title: Critical race theory

text: In an interview in "The Spectator", Badenoch said, "many of these booksand, in fact, some of the authors and proponents of critical race theoryactually want a segregated society." 101 writers from the Black Writers' Guild responded in an open letter, telling Badenoch she was wrong to criticize books like "White Fragility" and "Why I'm No Longer Talking to White People About Race".


title: Critical race theory

text: "The Washington Post" says that conservative lawmakers and other conservatives have used the term "critical race theory" as a "catchall phrase for nearly any examination of systemic racism." In September 2020, conservative activist Christopher Rufo denounced CRT on Fox News, and then Donald Trump issued an executive order saying the United States federal government must cancel funding for programs that talk about "white privilege" or "critical race theory." President Trump said that this was because critical race theory was "divisive, un-American propaganda" and "racist." Rufo wrote on Twitter, "The goal is to have the public read something crazy in the newspaper and immediately think 'critical race theory,'" meaning that conservatives were trying to trick the public into thinking critical race theory was bad.


title: Critical race theory

text: In a speech on September 17, 2020, Trump said critical race theory was bad. He said he had formed the 1776 Commission to promote "patriotic education." On January 20, 2021, Joe Biden took back Trump's order and ended the 1776 Commission. Conservative think tanks and other conservative groups continued to work on opposition to both actual critical race theory and what they mistakenly thought was critical race theory. These groups include the Heritage Foundation, the Idaho Freedom Foundation, and the American Legislative Exchange Council.


title: Critical race theory

text: In early 2021, potential laws were started. These laws would limit the teaching of critical race theory in public schools in Idaho, Iowa, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Texas. Several of these bills used the words "critical race theory" or talked about the "New York Times" 1619 Project. In mid-April 2021, a bill was introduced to the Idaho legislature that would have banned any educational entity in the state (schools and other things like schools) from teaching or advocating sectarianism, including critical race theory and other social justice programs. On May 4, 2021, the bill was signed into law by Governor Brad Little. On June 10, 2021, every member of the Florida State Board of Education voted to stop public schools from teaching critical race theory. They did this because governor Ron DeSantis asked them to. As of July 2021, 10 U.S. states have introduced bills or done other things that would limit teaching critical race theory, and 26 others were in the process of doing so. In June 2021, the American Association of University Professors, the American Historical Association, the Association of American Colleges and Universities, and PEN America released a joint paper saying that these laws were bad. By August 2021, 167 professional organizations had signed the statement. In August 2021, the Brookings Institution recorded that eight statesIdaho, Oklahoma, Tennessee, Texas, Iowa, New Hampshire, Arizona, and South Carolinahad passed laws on the critical race theory, though they also noted that none of the bills had passed, with the exception of Idaho's, actually contained the words "critical race theory." Brookings also noted that these laws often also stop teaching about gender. Critics called the state laws a memory law and said that the law banning critical race theory was proof that critical race theory was right: that racism is part of the law in the United States.


title: Critical race theory

text: There are smaller groups in critical race theory for different communities of people. These groups look at race and the way it affects disability, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, class, and religion. For example, disability critical race studies (DisCrit), critical race feminism (CRF), Hebrew Crit (HebCrit), Black Critical Race Theory (Black Crit), Latino critical race studies (LatCrit), Asian American critical race studies (AsianCrit), South Asian American critical race studies (DesiCrit), and American Indian critical race studies, which is sometimes called TribalCrit. The methods developed for CRT have also been used to studying groups of white immigrants. In response to CRT, some scholars have asked for a second wave of whiteness studies. It is called Second Wave Whiteness (SWW). Critical race theory has also inspired scholars to study race outside the United States.


title: Critical race theory

text: Disability critical race studies (DisCrit) combines disability studies and CRT to look at the intersection of disability and race. This means the way race and disability affect each other.


title: Critical race theory

text: Latino critical race theory (LatCRT or LatCrit) is a research framework that talks about the way society defines race. Latino critical race theory says this is important to how people of color are oppressed in society. Race scholars developed LatCRT as a critical response to the "problem of the color line" first explained by W. E. B. Du Bois. While CRT focuses on the Black–White paradigm, LatCRT has moved to consider other racial groups, mainly Chicana/Chicanos, as well as Latinos/as, Asians, Native Americans/First Nations, and women of color.


title: Critical race theory

text: In "Critical Race Counterstories along the Chicana/Chicano Educational Pipeline", Tara J. Yosso discusses how the limits placed on POC can be defined. The tenets that separate such individuals are the intercentricity of race and racism, the problem of dominant ideology, the commitment to social justice, the centrality of experience knowledge, and the way of looking at things that uses many types of scholarship.


title: Critical race theory

text: LatCRT's main focus is to work for social justice for people living in communities that have been pushed to the edges of society (specifically Chicana/os). Chicanos are Mexican-Americans. Society has placed limits on them that put them at a disadvantage, like with other people of color. Social institutions act to dispossess Chicanos, stop them from voting, and discriminate against them. LatCRT seeks to give voice to those who are victimized. In order to do so, LatCRT has created two common themes:


title: Critical race theory

text: First, CRT says society keeps white supremacy and racial power in place; they do not stay there on their own. The law is a big part of keeping them where they are. Some racial groups do not have the voice to speak in this civil society. Because of this, CRT introduced a new form of expression, called the "voice of color". The "voice of color" is narratives and storytelling monologues used as devices for conveying personal racial experiences. These are also used to counter metanarratives that continue to maintain racial inequality. In this way, the experiences of the oppressed are important parts of developing a LatCRT analytical approach.


title: Critical race theory

text: Second, LatCRT investigates the possibility of transforming the relationship between law enforcement and racial power and working for racial emancipation and an end to some groups being pushed around. LatCRT is different from general critical race theory in that it talks more about immigration theory and policy, language rights, and the way people are discriminated against for having accents or ancestors from other countries. CRT finds the experiential knowledge of people of color and works with their lived experience using data. LatCRT shows its research using many kinds of stories.


title: Critical race theory

text: Asian critical race theory looks at the way race and racism affect Asian Americans and their experiences in the U.S. education system. Like Latino critical race theory, Asian critical race theory is distinct from the main body of CRT in its emphasis on immigration theory and policy.


title: Murder of Selena

text: The murder of American singer Selena Quintanilla happened on March 31, 1995. Fans were saddened when the news of her death was released by the media. She was shot dead by Yolanda Saldivar. Saldivar was an employee and manager for Selena's boutiques and fan club and was found to have been embezzling money.


title: Murder of Selena

text: Selena did not believe her best friend could do something like that and tried to maintain their friendship. However, by March, 1995 Saldivar and Selena's friendship had begun to crumble. Selena and her husband Chris Pérez visited Saldívar on 30 March 1995 to get the documents that she had stolen. Saldívar did not give Selena all the documents. On the morning of 31 March 1995, Selena met up with Saldívar to collect paperwork and missing documents for tax preparations. At the hotel, Selena demanded that Saldívar give her the missing financial papers. Saldívar then claimed that she was raped in Mexico. Selena took her to a local hospital where doctors found that Saldívar was lying. This made Selena decide to end her friendship with Saldívar. Saldívar wanted to quit with Selena and Selena tried to convince her not to. When Selena went to close the door, Saldivar took a gun from her purse and held Selena at gunpoint. In order to stop her from closing the door, she pulled the trigger and shot Selena in the back. Selena was taken to a local hospital, but was declared dead. Saldivar went to her pickup truck and threatened suicide, but gave herself up after nine hours.


title: Murder of Selena

text: Saldivar pleaded not guilty to the charge of murder, claiming that the shooting was an accident. However, she was found guilty by jury and sentenced to life in prison with eligibility for parole in 2025. A lot of tributes were done throughout the United States and Mexico. Two life-sized statues were made in her honor. A 1997 movie was produced by Warner Bros.. It starred Jennifer Lopez as her breakthrough role.


title: Murder of Selena

text: Selena's death has been compared to those of Elvis Presley and John Lennon. Selena's death was called "Black Friday" by some Texans. George W. Bush declared April 16 as "Selena Day" in Texas. The event has gone on to become known as one of the darkest days in music history and helped to increase Selena's popularity in the United States.


title: Murder of Selena

text: After Selena won a Grammy Award "Selena Live!" (1993), Selena opened Selena Etc. The boutiques had a beauty salon built inside. The boutiques were also a place where fans could buy merchandise made by Selena herself and official clothing. Selena hired Yolanda Saldivar as the registered agent for the San Antonio boutique. Saldivar became the manager for the Corpus Christi boutique. Selena's family believed that Saldivar was the best choice because Saldivar was boosting membership at the fan club. The fan club eventually became one of San Antonio's largest clubs in history. Saldivar believed that she could help Selena further if she moved closer to her. Saldivar moved from south San Antonio to Corpus Christi after she became manager of Selena Etc.


