: After passing through the Earth's atmosphere, most of the Sun's energy is in the form of visible light and infrared light radiation. Plants convert the energy in sunlight into chemical energy (sugars and starches) through the process of photosynthesis. Humans regularly use this store of energy in various ways, as when they burn wood off fossil fuels, or when simply eating plants, fish and animals.


title: Solar energy

text: Solar radiation reaches the Earth's upper atmosphere with the power of 1366 watts per square meter (W/m). Since the Earth is round, the surface nearer its poles is angled away from the Sun and receives much less solar energy than the surface nearer the equator.


title: Solar energy

text: At present, solar cell panels convert, at best, about 15% of the sunlight hitting them into electricity.


title: Solar energy

text: The dark disks in the third diagram on the right are imaginary examples of the amount of land that, if covered with 8% efficient solar panels, would produce slightly more energy in the form of electricity than the world needed in 2003.


title: Solar energy

text: Many technologies have been developed to make use of solar radiation. Some of these technologies make direct use of the solar energy (e.g. to provide light, heat, etc.), while others produce electricity.


title: Solar energy

text: Solar power plants convert sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using "concentrated solar power" (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.


title: Solar energy

text: Solar cooking uses the Sun as the source of energy instead of standard cooking fuels such as charcoal, coal or gas. Solar cookers are an inexpensive and environmentally sound alternative to traditional ovens. They are becoming widely used in areas of the developing world where deforestation is an issue, financial resources to purchase fuel are limited, and where open flames would pose a serious risk to people and the environment. Solar cookers are covered with a glass plate. They achieve a higher temperature by using mirrors to focus the rays of the sun.


title: Solar energy

text: The Sun may be used to heat water instead of electricity or gas. There are two basic types of active solar heating systems based on the type of fluid — either liquid or air — that is heated in the solar energy collectors. (The collector is the device in which a fluid is heated by the Sun.)


title: Solar energy

text: Liquid-based systems heat water or an antifreeze solution in a "hydronic" collector, whereas air-based systems heat air in an "air collector." Both air and liquid systems can supplement forced air systems.


title: Solar energy

text: Solar cells can be used to generate electricity from sunlight. It is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. Sometimes the term "solar cell" is reserved for devices intended specifically to capture energy from sunlight, while the term "photovoltaic cell" is used when the light source is unspecified.


title: Solar energy

text: Solar cells have many applications. They have long been used in situations where electrical power from the grid is unavailable, such as in remote area power systems, Earth-orbiting satellites and space probes, consumer systems, e.g. handheld calculators or wrist watches, remote radiotelephones and water pumping applications. A large no. of solar cells are combined in an arrangement called solar cell panel that can deliver enough electricity for practical use. Electricity produced by solar panels can be stored in rechargeable solar batteries, which is then drawn upon when required.


title: Lok Sabha

text: The Lok Sabha or House of the People is the lower house of the Parliament of India. As of 2019, there have been seventeen Lok Sabhas elected by the people of India. The Constitution limits the Lok Sabha to a maximum of 552 members. This includes no more than 20 members representing people from the Union Territories, and two appointed non-partisan members to represent the Anglo-Indian community (if the President feels that the community is not represented well enough).


title: Lok Sabha

text: Each Lok Sabha is formed for a five-year term. Normally, after five years, it is automatically dissolved. It can be extended by a proclamation of emergency. If this happens, the term may be extended for one year. It can be extended more than one time. The 17th and current Lok Sabha was formed in May 2019.


title: Lok Sabha

text: The Lok Sabha member are elected for a team of five years.The president may dissolve the Lok Sabha.During emergency ,the team may be extended for one year


title: Lok Sabha

text: During the British colonial period, the office of the Secretary of State for India (along with the Council of India) was the authority through whom the British Parliament exercised its rule in the Indian sub-continent. The Viceroy of India was created, along with an Executive Council, in India, which consisted of high officials of the British government. The Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive Council and non-official members; and the Indian Councils Act 1892 established legislatures in each of the provinces of British India. These Acts may have increased the Indian representation in government, but the councils' power remained limited, and the electorate also remained very small. The participation of Indians in the administration increased after the passage of the Indian Councils Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919.


