title: Orchid

text: The seeds are extremely small and very numerous, in some species over a million per capsule. After ripening, they blow off like dust particles or spores. They lack the food reserve called endosperm, so must have symbiosis with fungi to get nutrients to germinate. All orchid species rely on fungi to complete their lifecycles. As the chance for a seed to meet a fitting fungus is very small, only a minute fraction of all the seeds released grow into adult plants.


title: Orchid

text: In cultivation, germination typically takes weeks. Horticultural techniques have been devised for germinating seeds on a nutrient-containing gel, so they do not need the fungus for germination.


title: Orchid

text: The main component for the sowing of orchids in artificial conditions is agar. The substance is put together with some type of carbohydrate (actually, some kind of glucose) which provides qualitative organic feed. Such substance may be banana, pineapple, peach or even tomato puree or coconut milk. After the "cooking" of the agar agar (it has to be cooked in sterile conditions), the mix is poured into test tubes or jars where the substance begins to gel.


title: Academy Award

text: The Academy Awards, commonly known as the Oscars, are the best-known movie awards in the United States. The awards have been given by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences since 1929. The awards ceremony takes place each year in late February or early March in Los Angeles, California.


title: Academy Award

text: At the end of the 1920s, the American film industry was in a crisis. When the radio was invented, people didn't go to the cinema as often as they used to. The owners of the studios had problems. They had to pay the workers a good salary, but that was impossible at that time. Many people fought for a good salary and a good working time.


title: Academy Award

text: The director of the successful Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer-Studios, Louis B. Mayer met two good friends because he wanted to speak about the problem.


title: Academy Award

text: In the first years of the award, the trophy was called the Academy Award of Merit. The godfather of the name Oscar is not clear. It is certain, that the name was used in 1931. There may be four people, who could be the godparents. The former board secretary of the academy Margaret Herrick said: "He looks like my uncle Oscar!". Bette Davis said that he looks like my first husband Harmon "Oscar" Nelson. The film columnist Sidney Skolsky said, that he is the name-giver, and the fourth person was Walt Disney.


title: Academy Award

text: It is said that Oscar is not the official name of the statue. But the nickname is trademark-protected.


title: Academy Award

text: "Gone with the Wind" from 1939 was the most successful film for a long time with ten Oscars. Then, in 1960, "Ben-Hur" won eleven Oscars. In 1998 "Titanic" also won eleven Oscars, so they were in a tie. Six years later, "" won eleven Oscars.


title: Academy Award

text: The five categories 'Best Picture', 'Best Director', 'Best Actor', 'Best Actress' and 'Best Original Screenplay' are the most important categories and they are called the 'Big Five'. There are only three films that won all these categories: "It Happened One Night", "One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest" and "The Silence of the Lambs".


title: Academy Award

text: Katharine Hepburn (1907–2003) has the most awards as a performer with 4 Oscars in the category of 'Best Actress'. Meryl Streep has the most nominations as performers with 21 Oscar nominations. Jack Nicholson, Daniel Day-Lewis, and Walter Brennan (1894–1974) have three Academy Awards each, the most for men. Nicholson also has the nomination record for men with 12 nominations. The person who has the most Academy Awards is Walt Disney (1901–1966) with 26, including 4 Honorary Oscars and he has 37 nominations. Moreover, he won 4 awards in 1954, so he got the most awards in one year. The woman, who has the most Oscars is the costume designer Edith Head (1897–1981). She has 8 Oscars and 27 nominations. The living people with the most Oscars are the composer Alan Menken (8 Oscars) and special effects artist Dennis Muren (8 Oscars for best visual effects, plus one for technical achievement and 15 nominations). The cartoon characters Tom and Jerry are the cartoon movie stars with have the most awards with 7.


title: Silicon Valley

text: Silicon Valley is the southern part of the San Francisco Bay Area in California in the United States. The term originally meant the innovators and manufacturers of silicon chip who worked here, but now means all the high-tech businesses in the area. Even though it's not truly a valley, it is a term for the high-tech sector generally.


title: Silicon Valley

text: Silicon Valley includes the northern part of Santa Clara Valley and adjacent communities in the southern parts of the San Francisco Peninsula and East Bay. It reaches from Menlo Park (on the Peninsula) and the Fremont/Newark area in the East Bay down to San Jose.


title: Silicon Valley

text: The term "Silicon Valley" was coined by journalist Don Hoefler in 1971. He used it as the title of a series of articles "Silicon Valley USA" in a weekly trade newspaper Electronic News which started with the January 11, 1971 issue. "Valley" refers to the Santa Clara Valley, located at the southern end of San Francisco Bay, while "Silicon" refers to the high concentration of semiconductor and computer-related industries in the area. These and similar technology firms slowly replaced the orchards which gave the area its initial nickname, the "Valley of Heart's Delight".


title: Silicon Valley

text: The San Francisco Bay Area had long been a major site of U.S. Navy work, as well as the site of the Navy's large research airfield at Moffett Field. A number of technology firms had set up shop in the area around Moffett to serve the Navy. When the Navy moved most of its West Coast operations to San Diego, NASA took over portions of Moffett for aeronautics research. Many of the original companies stayed, while new ones moved in. The immediate area was soon filled with aerospace firms.


title: Silicon Valley

text: However, there was almost no civilian "high-tech" industry in the area. Although there were a number of excellent schools in the area, graduating students almost always moved east or south (that is, to Los Angeles County) to find work. This was particularly annoying to Frederick Terman, a professor at Stanford University. He decided that a vast area of unused Stanford land was perfect for real estate development, and set up a program to encourage students to stay in the area by enabling them to easily find venture capital. One of the major success stories of the program was that it convinced two students to stay in the area, William Hewlett and David Packard. In 1939, they founded Hewlett-Packard in Packard's garage, which would go on to be one of the first "high tech" firms in the area that was not directly related to NASA or the U.S. Navy.


title: Silicon Valley

text: Commercial use of the Internet became practical and grew slowly throughout the early 1990s. In 1995, commercial use of the Internet grew and the first wave of internet startups, Amazon.com, eBay, and Craigslist began operations.


title: Silicon Valley

text: Thousands of high technology companies are headquartered in Silicon Valley; among those, the following are in the Fortune 1000:


title: Silicon Valley

text: Additional notable companies headquartered (or with a significant presence) in Silicon Valley include (some defunct or subsumed):


title: Silicon Valley

text: Technically the following universities are not located in Silicon Valley, but have been instrumental as sources of research and new graduates:


title: Silicon Valley

text: In the James Bond film "A View to a Kill", villain Max Zorin plans to destroy Silicon Valley by detonating explosives between the "Hayward Fault" and "San Andreas Fault", causing them to flood. He dubs the operation 'Main Strike' in order to gain complete control of the microchip market by selling his own and destroying the competition.


title: Bracket

text: Brackets are tall punctuation marks used in matched pairs within text. They are used in mathematics and in literature (written language). They are sometimes used to set apart or interject other parts of the text. They are noted as left/right: the "left bracket" is "[" and the "right bracket" is "]".


title: Bracket

text: In the American English, "bracket" usually refers specifically to the "square" or "box" type. In British English, "bracket" normally refers to the "round" type, which is called a "parenthesis" mark in American usage.