title: Murder of Selena

text: In Saldivar's room there were posters of Selena on the wall. Saldivar also had many pictures of Selena and a burning candle for Selena. When guests would arrive, Saldivar would entertain them with video tapes of Selena performing. During an interview with the "Dallas Morning News" in 1995, interviewers believed that Saldivar seemed very obsessive. Over time, Saldivar complained to staff members that she would like "to be just like Selena". Around this time, Selena gave Saldivar her American Express card for business purposes. With this, Saldivar rented luxurious cars and limousines. She also traveled to and from Mexico. Saldivar also used the card to take personal friends to fancy restaurants.


title: Murder of Selena

text: When Saldivar became a business associate, her friendship with Selena began to worsen. Staff members began complaining about Saldivar to Selena. Selena didn't believe that her "friend" would hurt her or her business. Staff members then told Selena's father Abraham Quintanilla Jr. Quintanilla Jr then stepped in and reminded Selena that Saldivar could be a bad influence. Selena told her father that he thinks everyone is a bad person.


title: Murder of Selena

text: Selena's cousin, Debra Ramirez, was hired in 1995. Ramirez's job was to help Selena expand her business into Mexico. However, she quit in a week. Ramirez told Saldivar that she felt unhappy. She also did not like the way other staff members reported sales information. Saldivar then told her that it was not any of her business and that she would take care of it soon. Martin Gomez, a fashion designer for Selena, did not get along with Saldivar either. He and Saldivar argued all the time. Gomez complained that Saldivar was badly managing the boutiques. Gomez also complained that Saldivar destroyed some of his works. He also complained about Saldivar's way of paying bills. He stated that Saldivar did not pay any bills. Gomez tried to tell Selena that Saldivar was "bad news". However, Selena told Gomez that she felt he was exaggerating.


title: Murder of Selena

text: When Saldivar visited seamstresses in Mexico, Saldivar made them feel that they had to work with her or that Selena would fire them. A week later, Saldivar asked employees to help fund a special gift for Selena. Saldivar asked Philip Randolph to create a diamond egg-shaped ring. Selena had collected fabergé eggs since she was a little girl. Randolph noticed that Saldivar did not want Selena to know about anything that she had bought. He also noticed that Saldivar did not want Selena to know the cost of the items she had bought.


title: Murder of Selena

text: In December 1994, the two boutiques began to suffer. Staff members had shrunk from 38 to 14 employees. This was because Saldivar fired anyone who she did not like. In January 1995, Quintanilla Jr began receiving phone calls from angry Selena fans. They called Quintanilla Jr because they sent in their payments for the fan club and did not get anything. Within a week, Quintanilla Jr found vellum envelopes with checks signed by Saldivar. With the information gathered, Quintanilla Jr believed Saldivar was stealing money from the fan club and from Selena Etc.


title: Murder of Selena

text: On March 9, 1995, Quintanilla Jr, Selena's sister Suzette Quintanilla held a meeting with Selena and Saldivar. Quintanilla Jr asked Saldivar "where'd the money go?" but Saldivar just stared at him and gave no response. When Quintanilla Jr told Saldívar that he was going to get the police involved. Saldivar abruptly got up and left the meeting. The next morning, Saldivar showed up at Q-Productions. Eddie Quintanilla, Selena's uncle, called Quintanilla Jr. Quintanilla Jr then told Saldivar that she was no longer allowed to be there.


title: Murder of Selena

text: The same day, Saldivar and Selena had an argument over the phone. Selena told her husband Chris Perez that Saldivar could not be trusted anymore. However, Selena did not want to lose her friendship with Saldivar. Selena believed that Saldivar could help her expand her business into Mexico. Selena also needed the missing documents and bank statements, which Saldivar had stolen, for tax purposes. The day after Saldivar was banned from Q-Productions, she bought a hand gun. She told the clerk that she was an in-house nurse for terminally ill patients. She also told the clerk that a patient's family member had threatened her life. Saldivar said she needed protection.


title: Murder of Selena

text: Two days later, Selena asked Saldivar to come with her on a tour of Monterrey, Mexico. Saldivar then returned the hand gun to the gun shop. She told the clerk that her father had given her a pistol. When Selena and Saldivar came back, Selena began asking Saldivar for the missing documents. Saldivar then bought the gun back. Within a week, Saldivar's name was removed from anything that had to do with Selena Etc. Irene Herrera replaced Saldivar as fan club president. On March 26, 1995, Saldivar stole perfume samples that Selena needed and more bank statements in Mexico.


title: Murder of Selena

text: At midnight on March 30, 1995, Selena and Perez drove to Saldivar's motel room. Perez waited for Selena by his pick-up truck. Selena went inside Saldivar's motel room. Selena asked for the documents that she needed for taxes. Saldivar gave her some of the missing documents, but when Selena and Perez arrived back home Selena noticed that Saldivar did not give her everything needed. At the motel Selena demanded the financial papers at which point Saldivar called Selena and asked her to come back to her motel room, alone. Selena was met by Perez who told her that it was too late. Selena then told Saldivar that she would see her the next morning without Perez's knowledge.


title: Murder of Selena

text: On the morning of March 31, Selena drove to Saldivar's motel room. When she arrived, Selena asked for the missing documents. Saldivar delayed and told Selena that she had been raped in Mexico by a gang member. Selena felt bad and took her to a local hospital. There, a doctor and nurse checked to see for any signs of rape. When they were finished, the doctor and nurse took Selena aside and told her that Saldivar was making the whole thing up. Selena, now frustrated, took Saldivar back to her motel room and asked once again for the missing documents. Saldivar began to argue with Selena. A complaint was made from the next room asking the two ladies to stop arguing. Around this time, Selena removed the ring Saldivar had bought her. Selena announced that she could no longer trust Saldivar and Selena tried to leave.


title: Murder of Selena

text: At 11:49 am, Saldivar took a pistol out of her purse. As Selena turned around, Saldivar shot her in the back. The gunshot instantly damaged a major artery near Selena's heart. Selena ran out of the motel room and screamed "Help me! help me! help me!" Saldivar chased after Selena and called her a "bitch". Saldivar was attempting to shoot Selena again, but decided to flee back to the motel room.


title: Murder of Selena

text: Selena ran 392 feet to the motel lobby. She left behind a trail of blood. Selena fell to the floor and asked the clerk to lock the doors, saying "she's going to shoot me again". The staff tried to comfort Selena to get answers on what had happened. A staff member called 9-1-1. Someone in the lobby recognized Selena and screamed "that's Selena!" Selena gave the room number where she had been shot. The information was then given to the local police. By this time an employee noticed that Selena began fading away. He noticed that there was little moaning and moving from Selena.


title: Murder of Selena

text: The ambulance arrived in less than one minute. They ripped off the top portion of Selena's jogging suit. They then put a Vaseline gauze on Selena's wound, which stopped the internal bleeding. At this time, Selena's heartbeat was very slow. A paramedic began CPR so that blood could get to Selena's brain and heart.


title: Murder of Selena

text: Saldivar entered her pickup truck and tried to leave the parking lot of the motel. However, a police officer was already heading that way. The police officer saw Saldivar's car. Saldivar then reversed and parked her car between two cars. The police then blocked the car from leaving the spot. The police came out and ordered Saldivar to freeze, at which point she then put the pistol to her right temple. More police officers tried to get Saldivar to give herself up. They then called the FBI Crisis Negotiation Unit and SWAT team.


title: Murder of Selena

text: Around this time, a paramedic tried to start an IV on Selena. However, because Selena lost so much blood, her veins collapsed. This made it very hard to insert an IV. The paramedic then called Memorial Hospital to tell them that they have a shooting victim and that they could not insert an IV.


title: Murder of Selena

text: Navigation Boulevard was shut down by local police as they investigated the crime scene. At noon, the paramedics arrived at the hospital. Doctors and nurses tried to revive Selena. When they opened her chest, they found there was no blood at all. They gave a blood transfusion. Selena was a Jehovah's Witnesses and did not believe in blood transfusions, but Selena was unconscious and therefore unable to tell doctors her religion. After 50 minutes, doctors believed the damage was too severe and Selena was pronounced dead at 1:05 pm local time. They announced the cause as cardiac arrest and extensive bleeding. Selena was only two weeks away from her 24th birthday and two days away from her third anniversary to Chris Perez.


