title: Poland

text: The word "Poland" was written officially for the first time in 966. In 1569, Poland formed a strong union with Lithuania called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At some point in its history, it was the largest state in Europe and became very influential. Much of the territory that now makes up Central European states used to belong to that Commonwealth. Eventually, after a slow decline, the Commonwealth collapsed in 1795. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I. In 1921, Poland defeated Soviet Russia in the Polish-Soviet War that started in 1919.


title: Poland

text: However, Poland lost independence again not long after the beginning of World War II, after suffering a defeat by both the USSR and Nazi Germany. Although the government collapsed, the Polish people fought on by forming the largest and most effective resistance movement in Nazi-occupied Europe. It is most notable for disrupting German supply lines to the Eastern Front of WWII, providing military intelligence to the British, and for saving more Jewish lives in the Holocaust than any other Allied organization or government. After the war, Poland regained "independence" and became a communist country within the Eastern Bloc. The new government was appointed by Joseph Stalin and was under the control of the Soviet Union.


title: Poland

text: In 1989, Poland ceased being a communist country and became a liberal democracy. Its change of government was the first in a series of events that led to the states of Eastern and Central Europe regaining their independence and the fall of the USSR in 1991. After the democratic consolidation, Poland joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. Poland is also a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization.


title: Poland

text: The first sign of humans in Polish lands was 500,000 years ago. The Bronze Age started around 2400-2300 BC. The Iron Age started around 750-700 BC. At that time the Polish lands were under the influence of the Lusatian culture. About 400 BC Celtic and Germanic tribes lived there. Those people had trade contacts with the Roman Empire.


title: Poland

text: Over time, Slavs came to Polish lands. Some of those Slavs, now commonly referred to as Western Slavs (though in reality a diverse group of tribes with shared ethnic and cultural features), stayed there and started to create new nations. The most powerful tribe was called the Polans, who united all of the other Slavic tribes living there, and this is where the name "Poland" comes from.


title: Poland

text: Poland began to form a country around the middle of the 10th century in the Piast dynasty. In 966, Prince Mieszko I became a Christian, and so the Polish people also became Christians. The next king was Bolesław I of Poland (called Bolesław the Brave). He conquered many lands and he became the first King of Poland. Casimir I of Poland changed the Polish capital from Gniezno to Kraków. In the 12th century, Poland broke into some smaller states after the death of King Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138 because of his will. Those states were later attacked by Mongol armies in 1241, which slowed down the unification of the small states into the big country of Poland. This happened eighty years later, in 1320 when Władysław I became the King of United Poland. His son Casimir III the Great reformed the Polish economy, built new castles, and won the war against the Ruthenian Dukedom. Many people emigrated to Poland, becoming a haven for emigrants. Many Jewish people also moved into Poland during that time. The Black Death, which affected many parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351, did not come to Poland.


title: Poland

text: After the death of the last Piast on the Polish throne, Casimir III, Louis I of Hungary and his daughter Jadwiga of Poland began their rule. She married the Lithuanian prince Jogaila. Their marriage started a new dynasty in Poland: the Jagiellon dynasty. Under the Jagiellon dynasty, Poland made an alliance with its neighbor Lithuania.


title: Poland

text: In the 17th century Sweden attacked almost all of Poland (this was called “the Deluge”). Many wars against the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Cossacks, Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia ended in 1699. For the next 80 years, the government and the nation were weak, making Poland dependent on Russia. Russian tsars took advantage of this by offering money to dishonest members of the Polish government, who would block new ideas and solutions. Russia, Prussia, and Austria broke Poland into three pieces in 1772, 1793 and 1795, which dissolved the country. Before the second split, a Constitution called "The Constitution of 3 May" was made in 1791.


title: Poland

text: Napoleon made another Polish state, “the Duchy of Warsaw”, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was split again by the countries at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern part was ruled by the Russian tsar. The Polish people did not like the new kings, and often rebelled (two big rebellions in 1830 and 1863). During World War I all the Allies agreed to save Poland. Soon after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland became the Second Polish Republic ("II Rzeczpospolita Polska"). It got its freedom after several military conflicts; the largest was the 1919-1921 Polish-Soviet War.


title: Poland

text: On September 1, 1939, World War II started when Nazi Germany attacked Poland. The Soviet Union attacked Poland on September 17, 1939. Warsaw was defeated on September 28, 1939. Poland was split into two pieces, one half owned by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. More than 6 million Polish people died, and half of these people were Jewish. Most of these deaths were part of the Holocaust, in which 6 million Jews were killed. At the war's end, Poland's borders were moved west, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line. The western border was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. The new Poland became 20% smaller by 77,500 square kilometers (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced millions of Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews to move.


title: Poland

text: After these events, Poland gradually became a communist country. It was supposedly an independent country. But in reality, the new government was appointed by Joseph Stalin. It was also under the control of the Soviet Union. The country was then renamed the People's Republic of Poland. There are many Poles in the neighboring countries Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania (these three countries were part of the Soviet Union until 1991), as well as in other countries. Most Poles outside of Poland are in the United States, especially in Chicago. Germany and the United Kingdom are also home to a large Polish diaspora. The most recent mass emigration of Poles to western countries began after 1989.


title: Poland

text: In 1989 Solidarity - a trade union led by Lech Wałęsa - helped defeat the communist government in Poland. Even before that event, Lech Wałęsa was given a Nobel Prize for leading the first non-communist trade union fighting for democracy in the Communist Block. When Communism ended in Poland there were many improvements in human rights, such as freedom of speech, democracy, etc. In 1991 Poland became a member of the Visegrad Group and joined NATO in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Polish voters then voted to join the European Union in a vote in June 2003. The country joined the EU on May 1, 2004.


title: Poland

text: Currently, the Prime Minister is Mateusz Morawiecki. On 10 April 2010 the President Lech Kaczyński died in a government plane crash in Smolensk in Russia. The president is elected directly by the citizens for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and confirmed by the "Sejm". The Sejm is the lower chamber of Parliament legislature for the country. It has 460 deputies elected every four years.


title: Poland

text: Poland's territory is a plain reaching from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Carpathian Mountains in the south. Within that plain, the land varies from east to west.


title: Poland

text: The Polish Baltic coast is mostly smooth but has natural harbors in the Gdańsk-Gdynia region and Szczecin in the far northwest. This coast has several spits, dunes, and coastal lakes. Coast lakes are former bays that have been cut off from the sea. These areas are sometimes called lagoons. Szczecin Lagoon is on the western border with Germany. The Vistula Lagoon is on the eastern border with Kaliningrad, province of Russia. The longest river in Poland, the Vistula river, empties into the Vistula Lagoon and also directly into the Baltic Sea.


title: Poland

text: The northeastern region is densely wooded, sparsely populated, and lacks agricultural and industrial resources. The geographical region has four hilly districts of moraines and lakes created by moraines. These formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four districts and covers much of northeastern Poland.


title: Poland

text: Poland has many lakes. In Europe, only Finland has more lakes. The largest lakes are Śniardwy and Mamry. In addition to the lake districts in the north, there are also many mountain lakes in the Tatras mountains.


title: Poland

text: South of the northeastern region is the regions of Silesia and Masovia, which are marked by the broad ice-age river valleys. The Silesia region has many resources and people. Coal is abundant. Lower Silesia has large copper mining. Masovian Plain is in central Poland. It is in the valleys of three large rivers: Vistula, Bug and Narew.


title: Poland

text: Further south is the Polish mountain region. These mountains include the Sudetes and the Carpathian Mountains. The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra mountains which is along Poland’s southern border. The tallest mountain in Poland, Rysy at 2,503 m (8,210 ft), is in the High Tatras.


title: Poland

text: Poland is made of sixteen regions known as voivodeships ("województwa", singular - "województwo"). They are basically created from the country's historical regions, whereas those of the past two decades (till 1998) had been focused on and named for separate cities. The new units range in areas from under 10,000 km (Opole Voivodeship) to over 35,000 km (Masovian Voivodeship). Voivodeships are controlled by voivod governments, and their legislatures are called voivodeship sejmiks.


title: Poland

text: The sixteen voivodeships that make up Poland are further divided into "powiaty" (singular "powiat"), second-level units of administration, which are about the same as to a county, district or prefecture in other countries.


title: Poland

text: Almost no Polish literature remains before Christianisation in the 10th century. Polish literature was written in the Latin language during the Middle Ages. The Polish language was accepted as equal to Latin after the Renaissance for literature.


title: Poland

text: Jan Kochanowski was a leading poet of European Renaissance literature in the 16th century. Other great Polish poets include Adam Mickiewicz who wrote "Pan Tadeusz" epic in 1834.


title: Poland

text: Several Polish novelists have won the Nobel prize. Henryk Sienkiewicz won in 19 dramatized versions of famous events in Polish history. Władysław Reymont won a Nobel prize in 1924. He wrote the novel Chłopi. Two polish poets won Nobel prizes as well. One is Wisława Szymborska (1996) and the second Czesław Miłosz (1980).


title: Poland

text: Stanisław Lem is a famous science fiction author in the modern era. His "Solaris" novel was made twice into a feature film.


title: Poland

text: In the past, Poland was inhabited by people from different nations and of different religions (mainly Catholics, Orthodox and Judaism). This changed after 1939, because of the Nazi Holocaust which killed many Polish Jews. After World War II, the country was changed into a communist country, by the Warsaw Pact which included most central European countries and Russia Russia.


title: Poland

text: Today 38,038,000 people live in Poland (2011). In 2002 96.74% of the population call themselves Polish, while 471,500 people (1.23%) claimed another nationality. 774,900 people (2.03%) did not declare any nationality. Nationalities, or ethnic groups in Poland are Silesians, Germans (most in the former Opole Voivodeship), Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Belarusians. The Polish language is part of the West Slavic section of the Slavic languages. It is also the official language of Poland. English and German are the most common second languages studied and spoken.