title: Bracket

text: Parentheses are the curved brackets "(  )". They are also called "round brackets", "curved brackets", "oval brackets", or, colloquially, "parens".


title: Bracket

text: Parentheses enclose text which could be left out, without destroying or altering the meaning of a sentence. In most writing, overuse of parentheses is usually a sign of a badly structured text. A milder effect may be obtained by using a pair of commas around the text, although if the sentence contains commas for other uses, then visual confusion may result.


title: Save Your Tears

text: "Save Your Tears" is a song by Canadian recording artist The Weeknd, from his seventh studio album, "After Hours" (2020). It was written by The Weeknd with Max Martin, Oscar Holter, DaHeala, and Belly, with the first four serving as the song's producers. The music video for the song was released on January 5, 2021, and depicts Tesfaye onstage with an exaggerated look that resembles plastic surgery, while wearing his signature sequined red suit.


title: Save Your Tears

text: A remix of the song featuring American entertainer Ariana Grande was released on April 23, 2021. Grande is a credited songwriter on the remix of the song.


title: Save Your Tears

text: After the song peaked at number four on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, the song topped the chart dated May 8, 2021, with both The Weeknd & Ariana Grande as credited artists. It became the sixth US number-one song for both artists.


title: Rammstein

text: Rammstein is a Neue Deutsche Härte band that started in Berlin in 1994. The band members are Till Lindemann, who is the singer; Richard Z. Kruspe, who plays the lead guitar and is a backing singer; Paul H. Landers, who plays the rhythm guitar and is also a backing singer; Oliver Riedel, who plays the bass guitar; Christoph Schneider, who plays the drums and electronic musical instruments; and Christian Lorenz, who plays the keyboard (also known as an electronic piano). The language that they sing in is almost always German, although they have made a couple of songs in the English language, Spanish language and the Russian language. As of 2005, they had sold over 10 million records around the world, and have made a total of 8 albums. Rammstein's music is published by Universal Music Group. Since the band was created, they have had no members join or leave.


title: Constitutional law

text: Constitutional law is an area of law that shows how the institutions of a country are organised, and the basic rights rights of citizens. In most countries, such as the United States, this is found in a written text called a constitution. Some countries use a lot of different texts and unwritten rules instead, such as the United Kingdom.


title: Constitutional law

text: Constitutional law explains how different institutions relate to each other. For example, the relationship between the legislature, executive, and judiciary. In a federal country, constitutional law explains what the powers of the central government and state governments are.


title: Constitutional law

text: Constitutional law shows citizens what rights they have. Some examples are the United States Bill of Rights, or the European Convention on Human Rights.


title: Ooty

text: Ooty is a town and hill station in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The name "Ooty" is short for Ootacamund (officially Udhagamandalam). Ooty is located in the Nilgiris, or Blue Mountains, a mountain district. Ooty stands at about 7,500 feet above sea level.


title: Suresh Raina

text: Suresh Kumar Raina (born 27 November 1986) is an Indian professional cricketer. An aggressive left-handed middle-order batsman and an occasional off-spin bowler, he is considered as one of the best fielders in world cricket. He plays for Uttar Pradesh in all forms of domestic cricket. He is the captain of Gujarat Lions in the Indian Premier League, and was the vice-captain of the Chennai Super Kings. He has also captained the Indian cricket team and is the second-youngest player ever to captain India. He is the first of the three Indian batsmen to ever score a century in all three formats of international cricket. He was born in Ghaziabad. Raina made his ODI debut in July 2005 against Sri Lanka at the age of 19. However, his Test debut came about five years later, in July 2010, against the same opposition. He scored a hundred on his Test debut. He was a part of the Indian squad that won the 2011 World Cup, Captained team Uttar Pradesh, India (on several occasions), India – A, Gujarat Lions and Chennai Super Kings (3 matches).


title: Suresh Raina

text: He lives in Rajnagar, a town in Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh. He has three older brothers Dinesh Raina, Naresh Raina and Mukesh Raina and one elder sister Renu. An article by Suresh Raina was featured in the 2012 book Rahul Dravid: Timeless Steel.


title: Suresh Raina

text: In 2000, Raina decided to play cricket and subsequently moved from his hometown Muradnagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh (near New Delhi) to Lucknow, to attend the Guru Gobind Singh Sports College, Lucknow.He rose to become the captain of the Uttar Pradesh U-16s and came to prominence amongst Indian selectors in 2002, when he was selected at the age of 15 and a half years for the U-19 tour to England, where he made a pair of half-centuries in the U-19 Test matches. He toured Sri Lanka later that year with the U-17 team. He made his Ranji Trophy debut for Uttar Pradesh against Assam in February 2003 at the age of 16, but did not play another match until the following season. In late 2003, he toured Pakistan for the U-19 Asian ODI Championship before being selected for the 2004 U-19 World Cup, where he scored three half-centuries, including a 90 scored off only 38 balls. He was then awarded a Border-Gavaskar scholarship to train at the Australian Cricket Academy and in early 2005, he made his first-class limited overs debut, and scored 645 runs that season at an average of 53.75.


title: Suresh Raina

text: Raina was on the bench through the first half of the 2011 Cricket World Cup as captain Mahendra Singh Dhoni instead went with the in-form Yusuf Pathan. This remained so until the group game against West Indies, which Raina played in place of an injured Virender Sehwag. Against defending champions Australia in the quarter-final, Dhoni made a strategic change, omitting Yusuf Pathan in favour of Raina. Raina responded by assisting Yuvraj Singh in a successful run chase through high pressure, making 34 from 28 balls to carry India to victory. In the semi-final against Pakistan, he batted with tailenders to score an unbeaten 36, a significant contribution to India's final tally of 260. He also took Younis Khan's catch off of Yuvraj's bowling. Suresh Raina played some crucial knocks in quarter-final and semi-final of the World Cup, which helped India to win the 2011 ICC Cricket WorldCup. Gary Kirsten, the then coach of India, said 'Raina won the World Cup for us with some crucial knocks'.


title: Suresh Raina

text: India toured West Indies after the World Cup with captain MS Dhoni rested and vice-captain Virender Sehwag injured. Gautam Gambhir was named the captain for the One-dayers and T20's with Raina as his deputy. But due to injury Gambhir was ruled out, with Raina captaining with Harbhajan as his deputy. India won the series, but Raina averaged just 16.4. In the Test matches, he scored 232 runs at the average of 46.4 scoring crucial fifties in each Test. His captaincy was highly appreciated by former west-Indian legends.


title: Suresh Raina

text: In the first ODI, Raina played an attacking 45 ball, 50-run knock to help India reach 314. They eventually won the match by 21 runs on 21 July 2012.


title: Suresh Raina

text: In the second ODI he was out for 1 but he came back stronger in the third ODI where he played a blistering 45 balls 65 to hand India a five-wicket win and he eventually also won the man of the match award for his performance. Gambhir too scored a century in that match.


title: Suresh Raina

text: He continued his good form in the 4th ODI as he scored his 3rd half-century of the series and helped India beat Sri Lanka by 6 wickets by scoring 58*.and mujeeb helped him


title: Suresh Raina

text: After the Tour of Sri Lanka, When England team came to India, he was dropped and gave away his spot to Yuvraj Singh, Who made a comeback after suffering from Cancer.


