title: Nut (hardware)

text: A nut is a type of fastener with a threaded hole. Nuts are almost always used with a mating bolt to fasten parts together. Thus "nut and bolt" or "nuts and bolts" are term which recognise their pairing.


title: Nut (hardware)

text: Like bolt heads, their shape is usually hexagonal, because this is best for gripping with tools. Nuts are graded with strength ratings like their respective bolts. For example, an ISO property class 10 nut can support the bolt proof strength load of an ISO property class 10.9 bolt without stripping its thread (the inside spiral groove).


title: George Ezra

text: George Ezra Barnett (born 7 June 1993), known professionally as George Ezra, is an English singer, songwriter and guitarist from Hertford, Hertfordshire.


title: George Ezra

text: He released his first EP, ""Did You Hear The Rain?"", in November 2013 and his second EP ""Cassy O'"" in March 2014. His first studio album, ""Wanted on Voyage"", was released in June 2014, reaching number one in the UK and the top ten in seven other countries. The album was also the third best-selling album of 2014 in the UK.


title: George Ezra

text: His second studio album, ""Staying at Tamara's"", was released in March 2018, also reached number one in the UK and the top ten in eight other countries. The second single from the album, ""Paradise"", reached number two in the UK charts and his next single, ""Shotgun"", reached number one. Shotgun became his first chart-topping single in the UK, Ireland, and Australia.


title: Maymunah bint al-Harith

text: Maymunah bint al-Harith al-Hilaliyah (Arabic: ميمونة بنت الحارث الهلالية, Maymūnah bint al-Ḥārith al-Hilālīyah, 594-63) was the wife of the last prophet of Islam, Muhammad. Her real name was Barrah, but Muhammad changed her name to Maymuna.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Interstellar space travel is manned or unmanned travel between stars. Interstellar travel is much more difficult than travel within the Solar System, though travel in starships is a staple of science fiction. Actually, there is no suitable technology at present. However, the idea of a probe with an ion engine has been studied. The energy would come through a laser base station.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Given sufficient travel time and engineering work, both unmanned and sleeper ship interstellar travel seem possible. Both present considerable technological and economic challenges which are unlikely to be met in the near future, particularly for manned probes. NASA, ESA and other space agencies have done research into these topics for several years, and have worked out some theoretical approaches.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Energy requirements appear to make interstellar travel impractical for "generation ships", but less so for heavily shielded sleeper ships.


title: Interstellar travel

text: The main challenge facing interstellar travel is the vast distances that have to be covered. This means that a very great speed and/or a very long travel time is needed. The travel time with most realistic propulsion methods would be from decades to millennia.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Hence an interstellar ship would be much more exposed to the hazards found in interplanetary travel, including vacuum, radiation, weightlessness, and micrometeoroids. At high speeds the vehicle would be penetrated by many microscopic particles of matter unless heavily shielded. Carrying the shield would greatly increase the propulsion problems.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Cosmic rays are of great interest because there is no protection outside the atmosphere and magnetic field. The energies of the most energetic ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) have been observed to approach 3 × 10 eV, about 40 million times the energy of particles accelerated by the Large Hadron Collider. At 50 J, the highest-energy ultra-high-energy cosmic rays have energies comparable to the kinetic energy of a baseball. As a result of these discoveries, there has been interest in investigating cosmic rays of even greater energies. Most cosmic rays, however, do not have such extreme energies. The energy distribution of cosmic rays peaks at .


title: Interstellar travel

text: A significant factor is the energy needed for a reasonable travel time. A lower bound for the required energy is the kinetic energy K = ½ mv where m is the final mass. If deceleration on arrival is desired and cannot be achieved by any means other than the engines of the ship, then the required energy at least doubles, because the energy needed to halt the ship equals the energy needed to accelerate it to travel speed.


title: Interstellar travel

text: The velocity for a manned round trip of a few decades to even the nearest star is thousands of times greater than those of present space vehicles. This means that due to the v term in the kinetic energy formula, millions of times as much energy is required. Accelerating one ton to one-tenth of the speed of light requires at least 450 PJ or 4.5  J or 125 billion kWh, not accounting for losses.


title: Interstellar travel

text: The source of energy has to be carried, since solar panels do not work far from the Sun and other stars. The magnitude of this energy may make interstellar travel impossible. One engineer stated “At least 100 times the total energy output of the entire world [in a given year] would be required for the voyage (to Alpha Centauri)”.


title: Interstellar travel

text: interstellar dust and gas may cause considerable damage to the craft, due to the high relative speeds and large kinetic energies involved. Larger objects (such as bigger dust grains) are far less common, but would be much more destructive. .


title: Interstellar travel

text: The long travel times make it difficult to design manned missions. The fundamental limits of space-time present another challenge. Also, interstellar trips would be hard to justify for economic reasons.


title: Interstellar travel

text: It can be argued that an interstellar mission which cannot be completed within 50 years should not be started at all. Instead, the resources should be invested in designing a better propulsion system. This is because a slow spacecraft would probably be passed by another mission sent later with more advanced propulsion.


title: Interstellar travel

text: On the other hand, a case can therefore be made for starting a mission without delay, because the non-propulsion problems may turn out to be more difficult than the propulsion engineering.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Intergalactic travel involves distances about a million-fold greater than interstellar distances, making it radically more difficult than even interstellar travel.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Andrew Kennedy has shown that voyages undertaken before the minimum "wait time" will be overtaken by those who leave at the minimum, while those who leave after the minimum will never overtake those who left at the minimum.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Kennedy's calculation depends on r, the mean annual increase in world power production. From any point in time to a given destination, there is a minimum to the total time to destination. Voyagers would probably arrive without being overtaken by later voyagers by waiting a time t before leaving. The relation between the time it takes to get to a destination (now, T, or after waiting, T, and growth in velocity of travel is


title: Interstellar travel

text: Taking a journey to Barnard's Star, six light years away, as an example, Kennedy shows that with a world mean annual economic growth rate of 1.4% and a corresponding growth in the velocity of travel, the quickest human civilization might get to the star is in 1,110 years from the year 2007.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Astronomical distances are often measured in the time it would take a beam of light to travel between two points ("see light-year"). Light in a vacuum travels approximately 300,000 kilometers per second or 186,000 miles per second.


title: Interstellar travel

text: The distance from Earth to the Moon is 1.3 light-seconds. With current spacecraft propulsion technologies, a craft can cover the distance from the Earth to the Moon in around eight hours (New Horizons). That means light travels approximately thirty thousand times faster than current spacecraft propulsion technologies. The distance from Earth to other planets in the Solar System ranges from three light-minutes to about four light-hours. Depending on the planet and its alignment to Earth, for a typical unmanned spacecraft these trips will take from a few months to a little over a decade. The distance to other stars is much greater. If the distance from Earth to Sun is scaled down to one meter, the distance to Alpha Centauri A would be 271 kilometers or about 169 miles.


title: Interstellar travel

text: The nearest known star to the Sun is Proxima Centauri, which is 4.23 light-years away. The fastest outward-bound spacecraft yet sent, Voyager 1, has covered 1/600th of a light-year in 30 years and is currently moving at 1/18,000th the speed of light. At this rate, a journey to Proxima Centauri would take 72,000 years. Of course, this mission was not specifically intended to travel fast to the stars, and current technology could do much better. The travel time could be reduced to a few millennia using solar sails, or to a century or less using nuclear pulse propulsion.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Special relativity offers the possibility of shortening the travel time: if a starship with sufficiently advanced engines could reach velocities near the speed of light, relativistic time dilation would make the voyage much shorter for the traveller. However, it would still take many years of elapsed time as viewed by the people remaining on Earth. On returning to Earth, the travellers would find that far more time had elapsed on Earth than had for them (twin paradox).


title: Interstellar travel

text: Many problems would be solved if wormholes existed. General relativity does not rule them out, but so far as we know at present, they do not exist.


title: Interstellar travel

text: The round-trip delay time is the minimum time between a probe signal reaching Earth, and the probe getting instructions from Earth. Given that information can travel no faster than the speed of light, this is for the Voyager 1 about 32 hours, near Proxima Centauri it would be 8 years. Faster reactions would have to be programmed to be carried out automatically. Of course, in the case of a manned flight the crew can respond immediately to their observations. However, the round-trip delay time makes them not only extremely distant but, in terms of communication, extremely isolated from Earth. Another factor is the energy needed for interstellar communications to arrive reliably. Obviously, gas and particles would degrade signals (interstellar extinction), and there would be limits to the energy available to send the signal.


title: Interstellar travel

text: The mass of any craft capable of carrying humans would inevitably be substantially larger than that necessary for an unmanned interstellar probe. The vastly greater travel times involved would require a life support system. The first interstellar missions are unlikely to carry life forms.


title: Interstellar travel

text: There are 59 known stellar systems within 20 light years from the Sun, containing 81 visible stars. The following could be considered prime targets for interstellar missions: Radiation dangers would rule out any organic beings for an expedition to Sirius. In any event, it is hard to visualise any manned expeditions at all, given the probable journey times.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Perhaps the most likely time for interstellar travel would be when a star comes through our Oort cloud. We should get a good 10,000 years' warning of this, so could plan for the event in some detail. See Scholz's star for the last time one came through.


title: Interstellar travel

text: Existing and near-term astronomical technology is capable of finding planetary systems around these objects, increasing their potential for exploration.


title: Biblical manuscript

text: A Biblical manuscript is any handwritten copy of a portion of the text of the Bible. They vary in size from tiny scrolls containing individual verses of the Jewish scriptures to huge polyglot codices containing both the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and the New Testament, as well as other works.