title: Murder of Selena

text: During the second hour, the FBI had communication with Saldivar. They tried to convince Saldivar to give herself up. One of the negotiators tried talking to Saldivar as if the shooting were an accident. Saldivar began believing that she did not mean to shoot Selena. She then stated that the pistol was meant for herself; she was going to commit suicide. She stated that the "gun went off". Around this time, a press conference was ordered. Assistant Police Chief Ken Bung and Selena's father, Abraham Quintanilla Jr, made an on-air announcement about the murder. Saldivar's name was still not being named in the media.


title: Murder of Selena

text: During the third hour, an autopsy was performed. This was because of the growing media interest. The autopsy revealed that the bullet entered Selena's lower back. It passed through Selena's chest cavity, which instantly damaged Selena's right subclavian artery. The bullet then exited the right upper chest. The autopsy also revealed that Selena's heart, fueled by adrenaline, pumped her blood out. The doctor said that if the bullet had hit Selena a millimeter higher or lower, the wound would not have been as severe.


title: Murder of Selena

text: During the fourth hour, Saldivar exclaimed that the gun was meant for herself. She also stated that when Selena tried to open the door, she asked her to leave the door closed. She said at that instant the gun went off. During the sixth hour, Saldivar agreed to give herself up. However, a police officer had a rifle. This caused Saldivar to panic and she went back to her truck. Saldivar gave herself up during the ninth hour. As police drove Saldivar away, fans cheered and cried tears of joy nearby.


title: United States dollar

text: The United States dollar (or American dollar) is the official currency (money) of the United States of America. It is also used in some . It is the standard currency for international markets selling goods such as gold and oil (petrol). When writing, the symbol for the American dollar is the dollar sign ($). Dollars can also be known as USD (standing for 'U.S. dollar').


title: United States dollar

text: The American one dollar bill has a picture of George Washington. There are currently paper bills (currency) of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 dollars.


title: United States dollar

text: All U.S. dollar currency has been the same size, shape and general design since 1928. This is unlike some countries where bank notes with different values have different sizes.


title: United States dollar

text: The U.S. also has dollar coins. Some are silver colored and some are gold colored. Vending machines often give dollar coins as change, since it is easier for the machines to give out coins than paper money. Some of the more advanced vending machines give out paper money as change. Paper dollars are much more common than dollar coins.


title: United States dollar

text: The US dollar in subdivided into cents, and 100 cents equals 1 US dollar. One cent can be written as either $0.01 or 1¢. The cent or "penny" (not to be confused with the English penny sterling) is the least worth coin used in the U.S.. There are several different coins with different cent values of different materials and sizes. There is the penny (1¢ or $0.01), nickel (5¢ or $0.05), dime (10¢ or $0.10), quarter (25¢ or $0.25), and the much rarer half-dollar (50¢ or $0.50). All coins and paper bills have the faces of famous Americans on the front side.


title: United States dollar

text: The paper "dollar bill" is actually called a "Federal Reserve Note". Federal Reserve notes are legal tender currency notes. The twelve Federal Reserve Banks issue them into circulation pursuant to the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. A commercial bank belonging to the Federal Reserve System can obtain Federal Reserve notes from the Federal Reserve Bank in its district whenever it wishes by paying for them in full, dollar for dollar, from its account with Federal Reserve Bank.


title: United States dollar

text: Federal Reserve Banks get the notes from the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP). It pays the BEP for the cost of producing the notes.


title: United States dollar

text: Congress has specified that a Federal Reserve Bank must hold collateral equal in value to the Federal Reserve notes that the Bank receives. This collateral is chiefly gold certificates and United States securities. This provides backing for the note issue.


title: United States dollar

text: Federal Reserve notes are not redeemable in gold, silver or any other commodity, and receive no backing by anything. This has been the case since 1933. The notes have no value for themselves, but for what they will buy.


title: United States dollar

text: The Coinage Act of 1965 titled "Legal tender" states: "United States coins and currency (including Federal reserve notes and circulating notes of Federal reserve banks and national banks) are legal tender for all debts, public charges, taxes, and dues".


title: United States dollar

text: This statute means that all United States money as identified above are a valid and legal offer of payment for debts when tendered to a creditor. There is no Federal statute saying a person or organization "must" accept currency or coins as payment for goods and/or services. Private businesses are free to develop their own policies on whether or not to accept cash. But there might be a State law which says otherwise. For example, a bus line may prohibit payment of fares in pennies or dollar bills. In addition, movie theaters, convenience stores and gas stations may refuse to accept large denomination currency (usually notes above $20) as a matter of policy.


title: United States dollar

text: The public typically obtains its cash from banks by withdrawing cash from automated teller machines (ATMs) or by cashing checks. The amount of cash that the public holds varies seasonally, by the day of the month, and even by the day of the week. For example, people demand a large amount of cash for shopping and vacations during the year-end holiday season. Also, people typically withdraw cash at ATMs over the weekend, so there is more cash in circulation on Monday than on Friday.


title: United States dollar

text: To meet the demands of their customers, banks get cash from Federal Reserve Banks. Most medium- and large-sized banks maintain reserve accounts at one of the 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks, and they pay for the cash they get from the Fed by having those accounts debited. Some smaller banks maintain their required reserves at larger, "correspondent," banks. The smaller banks get cash through the correspondent banks, which charge a fee for the service. The larger banks get currency from the Fed and pass it on to the smaller banks.


title: United States dollar

text: When the public's demand for cash declines—after the holiday season, for example—banks find they have more cash than they need and they deposit the excess at the Fed. Because banks pay the Fed for cash by having their reserve accounts debited, the level of reserves in the nation's banking system drops when the public's demand for cash rises; similarly, the level rises again when the public's demand for cash subsides and banks ship cash back to the Fed. The Fed offsets variations in the public's demand for cash that could introduce volatility into credit markets by implementing open market operations.


title: United States dollar

text: The popularization of the ATM in recent years has increased the public's demand for currency and, in turn, the amount of currency that banks order from the Fed. Interestingly, the advent of the ATM has led some banks to request used, fit bills, rather than new bills, because the used bills often work better in the ATMs.


title: United States dollar

text: Each of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks keeps an inventory of cash on hand to meet the needs of the depository institutions in its District. Extended custodial inventory sites in several continents promote the use of U.S. currency internationally, improve the collection of information on currency flows, and help local banks meet the public's demand for U.S. currency. Additions to that supply come directly from the two divisions of the Treasury Department that produce the cash: the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, which prints currency, and the United States Mint, which makes coins. Most of the inventory consists of deposits by banks that had more cash than they needed to serve their customers and deposited the excess at the Fed to help meet their reserve requirements.


title: United States dollar

text: When a Federal Reserve Bank receives a cash deposit from a bank, it checks the individual notes to determine whether they are fit for future circulation. About one-third of the notes that the Fed receives are not fit, and the Fed destroys them. As shown in the table below, the life of a note varies according to its denomination. For example, a $1 bill, which gets the greatest use, remains in circulation an average of 5.9 years; a $100 bill lasts about 15 years.


title: Planck time

text: The Planck time is the length of time at which no smaller meaningful length can be validly measured due to the indeterminacy expressed in Werner Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Theoretically, this is the shortest time measurement that is possible. Planck time is roughly 10 seconds. However, to date, the smallest time interval that was measured was 10 seconds, a "zeptosecond."


title: Planck time

text: One Planck time is the time it would take a photon travelling at the speed of light to cross a distance equal to one Planck length.


title: Planck time

text: It is calculated from the Planck constant, which was first thought of by the physicist Max Planck in 1900. This work by Planck asserts that the energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency, and their relation can be put in terms of familiar units such as the joule by using the proportionality constant Planck gave us. Heisenberg's original quantum theory was improved by his teacher and colleague Max Born.


title: Planck time

text: Born put Heisenberg's equation into a matrix form. Born immediately noticed that to calculate using these matrices, one matrix had to be multiplied by another matrix. In matrix multiplication, multiplying matrix P by matrix X gives a different result from the one obtained by multiplying matrix X by matrix P. He further noticed that the difference between the two matrices involves h, the Planck proportionality constant. It shows that one can never pin down things like P (momentum) and X (location) exactly. As a result, we cannot pin down a time any better than we can pin down a place or a momentum. We get closer and closer and then we reach the "Planck time."


title: Planck time

text: Planck time is usually noted "t", symbol made of the latin letter "t" lowercase, initial of latin word "tempus" ("time"), in italic, followed to the right and subscript, by the latin letter P uppercase, initial of the last name of Max Planck.


title: Church (building)

text: A church is a building that was constructed to allow people to meet to worship together. These people are usually Christians, or influenced by Christianity. Some other non-Christian religious groups also call their religious buildings churches, most notably Scientology.