title: Poland

text: In the past few years, Poland's population has gone down because of an increase in emigration and a sharp drop in the birth rate. In 2006, the census office estimated the total population of Poland at 38,536,869, a very small rise from the 2002 figure of 38,230,080. Since Poland's accession to the European Union, many Polish people have moved to work in Western European countries like the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Some organizations state people have left because of high unemployment (10.5%) and better opportunities for work somewhere else. In April 2007, the Polish population of the United Kingdom had risen to about 300,000 people and estimates predict about 65,000 Polish people living in the Republic of Ireland. However, in recent years strong growth of the Polish economy and the increasing value of Polish currency (PLN) makes many Polish immigrants go back home. In 2007, the number of people leaving the country was lower than people who are coming back. Poland became an attractive place to work for people from other countries (mainly Ukraine).


title: Poland

text: A Polish minority is still present in neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries. The largest number of ethnic Poles outside of the country can be found in the United States.


title: Football

text: Football is a word which could mean one of several sports. The best-known type of football is association football. This is called "soccer" in North America, South Africa, and Australia to avoid confusion with other types of football that are commonly played there.


title: Football

text: The name "football" comes from the two words 'foot' and 'ball'. It is named football because the players of the game walk and often run (on their feet) while playing, as opposed to (for example) polo where the players ride horses. Football is played using a ball, also called a 'football', that is usually shaped like a sphere or an ellipsoid. The ball is often kicked with the foot, but depending on the game, it can also be hit using other parts of the body (in association football) and handling the ball is a part of some other sports known as 'football'. Players can use any part of their body except their arms and hands. Goalies can use every part of their body to keep the ball out of the goal.


title: Football

text: Some elements of football have been seen in many countries, dating back to the second and third century AD in China. The modern games of both rugby football and association football comes from 19th-century England.


title: Football

text: Kicking a ball, in Europe, was described in Britannia (now western Scottish lowlands), in Germania (now Deutchland) and Gallia (now France and northern-central Italy). An evolution goes back to the Middle Ages in Paris. Association football (founded in Richmond, London at the end of 1800) spread to many other parts of Europe, and was brought to the rest of the world with colonization. Today, it is the most popular sport in the world and many people watch it on television, especially the FIFA World Cup that happens every four years.


title: Football

text: Every year there is a Football Club Competition called as Champions League. All the qualified big teams take part. At the end, we have one winner who takes the prestigious UEFA trophy. All big players play for their own teams. Some big players who take part every year are Mbappe, Ronaldo, Messi, Dybala, Neymar and many more.


title: Law

text: Law is a set of rules decided by a particular place or authority meant for the purpose of keeping the peace and security of society.


title: Law

text: Courts or police may enforce this system of rules and punish people who break the laws, such as by paying a fine, or other penalty including jail. In ancient societies, laws were written by leaders, to set out rules on how people can live, work and do business with each other. But many times in history when laws have been on a false basis to benefit few at the expense of society, they have resulted in conflict. To prevent this, in most countries today, laws are written and voted on by groups of politicians in a legislature, such as a parliament or congress, elected (chosen) by the governed peoples. Countries today have a constitution for the overall framework of society and make further laws as needed for matters of detail. Members of society generally have enough freedom within all the "legal" things they can choose to do. An activity is "illegal" if it breaks a law or does not follow the laws.


title: Law

text: A legal code is a written code of laws that are enforced. This may deal with things like police, courts, or punishments. A lawyer, jurist or attorney is a professional who studies and argues the rules of law. In the United States, there are two kinds of attorneys - "transactional" attorneys who write contracts and "litigators" who go to court. In the United Kingdom, these professionals are called solicitors and barristers respectively.


title: Law

text: The "Rule of Law" is the law which says that government can only legally use its power in a way the government and the people agree on. It limits the powers a government has, as agreed in a country's constitution. The "Rule of Law" prevents dictatorship and protects the rights of the people. When leaders enforce the legal code honestly, even on themselves and their friends, this is an example of the rule of law being followed. "The rule of law", wrote the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350 BC, "is better than the rule of any individual."


title: Law

text: Culture is usually a major source of the principles behind many laws, and people also tend to trust the ideas based on family and social habits. In many countries throughout history, religion and religious books like the Vedas, Bible or the Koran have been a major source of law.


title: Law

text: Civil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. Civil law is based on legislation that is found in constitutions or statutes passed by government. The secondary part of civil law is the legal approaches that are part of custom. In civil law governments, judges do not generally have much power, and most of the laws and legal precedent are created by Members of Parliament.


title: Law

text: Common law is based on the decisions made by judges in past court cases. It comes from England and it became part of almost every country that once belonged to the British Empire, except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec. It is also the predominant form of law in the United States, where many laws called statutes are written by Congress, but many more legal rules exist from the decisions of the courts. Common law had its beginnings in the Middle Ages, when King John was forced by his barons to sign a document called the Magna Carta.


title: Law

text: Religious law is law based on religious beliefs or books. Examples include the Jewish Halakha, Islamic Sharia, and Christian Canon law.


title: Law

text: Until the 1700s, Sharia law was the main legal system throughout the Muslim world. In some Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, the whole legal systems still base their law on Sharia law. Islamic law is often criticised because it often has harsh penalties for crimes. A serious criticism is the judgement of the European Court that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".


title: Law

text: The Turkish Refah Party's sharia-based "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The Court decided Refah's plan would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy".


title: Law

text: The history of law is closely connected to the development of human civilizations. Ancient Egyptian law developed in 3000 BC. In 1760 BC King Hammurabi, took ancient Babylonian law and organized it, and had it chiseled in stone for the public to see in the marketplace. These laws became known as the Code of Hammurabi.


title: Law

text: The Torah from the Old Testament is an old body of law. It was written around 1280 BC. It has moral rules such as the Ten Commandments, which tell people what things are not permitted. Sometimes people try to change the law. For example, if prostitution is illegal, they try to make it legal.


title: Law

text: In democracies, the people in a country usually choose people called politicians to represent them in a legislature. Examples of legislatures include the Houses of Parliament in London, the Congress in Washington, D.C., the Bundestag in Berlin, the Duma in Moscow and the Assemblée nationale in Paris. Most legislatures have two chambers or houses, a 'lower house' and an 'upper house'. To pass legislation, a majority of Members of Parliament must vote for a bill in each house. The legislature is the branch of government that writes laws, and votes on whether they will be approved.


title: Law

text: The judiciary is a group of judges who resolve people's disputes and determine whether people who are charged with crimes are guilty. In some jurisdictions the judge does not find guilt or innocence but instead directs a jury, how to interpret facts from a legal perspective, but the jury determines the facts based on evidence presented to them and finds the guilt or innocences of the charged person. Most countries of common law and civil law systems have a system of appeals courts, up to a supreme authority such as the Supreme Court or the High Court. The highest courts usually have the power to remove laws that are unconstitutional (which go against the constitution).


title: Law

text: The executive is the governing center of political authority. In most democratic countries, the executive is elected from people who are in the legislature. This group of elected people is called the cabinet. In France, the US and Russia, the executive branch has a President which exists separately from the legislature.


title: Law

text: The executive suggests new laws and deals with other countries. As well, the executive usually controls the military, the police, and the bureaucracy. The executive selects ministers, or secretaries of state to control departments such as the health department or the department of justice.


title: Law

text: In many jurisdictions the Head of State does not take part in the day-to-day governance of the jurisdiction and takes a largely ceremonial role. This is the case in many Commonwealth nations where the Head of State, usually a Governor almost exclusively acts "on the advice" of the head of the Executive (e.g. the Prime Minister, First Minister or Premier). The primary legal role of the Head of State in these jurisdictions is to act as a check or balance against the Executive, as the Head of State has the rarely exercised power to dissolve the legislature, call elections and dismiss ministers.


title: Law

text: The police enforce the criminal laws by arresting people suspected of breaking the law. Bureaucrats are the government workers and government organizations that do work for the government. Bureaucrats work within a system of rules, and they make their decisions in writing.


title: Law

text: Lawyers are people who have learned about laws. Lawyers give people advice about their legal rights and duties and represent people in court. To become a lawyer, a person has to complete a two- or three-year university program at a law school and pass an entrance examination. Lawyers work in law firms, for the government, for companies, or by themselves.


title: Law

text: Civil society is the people and groups that are not part of government that try to protect people against human rights abuses and try to protect freedom of speech and other individual rights. Organizations that are part of civil society include political parties, debating clubs, trade unions, human rights organizations, newspapers and charities.


title: Law

text: "Corporations are among the organizations that use the legal system to further their goals. Like the others, they use means such as campaign donations and advertising to persuade people that they are right. Corporations also engage in commerce and make new things such as automobiles, vaporisers/e-cigarettes, and Unmanned aerial vehicles (i.e. "drones") that the old laws are not well equipped to deal with. Corporations also makes use of a set of rules and regulations to ensure their employees remain loyal to them (usually presented in a legal contract), and that any disobedience towards these rules are considered uncivilized and therefore given grounds for immediate dismissal.


title: Mandelbrot set

text: The Mandelbrot set is an example of a fractal in mathematics. It is named after Benoît Mandelbrot, a Polish-French-American mathematician. The Mandelbrot set is important for chaos theory. The edging of the set shows a self-similarity, which is perfect, but because of the minute detail, it looks like it evens out.