title: Biblical manuscript

text: The Aleppo Codex ("c." 920 AD) and Leningrad Codex ("c." 1008 AD) were the oldest Hebrew language manuscripts of the Tanakh. The 1947 find at Qumran of the Dead Sea scrolls pushed the manuscript history of the Tanakh back a millennium from the two earliest complete codices. Before this discovery, the earliest extant manuscripts of the Old Testament were in Greek in manuscripts such as Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus. Out of the roughly 800 manuscripts found at Qumran, 220 are from the Tanakh. Every book of the Tanakh is represented except for the Book of Esther; however, most are fragmentary. Notably, there are two scrolls of the Book of Isaiah, one complete (1QIs), and one around 75% complete (1QIs). These manuscripts generally date between 150 BC to 70 AD.


title: Biblical manuscript

text: Parts of the New Testament have been preserved in more manuscripts than any other ancient work. There are over 5,800 complete or fragmented Greek manuscripts, 10,000 Latin manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages, such as Syriac, Slavic, Gothic, Ethiopic, Coptic and Armenian.


title: Biblical manuscript

text: The dates of these manuscripts range from about 125 AD (the Ryland manuscript, P; containing fragments of the oldest copy of John) to the introduction of printing in Germany in the 15th century. Most of these manuscripts date after the 10th century. Although there are more manuscripts that preserve the New Testament than there are for any other ancient writing, the text preserved in these later, numerous manuscripts may not be the same as the text as it existed in antiquity.


title: Biblical manuscript

text: Every year, several New Testament manuscripts handwritten in the original Greek format are discovered.


title: Say Something (A Great Big World song)

text: "Say Something" is a song recorded by American indie-pop duo A Great Big World. It is from their album "Is There Anybody Out There?" The song was re-released as a single on December 13, 2013, with added vocals from singer Christina Aguilera. It topped the charts in Australia, Belgium (Flanders), and Canada, while reaching the top ten in countries like the US, UK, and New Zealand.


title: Say Something (A Great Big World song)

text: The song was certified sextuple-platinum in the US for shipments and streams of six million copies there.


title: Parisa (given name)

text: "Pari" can be used as a diminutive of Parisa. Pari () (pronounced pər-REE) means "fairy" and is used as a name of its own right as well.[2] Pari does not mean angel. "Fereshteh" () is a feminine given name which actually happens to mean angel. The Pari (or Peri) in Persian mythology are described to be a race of beautiful and benevolent supernatural fairy beings, earlier regarded as malevolent. Risa (given name) can be used as a nickname also.


title: Nouvelle-Aquitaine

text: It is in the southwest of France formed in 2014 by three old regions: Aquitaine, Limousin and Poitou-Charentes. "Aquitaine-Limousin-Poitou-Charentes" was the temporary name for the region.


title: Nouvelle-Aquitaine

text: The Nouvelle-Aquitaine region is the largest region of France with an area of . It is in southwestern France and borders to the northwest with the Pays de la Loire region, to the north with the Centre-Val de Loire region, to the east with the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, to the southwest with the Occitanie region and to the south with Spain.


title: Nouvelle-Aquitaine

text: The only main drainage basin in the region is the Atlantic basin; some of the rivers in region, from south to north, are:


title: Nouvelle-Aquitaine

text: The territory of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region is formed mostly by large plains and low plateaus ( high). In the northern part of the region, the highest point is Mont Bessou with an elevation of , in the Massif Central. In the southern part of the region, there are higher mountains in the Pyrenees.


title: Nouvelle-Aquitaine

text: The Pic Palas (), at , is the highest mountain of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region. It is in the Pyrenees mountain range of southern Pyrénées-Atlantiques.


title: Nouvelle-Aquitaine

text: The Nouvelle-Aquitaine region had, in 2014, a population of 5,879,144, for a population density of inhabitants/km.


title: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria

text: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir presumptive to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, happened on 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo. They were shot dead by Gavrilo Princip.


text: Princip was one of a group of seven assassins (five from Serbia and one from Bosnia) from the Black Hand secret society. The political reason for the assassination was to break off Austria-Hungary's South Slav provinces so they could be combined into a new country, Greater Serbia.


text: This led to the outbreak of war in Europe at the end of July 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Both country's allies became involved in the war.


title: Software as a service

text: Software as a service is the idea that clients access and use software using a thin client or a web browser. The software itself is running on computers accessible through the Internet ("in the cloud"). Clients usually pay a fee to get access to the software. The benefit of this approach is that clients do not need to manage the software installation, and that they also do not need expensive hardware. Software providers do not need to use traditional methods of supply, such as distributors, to sell software to clients. One of the problems is that the data is also on the site of the company running the software - that is "in the cloud". Getting the data may be difficult, if the software vendor goes bankrupt. Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation considers SaaS as a violation of the principles of free software, because users have no access to the program that runs the software, and hence do not know what it does, and cannot change it.


title: Xbox

text: Xbox is a video game console brand made by Microsoft. It began in 1998 when four employees decided to try to make a system to compete with Sony's PlayStation 2. The employees took apart four Dell computers and built the console from the parts. The employees named the console DirectX Box because it used Microsoft's DirectX graphics program. They showed the console to Ed Fries, who was the leader of Microsoft's game publishing business, and he liked the idea. During work on the project, the name was changed to Xbox.


title: Phrasal verb

text: Phrasal verb is the name given to an English verb which is composed of two or three words. One verb is combined with a preposition (like "on, in, under)" or an adverb (like "up, down, away"). Sometimes a phrasal verb can have a meaning that is very different to the meaning of at least one of those two or three words separately. Some text books call these verbs multi-word verbs. Phrasal verbs are used more frequently in everyday speech than in formal, official writing or speaking.


title: Phrasal verb

text: If you do not know if a phrasal verb is separable or inseparable ALWAYS use a noun or noun phrase and do not try to separate the verb.


title: Charles Wright (wrestler)

text: Charles Wright (born May 16, 1961) is an American former professional wrestler and businessman. He is best known for his time in the World Wrestling Federation from the 1990s and early 2000s. During his time there, he wrestled under the ring names Papa Shango, Kama, Kama Mustafa, The Godfather, and The Goodfather.


title: Richmond, Virginia

text: Richmond () is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States. It is an independent city and not part of any county. The population within the city limits was 204,214 in 2010, with an estimated population of 1,258,251 for the Richmond Metropolitan Area — making it the third largest in Virginia.


title: Richmond, Virginia

text: Richmond is at the fall line of the James River, south of Washington DC, east of Charlottesville, Virginia, and west of Williamsburg, Virginia. Surrounded by Henrico and Chesterfield counties, the city is at the intersections of Interstate 95 and Interstate 64, and encircled by Interstate 295 and Virginia State Route 288.


title: Richmond, Virginia

text: Richmond began as an important village of the Powhatan Confederacy, and was briefly settled by English colonists from Jamestown in 1609, and in 1610–11. English settlers returned to found a permanent town in 1737. It became the capital of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780. During the Revolutionary War period, the city was known for Patrick Henry's "Give me liberty or give me death" speech in 1775 at St. John's Church, and the passage of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom written by Thomas Jefferson. During the American Civil War, Richmond served as the capital of the Confederate States of America. The city entered the 20th century with one of the world's first successful electric streetcar systems.


title: Richmond, Virginia

text: Richmond's economy is primarily driven by law, finance, and government. It has federal, state, and local governmental agencies in its downtown. The downtown also has offices for legal and banking firms. The city is home to both the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, one of 13 federal appellate courts, and the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, one of 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks. Dominion Resources, Carmax, Genworth Financial, and MeadWestvaco, Fortune 500 companies, along with Massey Energy and Universal Corporation, Fortune 1000 companies, are headquartered in the city. The historic sites in the area bring tourists.


title: Knights Templar

text: The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon (Latin: "Pauperes commilitones Christi Templique Salomonici"), commonly known as the Knights Templar or the Order of the Temple (French: Ordre du Temple or Templiers), were among the most famous military orders of Western Christianity. The organization lasted for two centuries in the Middle Ages. It was founded after the First Crusade of 1096, with its original purpose to ensure the safety of the many Christians who made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem after it was taken from the Muslims.


title: Knights Templar

text: It was officially endorsed by the Roman Catholic Church around 1129, and became a favored charity by many Christians and grew fast in membership and power. Templar knights wore white mantles quartered by a red cross and were among the most skilled fighting units of the Crusades. Those members of the Order that did not fight managed a large economic infrastructure throughout Christendom, innovating financial techniques that were an early form of banking, and building many fortifications throughout the Mediterranean and the Holy Land.


title: Knights Templar

text: The Templars' success was tied closely to the Crusades; when the Holy Land was lost, support for the Order faded. Rumors about the Templars' secret initiation ceremony created mistrust, and King Philip IV of France, deeply in debt to the Order, began pressuring Pope Clement V to take action against the Order. In 1307, many of the Order's members in France were arrested, tortured into giving false confessions, and then burned at the stake. In 1312, Pope Clement, under continuing pressure from King Philip, disbanded the Order.


title: Cesc Fàbregas

text: Cesc Fàbregas (born May 4, 1987) is a Spanish football player. He plays as a midfielder for Monaco in the Ligue 1.


title: Cesc Fàbregas

text: Fàbregas started playing football at Barcelona. In 2003, when he was just 16 years old, he signed with Arsenal.


title: Cesc Fàbregas

text: He was named as the new captain of Arsenal in November 2008, after William Gallas lost the captaincy. He also plays for the Spanish national team since he was 19. He signed for Chelsea FC in June 2014.


title: Internet protocol suite

text: When computers connect and transmit data between each other on the Internet, they follow a set of rules to do so. These rules are universal; all computers throughout the Internet must follow them. Otherwise, the Internet would not function as computers would not be able to transmit data in a meaningful and useful way. These rules are called protocols. There are many different protocols, each for different purposes, and they all together are called the Internet protocol suite. The two most important protocols are the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which ensure data is delivered at the right place, and without errors, and is what computers use when they access servers (computers that have the data that is accessed on the Internet) on the World Wide Web, as well as for email, and the like. Other protocols include the Network Time Protocol, which ensures clock synchronisation in computers, and there are many others.