title: Church (building)

text: The following description is about Roman Catholic churches, although some parts are the same in Episcopalian and Lutheran churches. Depending on the number of people that are in a community, the churches come in different sizes. Small churches are called chapels. The churches in a particular geographical area form a group called the diocese. Each diocese has a cathedral. In most cases, the cathedral is a very big church. Cathedrals are the seat of bishops.


title: Church (building)

text: In the early days of Christianity people met in private buildings. Church buildings are mentioned for the first time around the year 260 A.D. when the Emperor Galienus ordered an end of a persecution and to return the places of worship. In the third century we hear of large church buildings. We do not know, how these early buildings looked. Only in Dura-Europos (Syria) a building was discovered, which had been a private house modified for Christian services.


title: Church (building)

text: After the death of the Roman emperor Constantine in 337 A.D. Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in. These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman basilicas. This plan was later used for the fine Gothic cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the Middle Ages.


title: Church (building)

text: In Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of holy water near the entrance of the church. This tradition comes from the fact that Roman basilicas had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance. The font is a bowl where people (often babies) are baptized. This is also near the entrance of the church. This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church.


title: Church (building)

text: Traditionally the nave has long benches for the congregation to sit on. These are called pews. Some churches may now have replaced their pews with chairs so that they can be moved about for different occasions. At the front of the nave is the pulpit where the priest preaches (these talks are called “sermons”). There is also a lectern (like a large music stand) from where the lessons (the Bible readings) are read.


title: Church (building)

text: If there are aisles along the side of the nave there will be pillars which hold up the roof. In large churches or cathedrals there may be a row of little arches along the top of these pillars. This is called the triforium. Over the triforium is the clerestory which is a row of windows high up in the church wall.


title: Church (building)

text: The chancel is the most holy part of the church, and this is why it is often separated from the nave by a screen which can be made of wood or stone, or occasionally iron. The congregation can see through the screen. On the top of the screen there may be a cross. This is called a rood (pronounce like “rude”) screen. Priests used to climb up a staircase to the top of the rood screen to read the epistle and the gospel. Sometimes people sang from there.


title: Church (building)

text: Inside the chancel are the benches where the choir sit. These are called choir stalls. They are on both sides. The two sides of the choir sit facing one another. The choir members who sit on the left (north side) are called “cantoris” (the side where the “cantor” sits) and those on the right (south side) are called “decani” (the side where the deacon sits). In some large churches or cathedrals the seats for the priests tip up. The top of these seats, when they are tipped up, are called misericords (from the Latin word for “mercy”). This is because the priests or monks were able to lean against them when they got tired if they had to stand up for a long time.


title: Church (building)

text: Sometimes there are holes in the walls of the screen so that the congregation can see through. These are called squints. If there is a recess in the wall it is called an aumbry. It is a cupboard for communion wine and bread that have been consecrated by a priest.


title: Church (building)

text: The altar may be right at the east end of the church, but in larger churches or cathedrals it is often much farther forward. In that case the very east end is called an apse. Sometimes it is a separate chapel called the “Lady Chapel”.


title: Church (building)

text: The design of churches changed a lot during the course of history. Often churches were made bigger. When this happened there may be a mixture of architectural styles. These styles vary a lot in different countries.


title: Church (building)

text: In the 1600s, churches were built in a variety of styles. Often they copied some of the older styles. After the Great Fire of London many new churches were built by the architect Sir Christopher Wren. They were built in the classical style. Churches continued to be built in later centuries like this, but also the Gothic style continued to be used.


title: Church (building)

text: Modern churches often do not have the traditional cross-shape. It is difficult for the congregation to see and hear what is happening in the chancel. Modern churches bring the congregation, choir and priests in closer touch. An example is the round design for the Church of Christ the Cornerstone in Milton Keynes. Modern churches are often simpler but with a warmer character than the Gothic churches. Many have beautiful mosaic glass windows. Coventry Cathedral is a famous example of a modern church building.


title: Library

text: A library is a place where many books are kept. Most libraries are public and let people take the books to use in their home. Most libraries let people borrow books for several weeks. Some belong to institutions, for example, companies, churches, schools, and universities. The people who work in libraries are librarians. Librarians are people who take care of the library.


title: Library

text: Other libraries keep famous or rare books. There are a few "Copyright libraries" which have a copy of every book which has been written in that country. Some libraries also have other things that people might like, such as magazines, music on CDs, or computers where people can use the Internet. In school they offer software to learn the alphabet and other details.With the spread of literacy, libraries have become essential tools for learning. Libraries are very important for the progress and development of a society. Libraries are collections of books and other informational materials, however a library can also be a collection of items or media. People come to libraries for reading, study or reference. Libraries contain a variety of materials. They contain printed materials, films, sound and video recordings, maps, photographs, computer software, online databases, and other media.


title: Library

text: The prime purpose of a library is to provide access to knowledge and information. To fulfil this mission, libraries preserve a valuable record of culture. Then they pass down this to the coming generations. Therefore, they are an essential link between the past, present and future.


title: Library

text: People use libraries to work. They also use library resources to learn about personal interests. Sometimes, they get recreational media such as films and music. Students use libraries to study.


title: Library

text: Libraries help the students to develop good reading and study habits. Public officials use libraries for research and public issues. The libraries provide information and services that are essential for learning and progress.


title: Library

text: Many places have a public library, where anybody can join if they live in the area. With a library card, people can borrow books and take them home for several weeks. It does not cost money to get a library card at most public libraries.


title: Library

text: Books are kept on shelves in a special order so they are easy to find. Public libraries have lot of books on various topics including story books and many others. Many public libraries have books and CDs about learning English. Stories are kept in alphabetical order by the last name of the person who wrote them, the author. Books about other things are often given a special number, that refers to what they are about. They are then put on the shelf in number order. One number system used by many libraries is the Dewey decimal system.


title: Library

text: Many colleges and universities have large academic libraries. These libraries are for the use of college students, professors, and researchers. Academic libraries are used mainly for doing research like studying the solar system or how earthquakes happen. These libraries do not have the same types of books you would find in a public library. They usually do not have fiction books or books for children (unless they are being studied). Academic libraries can have many books, sometimes more than a million.


title: Library

text: Special libraries are those libraries that are not public libraries or academic libraries. They are usually small. Many times a special library holds books on a particular subject or even a special kind of book. Some special libraries keep just old books or books by Shakespeare. A special library can be owned by a business for use only by that business. For example, Disney World in Orlando has its own library that is not open to the public but for the use of the people who work for the company.


title: Library

text: A librarian is a person who works in a library. Librarians help people find books and information. They can teach people how to find books and use the library. A professional librarian is a person who went to school to study library science. They can earn a degree called a Masters in Library Science.


title: Library

text: The earliest known library was discovered in Iraq and belonged to the ancient civilization in Sumer. They didn't use paper books but instead wrote everything on clay tablets using a style of writing called cuneiform. These tablets are over 5,000 years old. The Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most important library of the ancient world. It was destroyed when the Romans conquered Egypt in 30 BC. Rome’s first public library was established by Asinius Pollio who was a lieutenant of Julius Caesar. Eventually Rome would build 28 public libraries within the city. When the Roman Empire fell in 330 AD, many books went east to the city of Byzantium where a large library was built. Other libraries were built in monasteries and public homes.


title: Library

text: Libraries began to appear in many Islamic cities, where science and philosophy survived after the fall of the Roman Empire. Christian monks and Islamic libraries exchanged books to copy.


title: Bank

text: A bank is a financial institution where customers can save or borrow money. Banks also invest money to build up their reserve of money. What they do is regulated by laws. Those laws differ in different countries. The people who work at a bank are called bank employees. Certain banks deal directly with the public and they are the only ones which an ordinary person will deal with. Other banks deal with investments and international currency trading.


title: Bank

text: Customer's money may be placed in the bank for safe keeping. Banks may give loans to customers under an agreement to pay the money back to the bank at a later time, with interest. An example is getting a mortgage to buy a house or apartment. Banks also can use the money they have from deposit accounts to invest in businesses in order to make more money.


title: Bank

text: In most countries the rules for banks are made by the government acting through laws. A central bank (such as the Bank of England) adjusts how much money is issued at a particular time. This is a factor in the economy of a country, and the government takes the big decisions. These "banks of issue" take in, and issue out, coins and banknotes.


title: Bank

text: The word "bank" comes from an Italian word "banco", meaning "a bench", since Italian merchants in the Renaissance made deals to borrow and lend money beside a bench. They placed the money on that bench.


title: Bank

text: Elementary financial records are known from the beginning of history. Baked clay records were done before the invention of writing.


title: Bank

text: In the 17th century, merchants started storing their gold with goldsmiths in London. The goldsmiths had their own vaults, and charged a fee for storing the merchants' gold. The goldsmiths eventually started loaning money using the gold left to them, and also paid interest on the gold.