title: Suresh Raina

text: Raina registered strong performances in this series, which India won 3–2. He scored 277 runs at an average of 92.33 with four consecutive half-centuries but only two of them in a winning cause. He became 13th Indian batsman to cross 4000 international runs, in his 159th ODI and got his first Man of the Series award in this format. At the end of the series, he broke into the ICC top 10 ranked batsmen for the first time in his career.


title: Suresh Raina

text: He was again declared captain of the young Indian cricket team after the West Indies series in 2014 Bangladesh series while all the regular players of Indian cricket were rested. He led his team for 2–0 victory in the series. His personal performance was also splendid in the low scoring series as he captained the side very aggressively throughout the series. He was praised all over the world for his captaincy skills which he displayed during the 2nd ODI of this series. India was all out scoring 104 runs while batting first and Suresh Raina and his young team defended 104 runs and won the match by 54 runs. His captaincy was the deciding factor of this match along with Stuart Binny's bowling performance.


title: Suresh Raina

text: Suresh has been included into India's test squad after almost two years. Raina was selected in the final Test match at Sydney, under the captaincy of Virat Kohli. Later on, he announced his return to form in the Tri-Series with a flamboyant 51 against Australia.


title: Suresh Raina

text: Suresh Raina was not selected in India's first tour to USA, where they play West Indies for 2 T20Is. However, he made a reentry to the ODI team for a series against New Zealand. But he was ruled out due to Chikungunya .


title: Suresh Raina

text: He was selected for a T20 series against England. In that series, he made a strong comeback. He scored a 63 in the 3rd T20.


title: Suresh Raina

text: Raina was signed by the Chennai Super Kings for US$650,000 for the first three years of the tournament. Raina made significant contributions in the first edition of the tournament to compensate the Chennai Super Kings over the losses of key players like Matthew Hayden, Michael Hussey and Jacob Oram. He played a vital Man of the Match performance in the last league fixture to give Chennai Super Kings the win they required to qualify for the semi-finals. Ultimately the Super Kings finished Again in 2010 IPL, Raina's consistent batting throughout the series won him applause and became the all-time run-getter of the league surpassing Australian legend Adam Gilchrist halfway down the tournament. He also captained the Super Kings for three matches in skipper Dhoni's absence and took some sensational catches in the field. He scored 520 runs in all, making him the third highest run getter of the series and the first for Chennai. He also was awarded "best fielder" by the BCCI ahead of the finals. He played a vital half-century which turned the final to Chennai's tide who ultimately went on to become the champions beating the Mumbai Indians.


title: Suresh Raina

text: At the end of the season, Raina set the record for most runs scored in the tournament, with 421, 434, and 520 and also taking the most no. of catches, two records that are still unbroken. Raina also hit the second maximum no. of sixes behind Adam Gilchrist in the three editions of the league. He was retained by the Super Kings for the 2011 Indian Premier League along with Murali Vijay, Albie Morkel and skipper MS Dhoni.


title: Suresh Raina

text: In the 2011 IPL too, Raina maintained his reputation as the leading run-scorer with 438 runs, again being the only player to cross 400 do so for all the seven seasons. His most crucial knock came against the Royal Challengers Bangalore in the Qualifier where he played a stunning innings to get the game back to Chennai's favor.


title: Suresh Raina

text: Despite struggling to find form in the initial stages of the 2012 IPL, Raina found form in the latter stages and finished the tournament as Chennai's leading run scorer, scoring 441 runs and on the course became the only player to score 400 runs in every IPL. He scored a blistering 73 in the final against Kolkata Knight Riders and added 116 with Mike Hussey, who scored a magnificent 86, to help his team put a big total on board. He became the first player in the history of IPL to cross the mark of 2000 IPL runs.


title: Suresh Raina

text: In 2013, IPL Raina scored 548 runs at a healthy average of 42.15 and strike rate of 150.13. At the start of the season he was struggling with his form but in the later half, he regained his form. He scored his maiden hundred in IPL against Kings XI Punjab. Raina scored an astonishing 99 not out off 52 deliveries against Sunrisers Hyderabad and helped Chennai Super Kings to score a mammoth 223 runs. This was Chennai Super Kings 3rd highest total. In the 1st Qualifier against MI he along with Hussey pounded MI bowlers to reach a score of 193 for 1.


title: Suresh Raina

text: On 30 May 2014 he made 87 runs out of 25 balls against Kings XI Punjab. He missed his fastest century of the cricketing history by just 13 runs due to a run out. In Champions League Twenty20 final he played a crucial knock scoring 109* off just 62 balls and made Chennai Super Kings win 2nd CLT20 title.


title: Suresh Raina

text: In 2016, Raina was signed for the Gujarat Lions after the suspension of CSK. He captained the team for the season, and remained consistent with batting, scoring 399 runs in 15 innings. Raina Had to leave for Netherlands in between of season 9 for birth of his first child thus making him miss his first ever match in nine seasons of IPL .


title: Wooden horse

text: The wooden horse or Spanish donkey is a torture device where the victim is made to straddle a triangular "horse" and place their full body weight on their genitals, which rested on the point of the angle which causes pain in the lower regions. Sometimes cannonballs or something similar would be tied to the victim's feet. There is also a less intense variation was probably developed for BDSM play.


title: The Bad Girls Club

text: The Bad Girls Club (or "BGC") is an American reality television show. It was created by Jonathan Murray for Oxygen TV channel. The show is about seven women who are called "bad girls" because of their bad behavior. They come from different races and backgrounds. They have psychological and behavior problems. They are put in a big house to live for three months. The production team video tapes their life inside and outside of the house. They live in the house to try and change their "bad ways" and become role models. They have to obey the rules they were given. If they don't follow them, they can be removed from the show. If this happens, a "replacement" will arrive at the house.


title: The Bad Girls Club

text: In season one and season two, the premise of the show was different from other seasons. There has been six complete seasons of "The Bad Girls Club". The ninth season is currently airing on Oxygen. The fourth season had the highest ratings. It became the "breakthrough season" for the show. The show is broadcast in five different countries. "The Bad Girls Club" was given negative feedback from television critics. This is because the show is about girls fighting. Teenagers have also pretended to be like the girls in the show. This made schools in the United States to dislike the show. Some schools even started banning the show in their cities.


title: The Bad Girls Club

text: There has been a lot of conflicts about the show. This is because some cast-members stated opinions that made the public very angry. There have been three spin-offs of "The Bad Girls Club". has been a rating success. The show is about three former "bad girls" looking for love. Oxygen released mobile games, comic strip and merchandise to help promote the show. There has been 62 people who been on the show. Kerry Harvick (from the first season) became a country singer. Tanisha Thomas (from the second season) became a host in many "Bad Girls Club" spin-offs. Amber Meade, Amber Buhl, Sarah Michaels, Kendra Jones, Natalie Nunn and Lea Beaulieu were in the "Love Games: Bad Girls Need Love Too" show.