title: Internet protocol suite

text: The TCP/IP model and other related protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force, whose parent organisation is the Internet Society, and which also cooperates closely with other standards bodies such as the W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) and ISO/IEC.


title: Adam West

text: Adam West (William West Anderson; September 19, 1928 – June 9, 2017) was an American actor, director and voice artist. He is known for his role as Batman in the 1960s "Batman" television series and as Mayor Adam West in "Family Guy". West has also acted in movies and on stage.


title: Adam West

text: West was born on September 19, 1928 in Walla Walla, Washington to Otto West Anderson and Audrey V. Speer and studied at Walla Walla High School, Lakeside School, and Whitman College. West was raised in Walla Walla. West has been married to Billie Lou Yeager from 1950 until they divorced in 1965. He later married Frisbie Dawson from 1957 until they divorced in 1962. West married to Marcelle Tagand Lear in 1970. West has six children. He lived in Ketchum, Idaho.


title: Adam West

text: His early works include the movie "Robinson Crusoe on Mars" (1964), as Col. Dan McCready, an astronaut who is sent on a journey to the Red Planet. He was also in "Mara of the Wilderness" (1965), and the spaghetti western "I quattro inesorabili" (1965), where he played the role of gunslinger Sam Garrett. He played the role of Lt. John Delahay, in the western "Geronimo" (1962) with Chuck Connors.


title: Adam West

text: He worked with The Three Stooges in the movie "The Outlaws Is Coming" (1965). He played inexperienced gunman Kenneth Cabot, who is helped by The Three Stooges.


title: Adam West

text: In the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, he worked in the movies "Curse of the Moon Child" (1972); "Partizani" (1974), a war movie with Rod Taylor; "The Specialist" (1975); "The Happy Hooker Goes Hollywood" (1980); "One Dark Night" (1983); "Young Lady Chatterley II" (1985); "Zombie Nightmare" (1986); "Night of the Kickfighters" (1988); "Omega Cop" (1990); "Maxim Xul" (1991); "An American Vampire Story" (1997); and "Joyride" (1997).


title: Adam West

text: His last appearances in movies were "Buckaroo: The Movie" (2005) as the Judge, and "Ratko: The Dictator's Son" (2009), as Kostka Volvic.


title: Adam West

text: In 1966, Adam West was chosen to play the role of Batman in the Batman TV series. This show started West to fame. The series was well liked and a movie of the same name was made of it. He put his voice to the animated series "The New Adventures of Batman" (1977), "SuperFriends: The Legendary Super Powers Show" (1985) and "The Super Powers Team: Galactic Guardians" (1985). His best known voice acting is his work on the animated series "Family Guy", as Mayor West.


title: Adam West

text: Adam starred in a comedy television movie about detectives, "Ace Diamond Private Eye" (1983). The actor also had guest star appearances in many series as "Cheyenne", "Colt 45", "77 Sunset Strip", "Goodyear Theatre", "Bonanza", "The Rifleman", "Mannix", "Police Woman", "Murder, She Wrote", and "Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman".


title: Adam West

text: According to the comic books, Batman/Bruce Wayne is 6'2". Of all the actors to play Batman, Adam West is the only actor who stood the same height.


title: Social issue

text: A social issue (or social problem, social conflict, or social illness) is an issue which affects many people in a society.


title: Social issue

text: Examples of social issues are economic issues. However, some issues, such as immigration, have both social and economic aspects. Racism, unemployment, poverty, violence, human rights are examples of social issues.


title: Nissan Juke

text: The Nissan Juke is a Mini SUV that is built by the Nissan Motor Company. The Juke has had 2 generations during its time. The assembly for the Nissan Juke is in Oppama, Japan and Sunderland, United Kingdom. The Juke made its debut at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show in March, and made its North America debut at the 2010 New York International Auto Show. It entered its second generation in late 2019.


title: Hindu–Arabic numeral system

text: The Hindu–Arabic numeral system, sometimes known as Arabic number system, is the system of Latin-script numbers used by almost all the world today. It is a positional notation system. This system has ten basic symbols, they are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. It represent numbers in the decimal number system. The Hindu–Arabic numeral system was first developed by the Hindu and Arabs. Later in the 16th century in Germany, it was changed and introduced to the rest of the western world by Albrecht Dürer. The Hindu–Arabic numeral system is one of the few numeral systems that use a place value system. This system is now commonly used all over the world.


title: Esperanto symbols

text: The basic symbol of Esperanto is the green five-pointed star. Its five corners represents five continents (according to traditional meaning - Europe, America, Asia, Oceania, Africa), the green color is the symbol of hope. In cases when they use the star outside the flag, they add a letter "E" to it. In Esperanto they call it "verda stelo" (green star).


title: Hindu–Arabic numeral system

text: They originated in India in the 6th or 7th century and were introduced to Europe through the writings of Middle Eastern mathematicians, especially al-Khwarizmi and al-Kindi, about the 12th century. They are very different from previous methods of counting, such as the abacus, and paved the way for the development of algebra. In the past many other systems were used. Fibonacci popularized the Hindu–Arabic numeral system to the western world.


title: Esperanto symbols

text: The esperanto flag has a green background with a white square in the upper lefthand corner, which in turn contains a green star. Esperantists use the flag for representing their language and culture. Swedish esperantist G. Jonson has iniciated use of the green color and the green star. C. Rjabinis and P. Deullin has created final suggestion of the flag in 1893. The green color represents hope and the white color represents peace. In Esperanto they call it "Esperanto-flago" (Esperanto flag).


title: Esperanto symbols

text: During the hundredth (100th) anniversary of Esperanto in 1987, World Esperanto Association has made this special logo. The two (2) inverse rounded letters "E" creates the form representating the Earth. In Esperanto they call it "Jubilea simbolo" (Jubilee symbol).


title: Esperanto symbols

text: Esperantists consider the poem "La Espero" (the hope) by L. L. Zamenhof with music by Félicien Menu de Ménil to be an anthem of Esperanto.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: English Gothic is the name of the architectural style that was very popular in England from about 1180 until about 1520. As with the gothic architecture of other parts of Europe, English Gothic is defined by its pointed arches, vaulted rooves, buttresses, large windows, and spires.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: The various styles are seen at their best in the cathedrals, abbey churches and college buildings. It is a distinctive characteristic of the cathedrals of England that all but one of them show great stylistic diversity and have building dates that range over 400 years. The exception, Salisbury Cathedral, was built in 38 years.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: The clearest sign of the Early English period was the pointed arch known as the lancet. Pointed arches were used for nave arcade, the doorways and lancet windows. The windows are narrow by comparison to their height and are without tracery. Lancet arches are a sign of the style.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: The Lancet openings of windows and arcades are often grouped in twos or threes. This is seen throughout Salisbury Cathedral where there are groups of two lancet windows lining the nave and groups of three lining the clerestory. At York Minster there are, in the north transept, a cluster of five lancet windows known as the Five Sisters, each fifty feet high and still have their ancient glass.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: Romanesque (Norman architecture) builders generally used round arches. Compared with the rounded Romanesque style, the pointed arch of the Early English Gothic looks more elegant and, more importantly, is better at distributing the weight of the stonework above it. This makes it possible to span higher and wider gaps using narrower columns.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: Instead of being massive, solid pillars, the columns were often composed of clusters of slender, detached shafts surrounding a central pillar.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: By using the pointed arch, walls could become less massive and window openings could be larger and grouped more closely together. This gave a more open, airy and graceful building. The high walls and vaulted stone roofs were often supported by flying buttresses: half arches which transmit the outward thrust of the superstructure to supports or buttresses, usually on the outside of the building.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: At its purest the style was simple and austere, emphasizing the height of the building, as if aspiring heavenward.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: Examples: the east ends of Lincoln Cathedral and Carlisle Cathedral, and the west fronts of York Minster and Lichfield Cathedral. Much of Exeter Cathedral is built in this style.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: Decorated architecture has window tracery. Elaborate windows are subdivided by closely-spaced parallel mullions (vertical bars of stone). The mullions then branch out and cross, intersecting to fill the top part of the window with a mesh of elaborate patterns called tracery. The style was geometrical (more straight lines) at first and flowing (curves) in the later period. This evolution of decorated tracery is often used to subdivide the period into an earlier "geometric" and later "curvilinear" period.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: Some of the earliest examples of the "perpendicular period", from 1360, are found at Gloucester Cathedral. The masons of the cathedral seem to be far in advance of those in other towns; the fan-vaulting in the cloisters is particularly fine. Also noteworthy are the Quire and tower of York Minster (1389–1407); the nave and western transepts of Canterbury Cathedral (1378–1411). Bath Abbey, Eton College Chapel and King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1446–1515) are also examples.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: It is called perpendicular because of its emphasis on vertical lines. This is particularly obvious in the design of windows, which became very large, sometimes of immense size, with slimmer stone mullions than in earlier periods. This allowed more scope for stained glass craftsmen. Buttresses and wall surfaces are likewise divided up into vertical panels. Another major development of this period was fan vaulting.


title: English Gothic architecture

text: Some of the finest features of this period are the magnificent timber rooves. Hammerbeam rooves, like those of Westminster Hall (1395), and Christ Church Hall, Oxford, appeared for the first time. In areas of southern England elaborate decoration in flint was used, especially in the wool churches of East Anglia.


title: Straight pool

text: Straight pool, also called 14.1 continuous or simply 14.1, is a pocket billiards (pool) game. It was the common sport of championship competition until faster-playing games like nine-ball and to a lesser extent became more popular. This is the game from the history of pool. The game was especially popular in the United States, and was the subject of the classic 1961 film "The Hustler".