title: Mandelbrot set

text: The Mandelbrot set can be explained with the equation formula_1. In that equation, formula_2 and formula_3 are complex numbers and formula_4 is zero or a positive integer (natural number). Starting with formula_5, formula_2 is in the Mandelbrot set if the absolute value of formula_7 never becomes larger than a certain number (that number depends on formula_2), no matter how large formula_4 gets.


title: Mandelbrot set

text: Mandelbrot was one of the first to use computer graphics to create and display fractal geometric images, leading to his discovering the Mandelbrot set in 1979. That was because he had access to IBM's computers. He was able to show how visual complexity can be created from simple rules. He said that things typically considered to be "rough", a "mess" or "chaotic", like clouds or shorelines, actually had a "degree of order". The equation formula_1 was known long before Benoit Mandelbrot used a computer to visualize it.


title: Mandelbrot set

text: Images are created by applying the equation to each pixel in an iterative process, using the pixel's position in the image for the number 'c'. 'c' is obtained by mapping the position of the pixel in the image relative to the position of the point on the complex plane.


title: Mandelbrot set

text: For example, if formula_11 then the sequence is formula_12 which goes to infinity. Therefore, 1 is not an element of the Mandelbrot set, and thus is not coloured black.


title: Mandelbrot set

text: On the other hand, if formula_2 is equal to the square root of -1, also known as i, then the sequence is formula_14 which does not go to infinity and so it belongs to the Mandelbrot set.


title: Mandelbrot set

text: When graphed to show the entire Set, the resultant image is striking, pretty, and quite recognizable.


title: Mandelbrot set

text: Multibrot is a generalization that allows any exponent: formula_15. These sets are called Multibrot sets. The Multibrot set for "d" = 2 is the Mandelbrot set.


title: Amy Fisher

text: Amy Elizabeth Fisher (born August 21, 1974) is an American woman. She became known in the media as the Long Island Lolita in 1992. That year, at age seventeen, she shot Mary Jo Buttafuoco, the wife of Joey Buttafuoco. She was originally charged with attempted murder. Fisher later pleaded guilty to first-degree aggravated assault. She was in prison for just under seven years. In 1999, she was paroled. Fisher later became a writer, webcam model and a pornographic actress.


title: Amy Fisher

text: Fisher became very jealous of Joey Buttafuoco's wife. Fisher then got a .25 caliber handgun. When the wife answered the door, Fisher told her that Joey Buttafuoco was having an affair with Fisher's (imaginary) younger sister. The conversation lasted 15 minutes. Mary Jo got angry. She then told Fisher to leave and turned her back to return to the house. That was when Fisher took out the gun, struck Mary Jo with it and shot her in the head. Fisher dropped the gun and the shirt. She came back for them.


title: Amy Fisher

text: The police interviewed Joey Buttafuoco. He told them Amy Fisher could be the shooter. When his wife, Mary Jo became conscious, she identified Fisher as the shooter.


title: Amy Fisher

text: According to Alan Ball, Fisher's story was an inspiration to him in writing the script for the 1999 film "American Beauty".


title: Laptop

text: A laptop is a computer which is easy to carry around. A modern laptop is self-contained, with a screen, keyboard and pointing device (like a touchpad), plus usually, speakers, a microphone and a camera. This is all powered by a built-in rechargeable battery, however, the user can also plug the laptop in, to use it and recharge the battery at the same time. Also, most other external devices can be attached if required. The laptop screen folds down over the keyboard, along a hinge, for carrying.


title: Laptop

text: The portable microcomputer, called the "Portal," from the French company R2E Micral CCMC, officially appeared in September 1980 at the SICOB show in Paris. The Portal had a keyboard with 58 alphanumeric keys and 11 numeric keys (separate blocks), a 32-character LED screen, a floppy disk drive, a printer and a 220V power supply. It weighed 12 kg (26 pounds) and its dimensions were 45 cm × 45 cm × 15 cm (18 in x 18 in x 6 in). It had no hinge and its operating system was Prolog.


title: Laptop

text: Some historians, however, count as the first "true" portable the "Osborne 1". It was created in 1981 by Adam Osborne who was also a former book publisher. He was the founder of Osborne Computer. His portable computer weighed 11 kg (24 pounds) and had a five-inch (13 cm) screen, a serial port and two floppy disk drives. Several programs were included with the Osborne 1. Customers could also buy a 1-hour battery pack.


title: Laptop

text: The first "laptop-sized notebook computer" was the Epson HX-20, released in July 1982. It had a four-line, liquid crystal display (LCD) screen, a rechargeable battery, and a receipt-size printer, in a 1.6 kg (3.5 lb) body, the size of an A4 notebook. It was described as a "laptop" and "notebook" computer in its patent.


title: Laptop

text: The first computer to use the "clamshell" design which is used in almost all modern laptop designs, was the GRiD Systems Corporation's "GriD Compass, released in April 1982". This computer was one fifth the weight of any other computer used at that time, however, it required mains power, because it had no battery. Despite this, they were very popular with the Military of the United States amd NASA, who used the laptop in its Space Shuttle program, in the 1980s.


title: Laptop

text: Also in 1982, two computer designers from Microsoft, Kazuhiko Nishi and Bill Gates, worked on a new portable computer. The prototype was presented to Radio Shack, who agreed to start making it. It was launched in 1983, as the TRS-80 Model 100, which had an eight-line LCD screen. In 1986, the improved version, called TRS Model 200, was released, which had a much larger, fold-down LCD screen, and looked pretty much like the laptops that we know today.


title: Laptop

text: The next few years saw the appearance of a laptop PC from Compaq Computers and the first notebook-style laptop from NEC called NEC UltraLite. The year 1989 was quite successful for laptop producers. First, there was Apple Computer that developed the Macintosh Portable, the evolution of which turned it into the PowerBook. Then a company named Zenith Data Systems introduced its Zenith MinisPort – a portable computer weighing 6 pounds (2.5 kg). Finally, there was Compaq Computers, who released the Compaq LTE.


title: Laptop

text: The development of laptops is continuing, with various upgrades and additional functions added, including variouspointing devices and disk drives, colour screens and touch screens;all while the devices tended to get smaller and lighter. Notebook or netbook computers are small laptops with screens of about 10 inches (25cm) or less, but no disk drives. Despite these advances, after 2010, people bought fewer laptops because of the popularity of tablet computers, which are even more portable.


title: Laptop

text: In 2005, an organisation called One Laptop Per Child started trying to improve education using cheap laptops.


title: Types of buses

text: A bus is a large wheeled vehicle meant to carry many passengers along with the driver. It is larger than a car. The name is a shortened version of omnibus, which means "for everyone" in Latin. Buses used to be called omnibuses, but people now simply call them "buses".


title: Types of buses

text: An open top bus is a double-decker or single-decker bus, which has been built without a roof or has had the roof removed. Some open top buses have half a roof at the front and some don't have one at all. Open top buses are usually used on tourist and sightseeing services. It's mainly found in Hong Kong and United Kingdom.


title: Unit of measurement

text: Units of measurement give "standards" so that the numbers from our measurements refer to the same thing. Measurement is a process that uses numbers to describe a physical quantity. We can measure how big things are, how warm they are, how heavy they are, and many other features.


title: Unit of measurement

text: For example, the metre is a standard unit to measure length. Before 1982, one meter was defined as the distance between two markers on a special metal rod. During that time, saying that something had a length of two meters meant that it was exactly twice as long as the rod used to define the meter. Now scientists define the meter by using the speed of light.


title: Unit of measurement

text: In the past, different units were used in different countries. Today, most units of measure fall into one of three systems:


title: Unit of measurement

text: The older two, the British imperial system and the closely related US customary system use the foot as a measure of length, the pound as a measure for weight, and the second as a measure for time. They use other units as well. The number of smaller units that make the bigger units in these two systems varies: For example, there are 12 inches in a foot and 16 ounces in a pound.


title: Unit of measurement

text: The newest and most used of the three systems is the metric system or SI system which use 10, 100 or 1000 of a smaller unit to make a bigger one. For instance, there are 100 centimetres in one metre or 1000 grams in one kilogram. This system uses the metre for length and kilogram for mass.


title: Unit of measurement

text: The common, non-metric measurement of time does not follow this pattern. The second is the basis for time measurement, and it is based on the sexagesimal system: 60 seconds make one minute, and 60 minutes make one hour.


title: Unit of measurement

text: The property of the thing being measured is given as a number of units of measure. The number only has sense when the unit of measurement is also given. By that number it represents a measurement of something.


title: Unit of measurement

text: For example, The Eiffel Tower in Paris, France is tall. That is, the distance from the top to the bottom of the Eiffel Tower is 300 metres. The property of the Eiffel Tower being measured is a distance. The number measured is 300. 300 of what? The unit of measurement is the metre.


title: Unit of measurement

text: Standards are usually special objects used to make measurements. A metre stick is an example of a standard. When you measure something with a metre stick, you can compare that measurement to anything else that is also measured with a metre stick. This makes measurement easier and comparisons between measurements easier.


title: Unit of measurement

text: Science, medicine and engineering use smaller units of measurement to measure small things with less error. It is easy to measure large things using larger units of measurement. Astronomical measurements like the width of a galaxy use light years and parsecs.


title: Unit of measurement

text: There are many different standards and units used all over the world. Some became less used during the 19th and 20th centuries.


title: Unit of measurement

text: The metric system is a system of measurement used in most of the world. It is also called the International System of Units, or SI.


title: Unit of measurement

text: Imperial units were defined in the United Kingdom in 1824. These units were based on similar units that were in use before 1824. Imperial units were used in countries that were part of the British Empire. While many of these countries, including the United Kingdom, have officially adopted SI, the older system of units are still used.