title: The Bad Girls Club

text: The show follows seven women. They are between the ages of 21 and 27. They live in a big house for three months. The production team video tapes their lives in and out of the house. The girls are called "bad girls". This is because of their bad behavior. However, they are put in the show because they want to change their "bad ways". They also want to become role models to young women. Other "bad girls" are only there to reach goals of their own. In the show, the "bad girls" must try to live with each other. They must also try and deal with a lot of changes from their roommates. They must follow all the rules that they were given. If they break a "bad girl" breaks a rule, she will be removed from the show. A "replacement" is then brought in. A replacement is a "bad girl" who did not enter the house on the first night. She is brought in the show, to fill in. This is because the show is about seven women trying to change. The "bad girls" have to talk in a room about their day.


title: The Bad Girls Club

text: Sometimes, a "bad girl" may divide into cliques. Create bad behavior to feel happy, book parties in nightclubs and shop for food. They must also maintain their personal lives. The "bad girls" are allowed to contact their families and boyfriends (or girlfriends). They are given a home computer to communicate with the world. However, watching television and having a cell phone is not allowed. Bullying and double tagging is known to happen in the show. Double tagging means that two or more "bad girls" jump one of their roommates. Sometimes, a "bad girl" may wish to leave the show. This is because of their roommates who are bullying them, being or feeling alone, problems at home, court dates, or because they feel like they are "better" then the girls in the house.


title: The Bad Girls Club

text: It is rare if two or more replacements come into the show. The only seasons to have a lot of replacements was season one (2006), season five (2010) and season six (2011). The replacement "bad girl" is always treated badly by the original cast. It is rare if a replacement wants to leave the show. The only season to have a replacement leave was on the fifth season.


title: The Bad Girls Club

text: The show was different in these two seasons. The age requirements were 21 and 31. "Nicknames" were not given to anyone. Nicknames started in the third season. Season one was the first season to have a lot of replacement "bad girls". Even though this season was different, the rules were kept the same for later seasons. Another thing that stood the same was how the first episode started. The first episode always starts with a physical fight. The fight that is seen, shows how the first "bad girl" is removed from the show.


title: The Bad Girls Club

text: For the second season, the show began to change. The maximum age requirements to apply dropped from 35 to 27. The cast had to work. They were given jobs that did not give them any money. They had to learn how to be dependent on others for teamwork. They also needed to build a work ethic. This skill would help them in their life after the show. If a "bad girl" wanted to quit her job or did not show up, she would be removed from the show. The girls were given the jobs of planning and decision making. This became the first and only season to have the "bad girls" working. This was also the last time episodes were only 30-minutes long.


title: The Bad Girls Club

text: The OxygenLive was released on August 3, 2010. This allowed fans of the show to submit their opinions about the season or the cast. Fans had to submit their comments on Facebook or Twitter. Their comments were then showed during the re-cap episode of "The Bad Girls Club". OxygenLive! was an online talk show. Tanisha Thomas (from season two) was the hose. The live show debuted after the first episode of the sixth season aired on Oxygen. The show was about talking with the cast of season six. Thomas gave them questions to answer from fans.


title: The Bad Girls Club

text: "Viewers" is the estimated number viewers that watched a program either while it was broadcast or watched via DVR on the same day the program was broadcast.


title: Euglena

text: All live in water, and move by means of a flagellum. This is an animal characteristic. Most have chloroplasts, which are characteristic of algae and plants.


title: Euglena

text: Euglenids are believed to descend from an ancestor that took up green algae by secondary endosymbiosis.


title: Euglena

text: Over 1,000 species of "Euglena" have been described, and there are more to be discovered. Their relationships are being analysed.


title: Euglena

text: When acting as a heterotroph (animal), the "Euglena" surrounds a particle of food and consumes it by phagocytosis. When acting as an autotroph, the "Euglena" has chloroplasts which produce sugars by photosynthesis. The chloroplasts use the pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b.


title: Euglena

text: The number and shape of chloroplasts within "Euglena" varies greatly. "Euglena" are able to move through aquatic environments by using a large flagellum for locomotion. To detect light, the cell has an eyespot, a primitive organelle that filters sunlight into light-detecting, photo-sensitive structures. These structures, at the base of the flagellum, allow only certain wavelengths of light to register. With the aid of this photo-sensitive area, the "Euglena" can shift its position to get better photosynthesis.


title: Euglena

text: The mobility of "Euglena" also allows hunting. Most "Euglena" are considered mixotrophs: autotrophs in sunlight and heterotrophs in the dark. "Euglena" do not have plant cell walls, but have a pellicle instead. The pellicle is made of protein bands that spiral down the length of the "Euglena" and lie beneath the plasma membrane.


title: Euglena

text: "Euglena" can survive in fresh and salt water. In low moisture conditions, "Euglena" forms a protective wall around itself and lies dormant as a spore until environmental conditions improve. "Euglena" can also survive in the dark by storing starch-like paramylon granules inside the chloroplast.


title: Euglena

text: "Euglenas" reproduce asexually by binary fission. There is no evidence of sexual reproduction. Reproduction includes transverse division and longitudinal division, which both occur in the active and encysted forms.


title: Euglena

text: Starting in 2005, the Tokyo-based Euglena Company now markets "Euglena"-based food and beverage products. The fitness of "Euglena" for human consumption had been thought about before, but this is the first attempt to cultivate and farm it. The company's main production facility is on Ishigaki Island, Okinawa, where there is a favourable climate.


title: Rose Tyler (Doctor Who)

text: Rose Marion Tyler is a character in the British television series "Doctor Who". She was played by Billie Piper. Rose was a companion of the Doctor.


title: Rose Tyler (Doctor Who)

text: The character was created by series producer Russell T Davies. When "Doctor Who" was returned to television in 2005, Rose was introduced in the show as a new "companion" of series protagonist the Doctor, in his Ninth and later Tenth bodies. A regular companion of the Doctor for all of series one and series two, Rose also returned in the programme's fourth series having Changed in the gap between them.


title: Rose Tyler (Doctor Who)

text: When first seen, Rose is 19 years old and working in a shop named Henrik's. She has a boyfriend named Mickey Smith, and lives in a apartment with her mother Jackie Tyler in the Powell Estate in London. Rose left school without taking her A-levels but won the bronze medal in an under-sevens gymnastics competition at her school. Her father, Pete Tyler died in 1987 in a car accident, the year after Rose was born. When she was twelve, she received a red bicycle for Christmas, which was given to her by the Doctor after meeting Rose in the future.


title: Rose Tyler (Doctor Who)

text: Ninth Doctor saves her from aliens named Autons then he destroys the building. She helps the Doctor to defeat the autons then decides to travel with him.


title: Rose Tyler (Doctor Who)

text: While they are travelling, the Doctor and Rose realise that the words "Bad Wolf" follow them around. They discover that Rose herself is the Bad Wolf, and that the words are a message. They tell Rose that she must travel to the future to absorb the energies of the time vortex, to save the Doctor and the Earth from the Daleks. By absorbing the power of the TARDIS, she destroy the Daleks, brings Captain Jack back to life and leaves the words "Bad Wolf" through the universe as clues that are seen throughout the series.