title: Straight pool

text: In straight pool, the person shooting may attempt to pocket any ball on the table. The aim of the game is to reach a set number of points. The amount of points needed to win is agreed to before the game. One point is scored for each ball pocketed legally (that is, without a foul). A typical game might require a player to score 100 points. This means that at least 100 balls must be pocketed to win. In professional competition, straight pool is usually played to 150 points. Straight pool is a call-pocket game. This means that the player must call what pocket they mean to sink the ball into on every shot. It does not matter how balls reach the pocket (Hole) . As long as no foul is involved, and the balls goes into the pocket that is called, a point is scored.


title: Straight pool

text: Straight pool is well known in the United States, Europe, Japan and the Philippines, but the game has become more elsewhere. Probably the all-time greatest player (by professional statistics), Willie Mosconi, held the record high run, of 526 balls, which stood for 65 years until beaten by John Schmidt, who scored 626 points in a 2019 attempt to break Mosconi's record.


title: Straight pool

text: In the first rack in straight pool (when you place all the balls together before the break), the fifteen object balls (the colored balls) are racked in a triangular frame, usually made from aluminum, wood, or plastic. The center of the ball at the top of the rack is placed over the a spot on the table called the foot spot. Traditionally, the 1 ball is placed at the rack's right corner, and the 5 ball is placed at the rack's left corner. Other balls are placed randomly. All the balls must touch their neighbors. However, it is considered a courtesy by some players to place a striped ball at the front of the rack. This is because the break is very important and it is believed that a striped ball is easier to hit very precisely.


title: Straight pool

text: In most pool games, pocketing a ball and spreading the balls is the aim on the break. Straight pool is different. In it, the goal on the first break shot is to leave the opponent with a "safety". A safety means a situation where they opponent has no good shot. The reason for this is because the call-pocket rule—the rule discussed earlier requiring the player to call the ball they intend to pocket—"includes" the break shot. For that reason, if you break the balls hard, and even if you pocket many balls, you will not be able to go again unless you called one of those balls in a pocket and it goes into that pocket.


title: Straight pool

text: To perform a legal break, either a ball must be pocketed in a called pocket or the cue ball and at least two additional colored balls must touch rails. If you do not succeed at one of these two options, the shot is a foul. A foul on the first break results in a special penalty of a loss of 2 points. In addition, the opponent has the choice of either accepting the table as it was left, or of having the balls re-racked and requiring the person who fouled on the break to repeat it.


title: Straight pool

text: All other fouls during the game have a penalty of a one point deduction. This includes fouling on an "intragame" rack (a rack after the first rack, which are discussed later). However, a third foul "in a row" at any time in a straight pool game results in a loss of 15 points. When applying this rule, a foul on the initial break, though it is a loss of two points, is not counted as two fouls. The 15 point deduction is in addition to the one point loss for each foul. Thus, the first two fouls are a loss of one point each, and the third foul in a row is a loss of 16 points: 1 point for the foul, and 15 points for it being the third foul in a row.


title: Straight pool

text: "Intragame racks" refers to all racks after the first rack. As noted previously, straight pool is played to a specific number of points, normally far more than the 15 total points that can be made in the first rack. For this reason, multiple intragame racks are necessary. Intragame racking employs a separate set of rules from those in place at the game's start on the first rack.


title: Straight pool

text: To reach the point in time when an intragame rack is needed, the balls are played until only the cue ball and only one object ball remain on the table's surface. At that time, if neither the cue ball or the fifteenth object ball remains in the rack area (or is interfering with racking in the rack area) the fourteen pocketed object balls are racked with no ball placed at the top of the rack, and the rack is placed so that "if the top ball were in the rack", its center would be placed over the table's foot spot. Play then continues with the cue ball shot from where it rested, and the fifteenth, non-racked object ball from where it rested prior to racking.


title: Straight pool

text: The name "14.1 continuous" is named after this racking method. That is, that fourteen (14) racked object balls and one (.1) separate colored ball are left at the end of each intragame rack. The shooter will then normally try to pocket the unracked fifteenth colored ball, and at the same time have the cue ball smash into the fourteen racked balls, spreading them so that later shots are available, and the player continue at the table.


title: Straight pool

text: A number of rules detail what must be done when one or both of the cue ball and fifteenth object ball are either in the rack area at the time an intragame rack is neeeded, or are so close to the intragame racking area, that the racking of the 14 balls cannot be done without moving one of them. The rules also vary depending on whether the cue ball or fifteenth object ball are resting on the table's head spot. These rules are shown on the following chart. Note that in the chart the use of the word kitchen refers to the area behind the table's head string.


title: Highways in Puerto Rico

text: The system of highways in Puerto Rico is made up of about of roads. It is managed by Puerto Rico's Department of Transportation and Public Works.


title: Highways in Puerto Rico

text: A highway may contain several types of roads, but the highway will continue to have the same route number. Primary roads have numbers 1 to 99. Secondary roads are numbered 100 to 299. Municipal (tertiary) roads are numbered 300 to 9999.


title: Highways in Puerto Rico

text: There are three Interstate Highways in Puerto Rico. Together, they total . As with Interstate Highways in Alaska and Hawaii, these routes do not connect to the rest of the United States' Interstate Highway System. However, they still get money from the U.S. government.


title: Highways in Puerto Rico

text: These Interstate Highways run along tollways and roads that are not grade-separated, which means drivers must use a specially made group of ramps to get to the road. There are no signs for these Interstate Highways. They are signed as Puerto Rico routes.


title: Highways in Puerto Rico

text: Puerto Rico's interstate routes are not to be confused with Puerto Rico Routes PR-1, PR-2, and PR-3. These are other major highways in Puerto Rico.


title: Haiku

text: The traditional hokku usually was written in six verses or more or less 5, 7, 5 syllables and they had to follow ("on-ji"). The Japanese word "cow", meaning "sound", corresponds to a "mora", a phonetic unit similar but not identical to the syllable of a language such as English. A haiku has a special "season word" (the "kigo") to represent the season in which the poem is set, or a reference to the natural world.


title: Haiku

text: Haiku usually breaks in three parts, called "kireji", normally placed at the end of the first five or second seven "morae". In Japanese, there are actual kireji words. In English, kireji is often replaced with commas, hyphens, elipses, or breaks in the haiku. Japanese haiku are normally written in one line, while English language haiku are traditionally separated into three lines.


title: Haiku

text: In Japanese, nouns do not have different singular and plural forms, so "haiku" is used as both a singular and plural noun in English as well.


title: Haiku

text: All of the poets below have some haiku. However, only Hackett and Virgilio are known for writing haiku. Richard Wright wrote some 4000 haiku in the last eighteen months of his life. Amiri Baraka recently wrote a collection of what he calls "low coup." This is his own version of haiku. Poet Sonia Sanchez is also known for putting together haiku and the blues musical genre.


title: Pangram

text: Pangrams are sentences that have one or more of every letter in an alphabet. They are used to show every letter in a font, or to test a keyboard or typewriter.


title: Twine

text: Twine (also called baler twine) is a light string or strong thread made from two or more smaller strands or yarns twisted together. More generally, the term can be applied to a cord. It is often synonymous with string but is usually thicker. Natural fibres used for making twine include cotton, sisal, jute, hemp, henequen, and coir. A variety of synthetic fibres may also be used. Twine is available in colors, plain or waxed. Twine is as useful as duct tape in that it can be used for a wide variety of repairs.


title: Twine

text: In arts and crafts, twine is used for a wide variety of projects. It is used in knitting, crocheting, and making jewellery, to mention just a few. Commercially, twine is used in upholstery, rug-making, agriculture, the cotton industry, textiles, and in the carton industry.


title: Twine

text: Twine traces its history back to as early as 32,000 years ago. Wild flax fibers were used to make twine for clothing, baskets and creating tools. Hunter-gatherers processed flax into strong cords or twine.


title: Twine

text: Archaeologists discovered flax fiber cords in a western Asian cave that date from 32,000 to 26,000 years ago. In a cave at Lascaux, France fossilized remains of a “two-ply laid rope of about 7 mm diameter” were dated to about 15,000 BCE. Hemp twine was used from about 8,000 BCE. By 1,000 BCE hemp rope and twine was used by most civilizations. From 500 BCE to 1900 AD almost all rope and twine used in sailing ships was made from hemp. For example, the USS Constitution used hemp for its rigging lines. Sea bags and other common goods used help cordage or twine.


title: Twine

text: In the 1630s hemp was used to produce cordage in Boston. Soon there were several ropewalks in Boston producing hemp rope. Hemp twine was twisted into rope.


title: Pelvic inflammatory disease

text: If this illness is not treated it can prevent a woman from having children. It can kill the unborn child and it can be very painful. This disease can be treated and the infection can be cured.


title: Pelvic inflammatory disease

text: A woman with PID can feel sick. Sometimes a woman with PID does not feel sick. A woman with PID can have a fever, pain when the belly is touched, lower abdominal pain, vaginal discharge, painful sex, or unusual bleeding.


title: Pelvic inflammatory disease

text: The infection is caused by microorganisms that enter the body through the vagina during sex. The microorganisms travel up thorough uterus and into the inside of the body. There are many microorganisms that cause infection in this way, such as:


title: Pelvic inflammatory disease

text: Medical workers use different tests to find the infection. They can perform a medical exam to see evidence of pus and find painful areas. They can use a microscope to see the microorganisms causing the infection. A blood test can detect PID. Two thirds of women were not aware they had PID. Even with no signs of infection, PID can cause serious harm.


title: Pelvic inflammatory disease

text: Other causes can produce signs to PID symptoms including: appendicitis, a complicated pregnancy, swollen or twisted ovaries and endometriosis. A woman is more likely to get Pelvic inflammatory disease if she has had it before. She is more likely to have the infection if she has recently had sex, started menstruation, had an Intrauterine device put inside her uterus or if her sex partner has a sexually transmitted infection.