title: Lok Sabha

text: The Indian Independence Act was passed on July 18, 1947, and as a result British India was to be divided into India and Pakistan upon independence on August 15, 1947. They were to be dominions (India, Pakistan) under the Crown until they had enacted their own constitutions.


title: Lok Sabha

text: The Constituent Assembly was divided into two for the separate nations, with each new Assembly having sovereign powers transferred to it for the respective dominion.


title: Liz Truss

text: Elizabeth Mary Truss (born 26 July 1975), known as Liz Truss, is a British politician. Truss was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 5 September 2022 to 24 October 2022.


title: Liz Truss

text: She had been the Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs from September 2021 to September 2022 in Boris Johnson's cabinet. She was the Chief Secretary to the Treasury from 2017 to 2019 and Member of Parliament (MP) for South West Norfolk since 2010.


title: Liz Truss

text: She also served as the Secretary of State for Justice and Lord High Chancellor from 2016 to 2017, Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs from 2014 to 2016 and Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Education and Childcare from 2012 to 2014.


title: Liz Truss

text: In July 2022, Truss announced her candidacy for Conservative Party leader to replace Boris Johnson in the 2022 Conservative Party leadership election. On 20 July 2022, Truss advanced to the final round of the election and faced Rishi Sunak. On 5 September 2022, it was announced that Truss had defeated her opponent Rishi Sunak in the Conservative leadership race. Truss announced her resignation as leader of the Conservative party on 20 October 2022 after criticisms of her leadership and economic policies which caused a national crisis.


title: Liz Truss

text: She was replaced by Rishi Sunak after 50 days in office. She was the shortest serving Prime Minister in British history.


title: Liz Truss

text: Mary Elizabeth Truss was born on 26 July 1975 at John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford, England to John Kenneth and Priscilla Mary Truss ("née" Grasby). From an early age, she has been known by her middle name. Her father worked at the University of Leeds, while her mother was a nurse and teacher.


title: Liz Truss

text: The family moved to Paisley, Renfrewshire in Scotland when she was four years old, living there from 1979 to 1985. She studied at the University of Oxford.


title: Liz Truss

text: Truss was elected to the parliament during the 2010 general election to represent South West Norfolk.


title: Liz Truss

text: On 4 September 2012, Truss was appointed as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State at the Department for Education. In this role, she developed some of the policy areas that she had pursued as a backbencher.


title: Liz Truss

text: In July 2014, Truss was appointed Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Truss said that she fully believed that climate change is happening, and that "human beings have contributed to that".


title: Liz Truss

text: In July 2016, Truss was appointed as Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor in Theresa May's first ministry. Truss became the first woman to hold either position and the first female Lord Chancellor in the thousand-year history of the office.


title: Liz Truss

text: After Boris Johnson became Prime Minister, Truss was seen as a candidate for an important cabinet role because of her support of Johnson during the 2019 leadership election. She became Johnson's Secretary of State for International Trade and President of the Board of Trade. After the resignation of Amber Rudd, Truss was also made Minister for Women and Equalities.


title: Liz Truss

text: In September 2021, Johnson promoted Truss from International Trade Secretary to Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs, becoming the second woman to hold the position after Margaret Beckett.


title: Liz Truss

text: On 10 July 2022, Truss announced her plans to run in the Conservative Party leadership election to replace Boris Johnson.


title: Liz Truss

text: Truss and Rishi Sunak were chosen by Conservative Party MPs to compete in the final stage of the leadership election. On 5 September 2022, she won the election, beating Sunak by 81,326 votes to 60,399.


title: Liz Truss

text: Two days later, Elizabeth II died at the age of 96. Truss is the first British prime minister during Charles III's reign.


title: Liz Truss

text: When Truss became prime minister, she picked Thérèse Coffey, a close friend, as Deputy Prime Minister and Health Secretary. Truss also picked Kwasi Kwarteng as Chancellor of the Exchequer, James Cleverly as Foreign Secretary and Suella Braverman as Home Secretary. This was the first time in British political history in which no white men were in these four roles.