title: Rose Tyler (Doctor Who)

text: Soon the energies she absorbed begin to destroy her body. The Doctor, through a kiss, absorbs the power, sacrificing his ninth incarnation and regenerating before Rose's eyes into the Tenth Doctor.


title: Rose Tyler (Doctor Who)

text: At the beginning of season 2, Rose and the Doctor travel "farther than we've ever gone before" to New New Earth. There they meet the Face of Boe again and help defeat some cat-nurses. Over the course of season two, we learn that Rose has a crush on the Doctor, a point that is made strongly in 2.03 (when she competes for the Doctor's affections with former companion, Sarah Jane Smith) and 2.04 (when the Doctor falls for Madame de Pompadour). Toward the end of the season, the Doctor starts to return affection for Rose, ending in the finale where Rose is trapped in a parallel universe (that looks just like ours) with her mother, Jackie, Mickey, and her parallel-universe father, Peter Tyler.


title: Rose Tyler (Doctor Who)

text: In "Turn Left", when a Time Beetle causes Donna to change the past and change the universe, Rose continually appears to her and helps her to set things right by sending her back in time. She also gives Donna the message "Bad Wolf" to deliver to the Doctor, which tells him that it is the end of the universe. Rose is reunited with the Doctor in "The Stolen Earth", but as the two run towards each other, the Doctor is shot down by a Dalek. A sad Rose, reunited with Jack Harkness for the first time since she resurrected him in "The Parting of the Ways", is forced to watch the Doctor begin to regenerate again.


title: Rose Tyler (Doctor Who)

text: In "Journey's End" the Doctor regenerates just enough to heal himself, moving the rest of his 'Time Lord' regenerative energy into his hand that was cut off in the series two episode "The Christmas Invasion". Donna later touches the hand, and the energy that flows into her creates a weird event called a 'biological metacrisis'. This metacrisis causes the hand to develop into a part human, part time lord version of the Doctor, complete with the Doctor's memories, personality and knowledge, but exhibiting traits of Donna's personality. This mixed version of the Doctor also has only one heart, and he can't regenerate. The original Doctor returns Rose to her alternate universe's Bad Wolf Bay. Between themselves, the original Doctor and the half-human Doctor have decided that the half-human Doctor will stay with Rose; this Doctor can give Rose a romantic relationship, as he will age and die as a human rather than greatly outliving her like his Time Lord counterpart would. The Doctor tells Rose that his half-human self needs her as he was "born of blood and fire and revenge" much like his previous body was after the Time War. He believes Rose can help turn him into a "better man". When the half-human Doctor seemingly completes the sentence the original Doctor started at the end of "Doomsday" they kiss each other. And although we do not hear what the half-human Doctor had whispered to Rose, executive producer Julie Gardner confirmed in Doctor Who Confidential that "even though we don't hear it, of course he's saying 'I love you'."


title: Brown

text: Brown is a color. There are many ways to make the color brown - it can be a mixture of orange and black, of red, blue and yellow, of red and green, of blue and orange, of yellow and purple or of red, yellow and black paint.


title: Chief executive officer

text: A Chief Executive Officer (CEO), or Chief Executive, is the highest ranking corporate officer, administrator, corporate administrator, executive, or executive officer, in charge of total management of a corporation, company, organization or agency.


title: Chief executive officer

text: In closely held corporations, it is general business culture that the office of Chief Executive Officer, CEO, is also the chairman of the board. Specifically, one person often shares the chairman and CEO titles while another person takes the presidency or may become chief operating officer (COO). However, the term president is from the U.S. and in the UK COO is favored. Underneath that comes the Executive Vice President (U.S.) or Executive Director (UK). In publicly held corporations, the CEO and chairman positions can be separated but there are implications in corporate governance by doing so.


title: Chief executive officer

text: In some European Union countries, there are two separate boards, one executive board for the day-to-day business and one supervisory board for control purposes (elected by the shareholders). In these countries, the chief executive officer presides over the executive board and the chairman presides over the supervisory board and these two roles will always be held by different people. This ensures a distinction between management by the executive board and governance by the supervisory board. This allows for clear lines of authority. The aim is to prevent a conflict of interest and too much power being concentrated in the hands of one person. There is a strong parallel here with the structure of governments, which tend to separate the political cabinet from the management civil service.


title: Chief executive officer

text: In rare circumstances an Executive Chairperson can be appointed but this is either illegal in many jurisdictions or frowned upon by Regulators.


title: Chief executive officer

text: In the United Kingdom many Charities and Government Agencies are headed by a Chief Executive who is answerable to a Board of Trustees or Board of Directors. In the UK, the Chairman (of the Board) in public companies is more senior than the Chief Executive. Most public companies now split the role of Chairman and Chief Executive.


title: Chief executive officer

text: Typically, a CEO has a cadre of subordinate executives, each of which has specific functional responsibilities. These direct reporting relationships most often include: Chief Financial Officer, Chief Operating Officer, Chief Marketing Officer, and Chief Information Officer. Although not an Executive, the Director of Human Resources plays a vital role within any corporation.


title: Chief executive officer

text: However, depending on the industry in which the company operates and/or the organizational structure the company has employed, various other functional areas may be highlighted through the CEO's direct span of control. Some of these less common monikers include: Chief (Business) Development Officer, Chief Knowledge Officer/Chief Learning Officer, Chief Strategy Officer, Chief Risk Officer, and Chief Credit Officer.


title: Chief executive officer

text: According to Don Schmincke, to be a strong executive, "one cannot act in business differently from how he acts in family life or society". Meaning being a successful executive requires a man’s conduct to be “correct in all points”, his actions must follow his words at all times.


title: Battle

text: A battle is a fight between two or more groups where each group is trying to defeat (beat) the others. Battles are most often fought during wars. A small battle fought by only a small part of the armies is called a skirmish. Series of battles are called military campaigns. The ground on which a battle is fought is called a battlefield.


title: Battle

text: Battles can very important, for example the 1389 Battle of Kosovo, which was a draw in military terms, and the 1798 Battle of the Nile which the French lost, changed the history of Europe and the world.


title: Jisoo

text: Kim Ji-soo is a South Korean singer, actress, and model. She goes by the mononym Jisoo. She is known for being a member of Blackpink, which as of 2019 is the highest-charting female k-pop group. Jisoo is also well known as a model in advertisements in South Korea, including for LG. She has also appeared in a few television series. Jisoo is well known on social media in South Korea, with 38.2 million followers.


title: Jisoo

text: Jisoo was born in South Korea on 3 January 1995. In 2011, she joined YG Entertainment as a trainee. Later she became a member of Blackpink. In 2015, she made her first appearance as an actress.


title: Canal

text: A canal is a waterway made by humans. For many centuries, canals have been built as a way of transporting heavy goods in barges or boats. Canals usually connect lakes, rivers, or oceans. The Panama Canal is a famous canal that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. Many canals are reinforced with clay or concrete on the sides.


title: Kris Jenner

text: Kristen Mary "Kris" Jenner (born November 5, 1951) is an American television personality, writer, socialite, television producer and businesswoman. She is known for being the mother of Kim Kardashian, Khloé Kardashian, and Kourtney Kardashian.