title: Unit of measurement

text: US customary units are the official units used in the US. These are similar to the British imperial units and also based on the units used in the United Kingdom from before American Independence. Some of the units are different to the British ones. For example, there are 20 imperial fluid ounces in an imperial pint, but 16 US fluid ounces in a US pint. Additionally, the US fluid ounce is slightly bigger than the imperial fluid ounce. The result is that US pints and gallons are smaller than imperial pints and gallons. In the United States, the metric system has been legal for trade since 1866 but other measurements such as the gallon, inch, and the pound are still widely used.


title: Unit of measurement

text: The ounces for weight and volume are different. Even when measuring water, the number of ounces of weight is not the same as the number of fluid ounces.


title: Unit of measurement

text: The unit of time is the second. The minute (60 seconds) and hour (60 minutes or 3600 seconds) are larger units. A day is defined as 24 hours, but the Earth’s rotation has slowed. The difference is corrected at the end of some years with what is called a leap second. A week (7 days) and month are also standard units.


title: Unit of measurement

text: A unit of measurement that applies to money is called a unit of account. This is normally a currency issued by a country. For instance, the United States use dollars. Each dollar is 100 cents. The United Kingdom uses pounds. Each pound is 100 pennies or pence. The European Union uses the Euro. There are 100 cents in the Euro.


title: Unit of measurement

text: The units for electricity, magnetism and radiation were mostly invented in the 19th century when scientists learned how to measure them. Most were originally given imperial systems, but it is usual to use metric systems for them today.


title: Osage Beach, Missouri

text: Osage Beach is a city in Camden and Miller counties in the U.S. state of Missouri. Most of the city is in Camden County, while a small eastern sliver is in Miller County. The population was 4,351 at the 2010 census.


title: Language

text: Language is the normal way humans communicate. Only humans use language, though other animals communicate through other means. The study of language is called linguistics.


title: Language

text: Human language has syntax, a set of rules for connecting words together to make statements and questions. Language can also be changed, by adding new words, for example, to describe new things. Other animals may inherit a set of calls which have pre-set functions.


title: Language

text: Language may be done by speech or by writing or by moving the hands to make signs. It follows that language is "not" just any way of communicating. Even some human communication is not language: see non-verbal communication. Humans also use language for thinking.


title: Language

text: The capacity to learn and use language is inherited. Normally, all humans are born with this capability. "Which" language is learned by a child depends on which language is spoken by the child's community. The "capacity" is inherited, but the particular language is learned.


title: Language

text: Children have a special period, from about 18 months to about four years, which is critical for learning the language. If this is seriously disrupted, then their language skills will be damaged. Older people learn differently, so they seldom learn a second language as well as they learn their native language.


title: Language

text: Mathematics and computer science use created languages called formal languages (like computer programming languages), but these may or may not be 'true' languages. Mathematics itself is seen as a language by many. Some people consider musical notation to be a way of writing the musical language.


title: Language

text: Chinese is the language with the most native speakers in the world, but Chinese is not really a language. It is a close family of dialects, some of which are as different as Romance languages are from one another.


title: Language

text: Greek is one of the world's oldest surviving languages. In its modern form, Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. About 13.5 million people speak the Greek language.


title: Language

text: English is often called "the international language", or lingua franca. It is the main second language of the world and the international language of science, travel, technology, business, diplomacy, and entertainment. French had a similar status until the 20th century, and other languages had it at other times.


title: Language

text: Some languages are made up so that a lot of people around the world can learn them, without the new languages being tied to any specific country or place. These are called constructed languages also known as Oral Sects. One of the most popular of these languages is Esperanto, which is sometimes called "La Internacia Lingvo," or "The International Language." Another of these languages is called Volapük, which was popular about a hundred years ago but is much less popular now. It has mostly been replaced by languages like Esperanto, Interlingua, and Ido. Dialects are basically other versions of a language. For example, Hoffish is a dialect of Swedish.


title: Language

text: Part of the reason that Volapük became unpopular is that some sounds are hard to say for people who speak Spanish or English, two of the most widely spoken languages in the world.


title: Language

text: Some languages are only spoken by closed ethnic groups such as the Romani language, which is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by only gypsies.


title: Papaya

text: Papaya is a tall herbaceous plant in the genus Carica; its edible fruit is also called papaya. It is native to the tropical region of America, mainly from southern Mexico to Central America. Now these plants are grown in all tropical regions of the world.


title: Papaya

text: Papayas are plants of tropical regions and, for growth and fruit production, they need a warm climate. They cannot live with low temperatures.


title: Papaya

text: This is now the only species in its genus. As a result of genetic research, the other species were put in three new genera.


title: Papaya

text: The genus "Carica" was given that name by Linnaeus because the leaves of these plants are like those of the common fig ("Ficus carica").


title: Papaya

text: The common name comes from the Taíno word "papáia" that was changed in Spanish to papaya, the word most used worldwide, with some changes. In Australia and some countries of the Caribbean, the fruit is called "papaw" or "pawpaw" but another North American plant, "Asimina triloba" of the Annonaceae family has also that name.


title: Papaya

text: The French name for the fruit is "papaye" and "papayer" for the plant. In Portuguese, the fruit is called "mamão", "papaia" or "ababaia" and the tree "mamoeiro" or "papaeira". In Kerala it commonly known as Kapanga - കപ്പങ്ങ. In Spanish, there are other names besides papaya. In Cuba, it is called "fruta bomba" except in the eastern provinces where papaya is used. In the Dominican Republic, Los Llanos (Venezuela) and Eastern Central Colombia, the name is "lechosa". In Argentina and Paraguay, the fruit is called "mamón".


title: Papaya

text: It is a large plant, like a tree, usually without branches; it is a herbaceous plant because the stem does not have much wood and remains soft and green until its death. The single stem grows from 5 to 10 m tall with all the leaves on the top. The leaves are large, 50–70 cm wide.


title: Papaya

text: Some plants have perfect (with female and male organs) flowers but other plants have flowers with only one sex (female or male).


title: Papaya

text: Generally, the fruit is oval to nearly round and, in some cases, like a big pear. Fruits are 15-50 cm long and 10–20 cm wide, and weigh up to 9 kg.


title: Papaya

text: The skin of the fruit is thin and tough; it is not eaten because is too bitter. First, the skin is green but it changes to yellow in ripe fruits, ready to be eaten. In a ripe fruit, the pulp is yellow, orange, pink, and even light red. Inside the fruit, there are many small black seeds.


title: Papaya

text: Ripe papayas are eaten fresh, after taking out the skin and the seeds; sometimes, they are cut in small pieces and mixed with other fruits for a fruit salad. Papayas that are not completely ripe can be cut in pieces and cooked with sugar and eaten as dessert. In tropical regions, it is very popular to take papaya juice, after taking the skin and seeds out; this juice can be mixed with milk to make smoothies.


title: Papaya

text: Green papayas, those that are not ripe, are eaten in some Asiatic countries in salads, curries and soups but they should be boiled before eating them. Young leaves and stems are also cooked as a vegetable. Green papaya is used in Thai cuisine, both raw and cooked.


title: Papaya

text: The papaya is a source of iron and calcium; a good source of vitamins A, B and Riboflavin and an excellent source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid).


title: Papaya

text: The latex (a sap like milk) from the green fruits, the leaves and the stem are rich in papain, an enzyme that breaks down tough meat fibers. Papain is a component in products ("meat tenderizers") sold in shops and that is used to make meat softer before cooking it.


title: Fire

text: Fire is a chemical reaction that gives off light and heat. Fire happens when a material rapidly oxidizes, or loses electrons, and releases a great amount of energy. Flames are only the portion of the fire that gives off visible light.


title: Fire

text: Fire is sometimes useful, but also very dangerous because it can cause houses, trees and other things to burn to ashes. Forest fires are very harmful. They can destroy a huge area in a matter of minutes. Every year people die by accident from fire.


title: Fire

text: Fire can be started by heating a material in many different ways. Once the material is heated past a temperature called the ignition point, it will start to burn, beginning a fire. Some common ways to start a fire include rubbing sticks together very rapidly, making sparks by hitting flint with steel, or using matches or a lighter. The Sun does not make fire. Instead, it crushes together hydrogen atoms to release energy through a process called nuclear fusion.


title: Fire

text: Fire can be very useful if it is treated carefully. It has always been very important for people to be able to make fire. People need its heat to keep warm on cold days. It is also used to cook meats. Its light helped people see in dark places and scare away predators.


title: Fire

text: If human skin touches fire, the skin may burn, which can take some time to heal and to remove the scar. If a fire gives off a large amount of smoke, a person's mouth should be covered with a wet cloth, since people can faint when they breathe in too much smoke. Even a spark, such as from a cigarette, should be kept away from any fuels that very easily catch and spread fire, like gasoline, or cause an explosion, like gunpowder.


title: Fire

text: If fire is not treated carefully, it can be very dangerous. One wildfire sometimes burns thousands of square miles or kilometers. Forests can burn down if fires are not controlled. Every year, large areas of forests are destroyed because of fire. This usually happens in the summer.


title: Fire

text: In some camps, there is a camp fire; around the camp fire, there are usually some rocks to stop it from spreading. In buildings, fire shutters can be used. Fire shutters contain a fire. With the help of effective shutters, a fire cannot spread from room to room in a building.


title: Fire

text: Fire needs three things to burn: oxygen, fuel, and heat. Fuels can be wood, tinder, coal, oil, or any other substance that will easily oxidize. Once a fire is burning, it creates its own heat. This lets the fire keep burning on its own for some time.


title: Fire

text: Firefighters are people with special training to control and stop fires. They also rescue victims of fire related incidents.


title: Fire

text: However, some fires cannot be smothered, such as magnesium flames. They can burn in carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and some other elemental compounds. However, they cannot burn in noble gases such as helium.