title: Bank

text: The Bank of England began issuing banknotes in 1695. The oldest bank still in existence is Monte dei Paschi di Siena in Siena, Italy, which started in 1472.


title: Asia

text: Asia is a large region on Earth mainly in the northern hemisphere. Asia is connected to Europe in the west, forming a continent called Eurasia, though sometimes it is viewed as a separate continent from Europe. Some of the oldest human civilizations began in Asia, such as Sumer, China, and India. Asia was also home to some large empires such as the Persian Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Mongol Empire, and the Ming Empire. It is home to at least 44 countries. Turkey, Russia, Georgia, Kazakhstan and Cyprus are partly are also considered European.


title: Asia

text: Asia includes a large amount of land. Covering about 30% of the world's land area, it has more people than any other continent, with about 60% of the world's total population. Stretching from the icy Arctic in the north to the hot and steamy equatorial lands in the south, Asia contains huge, empty deserts, as well as some of the world's highest mountains and longest rivers.


title: Asia

text: Asia is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, the Arctic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. It is separated from Europe by the Pontic Mountains and the Turkish Straits. A long, mainly land border in the west separates Europe and Asia. This line runs north–south down the Ural Mountains in Russia, along the Ural River to the Caspian Sea, and through the Caucasus Mountains to the Black Sea.


title: Asia

text: Some countries are variously located in both Europe and Asia, namely Russia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Cyprus, and Turkey.


title: Charlie Chaplin

text: Sir Charles Spencer "Charlie" Chaplin (16 April 1889 – 25 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer. He was very famous in silent movies (where there was no talking or sound). He acted, directed, scripted, and produced most of them.


title: Charlie Chaplin

text: Charlie Chaplin was a performer for almost 70 years. He started working when he was 5, and worked until he was 80. The character that Charlie Chaplin played most was called "the Little Tramp". The "Tramp" was a man of good manners, who wore a coat, a pair of big trousers, shoes, mustache, and a black hat.


title: Charlie Chaplin

text: Charles Spencer Chaplin was born on 16 April 1889 in London, England, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Chaplin had a rough childhood; his mother, Hannah Hill Chaplin, a talented singer, actress, and piano player, spent most of her life in and out of mental hospitals. His father, Charles Spencer Chaplin Sr. was a fairly successful singer until he began drinking. After his parents separated, Charlie and his half-brother, Sidney, spent most of their childhood in orphanages, where they often went hungry and were beaten if they misbehaved. He first started acting at age five. He acted in a music hall in 1894, standing in for his mother.


title: Charlie Chaplin

text: When Charlie was a child, he was kept in bed for many weeks from a bad illness. At night, his mother would sit at the window and act out what was going on outside. His first important work came when he joined The Eight Lancashire Lads. In 1900, his brother Sydney helped him get the role of a comic cat in the pantomime "Cinderella". In 1903 he was in a play called “Jim: A Romance of Cockayne”. Chaplin was in Casey's 'Court Circus' variety show. The next year, he became a clown in Fred Karno's 'Fun Factory' comedy company.


title: Charlie Chaplin

text: Chaplin was the target of an assassination attempt which took the life of Prime Minister of Japan Inukai Tsuyoshi.


title: Charlie Chaplin

text: On 15 May 1932, Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was shot by eleven young naval officers (most were just turning twenty years of age) in the prime minister's residence. The original assassination plan had included killing Chaplin who had arrived in Japan on 14 May 1932, at a reception for Chaplin, planned by Prime Minister Inukai. When the prime minister was killed, his son Inukai Takeru was watching a sumo wrestling match with Charlie Chaplin, which probably saved both their lives.


title: Charlie Chaplin

text: Chaplin won two special Oscars. Chaplin had first been chosen for both "Best Actor" and "Best Comedy Directing". But then, instead, he was given a special award "for versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing". Chaplin's second special award came 44 years later, in 1972. When getting this award, Chaplin had the longest standing ovation (people standing up and clapping) in Academy Award history. In 1976 he was given the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award. Chaplin became the first actor to have appeared in the cover of Time in 1925.


title: Charlie Chaplin

text: Chaplin died on Christmas on 25 December 1977, in Vevey, Vaud, Switzerland. He died of a stroke in his sleep, at the age of 88. On March 1, 1978, his body was stolen by a small group of Swiss people. They were trying to get money from Chaplin’s family. This plan didn’t work. The criminals were caught, and Charlie’s body was found 11 weeks later near Lake Geneva. He was buried under concrete to prevent further incidents.


title: Shiva

text: Shiva or Mahadeva is the supreme god in Shaivism tradition in Hinduism and one of the chief deities as a member of the Trimurti. Shiva is causeless auspiciousness. Shiva is known as the Maha Rudra (the master of all Rudras). Shiva is an embodiment of ultimate space of enlightenment. He assumed human form to guide humans in the past and thus is known as Adhiguru (first guru).


title: Shiva

text: His space of enlightenment is what all spiritual seekers aspire for. All enlightened masters live in this space of Shiva. Shiva is known as the destroyer god because he removes all evil from the world. His wife is the goddess Parvati or Devi Durga.


title: Shiva

text: According to Hindu legend, he has a blue neck because he swallowed a poison in order to save the universe. He has three eyes, the third eye is on his forehead. Shiva is one-third of the Hindu trimurti including Brahma and Vishnu. Lord Shiva lives in the Mount Kailash with his two sons Kartikeya and Ganesha who is known as the Remover of Obstacles. There is a statue of Shiva in Bangalore which is a great tourist attraction.


title: Shiva

text: In later vedic texts, Shiva becomes a deity. Shiva is also called as "Brahman", the supreme universal consciousness. The word "shivo'ham" translates as "I am Shiva", conveying that one's consciousness is where the lord resides, uniting it with the supreme "transcendence". In Tamil, he was called by different names other than Sivan. Nataraja (Dancing form of Shiva), Rudra (Enraged form of Shiva), and Dhakshinamoorthy (Yoga form of Shiva). Nataraja is the only form of Shiva worshipped in a human figure format. Elsewhere he is worshipped in Lingam figure. Pancha Bootha temples are located in south India. Pancha Bhoota Stalam refers to five temples dedicated to Shiva. Tamil literature is enriched by Shiva devotees called 63 Nayanmars (Nayanars).


title: Shiva

text: The Sanskrit word ""śiva"" (Devanagari: शिव, also transliterated as "shiva") means, states Monier Monier-Williams, "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly". The roots of "śiva" in folk etymology are "śī" which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and "va" which means "embodiment of grace".


title: Shiva

text: The word Shiva is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda (approximately 1700–1100 BC), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities, including Rudra. The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one", this adjective sense of usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic layers of literature. The term evolved from the Vedic "Rudra-Shiva" to the noun "Shiva" in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver".


title: Shiva

text: Sharva, sharabha presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root "śarv"-, which means "to injure" or "to kill", interprets the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness".


title: Shiva

text: The Sanskrit word "śaiva" means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.


title: Shiva

text: The "Vishnu sahasranama" interprets "Shiva" to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)".


title: Shiva

text: Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo, Mahasu, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms), and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion). The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism is reflected in his epithets 'Mahādeva' ("Great god"; 'mahā' "Great" and "deva" "god"), 'Maheśvara' ("Great Lord"; 'mahā' "great" and 'īśvara' "lord"), and 'Parameśvara' ("Supreme Lord").


title: Shiva

text: Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the "Shiva Sahasranama", devotional hymns ("stotras") listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 ("Anuśāsanaparvan") of the "Mahabharata" provides one such list. Shiva also has "Dasha-Sahasranamas" (10,000 names) that are found in the "Mahanyasa". The "Shri Rudram Chamakam", also known as the "Śatarudriya", is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.


title: Shiva

text: The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the Indian subcontinent, such as India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, such as Bali, Indonesia. Scholars have interpreted early prehistoric paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, carbon dated to be from pre-10,000 BCE period, as Shiva dancing, Shiva's trident, and his mount Nandi. Rock paintings from Bhimbetka, depicting a figure with a trishul, have been described as Nataraja by Erwin Neumayer, who dates them to the mesolithic.


title: Shiva

text: Seal discovered during excavation of the Indus Valley archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva" figure.


title: Shiva

text: Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic, seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position, surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro as "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit 'paśupatim'), an epithet of the later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra.


title: Shiva

text: Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as Gavin Flood, John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion.


title: Shiva

text: Gavin Flood states that it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterizes these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull. John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but a couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra. Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man.