title: Kris Jenner

text: Kristen Mary Houghton was born on November 5, 1955 in San Diego, California. She was married to Robert Kardashian from 1978 until they divorced in 1990. She was married to Bruce Jenner from 1991 until their divorce in 2015. She has four children with Robert and two daughters with Jenner. The Jenners announced their separation in October 2013, though they had actually separated a year earlier.


title: Billie Eilish

text: Billie Eilish Pirate Baird O'Connell ( ; born December 18, 2001) is an American singer-songwriter. She is currently signed to Interscope Records.


title: Billie Eilish

text: She released her first EP, "don't smile at me", in 2017. Her debut album, "When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go?", was released on March 29, 2019. It features the songs "Bury a Friend", "You Should See Me in a Crown", "When the Party's Over", "Wish You Were Gay", and her first number-one hit, "Bad Guy". The album reached number one in the UK, making her the youngest woman to top the UK Albums Chart.


title: Billie Eilish

text: In February 2020, Eilish released her single "No Time to Die", the official James Bond theme for the movie of the same name. For this, she won the Academy Award for Best Original Song in 2022.


title: Billie Eilish

text: Eilish's musical style has been compared to New Zealand singer-songwriter Lorde and American singer-songwriter Lana Del Rey.


title: Billie Eilish

text: Her songs are considered dark. She suffered with depression and suicidal thoughts at age 11 and expresses her depression through her music. She has been accused of romanticizing death and mental illness.


title: Billie Eilish

text: Eilish became the youngest artist to win all four of the major categories (the “Big Four” – Album, Record, and Song of the Year, and Best New Artist) at the Grammy Awards in 2020. She has won five awards from six nominations.


title: Billie Eilish

text: Eilish has an older brother, Finneas, who works with her on her musical projects. She was part of the Los Angeles Children's Chorus and was home-schooled with her brother. Her mother is actress Maggie Baird.


title: Polymer

text: A polymer is a molecule, made from joining together many small molecules called monomers. The word "polymer" can be broken down into "poly" (meaning "many" in Greek) and "mer" (meaning "unit"). This shows how the chemical composition of a polymer consists of many smaller units (monomers) bonded together into a larger molecule. A chemical reaction bonding monomers together to make a polymer is called polymerization.


title: Polymer

text: Some polymers are natural and made by organisms. Proteins have polypeptide molecules, which are natural polymers made from various amino acid monomer units. Nucleic acids are huge natural polymers made up of millions of nucleotide units. Cellulose and starch (two types of carbohydrate) are also natural polymers made up of glucopyranose monomer bonded together in different ways. Rubber is a mixture of polymers. Plastics are man-made polymers. Many fibers are made of polymers.


title: Polymer

text: If the "units" called monomers in a polymer are all the same, then the polymer is called a "homopolymer". Homopolymers are named by adding the prefix poly- before the monomer name from which the polymer is made. For example, a polymer made by bonding styrene monomer molecules together is called polystyrene.


title: Polymer

text: Many polymer molecules are like "chains" where the monomer units are the links. Polymer molecules can be straight-chain, have "branching" from the main chain, or "cross-linking" between chains. As an example of cross-linking, sulfhydryl (-S-H) groups in two cysteine amino acid units in polypeptide chains can bond together to make a disulfide bridge (-S-S-) joining the chains together.


title: Polymer

text: In the same way how large hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil can be broken down in smaller molecules e.g. ethylene by applying heat (a process called cracking), the monomer ethylene can then be turned into the polymer polyethylene by applying pressure and adding catalysts. Polyethelene is the basis of many plastic objects.


title: Badfinger

text: Badfinger was a British rock group. They were first called The Iveys, but renamed themselves after a song title, "Badfinger Boogie", the original title of "With a Little Help From My Friends". The band's members were Peter Ham, Tom Evans, Mike Gibbins and Joey Molland. Badfinger recorded for Apple Records, which was a record label started by The Beatles, Warner Brothers, Elektra Records, and Radio Records.


title: Badfinger

text: Their first hit record was "Come And Get It", which was written by Paul McCartney. It appeared in a movie, "The Magic Christian". The band followed McCartney's demo closely to make the record. The finished record sounded like a Beatles song. Later they made records that sounded different, and showed the band's own style. Todd Rundgren was the producer of some of their recordings.


title: Badfinger

text: Badfinger's other hit records included "No Matter What", "Day After Day", and "Baby Blue". Later they left Apple Records and recorded for Warner Bros. Ham and Evans were the band's main songwriters. One of their songs, "Without You", was recorded by the band, but was not a hit. A later cover version by singer Harry Nilsson became an international hit, and was the first of many such versions. Many recording artists have sung "Without You", including Mariah Carey.


title: Badfinger

text: In 1970 Badfinger made an agreement with an American businessman called Stan Polley who promised to help them earn more money. But instead of helping them, Polley kept their money "away" from them in an account and refused to tell them how to get it out. He also behaved dishonestly toward Warner Bros. Because of his dishonesty, the band's sixth album was removed from shops after being available for only seven weeks, and Warner Bros. refused to release their seventh album. As a result, the band did not earn any money for their hard work, which made Pete Ham feel very depressed. Feeling that he could not be a good husband or father without any money, Ham committed suicide by hanging himself in 1975.


title: Badfinger

text: Evans and Molland decided they still wanted to work together. Mike Gibbins, the drummer, wanted to as well, but could not. They found two more musicians to take the place of Ham and Gibbins, and recorded a new album called "Airwaves". They had only one very small hit, but continued to tour. They released another record called "Say No More". This record had cover art by artist Peter Max.


title: Homeostasis

text: Homeostasis is self-regulation, a basic property of all self-organising systems. In biology, it is the keeping of a stable internal environment.


title: Homeostasis

text: Homeostasis is life's ability to stay balanced, when the environment changes. Animals keep their body in a stable condition. They do so by regulating their inner equilibrium . For example, they adjust their pH, temperature, amount of oxygen or carbon dioxide in the blood and so on. In living things, the study of how they keep in a stable condition is called physiology. Mostly, our physiology works unconsciously throughout life. We have many negative feedback systems which adjust our physiology so that we stay alive. These systems are self-organising and do not need to be learnt. They are inherited.


title: Homeostasis

text: The concept was described by Claude Bernard, and the term was later coined by Walter Cannon in 1926, 1929, and 1932. Walter Cannon thought these were the features of homeostasis:


title: Homeostasis

text: The brain is also central to homeostasis. It controls behaviour, and the basic function of behaviour is to support life by taking action.


title: Western hemisphere

text: The western hemisphere is a geographical term for the half of the Earth that is west of the Prime Meridian. Pretend that the earth is cut in half, from the North Pole, through England, to the South Pole. The Western Hemisphere is the half to the west. The other half is called the Eastern Hemisphere.


title: Crayon Shin-chan

text: Crayon Shin-chan (, "Kureyon Shin-chan", also known as Shin-chan in other countries) is a Japanese manga and anime series written by Yoshito Usui. It has 56 (including the New Crayon Shin-chan series) manga volumes. The anime has been broadcast since 1992, and there are twenty-four movies as of 2016. They are popular all over the world. The anime program Shinchan has more than 900 episodes. This show is broadcasteon Tv Asahi in Japan and on Hungama TV in India.