title: Fire

text: Fires are usually combustion reactions that take carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The products are commonly water and carbon dioxide, although there are other examples that avoid this generalization, such as burning magnesium in air, which makes magnesium oxide.


title: Fire

text: Fires can occur in many ways. There are many types of fire. There are wood fires, gas fires, metal fires, and more.


title: Fire

text: Wood fires can usually be put out with water because water absorbs heat, but metal fires are too hot for water to absorb enough heat to put out the fire. If water is used to extinguish ("put out") a metal fire, the water will simply evaporate. For metal fires, sand can be used to cover the fire and keep it from obtaining oxygen. A fire extinguisher can put out most fires.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System. It is the fifth planet from the Sun. Jupiter is a gas giant, because it is so large and made of gas. The other gas giants are Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter's mass is 1.8986×10 kg, or about 318 times the mass of Earth. This is more than twice the mass of all the other planets in the Solar System put together.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter can be seen even without using a telescope. The ancient Romans named the planet after their King of Gods, Jupiter (Latin: "Iuppiter"). Jupiter is the third brightest object in the night sky. Only the Earth's moon and Venus are brighter.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter has 79 moons. About 50 of them are very small—less than five kilometres wide. The four largest moons of Jupiter are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. They are called the Galilean moons, because Galileo Galilei discovered them. Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System. Its diameter is larger than the planet Mercury's.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter was named for the king of the gods. The Greeks called him Zeus. The Romans called him Jupiter. The symbol for Jupiter, , is from the Greek zeta. It has a horizontal stroke. This stands as an abbreviation for "Zeus".


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter is the biggest planet in the Solar System. Its diameter is 142,984 km. This is eleven times bigger than the diameter of Earth.


title: Jupiter

text: The atmosphere near the surface of Jupiter is about 88 to 92% hydrogen, 8 to 12% helium, and 1% other gases.


title: Jupiter

text: The lower atmosphere is so heated and the pressure so high that helium changes to liquid. It rains down onto the planet. Based on spectroscopy, Jupiter seems to be made of the same gases as Saturn. It is different from Neptune or Uranus. Those two planets have much less hydrogen and helium gas.


title: Jupiter

text: The very high temperatures and pressures in Jupiter's core mean scientists cannot tell what materials are there. This cannot be found out, because it is not possible to create the same amount of pressure on Earth.


title: Jupiter

text: Above the unknown inner core is an outer core. The outer core of Jupiter is thick, liquid hydrogen. The pressure is high enough to make the hydrogen solid, but then it melts because of the heat.


title: Jupiter

text: The planet Jupiter is sometimes called a failed star because it is made of the same elements (hydrogen and helium) as is the Sun, but it is not large enough to have the internal pressure and temperature necessary to cause hydrogen to fuse to helium, the energy source that powers the sun and most other stars.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter is twice as massive as all the other planets in the Solar System put together. It gives off more heat than it gets from the Sun. Jupiter is 11 times the width of Earth and 318 times as massive. The volume of Jupiter is 1,317 times the volume of Earth. In other words, 1,317 Earth-sized objects could fit inside it.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter has many bands of clouds going horizontally across its surface. The light parts are zones and the darker are belts. The zones and belts often interact with each other. This causes huge storms. Wind speeds of 360 kilometres per hour (km/h) are common on Jupiter. To show the difference the strongest tropical storms on Earth are about 100 km/h.


title: Jupiter

text: Most of the clouds on Jupiter are made of ammonia. There may also be clouds of water vapor like clouds on Earth. Spacecrafts such as Voyager 1 have seen lightning on the surface of the planet. Scientists think it was water vapor because lightning needs water vapor. These lightning bolts have been measured as up 1,000 times as powerful as those on Earth.


title: Jupiter

text: The brown and orange colors are caused when sunlight passes through or refracts with the many gases in the atmosphere.


title: Jupiter

text: One of the biggest features in Jupiter's atmosphere is the Great Red Spot. It is a huge storm which is bigger than the entire Earth. It is on record since at least 1831, and as early as 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two smaller "red spots" next to the Great Red Spot. Storms can last for hours or as long as hundreds of years in the case of the Great Red Spot.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter has a magnetic field like Earth's but 11 times stronger. It also has a "magnetosphere" much bigger and stronger than Earth's. The field traps radiation belts much stronger than Earth's Van Allen radiation belts, strong enough to endanger any spacecraft travelling past or to Jupiter. The magnetic field is probably caused by the large amounts of liquid metallic hydrogen in the core of Jupiter. The four largest moons of Jupiter and many of the smaller ones orbit or go around the planet within the magnetic field. This protects them from the solar wind. Jupiter's magnetic field is so large, it reaches the orbit of Saturn 7.7 million miles (12 million km) away. The Earth's magnetosphere does not even cover its moon, less than a quarter of a million miles (400,000 km) away. Jupiter also experiences large aurorae, which happen when charged particles from the volcanic moon Io land in its atmosphere.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter also has a thin planetary ring system. These rings are difficult to see and were not discovered until 1979 by NASA's Voyager 1 probe. There are four parts to Jupiter's rings. The closest ring to Jupiter is called the Halo Ring. The next ring is called the Main Ring. It is about wide and only thick. The Main and Halo rings of Jupiter are made of small, dark particles. The third and fourth rings, called the "Gossamer" Rings, are transparent (see through) and are made from microscopic debris and dust. This dust probably comes from small meteors striking the surface of Jupiter's moons. The third ring is called the Amalthea Gossamer Ring, named after moon Amalthea. The outer ring, the Thebe Gossamer Ring, is named after the moon Thebe. The outer edge of this ring is about from Jupiter.


title: Jupiter

text: The orbit of a planet is the time and path it takes to go around the Sun. In the amount of time it takes for Jupiter to orbit the Sun one time, the Earth orbits the Sun 11.86 times. One year on Jupiter is equal to 11.86 years on Earth. The average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million kilometres. This is five times the distance between Earth and the Sun. Jupiter is not tilted on its axis as much as Earth or Mars. This causes it to have no seasons, for example summer or winter. Jupiter rotates, or spins around very quickly. This causes the planet to bulge in the middle. Jupiter is the fastest spinning planet in the Solar System. It completes one rotation or spin in 10 hours. Because of the bulge, the length of the equator of Jupiter is much longer than the length from pole to pole.


title: Jupiter

text: The orbit of Jupiter is unusual among star systems. It is usual for giant planets to be much nearer to their stars. Because it is not, it suggests an unusual explanation is needed for the arrangement of the planets in the Solar System.


title: Jupiter

text: These details are based on a new model of the early Solar System developed by an international team that includes NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter is the third brightest object in the night sky, after the Moon and Venus. The first person known to really study the planet was Galileo Galilei in 1610. He was the first person to see Jupiter's moons Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. This was because he used a telescope, unlike anyone before him.


title: Jupiter

text: No new moons were discovered for more than two hundred years. In 1892, astronomer E.E Barnard found a new moon using his observatory in California. He called the moon Amalthea. It was the last of Jupiter's 67 moons to be discovered by human observation through a telescope.


title: Jupiter

text: In 1994, bits of the comet Shoemaker Levy-9 hit Jupiter. It was the first time people saw a collision between two Solar System objects.


title: Jupiter

text: Seven spacecraft have flown past Jupiter since 1973. These were Pioneer 10 (1973), Pioneer 11 (1974), Voyagers 1 and 2 (1979), Ulysses (1992 and 2004), Cassini (2000) and New Horizons (2007). Two spacecraft have been brought into orbit around Jupiter. These were Galileo (1995) and Juno (2011).


title: Jupiter

text: The Pioneer missions were the first spacecraft to take close up pictures of Jupiter and its moons. Five years later, the two Voyager spacecraft discovered over 20 new moons. They captured photo evidence of lightning on the night side of Jupiter.


title: Jupiter

text: The Ulysses probe was sent to study the Sun. It only went to Jupiter after it had finished its main mission. Ulysses had no cameras so it took no photographs.


title: Jupiter

text: In 2006, the Cassini spacecraft, on its way to Saturn, took some very good, very clear pictures of the planet. Cassini also found a moon and took a picture of it but it was too far away to show the details.


title: Jupiter

text: The Galileo mission in 1995 was the first spacecraft to go into orbit around Jupiter. It flew around the planet for seven years and studied the four biggest moons. It launched a probe into the planet to get information about Jupiter's atmosphere. The probe travelled to a depth of about 150 km before it was crushed by the pressure of all the gas above it. The Galileo spacecraft was also crushed in 2003 when NASA steered the craft into the planet. They did this so that the craft could not crash into Europa, a moon which scientists think might have life.


title: Jupiter

text: NASA have sent another spacecraft to Jupiter called Juno. It was launched on August 5, 2011 and arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016. NASA published some results from the Juno mission in March 2018. Several other missions have been planned to send spacecraft to Jupiter's moons Europa and Callisto. One called JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) was cancelled in 2006 because it cost too much money.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter has 80 known moons. The four largest were seen by Galileo with his primitive telescope, and nine more can be seen from Earth with modern telescopes. The rest of the moons have been identified by spacecraft. The smallest moon (S/2003 J 12) is only one kilometre across. The largest, Ganymede, has a diameter of 5,262 kilometres. It is bigger than the planet Mercury. The other three Galilean moons are Io, Europa and Callisto. Because of the way they orbit Jupiter, gravity affects three of these moons greatly. The friction caused by the gravity of Europa and Ganymede pulling on Io makes it the most volcanic object in the Solar System. It has over 400 volcanoes, more than three times as many as Earth.


title: Jupiter

text: The grand tack hypothesis is that Jupiter disturbed all the inner planets before moving out to its present position. The following account is about its present position.