title: Shiva

text: The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. McEvilley, for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account". Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as the early Elamite seals dated to 3000-2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate. Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a proto-Shiva would "go too far".


title: Shiva

text: The Vedic literature refers to a minor atmospheric deity, with fearsome powers called Rudra. The Rigveda, for example, has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. The term Shiva also appears in the Rigveda, but simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in the Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence.


title: Shiva

text: The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva, or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures. His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on the situation, are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus, as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life. The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva as "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus as ""god of the Orient"". Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus) and Roman deities, as was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward. Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins.


title: Shiva

text: Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra, and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures. The two names are used synonymously. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.


title: Shiva

text: The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700 and 1100 BC based on linguistic and philological evidence. A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras", a group of storm gods.


title: Shiva

text: The hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that is kind and tranquil (Shiva). The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle ("vahana") of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state the Nandi bull, the Indian zebu, in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same.


title: Shiva

text: Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual development into the later character as Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in the "Nirukta", an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra." The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch:The fire myth of "Rudra-Śiva" plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination.In the "Śatarudrīya", some epithets of Rudra, such as "Sasipañjara" ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and "Tivaṣīmati" ("Flaming bright"), suggest a fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull, and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature.


title: Shiva

text: Coin of the Kushan Empire (1st-century BCE to 2nd-century CE). The right image has been interpreted as Shiva with trident and bull.


title: Shiva

text: According to Wendy Doniger, the Puranic Shiva is a continuation of the Vedic Indra. Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare, the transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term 'śiva' is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3.) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts, but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra.


title: Shiva

text: The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion, and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion. The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but the presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva. Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva. The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by the start of the Kushan Empire.


title: Shiva

text: The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras. For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora, extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in a manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the "Shvetashvatara Upanishad" (400–200 BC), according to Gavin Flood. Prior to it, the Upanishadic literature is monistic, and the "Shvetashvatara" text presents the earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva. Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of souls from the birth-rebirth cycle. The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks the beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period. Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali's "Mahābhāṣya" (2nd-century BC) and in the "Mahabharata". Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the "Shvetashvatara Upanishad" presents pluralism, pantheism, or henotheism, rather than being a text just on Shiva theism.


title: Shiva

text: The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century. These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (soul, self), and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: A few texts such as "Atharvashiras Upanishad" mention Rudra, and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible. The "Kaivalya Upanishad" similarly, states Paul Deussen – a German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart.


title: Shiva

text: The Shaiva Puranas, particularly the Shiva Purana and the Linga Purana, present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage ("Tirtha") associated with him. The Shiva-related Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti. Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider soul within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, "dvaita"), are the foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta. Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, "advaita"), and that Shiva is the soul, the perfection and truth within each living being. In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts.


title: Shiva

text: Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in the 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions. The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva. The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies.


title: Shiva

text: The figure of Shiva as we know him today may be an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not understood, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation. According to Vijay Nath, for example:Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent the multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of "Isa" or "Isvara" to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara."An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra, where a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes. The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri. Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya.


title: Shiva

text: Lingodbhava is a Shaiva sectarian icon where Shiva is depicted rising from the Lingam (an infinite fiery pillar) that narrates how Shiva is the foremost of the Trimurti; Brahma and Vishnu are depicted bowing to Lingodbhava Shiva in the centre.


title: Shiva

text: Shaivism is one of the four major sects of Hinduism, the others being Vaishnavism, Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition. Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal soul, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions.


title: Shiva

text: The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts. The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist ("Advaita") and devotional traditions ("Dvaita") such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism with temples featuring items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within the premises, relief artwork showing mythologies and aspects of Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: The Tantric Shiva tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a variety of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas (literally, the 'skull-men') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, used meat, alcohol, and sexuality as a part of ritual. In contrast, the esoteric tradition within Kashmir Shaivism has featured the "Krama" and "Trika" sub-traditions. The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair. The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self liberation.


title: Shiva

text: The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme, the Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the "Bhagavata Purana" while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality. The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states:Vishnu is no one but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.


title: Shiva

text: — Mythologies of both traditions include legends about who is superior, about Shiva paying homage to Vishnu, and Vishnu paying homage to Shiva. However, in texts and artwork of either tradition, the mutual salutes are symbolism for complementarity. The Mahabharata declares the unchanging Ultimate Reality (Brahman) to be identical to Shiva and to Vishnu, that Vishnu is the highest manifestation of Shiva, and Shiva is the highest manifestation of Vishnu.


title: Shiva

text: Ardhanarishvara sculpture, Khajuraho, depicting Shiva with goddess Parvati as his equal half. In the Ardhanarisvara concept, the icon is presented as half-man and half woman.


title: Shiva

text: The goddess-oriented Shakti tradition of Hinduism is based on the premise that the Supreme Principle and the Ultimate Reality called Brahman is female (Devi), but it treats the male as her equal and complementary partner. This partner is Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: The earliest evidence of the tradition of reverence for the feminine with Rudra-Shiva context, is found in the Hindu scripture "Rigveda", in a hymn called the Devi Sukta:3. I am ruler, assembler of goods, observer foremost among those deserving the sacrifice.


title: Shiva

text: Me have the gods distributed in many places—so that I have many stations and cause many things to enter (me).


title: Shiva

text: Without thinking about it, they live on me. Listen, o you who are listened to: it’s a trustworthy thing I tell you.


title: Shiva

text: — The "Devi Upanishad" in its explanation of the theology of Shaktism, mentions and praises Shiva such as in its verse 19. Shiva, along with Vishnu, is a revered god in the "Devi Mahatmya", a text of Shaktism considered by the tradition to be as important as the "Bhagavad Gita". The Ardhanarisvara concept co-mingles god Shiva and goddess Shakti by presenting an icon that is half-man and half woman, a representation and theme of union found in many Hindu texts and temples.


title: Shiva

text: Oleograph by Raja Ravi Varma depicting a Shiva-centric Panchayatana. A bearded Shiva sits in the centre with his wife Parvati and their infant son Ganesha; surrounded by (clockwise from left upper corner) Ganesha, Devi, Vishnu, and Surya. Shiva's mount is the bull Nandi below Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: In the Smarta tradition of Hinduism, Shiva is a part of its Panchayatana puja. This practice consists of the use of icons or anicons of five deities considered equivalent, set in a quincunx pattern. Shiva is one of the five deities, others being Vishnu, Devi (such as Parvati), Surya and Ganesha or Skanda or any personal god of devotee's preference (Ishta Devata).


title: Shiva

text: Philosophically, the Smarta tradition emphasizes that all idols (murti) are icons to help focus on and visualize aspects of Brahman, rather than distinct beings. The ultimate goal in this practice is to transition past the use of icons, recognize the Absolute symbolized by the icons, on the path to realizing the nondual identity of one's Atman (soul, self) and the Brahman. Popularized by Adi Shankara, many Panchayatana mandalas and temples have been uncovered that are from the Gupta Empire period, and one Panchayatana set from the village of Nand (about 24 kilometers from Ajmer) has been dated to belong to the Kushan Empire era (pre-300 CE). The Kushan period set includes Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Brahma and one deity whose identity is unclear.


title: Shiva

text: Adiyogi Shiva statue, recognized by the "Guinness World Records" as the "Largest Bust Sculpture” in the world; the statue is for inspiring and promoting yoga, and is named "Adiyogi", which means "the first yogi", because Shiva is known as the originator of yoga.


title: Shiva

text: Shiva is considered the Great Yogi who is totally absorbed in himself – the transcendental reality. He is the Lord of Yogis, and the teacher of Yoga to sages. As Shiva Dakshinamurthi, states Stella Kramrisch, he is the supreme guru who "teaches in silence the oneness of one's innermost self ("atman") with the ultimate reality ("brahman")."


title: Shiva

text: The theory and practice of Yoga, in different styles, has been a part of all major traditions of Hinduism, and Shiva has been the patron or spokesperson in numerous Hindu Yoga texts. These contain the philosophy and techniques for Yoga. These ideas are estimated to be from or after the late centuries of the 1st millennium CE, and have survived as Yoga texts such as the "Isvara Gita" (literally, 'Shiva's song'), which Andrew Nicholson – a professor of Hinduism and Indian Intellectual History – states have had "a profound and lasting influence on the development of Hinduism".


title: Shiva

text: Other famed Shiva-related texts influenced Hatha Yoga, integrated monistic ("Advaita Vedanta") ideas with Yoga philosophy and inspired the theoretical development of Indian classical dance. These include the "Shiva Sutras", the "Shiva Samhita", and those by the scholars of Kashmir Shaivism such as the 10th-century scholar Abhinavagupta. Abhinavagupta writes in his notes on the relevance of ideas related to Shiva and Yoga, by stating that "people, occupied as they are with their own affairs, normally do nothing for others", and Shiva and Yoga spirituality helps one look beyond, understand interconnectedness, and thus benefit both the individual and the world towards a more blissful state of existence.