title: Pelvic inflammatory disease

text: Medical testing for sexually transmitted infections is important for prevention. The risk of getting PID can be lowered by:


title: Pelvic inflammatory disease

text: If your medical provider thinks you are infected, treatment is usually started right away. This is because serious results may happen from delayed treatment. Sometimes the medical provider will use a test to help find the infection. Curing the infection with antibiotic medications is normal. Improvement should occur quickly but if not, the woman is told to find more medical attention. Treating sex partners for possible infections will help in treatment and prevention of getting the infection again.


title: Pelvic inflammatory disease

text: About 106 million cases of PID occurred around the world in 2008. About 1.5% of young women yearly get the infection. One million women in the United States get PID every year.


title: Pelvic inflammatory disease

text: Although the PID infection may be cured the damage from the infection may not go away. This makes finding the infection early so important. Treatment by medical providers will prevent damage to the female reproductive organs.


title: Patiala

text: Patiala is a city in the Punjab state of India. It is the administrative headquarters of Patiala District. In the 2011 census, the population of Patiala city was 406,192. Patiala city is situated 250 meters above sea level. Geographic co-ordinates of Patiala city are latitude 30.33, longitude 76.4.


title: Patiala

text: Patiala a Royal city, the land of Maharajas is famous for its peg, pagri, dresses, jutti, Patiala sahi salwar, Reshmi naale, Food like “Makki de roti” and “Saraason da saag”, folk songs, dances like Gidha and Bhangra, its traditions and culture.


title: Patiala

text: Patiala gets name after Baba Ala Singh, the Sidhu Jat founder of Patiala state. It was earlier known as Ala De Patti which changed to Patiala over a period of time.


title: Patiala

text: In 1714 A.D Baba Ala Singh assumed its leadership. Patiala formerly known as “Ala De Patti” because Baba Ala Singh was the founder of this place. In 1763 Baba Ala Singh laid the foundation of “Quila Mubarak”. The city is built around the Qila Mubarak. The area of district Patiala is known as “Malwa”.


title: Patiala

text: In the third Battle of Panipat, Marathas were defeated by the Afghans in 1761. Hereafter, the rulers of Patiala began to acquire advantage of royalty. He was succeeded by his grandson Amar Singh and he received the title of Raja-I-Rajaan. atiala rulers joined hands with the British against Ranjit Singh in 1808. Thereafter, Patiala came under subsidiary alliance system.


title: Patiala

text: Next important ruler was Mahendra Singh who was a minor at the time of succession. He worked for social causes by funding colleges, constructing new canals and by providing relief funds to famine-draught stricken areas. He was appointed as a ‘Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India’ in 1870. The famous Mohindra Government College was established during his reign and was named after him too. He was succeeded by his son, Rajinder Singh.


title: Patiala

text: Rajinder Singh was awarded with the Grand Cross of the Star of India by the British. He established establishments like a women’s hospital, an orphanage and a training institute for soldiers. He was succeeded by Bhupendra Singh.


title: Patiala

text: After the death of his father Rajinder Singh, Bhupinder was crowned the Maharaja at the tender age of nine. Maharaja Bhupindra Singh had given Patiala a prominent place in politics and in the field of sports. Big architectural designs were constructed during his time.


title: Patiala

text: Bhupinder Singh was educated at Aitchison Chief's College in Lahore and was a talented polo and cricket player. In 1911, the Maharaja of Patiala captained the India XI that toured England. He played for various teams in India and as a member of the Marylebone Cricket Club for the season 1926/7. He contributed generously to the Indian Gymkhana Club in London which catered for Indian students and which with his donation was able to move to Osterley Park. He also founded the Sikh Dharamsala in Putney in 1911. The famous ‘Patiala Necklace’, one of the most expensive pieces of jewellery ever made, was created for him by the house of Cartier in 1928. He was also a dear friend of Hitler's, who gifted him a rare Maybach car.


title: Patiala

text: Bhupinder Singh's son Yadvindra Singh was among those Indian princes who, readily came forward to sign the Instrument of Accession, thus facilitating the process of national integration. In recognition of his services, he was appointed the Rajpramukh of the newly established state of PEPSU.


title: Christian cross

text: The Christian cross is the main symbol of the Christian religion. These crosses are usually found on Christian churches.


title: Christian cross

text: Jesus, who many Christians believe is God the Son and their Messiah, was crucified (nailed to a large wooden cross). This was a commonly used method for killing people in Roman times.


title: Christian cross

text: Christians believe that Jesus' death made the sins of all humans who trust in him, go away, and that they are forgiven. They also believe that Jesus was resurrected (came back to life) after three days. Because of this, the cross is a symbol for Jesus' sacrifice and suffering, but also a symbol of hope, forgiveness of sins, and victory over death.


title: Christian cross

text: There are several different Christian crosses that are symbols for different Christian groups or persons.


title: Christian cross

text: The empty cross is usually favoured by Protestants and Eastern Orthodox, and the symbol reminds them of the Resurrection of Jesus, though the Orthodox will add a slanted footbar, as well. The crucifix is favoured by Catholic churches and is a reminder of Christ's sacrifice. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus died on a simple upright pole, a "torture stake" ; and only display it as a picture of an impaled Jesus in their literature.


title: Christian cross

text: This cross is a symbol of hope over death, and of victory in returning to life. (See Philippians 2:8-9)


title: Christian cross

text: The non-Christian religion of Scientology, also uses the Latin cross (but with a star in the middle) as its symbol.


title: The Jungle Book

text: The Jungle Book is a collection of stories written by Rudyard Kipling. It was published by Macmillan & Co. in 1894. The stories tell about life and legends of the Indian jungle. Parts of "The Jungle Book" have been adapted to television, movies, the theater, and other media.


title: The Jungle Book

text: Kipling was born in India, and spent the first six years of his life there. After about ten years in England, he went back to India and worked there for about six-and-half years. All of the "Jungle Book" stories were published in magazines in 1893-4. The original publications contained illustrations, some by Rudyard's father, John Lockwood Kipling. These books were written when Kipling lived in Vermont.


title: The Jungle Book

text: The tales in the book (and also those in "The Second Jungle Book" which followed in 1895, and which includes five further stories about Mowgli) are fables, using animals in an anthropomorphic manner to give moral lessons. Kipling put in them nearly everything he knew or "heard or dreamed about the Indian jungle." Other readers have interpreted the work as allegories of the politics and society of the time.


title: The Jungle Book

text: The best-known stories are the three about an abandoned 'man cub' Mowgli. They boy is raised by wolves in the Indian jungle. The most famous of the other stories are probably "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi", the story of a heroic mongoose, and "Toomai of the Elephants", the tale of a young elephant-handler. Kotick, The White Seal seeking for his people a haven where they would be safe from hunters, has been considered a metaphor for Zionism, then in its beginning.


title: The Jungle Book

text: As with much of Kipling's work, each of the stories is preceded by a piece of verse, and succeeded by another. The title of each is given in "italics" in the list of stories below.


title: The Jungle Book

text: "The Jungle Book", because of its moral tone, came to be used as a motivational book by the Cub Scouts, a junior element of the Scouting movement. This use of the book's universe was approved by Kipling after a direct petition of Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Scouting movement, who had originally asked for the author's permission for the use of the "Memory Game" from "Kim" in his scheme to develop the morale and fitness of working-class youths in cities. Akela, the head wolf in The Jungle Book, has become a senior figure in the movement, the name being traditionally adopted by the leader of each Cub Scout pack.


title: The Jungle Book

text: The complete book, having passed into the public domain, is on-line at Project Gutenberg's official website and elsewhere.


title: The Jungle Book

text: The book's text has often been abridged or adapted for younger readers, and there have also been several comic book adaptations.


title: Las Cruces, New Mexico

text: Las Cruces is the second largest city in the American state of New Mexico. The current population is about 90,000. The city is known for it large Urban Renewal Project that tore down much of its historic Main Street area.


title: Jonathan Woodgate

text: Jonathan Woodgate (born 22 January 1980) is an English football player. He plays for Tottenham Hotspur.


title: Sun Tzu (mathematician)

text: His interests were in astronomy. He tried to develop a calendar and for this he investigated Diophantine equations. He is best known for authoring "Sun Tzu Suan Ching" (pinyin: "Sun Zi Suan Jing"; literally, "Sun Tzu's Calculation Classic"), which contains the Chinese remainder theorem.


title: Safari (web browser)

text: Safari is a web browser developed by Apple Inc. which can be downloaded free of charge. It also comes with a Mac computer. It is based on the WebKit engine, which is a fork of KDE's KHTML engine.


title: Safari (web browser)

text: Apple Inc. replaced the previous default web browser, Internet Explorer, with their Safari many years ago. Steve Jobs, the founder of Apple, said that it would be released in Jan 2003. Since then, 15 types of Safari have been made. The newest one was made in Sep 2021 for iOS, iPadOS, and macOS.


title: Mercury-vapor lamp

text: A mercury-vapor lamp is a kind of gas discharge lamp. It makes light from mercury. The mercury atoms release ultraviolet and visible light. In some bulbs, the ultraviolet light shines on phosphors which make white light from it, although not all mercury-vapor lamps use phosphors. The EU wants to ban them because they contain large amounts of mercury and are not efficient like fluorescent bulbs. They last much longer though.


title: Mercury-vapor lamp

text: They are the bluish streetlights. Depending on the quality of the bulb, age of the bulb, phosphor used, and other chemicals added to the mercury, the color of the light can vary from blue-white to green-white, to almost pure white. A green tint usually indicates an older bulb, although it doesn't necessarily mean that the bulb is about to burn out. The metal halide lamp is an improved version of the mercury vapor lamp that contains a metal halide (usually sodium iodide) in addition to the mercury. The metal halide produces orange light, which combines with the blue-white light from the mercury to produce a very pure white light.


title: Carolyn Jones

text: Carolyn Sue Jones (April 28, 1930 – August 3, 1983) was an American actress. She performed in movies and television series. She began her career in the early 1950s. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress in 1957. She was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 1959. Beginning in 1964, she played Morticia Addams in the television show "The Addams Family".