title: Jupiter

text: Jupiter's large gravity has had an effect on the Solar System. Jupiter protects the inner planets from comets by pulling them towards itself. Because of this, Jupiter has the most comet impacts in the Solar System.


title: Jupiter

text: Two groups of asteroids, called Trojan asteroids, have settled into Jupiter's orbit round the Sun. One group is called the "Trojans" and the other group is called the "Greeks". They go around the Sun at the same time as Jupiter.


title: Donald Trump

text: Donald John Trump (born ) is an American businessman, media personality and politician. He was the 45th president of the United States from 2017 to 2021.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump was the chairman and president of The Trump Organization. Much of his money was made in real estate in New York City, Las Vegas, and Atlantic City. He used to own the Miss Universe pageant. He was the star in his own reality show "The Apprentice". In October 2019, Trump changed the state he officially lived in from New York to Florida.


title: Donald Trump

text: In June 2015, Trump said that he would run for President of the United States in the 2016 presidential election. Starting mid-July, polls showed that Trump was the front-runner for the Republican Party, ahead of Ted Cruz. This was true even after much criticism from his party because of what he said about illegal immigration, Muslims, and ISIS. His campaign was supported by mostly middle-class and rural working class families. It gained opposition from Democrats, some Republicans, business people, some world leaders and the pope.


title: Donald Trump

text: On May 4, 2016, Trump became the expected Republican Party nominee for president. Trump then was in the election against Democrat Hillary Clinton (former Secretary of State, U.S. Senator, and First Lady of the United States) in the general election. He won this election on November 9, 2016, after a close race with Clinton. Each of them needed 270 electoral votes to win. Trump had 304 while Clinton had 227. He was inaugurated as the 45th president on January 20, 2017, at 70 years old.


title: Donald Trump

text: On September 24, 2019, Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi said that the House of Representatives would start an impeachment inquiry into Trump. On October 31, 2019, the House voted 232–196 to start the impeachment process. On December 16, the House Judiciary Committee released a report saying that criminal bribery and wire fraud was the reason to charge Trump with abuse of power. The house voted to impeach Trump in December 2019, making him the third president in American history to be impeached. He was acquitted by the Senate in February 2020.


title: Donald Trump

text: In November 2020, Trump lost his re-election to former Vice President Joe Biden after the 2020 election. He became the first president since George H. W. Bush in 1992 to lose his re-election. However, he refused to agree with the result and said he won the election by a big amount. He also sued states where Biden won. In January 2021, Trump controversially made a telephone call with Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger. In the call, he was reported to have tried to change the election results. A few days later, his supporters rioted at the United States Capitol, which killed five people. This caused the United States House of Representatives to impeach Trump again. This made Trump the only president to be impeached twice. The United States Senate voted to acquit him of all charges.


title: Donald Trump

text: Donald John Trump was born at Jamaica Hospital Medical Center in Queens, New York City. He is the son of Fred Trump and his wife Mary Anne (née MacLeod). They married in 1936. His mother was born on the Isle of Lewis, off the west coast of Scotland. Donald was one of five children. Donald's oldest brother, Fred Jr., died in 1981 at the age of 43, due to an alcohol addiction. Trump's sister, Maryanne, is a judge in New York. Trump's father's parents were German immigrants.


title: Donald Trump

text: His grandfather, Frederick Trump, immigrated to the United States in 1885. He became a naturalized American citizen in 1892. Frederick married Elisabeth Christ (October 10, 1880 – June 6, 1966) at Kallstadt, State of Bavaria, Germany, on August 26, 1902. They had three children. He studied at Fordham University until transferring to the University of Pennsylvania.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump was not drafted during the Vietnam War. This was due to four college deferments and one medical deferment. In an interview with "The New York Times", he said his medical deferment was because of heel spurs.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump began his career at his father's real estate company, Elizabeth Trump & Son. He later renamed the company The Trump Organization, which has its headquarters at 40 Wall Street. The company focused on middle-class rental housing in Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. One of Trump's first projects, while he was still in college, was the revitalization of the foreclosed Swifton Village apartment complex in Cincinnati, Ohio. His father had purchased it for $5.7 million in 1962. Trump became closely involved in the project. With a $500,000 investment, he turned the 1200-unit complex with a 66 percent vacancy rate to 100 percent occupancy within two years. In 1972, the Trump Organization sold Swifton Village for $6 million.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump has developed many real estate projects. They include Trump International Hotel and Tower in Honolulu, Trump International Hotel and Tower in Chicago, Trump International Hotel and Tower in Toronto, and Trump Tower in Tampa. In Fort Lauderdale, Florida, one Trump construction project was put on hold in favor of another (Trump International Hotel and Tower in Fort Lauderdale). Trump Towers in Atlanta was being developed in the housing market, however the project fell after the 2008 recession and instead buildings that didn't belong to Trump were built.


title: Donald Trump

text: In its October 7, 2007 "Forbes" 400 issue, "Acreage Aces", "Forbes" valued Trump's wealth at $3 billion. Since 2011, his net worth has been estimated from $2 billion to $7 billion. "Forbes" estimated his net worth at $3.1 billion in 2019.


title: Donald Trump

text: From 1996 until 2015, Trump owned part or all of the Miss Universe, Miss USA, and Miss Teen USA beauty pageants.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump is a WWE (World Wrestling Entertainment) fan, and a friend of WWE owner Vince McMahon. In 1988–89 he hosted WrestleMania IV and V at Boardwalk Hall (dubbed "Trump Plaza" for storyline purposes) and has been an active participant in several of the shows. Trump was inducted into the celebrity wing of the WWE Hall of Fame in 2013 at Madison Square Garden for his contributions to the promotion. He made his sixth WrestleMania appearance the next night.


title: Donald Trump

text: In 2003, Trump became the executive producer and host of the NBC reality show "The Apprentice", in which a group of competitors battled for a high-level management job in one of Trump's commercial enterprises. In 2004, Trump filed a trademark application for the catchphrase "You're fired!"


title: Donald Trump

text: For the first year of the show, Trump earned $50,000 per episode (roughly $700,000 for the first season), but following the show's initial success, he was paid $1 million per episode. In a July 2015 press release, Trump's campaign manager said that NBCUniversal had paid him $213,606,575 for his 14 seasons hosting the show.


title: Donald Trump

text: On February 16, 2015, NBC announced that they would be renewing "The Apprentice" for a 15th season. On February 27, Trump stated that he was "not ready" to sign on for another season because of the possibility of a presidential run. On June 29, after a widespread negative reaction stemming from Trump's campaign announcement speech, NBC released a statement saying, "Due to the recent derogatory statements by Donald Trump regarding immigrants, NBCUniversal is ending its business relationship with Mr. Trump." Trump was replaced by former Governor of California and actor Arnold Schwarzenegger.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump switched between political parties a number of times. He registered as a Republican in 1987, a member of the Independence Party in 1999, a Democrat in 2001, a Republican in 2009, with no political party in 2011, and a Republican in 2012.


title: Donald Trump

text: In 2011, Trump said that President Barack Obama was born in Kenya; Obama was actually born in Hawaii. If Obama had been born in Kenya, he would not have been allowed to run for president. Trump repeatedly said that Obama was lying about where he was born, an idea called "Birtherism". Even after Obama shared his birth certificate with the public, Trump suggested that it could be fake.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump made a formal announcement of his candidacy for president of the United States for the 2016 elections on June 16, 2015. He made the announcement at 11am EST from his headquarters in Trump Tower in New York City. Trump launched his campaign saying, "We are going to make our Country Great Again" with a commitment to become the "greatest jobs president." Trump's official campaign slogan was "Make America Great Again." That was first used by Alexander Wiley, but Donald Trump trademarked it.


title: Donald Trump

text: On May 4, 2016, Trump became the presumptive nominee after his only challengers, Texas United States senator Ted Cruz and Governor of Ohio John Kasich, dropped out.


title: Donald Trump

text: During his announcement speech he stated in part, "When Mexico sends its people, they're not sending their best. They're sending people that have lots of problems, and they're bringing those problems with us. They're bringing drugs. They're bringing crime. They're rapists. And some, I assume, are good people." On July 6, 2015, Trump issued a written statement to clarify his position on illegal immigration, which drew a reaction from critics.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump has described his political leanings and positions in many ways over time. "Politico" has called his positions as "eclectic, improvisational and often contradictory". He has listed several different party affiliations over the years, and has also run as a Reform Party candidate. The positions that he has revised or reversed include stances on progressive taxation, abortion, and government involvement in health care.


title: Donald Trump

text: He has supported Christian groups in the U.S., claiming that he will reverse unfavorable tax treatments preventing them from expressing themselves in the political arena and promising to revive a more widespread use of the phrase "Merry Christmas" instead of "Happy Holidays" in department stores. Other issues he highlighted include taking care of military veterans, making the military "strong", aggressive bombing of the Mideast terrorist group ISIS, surveillance of certain mosques in the U.S., and making trade agreements more favorable to American workers.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump entered a large field of candidates consisting of 16 other Republican candidates campaigning for the nomination, the largest presidential field in American history. By early 2016, the race had mostly centered on Donald Trump and U.S. Senator Ted Cruz. On , Trump won the majority of the delegates and remained the front-runner throughout the primaries.


title: Donald Trump

text: Finishing in June 2016 with nearly 14 million votes, Trump broke the all-time record for winning the most primary votes in the history of the Republican Party.


title: Donald Trump

text: After becoming the presumptive Republican nominee, Trump's focus shifted to the general election, urging remaining primary voters to "save [their] vote for the general election." Trump began targeting Hillary Clinton, who became the presumptive Democratic nominee on June 6, 2016 after beating Bernie Sanders in the Democratic primaries, and continued to campaign across the country. Clinton had established a significant lead in national polls over Trump throughout most of 2016. In early July, Clinton's lead narrowed in national polling averages following the FBI's conclusion of its investigation into her ongoing email controversy.