title: Shiva

text: An art depiction of the Trimurti, with Shiva depicted on the right, at the Hoysaleswara temple in Halebidu.


title: Shiva

text: The Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver and Shiva the destroyer or transformer. These three deities have been called "the Hindu triad" or the "Great Trinity". However, the ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism feature many triads of gods and goddesses, some of which do not include Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: Shiva with Parvati. Shiva is depicted three-eyed, the Ganges flowing through his matted hair, wearing ornaments of serpents and a skull garland, covered in ashes, and seated on a tiger skin


title: Shiva

text: According to Gavin Flood, "Shiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox," whose attributes include opposing themes. The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.


title: Shiva

text: Shiva is represented in his many aspects. Left: Bhairava icon of the fierce form of Shiva, from 17th/18th century Nepal; Right: Shiva as a meditating yogi in Rishikesh.


title: Shiva

text: In Yajurveda, two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terrifying (Sanskrit: 'rudra') and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: 'śiva') forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva sect of later ages are to be found here". In the Mahabharata, Shiva is depicted as "the standard of invincibility, might, and terror", as well as a figure of honor, delight, and brilliance.


title: Shiva

text: The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. The name Rudra reflects Shiva's fearsome aspects. According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name "Rudra" is derived from the root "rud-", which means "to cry, howl". Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form "raudra", which means "wild, of "rudra" nature", and translates the name "Rudra" as "the wild one" or "the fierce god". R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "terrible". Hara is an important name that occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the "Shiva sahasranama", where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "one who captivates", "one who consolidates", and "one who destroys". Kramrisch translates it as "the ravisher". Another of Shiva's fearsome forms is as "Kāla" "time" and "Mahākāla" "great time", which ultimately destroys all things. The name "Kāla" appears in the "Shiva Sahasranama", where it is translated by Ram Karan Sharma as "(the Supreme Lord of) Time". Bhairava "terrible" or "frightful" is a fierce form associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name "Śaṇkara", "beneficent" or "conferring happiness" reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara (c. 788–820), who is also known as Shankaracharya. The name "Śambhu" (Sanskrit: शम्भु swam-on its own; bhu-burn/shine) "self-shining/ shining on its own", also reflects this benign aspect.


title: Shiva

text: Shiva is depicted as both an ascetic yogi and as a householder (grihasta), roles which have been traditionally mutually exclusive in Hindu society. When depicted as a yogi, he may be shown sitting and meditating. His epithet Mahāyogi ("the great Yogi: 'Mahā' = "great", "Yogi" = "one who practices Yoga") refers to his association with yoga. While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that the concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.


title: Shiva

text: As a family man and householder, he has a wife, Parvati and two sons, Ganesha and Kartikeya. His epithet "Umāpati" ("The husband of "Umā"") refers to this idea, and Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing, "Umākānta" and "Umādhava", also appear in the "sahasranama". "Umā" in epic literature is known by many names, including the benign "Pārvatī". She is identified with Devi, the Divine Mother; Shakti (divine energy) as well as goddesses like Tripura Sundari, Durga, Kali, Kamakshi and Minakshi. The consorts of Shiva are the source of his creative energy. They represent the dynamic extension of Shiva onto this universe. His son Ganesha is worshipped throughout India and Nepal as the Remover of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings and Lord of Obstacles. Kartikeya is worshipped in South India (especially in Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka) by the names Subrahmanya, Subrahmanyan, Shanmughan, Swaminathan and Murugan, and in Northern India by the names Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.


title: Shiva

text: Some regional deities are also identified as Shiva's children. As one story goes, Shiva is enticed by the beauty and charm of Mohini, Vishnu's female avatar, and procreates with her. As a result of this union, Shasta – identified with regional deities Ayyappan and Aiyanar – is born. In outskirts of Ernakulam in Kerala, a deity named Vishnumaya is stated to be offspring of Shiva and invoked in local exorcism rites, but this deity is not traceable in Hindu pantheon and is possibly a local tradition with "vaguely Chinese" style rituals, states Saletore. In some traditions, Shiva has daughters like the serpent-goddess Manasa and Ashokasundari. According to Doniger, two regional stories depict demons Andhaka and Jalandhara as the children of Shiva who war with him, and are later destroyed by Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: The depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: 'naṭarāja', "Lord of Dance") is popular. The names Nartaka ("dancer") and Nityanarta ("eternal dancer") appear in the Shiva Sahasranama. His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period. In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: 'nṛtyamūrti') are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Tamil Nadu in particular. The two most common forms of the dance are the Tandava, which later came to denote the powerful and masculine dance as Kala-Mahakala associated with the destruction of the world. When it requires the world or universe to be destroyed, Shiva does it by the Tandava, and Lasya, which is graceful and delicate and expresses emotions on a gentle level and is considered the feminine dance attributed to the goddess Parvati. "Lasya" is regarded as the female counterpart of "Tandava". The "Tandava"-"Lasya" dances are associated with the destruction-creation of the world.


title: Shiva

text: Dakshinamurthy "("Dakṣiṇāmūrti")" literally describes a form ('mūrti') of Shiva facing south ('dakṣiṇa'). This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom and giving exposition on the "shastras". This iconographic form for depicting Shiva in Indian art is mostly from Tamil Nadu. Elements of this motif can include Shiva seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction.


title: Shiva

text: An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara ('Ardhanārīśvara') shows him with one half of the body as male and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", not as "half-man, half-woman".


title: Shiva

text: Shiva is often depicted as an archer in the act of destroying the triple fortresses, "Tripura", of the Asuras. Shiva's name Tripurantaka ('Tripurāntaka'), "ender of Tripura", refers to this important story.


title: Shiva

text: Apart from anthropomorphic images of Shiva, he is also represented in aniconic form of a lingam. These are depicted in various designs. One common form is the shape of a vertical rounded column in the centre of a lipped, disk-shaped object, the "yoni", symbolism for the goddess Shakti. In Shiva temples, the "linga" is typically present in its sanctum sanctorum and is the focus of votary offerings such as milk, water, flower petals, fruit, fresh leaves, and rice. According to Monier Williams and Yudit Greenberg, "linga" literally means 'mark, sign or emblem', and also refers to a "mark or sign from which the existence of something else can be reliably inferred". It implies the regenerative divine energy innate in nature, symbolized by Shiva. Some scholars, such as Wendy Doniger, view "linga" merely as an erotic phallic symbol, although this interpretation is criticized by others, including Swami Vivekananda, Sivananda Saraswati, and S. N. Balagangadhara. According to Moriz Winternitz, the "linga" in the Shiva tradition is "only a symbol of the productive and creative principle of nature as embodied in Shiva", and it has no historical trace in any obscene phallic cult.


title: Shiva

text: The worship of the lingam originated from the famous hymn in the "Atharva-Veda Samhitâ" sung in praise of the "Yupa-Stambha", the sacrificial post. In that hymn, a description is found of the beginningless and endless "Stambha" or "Skambha", and it is shown that the said "Skambha" is put in place of the eternal Brahman. Just as the Yajna (sacrificial) fire, its smoke, ashes, and flames, the "Soma" plant, and the ox that used to carry on its back the wood for the Vedic sacrifice gave place to the conceptions of the brightness of Shiva's body, his tawny matted hair, his blue throat, and the riding on the bull of the Shiva, the "Yupa-Skambha" gave place in time to the "Shiva-Linga". In the text "Linga Purana", the same hymn is expanded in the shape of stories, meant to establish the glory of the great Stambha and the superiority of Shiva as Mahadeva.


title: Shiva

text: The oldest known archaeological "linga" as an icon of Shiva is the Gudimallam lingam from 3rd-century BCE. In Shaivism pilgrimage tradition, twelve major temples of Shiva are called Jyotirlinga, which means "linga of light", and these are located across India.


title: Shiva

text: Five is a sacred number for Shiva. One of his most important mantras has five syllables ("namaḥ śivāya").