title: Crayon Shin-chan

text: Shinnosuke "Shin-chan" Nohara is a little boy who does everything he can to annoy his parents and teachers (and succeeds), but he only means the best. He just tries to have a good time and sometimes annoys people in the process.


title: Crayon Shin-chan

text: There have been other specials in which feature-length movies were broadcast on television rather than in theaters.


title: Crayon Shin-chan

text: The special crossover episode "Kamen Rider Den-O + Shin-O" aired in 2007 to promote the "Kamen Rider Den-O" movie. A second special series was aired in April 2012 featuring Shin-chan and "Kamen Rider Fourze" to not only promote "Crayon Shin-chan: The Storm Called!: Me and the Space Princess", but also "".


title: West Virginia

text: West Virginia is a state in the Appalachian region of the United States. Its capital and largest city is Charleston. It is often abbreviated W. Va. or simply WV.


title: West Virginia

text: West Virginia is bordered by Pennsylvania to the north, by Ohio to the north and west, by Kentucky to the west, by Maryland to the north and east, and by Virginia to the east and south. The Ohio and Potomac Rivers form parts of the boundaries.


title: West Virginia

text: Before the American Civil War, West Virginia practiced slavery as part of the state of Virginia. Slaves, at first Native American but increasingly brought from Africa in the slave trade, were forced to grow tobacco, mine coal, and be personal servants. Many slaves were rented from owners in other parts of the state to work in the mines. In the 19th century, white people kept slaves in order to earn money by selling them south to states like Texas, Louisiana, and Georgia.


title: West Virginia

text: West Virginia was admitted into the union as a slave state in 1863. Slavery was abolished after the war, and Confederate veterans voted the politicians who passed the laws out of office.


title: West Virginia

text: West Virginia was once a part of Virginia. At the beginning of the American Civil War, Virginia and the other southern states seceded from the United States, which means they chose to not be a part of it anymore. Slaves were fewer in the west than in other parts, and those in West Virginia who were against slavery were not objecting on moral grounds. They saw it as bad for free labor. While slavery was an issue in other parts of Virginia, in the western counties the issues were taxation and being governed from a state capital that was far away. The people in Western Virginia had far more in common with their neighboring states of Pennsylvania and Ohio than with the Commonwealth of Virginia. So this was an area of Union support.


title: West Virginia

text: On June 20, 1863, West Virginia became the thirty-fifth state of the United States. But it was not an easy process. There had been some discussion of the area becoming a state since the early 1800s. It took three conventions at Wheeling from 1861 to 1863. The process divided friends and communities.


title: West Virginia

text: Statehood was not universally accepted in West Virginia. While there were no large scale battles, there was a good deal of guerilla warfare in attempts to undermine the new government. Confederates raided into West Virginia trying to terrorize the citizens. Despite Confederate efforts to topple the state government, Washington provided both economic and political support. Union military successes outside the state helped keep the state government in power. After the war there were bitter resentments between those for and against statehood. Virginia even tried to force West Virginia back into becoming a part of Virginia again in 1871. But West Virginia remained a sovereign state despite the efforts.


title: West Virginia

text: West Virginia is often called the "Mountain State" because it is entirely within the Appalachian Mountain Range, and there are many hills and mountains throughout the state. The highest one is Spruce Knob, which is 4,863 feet above sea level. There are many rivers, including the Ohio, the Potomac, the Kanawha, and the Monongahela.


title: Yolanda Saldívar

text: Yolanda Saldívar (born September 19, 1960) is an American murderer. She was convicted of Selena's murder in March 1995. Saldívar is currently serving a life sentence in a Texas jail. She will be eligible for parole in 2025.


title: Yolanda Saldívar

text: Saldívar was a registered nurse who met with Selena after a concert in 1991. They became friends quickly and Selena offered her a job as her fan club's president and another job, at her boutique (Selena Etc.)


title: Yolanda Saldívar

text: On March 31, 1995, Saldívar and Selena met at a hotel room in Corpus Christi, Texas. Selena was there to get some missing documents that Saldívar stole from her. Saldívar claimed she was raped and needed Selena's help. Selena drove Saldívar to the hospital where doctors told Selena that Saldívar was "not" raped. They drove back to the hotel. Selena asked for the documents one last time. When Selena went to close the door, Saldivar took a gun from her purse and held Selena at gunpoint. In order to stop her from closing the door, she pulled the trigger and shot Selena in the back. Selena ran to the hotel lobby where she fell. Staff called 9-1-1. Selena was taken to a local hospital, but was declared dead. Saldivar went to her pickup truck and threatened suicide, but gave herself up after nine hours.


title: Yolanda Saldívar

text: Saldívar's trial for the murder of Selena was followed by the Hispanic community in the United States. She was convicted and sentenced to life in prison soon after. It is believed that Saldívar will never leave prison in her lifetime because of the impact of her crime and the many death threats she has received if she were to ever make parole in 2025


title: Yolanda Saldívar

text: Saldívar was portrayed by Lupe Ontiveros in the movie "Selena", and by Natasha Perez in the Netflix original series ".


title: Raúl González

text: Raúl started his career as a professional football player at Real Madrid. He has won three UEFA Champions Leagues, six Spanish leagues, four Spanish Super Cups, one UEFA Super Cup and two Intercontinental Cups. At the moment, he is the top scorer at European competitions.


title: Total Drama Action

text: Total Drama Action is the second season in the Total Drama television series. It started on June 11, 2009. The players on the show are Geoff, Bridgette, Izzy, Trent, Gwen, Owen, Heather, Le-Shawna, Courtney, Beth, Lindsay, Justin, Harold, Duncan, DJ,


title: Total Drama Action

text: Like the previous season, much of "Total Drama Action" chronicles the events of the eponymous fictional reality shows. The "Total Drama" series itself is an "animated reality television series", which stars the cast and crew of the fictional series, parodying many aspects of reality television in general.


title: Total Drama Action

text: After last season's winner, Owen (Scott McCord), forgoes his prize money of C$100,000 for a challenge (open to all 22 of "Total Drama Island"'s contestants) in which the winner would receive C<nowiki>$</nowiki>1,000,000, the money was left in limbo after a situation resulted in a 14-way tie. As such, show host Chris McLean (Christian Potenza) had no choice but to commission a second competition with all 14 tied contestants. The contestants are told to arrive at an abandoned movie studio lot in Toronto, where the new competition, titled "Total Drama Action", would take place. Because of its location, Chris tells the contestants that the challenges would all be in the form of various movie genres. The accommodations of the contestants are handled by Chef Hatchet (Clé Bennett) in a similar manner to how it was handled in the previous season.


title: Total Drama Action

text: After a quick elimination of two contestants, the couple Geoff (Dan Petronijevic) and Bridgette (Kristin Fairlie), a second challenge determined the team captains of the two competing teams: the Screaming Gaffers, headed by Gwen (Megan Fahlenbock), and the Killer Grips, headed by Trent (Scott McCord). From then on, challenges would alternate between "reward challenges" where winners would receive a special prize, and "elimination challenges" where the losing team would vote off one of its own in an elaborate "Gilded Chris Ceremony". The pattern of reducing the contestants down was briefly interrupted on two occasions: once when Izzy (Katie Crown) was reinstated following a voting irregularity where her alter-ego, "E-Scope", was voted off, and another time when Courtney (Emilie-Claire Barlow), a contestant who did not originally qualify for "Total Drama Action", successfully sued the show. The players eliminated would make the "walk of shame" and into the "Lame-o-sine", where they leave the movie studio.