title: Donald Trump

text: On September 26, 2016, Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton faced off in the first presidential debate at Hofstra University in Hempstead, New York. Lester Holt, an anchor with NBC News, was the moderator. This was the most watched presidential debate in United States history.


title: Donald Trump

text: On November 8, 2016, Trump won the presidency with 306 electoral votes to Clinton's 232 votes, even though Trump won a smaller part of the popular vote than Clinton. He is the fourth person to become president without winning the popular vote. The final popular vote difference between Clinton and Trump is that Clinton finished ahead by 2.86 million or 2.1 percentage points, 48.04% to 45.95%, with neither candidate reaching a majority. Trump's victory was considered a big political upset, as nearly all national polls at the time showed Hillary Clinton with a modest lead over Trump, and state polls showed her with a modest lead to win the Electoral College. In the early hours of November 9, 2016, Trump received a phone call in which Clinton conceded the presidency to him. Trump then delivered his victory speech before hundreds of supporters in the Hilton Hotel in New York City.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump's presidential transition team was led by Chris Christie until November 11, 2016, when Vice President-elect Mike Pence took over.


title: Donald Trump

text: On January 20, 2017, Trump was sworn in by Chief Justice John G. Roberts as President of the United States at his inauguration ceremony at the United States Capitol Building. Within his first hour as president, he signed several executive orders, including an order to minimize "the economic burden" of the Affordable Care Act, also known as Obamacare.


title: Donald Trump

text: On the Saturday following Trump's inauguration there were massive demonstrations protesting Trump in the United States and worldwide, including the 2017 Women's March.


title: Donald Trump

text: The following people were part of Donald Trump's cabinet. They are the most senior officers of the executive branch.


title: Donald Trump

text: The following people held other important jobs in the executive branch. They are also selected by the president.


title: Donald Trump

text: On January 23, 2017 Trump signed the executive order withdrawing the United States from the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), a trade agreement between the United States and eleven Pacific Rim nations—Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam that would have created a "free-trade zone for about 40 percent of the world's economy." Two days later, he ordered the construction of the Mexico border wall. He reopened the Keystone XL and Dakota Access pipeline construction projects.


title: Donald Trump

text: On January 27, an order suspended admission of refugees for 120 days and denied entry to citizens of Iraq, Iran, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen for 90 days, citing security concerns about terrorism. Later, the administration seemed to reverse a portion of part of the order, effectively exempting visitors with a green card. Several federal judges issued rulings that curtailed parts of the immigration order, stopping the federal government from deporting visitors already affected.


title: Donald Trump

text: On January 30, 2017, Trump fired Acting Attorney General Sally Yates because of her criticisms of Trump's immigration suspension. On January 31, 2017, Trump nominated Judge Neil Gorsuch to the United States Supreme Court to replace the late Justice Antonin Scalia.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump claimed there was no collusion and no obscruction and on May 9, 2017, Trump fired FBI Director James Comey after he reportedly asked for more information and funding for the investigation of Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections. The White House stated that this was not true and that Trump fired Comey in order to end the investigation. After "The Wall Street Journal" reported that Trump's National Security Advisor Michael T. Flynn was under investigation by U.S. counterintelligence agents for his communications with Russian officials, Flynn resigned on February 13, 2017. Two days later on February 15, Trump's Secretary of Labor-nominee Andrew Puzder withdrew his nomination due to not having support from Democrats or Republicans to confirm his nomination.


title: Donald Trump

text: As of March 2018, Trump is reportedly a "subject" of the Robert Mueller investigation into the Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, meaning his conduct is being looked at, but not a "target" which would indicate the likelihood of criminal charges.


title: Donald Trump

text: On April 7, 2017, Trump ordered the launch of 59 Tomahawk cruise missiles from the Mediterranean Sea into Syria, aimed at Shayrat Air Base as a reaction to the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack.


title: Donald Trump

text: On May 4, 2017, the American Health Care Act of 2017 (AHCA) was passed narrowly to replace and repeal Obamacare by the United States House of Representatives with a vote of 217 to 213, sending the bill to the Senate for voting. This is the second time the AHCA was voted in the House as the first version was not approved by the House in March 2017.


title: Donald Trump

text: On June 1, 2017, he announced that the United States would withdraw from the Paris Climate agreement, making the United States one of only three nations, including Syria and Nicaragua, to do so. On June 16, 2017, President Trump announced that he was "cancelling" the Obama administrations deals with Cuba, while also expressing that a new deal could be negotiated between the Cuban and United States governments.


title: Donald Trump

text: On July 12, 2017, California Representative Brad Sherman formally introduced an article of impeachment, H. Res. 438, accusing the president of obstructing justice regarding the investigation of Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election.


title: Donald Trump

text: On July 26, 2017, Trump tweeted that the "United States Government will not accept or allow transgender individuals to serve in any capacity in the U.S. Military. Our military must be focused on decisive and overwhelming victory and cannot be burdened with the tremendous medical costs and disruption that transgender in the military would entail." Trump cited the alleged "disruption" and "tremendous medical costs" of having transgender service members.


title: Donald Trump

text: Between August 11 and 12, 2017, there was a violent white supremacist rally in Charlottesville, Virginia regarding the removal of Confederate statues. Trump did not speak out against white nationalists explicitly, instead condemning "hatred, bigotry, and violence on many sides" leading people to think he did not take a harsh approach on racism.


title: Donald Trump

text: In late August, Trump dramatically escalated tensions against North Korea, warning that further threats against the U.S. will be met with "fire and fury like the world has never seen." North Korean leader Kim Jong-un then threatened to direct the country's next missile test toward Guam. Trump responded in his war-related service that if North Korea took steps to attack Guam, "things [would] happen to them like they never thought possible."


title: Donald Trump

text: In March 2018, Trump fired United States Secretary of State Rex Tillerson and replaced him with Director of the Central Intelligence Agency Mike Pompeo. Later that month, the White House confirmed that President Trump would accept a meeting invitation from Kim Jong-un. Press secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders said that "in the meantime, all sanctions and maximum pressure must remain."


title: Donald Trump

text: In May 2018, Trump announced on Twitter that he will meet with North Korean Supreme Leader Kim Jong-un on June 12, 2018 in Singapore for peace talks.


title: Donald Trump

text: In September 2017, Trump controversially oversaw the rescinding of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals or "DACA" which removed protections for children immigrants and removed benefits. The decision was announced by Attorney General Jeff Sessions. Two injunctions in January and February 2018 allowed renewals of applications and stopped the rolling back of DACA, and in April 2018 a federal judge ordered the acceptance of new applications; this would go into effect in 90 days.


title: Donald Trump

text: On October 3, Trump visited Puerto Rico after it was damaged by Hurricane Maria and the next day visited Las Vegas to visit the victims from the Las Vegas shooting.


title: Donald Trump

text: In December 2017, Trump signed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which cut the corporate tax rate to 21%, lowered personal tax brackets, increased child tax credit, doubled the estate tax threshold to $11.2 million, and limited the state and local tax deduction to $10,000.


title: Donald Trump

text: In February 2018, Trump praised the bill for increasing pay for millions, after announcements of bonuses from many companies. These bonuses have been criticized by the bill's opponents as publicity stunts, and economists have said many of them would have happened anyway due to low unemployment.


title: Donald Trump

text: On December 18, 2019, the House of Representatives voted to have Trump impeached for abuse of power and obstruction of Congress. On February 5, 2020, the Senate found Trump not guilty of all charges.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump announced his plans to run for a second term by filing with the FEC within a few hours of assuming the presidency. This transformed his 2016 election committee into a 2020 reelection one. Trump marked the official start of the campaign with a rally in Melbourne, Florida, on February 18, 2017, less than a month after taking office.


title: Donald Trump

text: By January 2018, Trump's reelection committee had $22 million in hand, and it had raised a total amount exceeding $67 million by December 2018. $23 million was spent in the fourth quarter of 2018, as Trump supported various Republican candidates for the 2018 midterm elections. He made an official re-election campaign launch on June 18, 2019 in Orlando, Florida.


title: Donald Trump

text: In the 2020 primaries, Trump faced primary challenges from former Massachusetts Governor Bill Weld and former U.S. Representatives Joe Walsh. Former South Carolina Governor and former U.S. Representative Mark Sanford also campaigned against him, but withdrew from the race.


title: Donald Trump

text: On November 7, Trump was defeated by former Vice President Joe Biden after Trump lost Pennsylvania and Nevada. Trump claimed voter fraud through the mail-in voting and threatened to use the United States Supreme Court to stop the states from counting the vote. He had unsuccessfully sued many states trying to make him the winner in Michigan, Pennsylvania, Arizona, Wisconsin and Georgia.


title: Donald Trump

text: Many Republican representatives and senators planned to object the United States Congress's formally recognizing Biden's electoral college victory on January 6, 2021. In early January 2021, Trump made a phone call to Georgia Secretary of State Brad Raffensperger in an attempt to find "11,780 votes" trying to remove Biden's victory in the state.


title: Donald Trump

text: On January 6, 2021 while the United States Congress were certifying the election results, rioters stormed the United States Capitol in violent protests across Washington, D.C..


title: Donald Trump

text: After this, Trump got his Instagram, Facebook and Twitter accounts deleted. On January 8, 2021, Trump was banned from Twitter. The events from the Capitol riots led to new efforts to impeach Trump from the presidency.


title: Donald Trump

text: His actions towards the Capitol riots, led to the U.S. House to impeach Trump for a second time, making him the only President to be impeached twice.