title: Shiva

text: Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the "pañcabrahmans". As forms of God, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:


title: Shiva

text: These are represented as the five faces of Shiva and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action. Doctrinal differences and, possibly, errors in transmission, have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes. The overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.According to the "Pañcabrahma Upanishad":One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of "Śiva" is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. ("Pañcabrahma Upanishad" 31)


title: Shiva

text: Puranic scriptures contain occasional references to "ansh" – literally 'portion, or avatars of Shiva', but the idea of Shiva avatars is not universally accepted in Saivism. The Linga Purana mentions twenty-eight forms of Shiva which are sometimes seen as avatars, however such mention is unusual and the avatars of Shiva is relatively rare in Shaivism compared to the well emphasized concept of Vishnu avatars in Vaishnavism. Some Vaishnava literature reverentially link Shiva to characters in its mythologies. For example, in the "Hanuman Chalisa", Hanuman is identified as the eleventh avatar of Shiva. The "Bhagavata Purana" and the "Vishnu Purana" claim sage Durvasa to be a portion of Shiva. Some medieval era writers have called the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Adi Shankara an incarnation of Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: Maha Sivaratri festival is observed in the night, usually in lighted temples or special "prabha" (above).


title: Shiva

text: There is a "Shivaratri" in every lunar month on its 13th night/14th day, but once a year in late winter (February/March) and before the arrival of spring, marks "Maha Shivaratri" which means "the Great Night of Shiva".


title: Shiva

text: Maha Shivaratri is a major Hindu festival, but one that is solemn and theologically marks a remembrance of "overcoming darkness and ignorance" in life and the world, and meditation about the polarities of existence, of Shiva and a devotion to humankind. It is observed by reciting Shiva-related poems, chanting prayers, remembering Shiva, fasting, doing Yoga and meditating on ethics and virtues such as self-restraint, honesty, noninjury to others, forgiveness, introspection, self-repentance and the discovery of Shiva. The ardent devotees keep awake all night. Others visit one of the Shiva temples or go on pilgrimage to Jyotirlingam shrines. Those who visit temples, offer milk, fruits, flowers, fresh leaves and sweets to the lingam. Some communities organize special dance events, to mark Shiva as the lord of dance, with individual and group performances. According to Jones and Ryan, Maha Sivaratri is an ancient Hindu festival which probably originated around the 5th-century.


title: Shiva

text: Another major festival involving Shiva worship is Kartik Purnima, commemorating Shiva's victory on the demons Tripurasura. Across India, various Shiva temples are illuminated throughout the night. Shiva icons are carried in procession in some places.


title: Shiva

text: Thiruvathira is a festival observed in Kerala dedicated to Shiva. It is believed that on this day, Parvathi met Lord Shiva after her long penance and Lord Shiva took her as his wife. On this day Hindu women performs the Thiruvathirakali accompanied by Thiruvathira paattu (folk songs about Parvati and her longing and penance for Lord Shiva's affection).


title: Shiva

text: Regional festivals dedicated to Shiva include the Chittirai festival in Madurai around April/May, one of the largest festivals in South India, celebrating the wedding of Minakshi (Parvati) and Shiva. The festival is one where both the Vaishnava and Shaiva communities join the celebrations, because Vishnu gives away his sister Minakshi in marriage to Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: Some Shaktism-related festivals revere Shiva along with the goddess considered primary and Supreme. These include festivals dedicated to Annapurna such as "Annakuta" and those related to Durga. In Himalayan regions such as Nepal, as well as in northern, central and western India, the festival of Teej is celebrated by girls and women in the monsoon season, in honor of goddess Parvati, with group singing, dancing and by offering prayers in Parvati-Shiva temples.


title: Shiva

text: The ascetic, Vedic and Tantric sub-traditions related to Shiva, such as those that became ascetic warriors during the Islamic rule period of India, celebrate the Kumbha Mela festival. This festival cycles every 12 years, in four pilgrimage sites within India, with the event moving to the next site after a gap of three years. The biggest is in Prayaga (renamed Allahabad during the Mughal rule era), where millions of Hindus of different traditions gather at the confluence of rivers Ganges and Yamuna. In the Hindu tradition, the Shiva-linked ascetic warriors ("Nagas") get the honor of starting the event by entering the "Sangam" first for bathing and prayers.


title: Shiva

text: Shiva has been adopted and merged with Buddhist deities. Left: Daikokuten is a Shiva-Ōkuninushi fusion deity in Japan; Right: Acala is a fierce Shiva adaptation.


title: Shiva

text: The statue of Shiva engaging in the Nataraja dance at the campus of European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in Geneva, Switzerland.


title: Shiva

text: In Shaivism of Indonesia, the popular name for Shiva has been "Batara Guru", which is derived from Sanskrit "Bhattaraka" which means "noble lord". He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara Guru's wife in southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations, each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others. Shiva has been called Sadasiva, Paramasiva, Mahadeva in benevolent forms, and Kala, Bhairava, Mahakala in his fierce forms. The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivism traditions found on the subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).


title: Shiva

text: In the pre-Islamic period on the island of Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered very close and allied religions, though not identical religions. The medieval era Indonesian literature equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu). This tradition continues in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the younger brother of Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: The worship of Shiva became popular in Central Asia through the Hephthalite Empire, and Kushan Empire. Shaivism was also popular in Sogdia and the Kingdom of Yutian as found from the wall painting from Penjikent on the river Zervashan. In this depiction, Shiva is portrayed with a sacred halo and a sacred thread ("Yajnopavita"). He is clad in tiger skin while his attendants are wearing Sogdian dress. A panel from Dandan Oilik shows Shiva in His Trimurti form with Shakti kneeling on her right thigh. Another site in the Taklamakan Desert depicts him with four legs, seated cross-legged on a cushioned seat supported by two bulls. It is also noted that Zoroastrian wind god Vayu-Vata took on the iconographic appearance of Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: Daikokuten, one of the Seven Lucky Gods in Japan, is considered to be evolved from Shiva. The god enjoys an exalted position as a household deity in Japan and is worshipped as the god of wealth and fortune. The name is the Japanese equivalent of Mahākāla, the Buddhist name for Shiva. Shiva is also mentioned in Buddhist Tantra. Shiva as "Upaya" and Shakti as "Prajna". In cosmologies of Buddhist tantra, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active counterpart. In Mahayana Buddhist cosmology, Shiva resides in Akaniṣṭha, highest of Śuddhāvāsa (Pure Abodes) where Anāgāmi ("Non-returners") who are already on the path to Arhat-hood and who will attain enlightenment are born in.


title: Shiva

text: The Japuji Sahib of the Guru Granth Sahib says, "The Guru is Shiva, the Guru is Vishnu and Brahma; the Guru is Paarvati and Lakhshmi." In the same chapter, it also says, "Shiva speaks, and the Siddhas listen." In Dasam Granth, Guru Gobind Singh has mentioned two avtars of Rudra: Dattatreya Avtar and Parasnath Avtar.


title: Shiva

text: In contemporary culture, Shiva is depicted in films, books, tattoos and art. He has been referred to as "the god of cool things" and a "bonafide rock hero".


title: Shiva

text: Popular films include the Gujarati language movie "Har Har Mahadev", the Kannada movie "Gange Gowri" and well-known books include Amish Tripathi's "Shiva Trilogy", which has sold over a million copies. On television, "Devon Ke Dev...Mahadev", a television serial about Lord Shiva on the Life OK channel was among the most watched shows at its peak popularity. A 90's television series of DD National titled Om Namah Shivay was also based on legends of Lord Shiva.


title: Shiva

text: In the "Final Fantasy" videogame series, Shiva is often depicted as a benevolent ancient being of Ice Element who frequently aids the heroes against mighty foes (via summoning). Shiva is also a character in the video game "Dark Souls", with the name Shiva of the East.


title: Shiva

text: In Shuumatsu no Valkyrie (Record of Ragnarok), Shiva is the representative of the gods in the 5th round of Ragnarok.


title: Flute

text: There are many kinds of flutes. The most common concert flute is on C tuning. In addition, there are other flutes like piccolos, alto flutes, and bass flutes.


title: Flute

text: Flutes have changed over time. Pan flutes were made for many centuries. Later, the "Renaissance flute" came into use. In Baroque music "flute" means recorder, so flutes were called "traverso" in order not to confuse them. A Bavarian flute maker named Boehm reformed flutes largely to enlarge the volume and improve the way of using the chromatic scale. Later improvements created the modern flute.


title: Flute

text: There is a large repertoire of music for the flute. Baroque composers used them in their orchestras, usually in pairs, and composed concertos, chamber music and solo music for them. This has continued to the present day. Orchestras have at least 2 flutes each, sometimes three or four. Sometimes there is 1 piccolo which plays an octave higher, or an alto flute which plays a fifth lower than the flute.


title: Flute

text: The flute sounds very bright and cheerful playing high notes. Please listen, for example, to the "Badinerie" from Bach's "Orchestral Suite no 2". It can also sound very thoughtful or sad when playing in its lowest register. A good example is the opening of Debussy's "Prélude à l'après midi d'un faune also flutes Andre a brass instrument and can make a really low pitch.