title: Carolyn Jones

text: Jones was born in Amarillo, Texas. She died near Hollywood, California due to colon cancer at the age of 53.


title: Nihonium

text: Nihonium (ニホニウム) is a chemical element. It is also named eka-thallium. It has the symbol Nh. It has the atomic number 113. It is a transuranium element. The name "nihonium" comes from the name of Japan in Japanese, 日本 ("nihon").


title: Nihonium

text: Nihonium does not exist in nature, and can only be made artificially. It is made from the alpha decay of moscovium.


title: Nihonium

text: There are no known uses for nihonium. What nihonium looks like is not known because not enough has been made to see it with human eyesight. Based on trends in the Periodic Table it could be soft, silver color, very reactive metal like sodium.


title: Nihonium

text: On February 1, 2004, Nihonium and moscovium were discovered. A team of Russian scientists at Dubna from the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory first reported the chemical elements.


title: Nihonium

text: In May 2006, in the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research made nihonium using a different method. They found the identity of the last products of the radioactive decay of the nihonium they made.


title: Nihonium

text: Scientists from Japan suggested the name "japonium" (symbol "Jp") or "rikenium" ("Rk"). However, they picked Nihonium because not only is it discovered in Japan, but it means Japan, too, as Nihon is Japan or Japanese in Japanese.


title: Cultural relativism

text: Cultural Relativism is a theory of anthropology that views all cultures as equal. Early anthropologist Franz Boas first used the idea of cultural relativism in 1887, but the concept did not have a name until Alain Locke coined the term in 1924. This concept is now accepted by anthropologists around the world.


title: Cultural relativism

text: Franz Boas noticed that people who study other cultures still tend to be ethnocentric. This means that other cultures are viewed through one's own ideas of how a culture or society should work. A person may be ethnocentric without meaning to be. Ethnocentrism is the idea that one’s own culture is the best, and other cultures are studied or viewed with this outlook. In Boas’ article “On Alternating Sounds,” he explains how different cultures experience sound differently. When people study or come into contact with other cultures, people misunderstand sounds and language. An example used by Boas, is when he studies Inuit texts, words, and languages that are spelled in the Bureau of Ethnology by British Columbia. There were many misspellings explained by a misunderstanding by other cultures that have a different phonetic system rooted in a person's life.


title: Cultural relativism

text: In order to reduce this ethnocentrism from happening when anthropologists study other cultures, Boas thought that the person would need to live with people that they were studying for a long period of time. A person would be able to learn the culture and language better, and then decrease the number of times they misinterpret sounds and language of that culture.


title: Cultural relativism

text: One of Franz Boas’ students, Ruth Benedict, was an anthropologist that studied the beliefs and practices within a culture’s social system. She noticed that they became mixed patterns of ideas and practices. Benedict believed that people should learn all of the ways people live. The way people show emotions, carry out daily routines or perform normal functions changes based on each individual’s own culture. By studying these cultures, Benedict thought that people could understand that every culture has a different way of living and the way that person lived was not the only way


title: Cultural relativism

text: Cultural relativism was also used as a political device. Alfred L. Kroeber used ideas like cultural relativism to argue that indigenous populations are equal to settlers, since indigenous people have culture as well. argued that cultural diffused from West Africa and still existed during and after slavery. This idea was meant to fight against the myth that Africans do not have any culture or cultural roots.


title: Cultural relativism

text: Ruth Benedict also noticed that an individual’s view of what actions were right and what actions were wrong relied on one’s own culture. A person formed what was right and wrong based on social norms and values of their culture. They then formed their system of morals, which told them how to live. Benedict believed that no one person’s morals were necessarily better or worse than another’s; it was all relative on the society in which they lived.


title: Cultural relativism

text: Two anthropologists, George Marcus and Michael Fisher, explain cultural relativism as being a critical device used in analyzing and studying other cultures. It is also used to self-reflect on our own culture. The research of anthropologist Margaret Mead is a great example of cultural relativism. After looking at young female sexuality in Samoa, located in New Guinea, Mead questions the ‘natural’ stress related to American adolescence and sexuality as bound to happen. Her research on this is found in her book "."


title: Cultural relativism

text: Richard Feinberg, an anthropologist, identifies cultural relativism as having three types: contextual, ethical and epistemological. Contextual relativism is defined as members of a community or society having beliefs and practices that are represented through symbols and meanings that need to be understood within that culture. A practice that appears to be similar in two different cultures could be understood completely different among those two communities, which is an idea that Boas highlighted in his works. Ethical relativism is identified as cultures having no good or bad practices and beliefs, so people would not be able to make these judgments. Epistemological relativism is explained as the view that a person cannot truly understand another culture in a useful or meaningful way, which is similar to Boas’ ‘historical anthropology’ now identified as historical particularism.


title: 135 film

text: 135 film is the official name of the photographic film that is most used today. It is specified by ISO Standard 1007. It was introduced by Kodak in 1934 It was made for making pictures, rather than films. It is 35mm wide; that is why it is often also called 35mm film.


title: 135 film

text: It quickly grew in popularity. It became more popular than 120 film by the late 1960s. Since then, it has been the most popular photographic film format. Despite competition from formats such as 828, 126, 110 and APS, it remains so today.


title: 135 film

text: Individual rolls of 135 film are enclosed in single-spool, light-tight, metal cassettes. This allows cameras to be loaded in daylight. The film is clipped or taped to a spool and exits via a velvet-covered slot. The end of the film is cut on one side to form a leader, which is to be inserted into a corresponding slot in the camera take-up spool. It has the same dimensions and perforation pitch as 35 mm movie print film.


title: Carcassonne

text: Carcassonne () is a fortified French town, in the "Aude département", Occitanie region. It is separated into the fortified "Cité de Carcassonne" and the more expansive lower city, the "ville basse".


title: Carcassonne

text: This bastide, which was thoroughly restored from 1853 by the theorist and architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, was added to the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites in 1997.


title: Carcassonne

text: Romans fortified the hilltop of Carcassonne around 100 BC and eventually made it the "colonia" of "Julia Carsaco", later "Carcasum". The main part of the lower courses of the northern ramparts dates from Gallo-Roman times.


title: Carcassonne

text: In 462 the Romans officially left and the Visigothic king Theodoric II built more fortifications at Carcassonne, some of them still stand. In 760, Pippin was unable to take Carcassonne, although he was able to most of the south of France.


title: Carcassonne

text: In 1067 Carcassonne became the property of Raimond Bernard Trencavel, viscount of Albi and Nîmes. Carcassonne became famous in its role in the Albigensian Crusades, when the city was a stronghold of occitan cathars. In August 1209 the crusading army of Simon de Montfort forced its citizens to surrender. He added to the fortifications. Carcassonne became a border citadel between France and Aragon.


title: Carcassonne

text: Carcassonne is at about southeast of Toulouse in the space between the Pyrenees and the Massif Central of France. It is at the crossing of two major traffic routes: the route leading from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean and that from the Massif Central to Spain, skirting the Pyrenees. Both routes exist since ancient history.


title: Carcassonne

text: The "commune" is in the valley of the Aude river. Another river that flows through the city is the Fresquel river. The Canal du Midi also flows through the "commune".


title: Carcassonne

text: The "commune" of Carcassonne has an area of , and its average altitude is ; at the city hall, the altitude is .


title: Carcassonne

text: The climate of Carcassonne, in the Köppen climate classification, is Cfb - oceanic climate with warm summers.


title: Carcassonne

text: Carcassonne forms, with other 2 "communes", the urban area of Carcassonne with a population of 49,257 inhabitants (2013) and an area of . This urban area is the centre of the metropolitan area of Carcassonne, formed by 71 "communes" with a population of 98,318 inhabitants (2013) and an area of .


title: Carcassonne

text: A campus of the École nationale de l'aviation civile (French civil aviation academy) is in Carcassonne.


title: Carcassonne

text: Carcassonne is the prefecture of the Aude department, the capital of the "arrondissement" of Carcassonne and the administrative centre () of three cantons:


title: Carcassonne

text: The fortifications consist of a double ring of ramparts and 53 towers. In 1849, the architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc took over restoration works.


title: Carcassonne

text: At his death in 1879 his pupil Paul Boeswillwald, and later the architect Nodet continued the rehabilitation of Carcassonne. The restoration was strongly criticized during Viollet-le-Duc's lifetime because he made the error of using slates and restoring the roofs as pointed cones, where local practice was traditionally of tile roofing and low slopes, as in this region snow was very seldom. But today Viollet-le-Duc's work at Carcassonne is thought to be a work of genius, even if it is not exactly the same as it was.


title: Holmium

text: Holmium () is a chemical element with the symbol Ho and atomic number 67. Part of the lanthanide series, holmium is a relatively soft and malleable silvery-white metallic element, which is stable in dry air at room temperature. A rare earth metal, it is found in the minerals monazite and gadolinite.


title: Saw

text: There are many kinds of saw. Some of them are hand tools that work with muscle power, like the saw in the picture. Some saws have other sources of power and can be very powerful, such as a chainsaw that is used to cut down trees.


title: Saw

text: The work carried out with a saw is usually noisy. Using a saw to cut materials is "dangerous" because of sharp teeth. Care must be taken not to let sharp edges touch the skin. Parts of the material being cut can fly off the work and become a hazard to breathing, to eyes and to the skin.


title: Saw

text: The is a type of saw used in woodworking. These saws typically cut on the pull stroke (when the saw is pulled backwards).


title: Saw

text: There are several kinds of powered saws. Some are powered by electricity from a . Others are powered by batteries. Still others can be powered by Internal combustion engines, steam, or water power.


title: Saw

text: A saw designed to cut down trees or cut branches from trees is a chainsaw. A chainsaw is named for the row of teeth attached to a flexible chain. The cut is often very rough and often has splinters.