title: Donald Trump

text: During his presidency, Trump appointed three justices to the Supreme Court: Neil Gorsuch, Brett Kavanaugh, and Amy Coney Barrett.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump has five children by three marriages, and has ten grandchildren. Trump is a Presbyterian. As a child, he began going to church at the First Presbyterian Church in Jamaica, Queens.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump married his first wife, Czech model Ivana Zelníčková, on April 7, 1977, at the Marble Collegiate Church in Manhattan. They had three children: son Donald Trump Jr. (born December 31, 1977), daughter Ivanka (born October 30, 1981), and son Eric (born January 6, 1984). Ivana became a naturalized United States citizen in 1988. By early 1990, Trump's troubled marriage to Ivana and affair with actress Marla Maples had been reported in the tabloid press. They were divorced in 1992.


title: Donald Trump

text: Trump married his second wife, actress Marla Maples in 1993. They had one daughter together, Tiffany (born October 13, 1993). The couple were separated in 1997 and later divorced in 1999.


title: Donald Trump

text: In 1998, Trump began a relationship with Slovene model Melania Knauss, who became his third wife. They were engaged in April 2004 and were married on January 22, 2005, at Bethesda-by-the-Sea Episcopal Church, in Palm Beach, Florida. In 2006, Melania became a naturalized United States citizen. On March 20, 2006, she gave birth to their son, whom they named Barron Trump.


title: Donald Trump

text: A medical report by his doctor, Harold Bornstein MD, showed that Trump's blood pressure, liver and thyroid function were in normal range. Trump says that he has never smoked cigarettes or consumed other drugs, including marijuana. He also does not drink alcohol, a decision after his brother's death caused by alcoholism. His BMI, according to his December 2016 visit on Doctor Oz, is just under 30, which is "high".


title: Donald Trump

text: In February 2019, a new medical test found Trump to be clinically obese. He was later diagnosed with coronary artery disease.


title: Donald Trump

text: On October 1, 2020, Trump announced on Twitter that he and his wife tested positive for COVID-19. He was briefly hospitalized at Walter Reed National Military Medical Center.


title: Election

text: An election is a way people can choose their candidate or their preferences in a representative democracy or other form of government.


title: Election

text: Most democratic countries hold new elections for their national legislature every few years. What elections do is select representatives for the local areas. These are called MPs (Members of Parliament) in the British parliamentary system. Parliamentary systems may have a head of government and a head of state, but sometimes the two posts are held by the same person.


title: Election

text: The legislature chooses the government, usually by majority vote in the legislature. Some democracies elect a president, who then selects the government. Many democratic countries also have regional, provincial or state elections.


title: Election

text: There are different ways to organize an election in different countries. Voters might vote for an individual, or they might vote for a political party (party list). This is because different countries use different voting systems.


title: Election

text: As a foundation of democracy, voting in elections has been adopted in most countries around the world. Whilst the process of electing an individual as a representative in a government can be simple, many election candidates spend mass amounts of money on their campaigns. The past decade has seen a consistent trend of politicians and election candidate spending more and more on their campaigns. Higher household incomes, inflation and population growth are all factors that have contributed to this trend of higher election spend.


title: Election

text: Every country around the world has different rules and regulations when it come sot voting in elections. The biggest differences amongst most major countries is, the age in which an individual may vote and whether voting in an election is compulsory or not. Argentina, Brazil and Austria are among the few countries where the legal voting age is 16.


title: Election

text: Countries that are not democracies can also hold elections. This is usually done to let the people choose a local representative (like a mayor). Also many countries call themselves democracies, but behind the scenes have a more autocratic form of government.


title: Election

text: Vatican City is a theocracy: The pope (and a few high-ranking clerics) run the state. When the pope dies, or steps down, a number of high-ranking priests (called cardinals) select a new pope, through an election. When they are done, they will announce the result in a speech, called Habemus Papam (Latin: We have a pope)


title: Election

text: Elections keep a democratic country functioning, as they give people the right to select their own government. However, there are ways a government can "fix" elections. Opposition candidates are permitted in former USSR countries, but they are usually prevented from using broadcasting or the newspapers. This means that, in effect, the ruling president is never challenged. Elections which are fixed are sometimes called sham elections or show elections.


title: Election

text: Countries where the candidates are elected with a very high approval rating usually use elections to hide a more autocratic form of government. When Saddam Hussein was elected president of Iraq in 1995, he got 99.96% approval. There were about 8.4 million valid votes, 3,052 people voted against him. 99.47% of all people allowed to vote did so (this is called voting turnout). Another example: Kim Jong-un was elected the leader of North Korea, in 2014, with 100% of the vote.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Photosynthesis is how plants and some microorganisms make carbohydrates. It is an endothermic (takes in heat) chemical process which uses sunlight to turn carbon dioxide into sugars. The sugars are used by the cell as energy, and to build other kinds of molecules. Fundamentally, photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Photosynthesis is vital for life on Earth. Before photosynthesis, Earth had no free oxygen in its atmosphere.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Green plants build themselves using photosynthesis. Algae, protists and some bacteria also use it. Some exceptions are organisms that directly get their energy from chemical reactions; these organisms are called chemoautotrophs.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Photosynthesis is not an accident. It happens because its building blocks occur naturally in space, and get included when planets form. We have no idea as to how common or rare this process is. We do know that higher elements are formed in supernovae, and that is the origin of all elements higher than helium. The higher elements found in Halley's Comet have been analysed.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Before photosynthesis, the Earth's atmosphere had almost no oxygen. Even without oxygen, some simple life-forms could have existed. But the key event for life as we know it was the Great Oxygenation Event.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts in leaves (or other green tissues). They contain chlorophyll, the green pigment that absorbs light energy. In leaves, palisade cells have chloroplasts to capture light.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Oxygen is produced as a result of photosynthesis and released into the atmosphere through respiration. "All the oxygen in the atmosphere has its origin in plants" (including those microorganisms which do photosynthesis).


title: Photosynthesis

text: Glucose is used in respiration (to release energy in cells). It is stored in the form of starch (which is converted back to glucose for respiration in the dark). Glucose can also be converted into other compounds for growth and reproduction e.g. cellulose, nectar, fructose, amino acids and fats.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Photosynthesis has two main sets of reactions (phases). Light-dependent reactions which need light to do work; and light-independent reactions which do not need light to do work.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Light energy from the sun is used to split water molecules (photolysis). The sunlight hits chloroplasts in the plant. This causes an enzyme to split the water. Water, when split, gives oxygen, hydrogen, and electrons.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Hydrogen, along with electrons energized by light, converts NADP into NADPH which is then used in the light-independent reactions. Oxygen gas diffuses out of the plant as a waste product of photosynthesis, and ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate. This all happens in the grana of chloroplasts.


title: Photosynthesis

text: During this reaction, sugars are built up using carbon dioxide and the products of the light-dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) and various other chemicals found in the plant in the Calvin Cycle. Therefore, the light-independent reaction cannot happen without the light-dependent reaction. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the plant and along with chemicals in the chloroplast, ATP, and NADPH, glucose is made and finally, transported around the plant by translocation.


title: Photosynthesis

text: If there is little light shining on a plant, the light-dependent reactions will not work efficiently. This means that photolysis (breakdown of water by light) will not happen quickly, and therefore little NADPH and ATP will be made. This shortage of NADPH and ATP will lead to the light-independent reactions not working as NADPH and ATP are needed for the light-independent reactions to work.


title: Photosynthesis

text: The light intensity required is easily investigated in an aquatic plant such as pondweed. The oxygen bubbles given off can be counted or the volume measured. By changing the distance between light and plant, the light intensity is made to vary. Change in light intensity will affect the change in rate of photosynthesis. Artificial lighting can be used in the dark to maximise the photosynthetic rate.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Carbon dioxide is used in the light-independent reactions. It combines with NADPH and ATP and various other chemicals to form glucose. Therefore, if there is not enough carbon dioxide, then there will be a build-up of NADPH and ATP and not enough glucose will be formed.


title: Photosynthesis

text: There are many enzymes working in photosynthetic reactions – such as the enzyme in photolysis. All enzymes work best at their optimum temperature. All light-dependent and light-independent reactions will occur normally at average or optimum temperatures. Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants adapted to temperate climates.


title: Photosynthesis

text: When the temperatures are too low, there is little kinetic energy, so the reaction rate decreases. If the temperatures are too high, the enzymes become "denatured" and the catalysis of photosynthesis reaction stops.


title: Photosynthesis

text: The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the history of life. They may have used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water. Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced caused the oxygen catastrophe. After this, the evolution of complex life was possible.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is about 130 terawatts. This is about six times larger than the current power used by human civilization.


title: Photosynthesis

text: Photosynthetic organisms also convert about 100–115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.


title: Edward VIII

text: Edward VIII (born Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David, 23 June 1894 – 28 May 1972) was King of the United Kingdom, from 20 January 1936 until 11 December 1936. He was born at White Lodge, Richmond Park in London.


title: Edward VIII

text: Edward abdicated (resigned) from the throne, because he wanted to marry the American woman Wallis Simpson. Simpson had been married twice before. As King, he was Head of the Church of England, and the Church did not support divorce. After abdicating as king, he was known as His Royal Highness the Duke of Windsor. His wife was not allowed to be called "Her Royal Highness".


title: Edward VIII

text: Edward, commonly known by those close to him as David, was born as the first son of the Prince and Princess of Wales, later King George V and Queen Mary. As a young man, he disliked his royal duties, but his charisma made him popular with the British people. Edward was officially invested as Prince of Wales in a ceremony at Caernarvon Castle on 13 July 1911 and was even tutored by the future Prime Minister David Lloyd George to speak a few words of Welsh.