title: Liz Truss

text: Early during her time as prime minister, she was criticized over her handling of the economy through tax cuts and limiting energy prices. She cut taxes on businesses and reduced government regulation. Her tax plans were called Trussonomics and were inspired by by the economic policies of U.S. President Ronald Reagan, known as Reaganomics, and Margaret Thatcher-era Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nigel Lawson. Her tax policies were criticized by the International Monetary Fund, U.S. President Joe Biden, senior Conservative politicians Michael Gove and Grant Shapps, and the Bank of England. Her policies caused the pound to fall to a record low against the US dollar and an increase in the cost of government borrowing. In response, she fired Exchequer Chancellor Kwarteng and replaced him with Jeremy Hunt on 14 October 2022.


title: Liz Truss

text: Five days after firing Kwarteng, Suella Braverman resigned as Home Secretary after 43 days, because of an "honest mistake" involving sharing secure information on a private phone. She also criticized Truss’s leadership in her resignation letter. Truss replaced her with Grant Shapps.


title: Liz Truss

text: After strong criticisms against her leadership and economic policies, especially from members of her party, on 20 October 2022, Truss announced her plan to resign as prime minister after 45 days in office, making her the shortest serving prime minister in the history of the United Kingdom. She was replaced by former Chancellor of the Exchequer and leadership party rival Rishi Sunak on 25 October 2022, 50 days after being in office.


title: Liz Truss

text: A poll found Truss to be the least popular UK Prime Minister on record. Many other polls ranked her as extremely unpopular.


title: Liz Truss

text: In 2000, Truss married accountant Hugh O'Leary. They have two children. Between 2004 and 2005, she had an extramarital affair with Conservative MP Mark Field.


title: Waltz of the Flowers

text: The "e Flowers" (1892) is a piece of orchestral music from the second act of "The Nutcracker", a ballet composed by Tchaikovsky. Tchaikovsky told his fellow musicians he was working on a "fantastic" ballet called "The Nutcracker": "It's awfully fun to write a march for tin soldiers, a waltz of the flowers, etc." The waltz is also the last number in his "Nutcracker Suite". The "Waltz of the Flowers" is very popular. It has been arranged for various instruments and for various combinations of instruments. Percy Grainger arranged the waltz for piano solo as "Paraphrase on Tchaikovsky’s Flower Waltz". Walt Disney Studios animated the waltz for the movie "Fantasia".eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee


title: Indira Gandhi

text: Indira Gandhi (19 November 1917 – 31 October 1984) was an Indian politician. She was Prime Minister of India from 1966 to 1977. She was the daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, who was also Prime Minister of India. Her son, Rajiv Gandhi, later became Prime Minister of India. She married Feroze Gandhi, who was not related to the civil rights leader, Mahatma Gandhi.


title: Indira Gandhi

text: Indira Gandhi was the first woman prime minister of India. In 1938, Indira joined the Indian National Congress Party. After the death of Lal Bahadur Shastri in 1966, Indira Gandhi served as prime minister until India held the next election. She won that election in 1967 and became one of the first women elected to lead a democracy.


title: Indira Gandhi

text: Indira Gandhi was Prime Minister of India twice. She served the first time between 1966 and 1977 and the second time between 1980 and 1984. She also studied at the University of Oxford.


title: Indira Gandhi

text: Gandhi's body was taken in a gun carriage through Delhi roads on the morning of 1 November to Teen Murti Bhavan, where her father stayed and where she lay in state. She was cremated with full state honors on 3 November near Raj Ghat, a memorial to Mahatma Gandhi, at an area named Shakti Sthal. Her eldest son and successor, Rajiv, lit the pyre.


title: Game

text: A game is something that people often do for fun. If so, it is different from work. Many sports are games, and there are many professional sports. In those cases, there is money to be made, because it is a type of entertainment.


title: Game

text: There are different kinds of games using many kinds of equipment. For example, in video games, people often use controllers or their keyboard to control what happens on a screen, such as a television screens and computers ones too. In card games, players use playing cards. There are also games that use your body, such as the Kinect. Most games need equipment, but not always. Children's street games often need no equipment.