title: Saw

text: Circular saws use a round blade, usually between 7 and 10 inches. They are often very powerful and can cut through hard or soft wood. They use interchangeable round blades. The blade can be designed to cut any of a number of kinds of materials from steel, to wood, to masonry.


title: Saw

text: Jig saws move the blade up and down to cut through materials. The stroke (or up and down movement) is usually less than one inch (25.4 mm). These saws are very good for making curved cuts. Jig saws use a variety of interchangeable blades for cutting different materials. Some blades make very smooth cuts.


title: Gauteng

text: Gauteng ( ; ; Sotho: "Gauteng" ; ; Tsonga: "Gauteng/eXilungwini;" Ndebele, ; ; ) is a province of South Africa. It is the smallest province by area, though it also has the greatest number of people. Its capital is Johannesburg, the largest city in South Africa. It also hosts South Africa's executive capital, Pretoria.


title: Gauteng

text: The province borders the provinces of North West (west), the Free State (south), Limpopo (north), and Mpumalanga (east).


title: 2022 Italian general election

text: A general election is due to be held in Italy on 25 September 2022. The 2022 Italian government crisis, which lead to the resignation of Prime Minister Mario Draghi, resulted in President Sergio Mattarella dissolving the Italian Parliament on 21 July, eight months before its natural expiration, and call for new elections. Draghi continues to head the government as caretaker prime Minister. The election saw the centre-right coalition, led by Giorgia Meloni's Brothers of Italy, a political party with neo-fascist roots, winning an absolute majority of Parliament seats. Meloni was appointed Prime Minister of Italy on 22 October, becoming the first woman to hold that position.


title: Shiba Inu

text: The Shiba Inu is a breed of dog from Japan. It looks like a smaller version of the Akita Inu, and was first bred for hunting. Shiba Inu is one of seven Japanese dog species recognised as natural symbols of the country.


title: Shiba Inu

text: There are two types of Shiba. Aka-Shiba has red hair, and Kuro-Shiba has black hair. Shiba is a popular among breeders in Japan.


title: Shiba Inu

text: Shiba inu are faithful to their owners and are wary of strangers. They are popular as guard dogs. They are also the subject of an internet meme called Doge.


title: Incheon International Airport

text: Incheon International Airport is the largest international airport in South Korea where all international flights leave and arrive every day. Gimpo Airport located near city Seoul used to be the international airport for Korea. However as the population grew and needs for places to stay increased in the area, Gimpo Airport no longer could expand its capacity to meet the growing demands for international flights. To solve the problem, a construction plan for a new 24 hour airport was started in 1992. Incheon International Airport is in Incheon City Jung-gu Unseo-dong (37°27′5″N, 126°26′4″E). Incheon International Airport Railroad (A'REX) and Incheon International Airport Highway were built to join the airport to Seoul. The airport is operated by Incheon International Airport Corporation (IIAC) and it is owned by the government of South Korea.


title: Incheon International Airport

text: Incheon International Airport opened on March 29th, 2001. It was built on reclaimed land between Yongjongdo and Youngyudo. First stage of building started in 1992 and it took eight years and four months to finish. It cost 7.8 trillion Won. This allowed Incheon International Airport to have up to 170,000 flights, 27,000,000 passengers and 1,700,000 tons of cargo per year. Stage Two began in 2002 and was completed on June 20th 2008. The airport now has the capacity of holding 410,000 flights, 44,000,000 passengers, and 4,500,000 tons of cargo per year. When the airport is finished in 2020, it will have two passenger terminals, four satellite concourses, 128 gates, and four parallel runways. It will be able to have up to 100 million passengers, and 7 million tons of cargo per year.


title: Incheon International Airport

text: Incheon International Airport has passenger facilities (main passenger terminal, passenger concourse A), cargo terminal complex (A, B, C terminal), and operation facilities (control tower, runways, and meteorological facilities).


title: Ninja

text: Ninja (or shinobi) were a mystery in the History of Japan. The correct Japanese word for these warriors was shinobi-no-mono, which literally means "people who survive/endure". Ninja is easier to say; this is why it is more widely used. Shinobi-no-mono is the native Japanese word for ninja, while ninja is the Sino-Japanese word. Ninja warriors created secret associations and took part in many political killings. Their mystery comes from two ideas: 1) they always participated in secret spy operations and political killings; 2) ninja were hired by heads of armies as paid warriors (mercenaries). The art of fighting which was used by ninja was called ninjitsu, which was a combination of shinobi-no-jitsu and shinobi-jitsu.


title: Ninja

text: Many people thought ninja were not normal people. People believed they could fly and had supernatural skills. Ninja existed during the entire history of Japan, but ninja only became specially trained people at the beginning of the 15th century. They mainly trained in the regions of Iga and Koga.


title: Ninja

text: Ninja were involved in samurai wars and were hired by samurai for different missions, but at the same time samurai did not accept them as noble warriors because most of the ninja came from lower social classes. They were dangerous and could not be controlled. Their methods of fighting did not fit the samurai code. The samurai code was a code of honor. For example, the samurai warrior would show his rank and would only fight a samurai of equal or higher rank. Japanese land lords (daimyo) widely used the services of the Iga and Koga ninja in the period of 1485-1581. But in 1581, one of the three daimyo who united Japan – Oda Nobunaga attacked ninja from Iga province. The ninja remained alive and ran to the provinces Kii and Mikawa, where Tokugawa Ieyasu protected them. Later, Oda Nobunaga was killed by a samurai named Akechi Mitsuhide, who later became an enemy to Tokugawa Ieyasu.


title: Ninja

text: The art of ninja fighting was passed down from father to son, or from master ("sensei") to their best students. But in the middle of 17th century, Nakagawa Sosuntzin created a ninja school in the Mutsu Province. It was called Nakagawa-ryu and taught the ninjitsu method of fighting. Nakagawa Sosuntzin himself trained a group of 10 men, which he called Hayamiti-no-mono (men of the short hit). Ninja were taught many more things than a samurai. They had to be skilled at handling swords, spears, bows and many other weapons; but also they had to know about explosive and poisonous substances, to be a good path finder and to survive in different situations. Usually they were trained from young age and had to keep a very specific physical shape. Ninja were not allowed to be too light or too heavy. A ninja who could read and write was very appreciated.


title: Ninja

text: It tends to be thought that a ninja usually wore black clothes which helped him to hide in the dark, however, they wore dark blue, red, or brown clothes, which are more quiet than black at night. In usual days, a ninja never wore showy dress and pretended to be another job, for example, a merchant, a traveling monk, a monkey showman and so on. If they had to fight on the battlefield, they put on a light armor, which protected them, but also allowed easy movement. On their feet they wore Japanese socks which separated the big toe (the socks were called tabi). The ninja outfit had many pockets for helpful gear. Chain armor was normally beneath their cloak in-case danger came their way like an ambush.


title: Ninja

text: The diversity of ninja weapons and attributes is much wider than that of the samurai. The main weapon of ninja was the sword. Ninja swords were usually shorter than samurai katana and had a straight blade. When they climbed, the sword was put on the left shoulder, putting the handle of the sword was close to the left ear. Ninja also used different types of throwing knives, and a weapon for their fists called tagaki. They used metallic claws on their feet which helped them to climb and made their kicks more dangerous.


title: Ninja

text: As with Robin Hood or King Arthur, the ongoing presence of ninja in pop culture movies and manga often differs widely from their true origins.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: Team Fortress 2 (TF2) is a free-to-play multiplayer first-person shooter video game. It is made by Valve Corporation, who develops and publishes the game.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: The game has nine characters, called classes. Players can choose which one of these classes they want to play, and can change classes in the middle of a round. There are many different game modes, such as Payload, which has one team pushing a cart along a track while the other team tries to stop them, and a version of Capture the Flag, where players must capture a briefcase with important papers. The game is set in 1968, in an alternate history. The game is also takes inspiration from many famous spy movies and TV shows, taking elements from James Bond, The Man from U.N.C.L.E., and "Get Smart".