title: Game

text: In board games, players may move pieces on a flat surface called a "board". The object of the game varies. In race-type games like ludo, the object is to reach the end first. In go the object is to surround more space. In soccer it is to score more goals. Some games have complicated rules, some have simple rules.


title: Game

text: Ludwig Wittgenstein was probably the first academic philosopher to address the definition of the word "game". In his "Philosophical Investigations", Wittgenstein demonstrated that the elements (parts) of games, such as play, rules, and competition, all fail to correctly define what games are. He concluded that people apply the term "game" to a range of different human activities that are related, but not closely related.


title: Game

text: "Homo Ludens" (Playing Man) is a book written in 1938 by Dutch historian Johan Huizinga. It discusses the importance of the play element in culture and society. Huizinga suggests that play is a condition for the generation of culture.


title: Game

text: French sociologist Roger Caillois, in his book "Les jeux et les hommes (Games and Men)", said that a game is an activity which is these things:


title: Game

text: Crawford's definition of a game is: an interactive, goal-oriented activity, with opponents to play against, and where players and opponents can interfere with each other.


title: Game

text: The first writer of history was Herodotus, an ancient Greek. He wrote a book called “The Histories” around 440 BC, which is nearly 2500 years ago. Some of the stories he wrote were not true, and we don't know if this is one of those.


title: Game

text: Herodotus tells us about king Atys; he ruled about 5,500 [five thousand five hundred] years ago in a country called Lydia. His country was in western Asia Minor, near modern Greece. Atys had a serious problem; his lands had very little food because the climate was not good for agriculture. The people of Lydia demonstrated patience and hoped that the good times of plenty would return.


title: Game

text: But when things failed to get better, the people of Lydia thought up a strange solution for their problem. The path they took to fight their natural need to eat – the hungry times caused by the unusually hard climate - was to play games for one entire day so that they would not think about food. On the next day they would eat, so eating occurred every second day. In this way they passed 18 years, and in that time they invented dice, balls, and all the games commonly played today.


title: Game

text: Games appear in all cultures all over the world, an ancient custom that brings people together for social opportunities. Games allow people to go beyond the limit of the immediate physical experience, to use their imagination. Common features of games include a finish that you cannot forecast, agreed upon rules, competition, separate place and time, imaginary elements, elements of chance, established goals and personal enjoyment. Games are used to teach, to build friendships, and to indicate status.


title: Game

text: In his 1938 history book the Dutch writer Johan Huizinga says that games are older than human culture. He sees games as the beginning of complex human activities such as language, law, war, philosophy and art. Ancient people used bones to make the first games. Dice are very early game pieces. Games began as part of ancient religions. The oldest gaming pieces ever found – 49 [forty nine] small painted stones with pictures cut into them from 5,000 [five thousand] years ago – come from Turkey, so perhaps the history of Herodotus is true. One of the first board games, Senet, appears in ancient Egypt around 3,500 [three thousand five hundred] years ago. The ancient Greeks had a board game similar to checkers, and also many ball games.


title: Game

text: The first reference to the game of Go occurs in Chinese records from around 2,400 [two thousand four hundred] years ago. Originally the game Go was used by political leaders to develop skill in strategy and mental skill. Knowing how to play Go was required by a Chinese gentleman, along with the skills of artistic writing or calligraphy, painting and the ability to play a musical instrument. These were regarded as the four most important skills. In ancient China, a gentleman had to pass a test in these four key skills in order to get a good paying job in the government. The Chinese brought Go to Korea, and it entered Japan around 1,500 [one thousand five hundred] years ago, and it has been popular ever since.


title: Game

text: In March 2016 a Google computer program beat the best Go players in the world. Go is believed to be the most complex board game ever created. Is this computer program smarter than a person? Well, it did beat the South Korean Go master Lee Se-dol, and Lee was surprised by the result. He acknowledged defeat after three and a half hours of play. Demis Hassabis, who made the Google program, called it an important moment in history, because a machine beat the best person in the world in an intelligent game. Such computer programs rely on what is called artificial intelligence. Go is a two-player game of strategy said to have had an origin in China perhaps around 3,000 [three thousand] years ago. Players compete to win more territory by placing black and white “stones” on a board made up of 19 [nineteen] lines by 19 [nineteen] lines.