title: Team Fortress 2

text: The game was first released in October of 2007 in "The Orange Box", a package with "Half Life 2", "Portal" and "Team Fortress 2". It was later released separately for the Playstation 3, Xbox 360, Microsoft Windows, Linux and Mac computers. It became free to play on June 23, 2011.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: "Team Fortress 2" has nine classes. The classes are split into groups of three, which are offense, and support. Each class has its own strengths and weaknesses, causing the classes to rely on each other to win, promoting teamwork. Also, each class can change their weapons to different ones that they find over time or make from scrap metal. For example, the Soldier could change his normal rocket launcher into 'The Direct Hit.' It shoots faster, stronger rockets at the cost of having a smaller explosion size. In general, the different weapons are not upgrades, but rather 'side-grades.' They are better at certain times, while worse at other times.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: The offensive classes are the "Scout", the "Soldier", and the "Pyro". These classes have abilities that make them best suited for attacking the other team, but also easy to kill.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: "The Scout" is a young man from Boston with an interest in baseball. He is the fastest runner in the game, making him a good class to use in capture the flag, as he can run in, grab the enemy team's briefcase, and run out. Also, he captures control points at twice the speed of any other class. However, he also is tied for the lowest health of any class. His default weapons include a scattergun, a pistol, and a baseball bat. He is excellent at killing Medics and Demomen.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: "The Soldier" is a middle-aged man from the American midwest. His main weapon is a rocket launcher which he can use to blow up enemies, or, if fired at his own feet, can be used to make him jump very high. This is called 'rocket jumping.' Rocket jumping will hurt the Soldier, though, and if he is low on health, it could kill him. Rocket jumping can also make the Soldier move forward very fast, sometimes even faster than the Scout. Soldier also uses shotguns and shovels to attack. The Soldier is a good offensive class but he cannot move very fast and is easy to hit. The Soldier has a large amount of health, the second highest of all the classes.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: "The Pyro" is a character wearing a full-body rubber suit and gas mask, so nobody knows their race, age, or gender. They also speak in a muffled voice so nobody knows what they're really saying. Pyro's main weapon is a flamethrower, used to set enemies on fire. Once an enemy is set on fire, they will burn for several seconds, meaning they can die even if they have killed the Pyro that set them on fire. This is called "Afterburn". For backup, they have a shotgun and a fire axe. The Pyro is good for checking for Spies using their flamethrower. This is called "Spy-checking". Pyros can help against Übercharged players by pushing them back with an "air blast" or "compression blast". The air blast can also reflect projectiles, such as grenades or rockets, back at the enemy team, which will inflict bonus damage. They are weak at long range. The Pyro has a good amount of both health and speed.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: The defensive classes are the "Demoman", the "Heavy Weapons Guy", and the "Engineer". The abilities of these classes make them best for defending things their team needs, such as control points, briefcases, and carts.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: "The Demoman", short for Demolition Man, is a black Scotsman with an eyepatch. His main weapons are a grenade launcher and sticky bombs. Grenades will explode immediately if you hit a player before the grenade hits the ground, or a few seconds after being shot if they do not hit anything. Sticky bombs can stick to walls and then be set off by the Demoman when an enemy gets close. The Demoman can also replace his sticky launcher for a shield. The shield lets the Demoman charge forward at high speeds, and do more damage with his close-ranged weapon. His close-range weapon is a bottle of whiskey. The Demoman is a very strong class. His sticky bombs do great damage, and can be used to 'sticky jump' much like how a Soldier can rocket jump. Also like the Soldier, the Demoman is good in most situations. He is an easy target for Scouts, however.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: "The Heavy Weapons Guy", also known as the Heavy, is a middle-aged man from the Soviet Union who is built like a tank. Because of his large size, he has the highest health of all the classes. Also because of his size, he is the slowest runner. His main weapon is a minigun which he named Sasha and treats like a person. The minigun does by far the most damage at close range of any gun in the game, due to its high fire rate and damage. It uses a lot of ammunition very quickly, so if he runs out, he can use his shotgun or his fists to punch enemies to death. The Heavy is great at close range or in small, cramped places. Spies and Snipers are useful for killing Heavies because they are capable of doing high damage instantly with backstabs (Spy) and headshots (Sniper). At close range, the Heavy will usually win one-on-one fights unless he is surprised.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: "The Engineer" is a middle-aged man from Bee Cave, Texas with 11 Ph.D.s. His main use is to make buildings. His first building, the Sentry Gun, is a non-moving gun that targets enemies and shoots automatically. It can be improved to have more health and firepower. His next building is the Dispenser, which gives teammates nearby health and ammo. Finally, he can also build teleporters, which can move his friends closer to the fight. The Engineer also has a shotgun, pistol, and a wrench to defend himself. His Sentries are great for stopping anything short of an Übercharged player. The Engineer himself is weak, and poorly placed Sentries can be blown up by smart Soldiers and Demomen. Spies also ruin the Engineer's day.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: Finally, the supporting classes are the "Medic", the "Sniper", and the "Spy". Their abilities are there to help the team, so they do not typically engage in direct combat, but can if they must.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: "The Medic" is an older man from Stuttgart, Germany. His main duty is healing the other classes. He has a machine called the Medigun which, when pointed at a teammate, slowly restores their health. He can also 'overheal' players, which gives them more health than they can normally have. This overheal slowly fades over time. After healing for a few minutes, the Medic is able to use an Übercharge, which makes him and his heal target invincible for a few seconds. For defense, the Medic has a bone saw and a gun that shoots syringes. The Medic is a very powerful teammate, but is easy to kill at the same time. Since he loses almost every direct fight, he usually stays with a teammate who he heals, called a 'Medic Buddy' or 'Pocket'. This Pocket player's job is to keep the Medic safe. The Pocket is usually a Heavy, Soldier, or Demoman due to their large health and firepower.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: "The Sniper" is Australian. His main weapon is a sniper rifle. He often stays in one area away from the main battlefield and shoots enemies from a distance using careful aim. He also has a sword and a sub-machine gun he can use in close combat. The Sniper is very good at killing the enemy Medics, Heavies, and Engineers. While using his sniper rifle, he can focus his aim to charge his shot, dealing more damage. An uncharged shot to the head does 150 damage. Only Pyros, Demomen, Soldiers, and Heavies can survive this without an overheal. A fully charged shot to the head deals 450 damage, enough to kill even an overhealed Heavy.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: "The Spy" is a French man. His main asset is stealth. He has a watch which makes him invisible for short periods of time, and a cigarette case with disguises in it. He can disguise as any member of the other team to trick them into not hurting him. This disguise also tricks Sentry Guns built by Engineers. However, there are ways to find and kill spies, commonly called "spy-checks". The Spy can also place 'sappers' on enemy buildings, hurting them and turning them off until an Engineer can remove the sapper. For fighting, he has a revolver and a knife. The knife allows the Spy to kill an enemy instantly if he stabs them in the back. He is useful for killing Medics, Heavies, Engineers, and Snipers. The Pyro is able to easily stop him, as even when he turns invisible or is disguised, players can still see the fire on him. The Spy is considered a "pick class", meaning he is very dispensable but also very useful to get certain kills.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: There are several different ways the game can be played, each with different goals for the two opposing teams. For all games, players are split into the RED and BLU teams. RED stands for Reliable Excavation and Demolition. Players on this team have red uniforms. Buildings owned by the RED team are also usually red and made of wood. BLU stands for Builders League United. Players on this team wear blue uniforms. Buildings owned by the BLU team are usually blue and made of concrete.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: The Payload game mode has the offensive team pushing a cart with a bomb on it along a track while the defending team tries to stop them. If the offensive team cannot get the cart to the end of the track before the time limit runs out, they lose. If they are successful, the defending team's base is blown up. Along the track are Checkpoints. Each Checkpoint the offensive team pushes the cart over will give them extra time to get the cart to the end of the track.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: Valve later added a race mode to Payload maps, where both teams push a cart along a track to the other team's base. The team that gets the cart to the other team's base first wins.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: Control Point maps involve both teams attacking and defending the opposing team's Control Points. A Control Point is a circle on the ground that glows the color of the team that has captured it. Control Points are captured by standing on them for a certain length of time. There are three kinds of Control Point maps.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: Standard Control Point, or Linear Control Point, maps play symmetrically. Both teams start with two controlled points, and a central point starts out neutral. The team that captures all control points wins. Traditional Control Point maps will go into Sudden Death (or Stalemate) if no team captures all the control points before times runs out. Control points closer to a team's spawn point are captured more quickly by the enemy team.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: Attack/Defend maps play asymmetrically. RED begins with all the points in their control. BLU wins if it captures all of RED's points, but RED wins if the timer runs out before BLU can capture them all. Points may only be captured in a set order (though some maps, such as Gravel Pit and Steel, may make exceptions). RED wins if it prevents BLU from capturing all points before the timer expires. Points captured by BLU are typically locked and cannot be captured again by RED.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: In Territorial Control, the goal is to take over the entire map by capturing "territories". Each game is randomly selected from the six available layouts in a 'point against point' game where both teams must capture the opposite point while defending their own. After a team successfully captures the opposite point, the next round takes place in a different area of the map which is also randomly selected. After a team captures all four territories, that team must capture the enemy team's base. If the base point is captured (in Hydro, the Radar Dish for RED, the Power Plant for BLU), the attacking team wins the game. When the next round begins, territories are reset and a new random layout is selected. The Territorial Control game mode is not very popular amongst players.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: In Domination Control Point, maps play symmetrically. Both teams start with no controlled points, and all points start out neutral. The team that captures all control points wins. Traditional Control Point maps will go into Sudden Death (or Stalemate) if no team captures all the control points before times runs out. Unlike Standard Control Point, once a team has all three points they win regardless of how much capture progress the other team has. There is currently only one


title: Team Fortress 2

text: In Capture the Flag mode, the map is split into two nearly identical bases; one for each team. Both bases have a briefcase in them. The goal is for one team to grab the other team's briefcase and bring it back to their own base, while defending their own briefcase. You must capture the enemy intelligence 3 times in order to win the game, but server modifications can alter the number. When a player carrying the briefcase is killed, the intelligence is on the ground and returns to its base after a 60 second time period. The player who dropped the intelligence or his team can pick up the briefcase before it returns and still capture it. If a player drops the intelligence by falling into a bottomless pit, it automatically returns to its base. The briefcase can also be manually dropped.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: In King of the Hill mode, two teams fight to gain control over one point which is in the center of the map. When one team captures the point, they must defend it for three minutes to win. During this time, the enemy team can attack and capture the point too. This happens over and over again until one team successfully holds the point for three minutes in total. It is not needed to hold the point for three minutes at one time.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: In Arena mode, two teams fight to the death. Once a team is completely wiped out, the other team wins. There is no respawning in Arena mode. Another way to win is to capture the control point that activates until one minute in the match. Once this point is captured by a team, that team wins.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: Medieval Mode is just like Attack/Defend except that there are no guns allowed in Medieval mode. Players can use melee weapons and weapons that don't have firepower but cannot use guns, rocket launchers, flame throwers, stickybomb launchers, or grenade launchers. So far, there is only one official Medieval Mode map, which is DeGroot Keep.


title: Team Fortress 2

text: Special Delivery is a Game Mode released as part of the Pyromania Update. In this game mode, an initially neutral briefcase of Australium must be transported to Poopy Joe's rocket before the opposing team can do the same. If a player picks up the Australium and is killed while holding it, only players from the same team as the dead briefcase carrier can pick it up again. If the team fails to do so within a few seconds, the briefcase is sent back to its original position. The player who has hold of the Australium must be on the platform that is raised to the compartment at the head of the rocket and must stay on the platform as the Australium is placed into the compartment, launching the rocket and winning the round. There is currently only one official Special Delivery map, and that is Doomsday.