title: Total Drama Action

text: Once seven contestants were left, the Screaming Gaffers and the Killer Grips were dissolved, and the challenges became individual-oriented in nature. Chris hired Owen as his ringer to sabotage the other contestants and to create drama. Eventually, two contestants were left standing: Beth (Sarah Gadon) and Duncan (Drew Nelson). The Total Drama Action winner was Duncan. Beth wins in the alternate ending.


title: Total Drama Action

text: Sprinkled among the episodes (taking the place of reward challenges) is "TDA Aftermath", a show-within-a-show hosted by Geoff and Bridgette, commissioned shortly after their eliminations. On "TDA Aftermath", Geoff and Bridgette interview eliminated contestants on their "Total Drama Action" experiences. They are accompanied by the contestants of "Total Drama Island" that did not qualify for "Total Drama Action", as well as other previously-eliminated contestants. "TDA Aftermath" consisted of various "never-before-seen footage" sequences (purportedly taking place during the events of previous episodes), as well as two recurring segments, "That's Gonna Leave a Mark" (a segment of the contestants getting badly hurt), and "Truth or..." (in which a contestant is interviewed and are hurt if they lie to the hosts or the studio audience).


title: Total Drama Action

text: When the field eventually narrowed down to two contestants, (Beth and Duncan), a final obstacle course challenge would lead the contestants into the Aftermath set, with the first one arriving winning the show's million-dollar grand prize. Unfortunately, Beth and Duncan had sufficiently cooperated enough though the final challenge to arrive at the same time, and what was meant as a season recap became a show in which the winner would be determined. After efforts by the eliminated and nonparticipant contestants to come up with an impartial way of determining the winner all fail, Chris (supposedly leaving on vacation) ultimately returns to the set and has the eliminated (but not the nonparticipant) contestants vote for the winner who was eventually Duncan.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The Uncertainty principle is also called the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Werner Heisenberg stumbled on a secret of the universe: Nothing has a definite position, a definite trajectory, or a definite momentum. Trying to pin a thing down to one definite position will make its momentum less well pinned down, and vice-versa. In everyday life we can successfully measure the position of an automobile at a definite time and then measure its direction and speed (assuming it is coasting along at a steady rate) in the next few moments. That is because the uncertainties in position and velocity are so small that we could not detect them. We assume, quite correctly, that the trajectory of the automobile will not be noticeably changed when we drop a marker on the ground and click a stopwatch at the same time to note the car's position in time and space.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: We may bring that experience to the world of atomic-sized phenomena and incorrectly assume that if we measure the position of something like an electron as it moves along its trajectory it will continue to move along that same trajectory, which we imagine we can then accurately detect in the next few moments. We need to learn that the electron did not have a definite position before we located it, and that it also did not have a definite momentum before we measured the trajectory. Moreover, we may justifiably assume that a photon produced by a laser aimed at a detection screen will hit very near to its target on that screen, and confirm this prediction by any number of experiments. Next we will discover that the more closely we try to measure some location of the electron on its way toward the detection screen, the more it and all others like it will be likely to miss that target. So the mere act of measuring the location of an electron makes the trajectory more indefinite, indeterminate, or uncertain. If the trajectory were made more clear and then we were to try to locate that electron along an extension of the trajectory we just staked out, then we would find that the more precise we made our knowledge of the trajectory, the less likely we would be to find the electron where ordinary expectations would lead us to believe it to be. If pitchers threw electrons instead of baseballs, and an overhead camera and side-facing camera were placed somewhere between the pitcher's mound and home plate so that the exact position of the electron could be determined in mid flight, then without the cameras being turned on, the pitcher would throw straight balls, and with the cameras turned on his pitches would start out straight but gyrate wildly after their pictures were taken. The more clearly we know where the ball was halfway toward home place, the more trouble the batter will have in getting ready to hit it with his bat.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Unexpected consequences of the uncertainty feature of nature support our understanding of such things as nuclear fission, the control of which gave humans a new and very powerful source of energy, and quantum tunneling, which is an operating principle of the semiconductors that are so important to modern computer and other technologies.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In technical discussions one almost always talks about position and momentum. Momentum is the product of velocity and mass, and in physics the idea of velocity is the speed that something is going in a certain direction. So sometimes one can also talk about the velocity of the thing in question and ignore its mass, and sometimes it is easier to understand things if we talk about the trajectory or path that something follows. That idea also includes the ideas of speed and direction. In the following diagrams we will show the main features of uncertainty in concrete terms, in the world of real things. Later we will use a little math to be able to give a clear idea of how much wiggle room there is between position and momentum.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Very shortly after Werner Heisenberg created the new quantum physics something unexpected came right out of his mathematics, the expression:<br>


title: Uncertainty principle

text: These symbols put into math form what you have already seen in the pictures above. The symbols say, in a clear way, that you cannot be perfectly certain about where something is and where it is going. If you get clearer on where it is at any time then you have less of an idea on where it is going and how fast. If you get clearer on where it is going and how fast at any time, then you have less of an idea of where it is right now.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Scientists had already learned why certain substances give off characteristic colors of light when they are heated or otherwise excited. Heisenberg was trying to explain why these colors each have a characteristic brightness. It would not have been good enough if he and the other scientists had just said, "Well, that's just the way it is." They were sure that there had to be a good reason for these differences, and for the fact that the ratios among the bright line strengths were always the same for each sample of an element.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: He had no idea that he was going to stumble over a hidden secret of nature when he set off to discover the explanation for the intensities of the colored lines characteristic of each of the elements. The study of quantum mechanics had already shown why hydrogen has four bright lines in the part of the spectrum that humans can see. It must have seemed that the next thing to learn would simply be how to calculate their brightness. Hydrogen seemed to be the obvious place to start since hydrogen has only one electron to deal with, and only four lines in the visible part of the spectrum. Surely there must be a good reason for their not being equally bright. The explanation for the brightness of the different-colored lines of neon and the other elements could wait.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Heisenberg started working on quantum physics by adapting the classical equations for electricity, which are very complicated to begin with, so the math behind his 1925 paper was very hard to follow.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: He was trying to find the right way to calculate the intensity of bright lines in the hydrogen lamp spectrum. He had to find a related quantity called "amplitude" and multiply amplitude by amplitude (or in other words he had to square the amplitude) to get the intensity he wanted. He had to figure out how to express amplitude in a way that took account of the fact that hydrogen lamps do not radiate at all frequencies, and do not radiate across a continuous range of frequencies in the part of the spectrum that people can see. Heisenberg found a remarkable new way of calculating amplitude.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The strange equation that Heisenberg discovered and used to do the multiplication of one quantum quantity (e.g., position) by another (e.g., momentum) was published in what has been called ""Heisenberg's 'magical' paper of July 1925."" <br>


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The math above looks very hard, but the math leading up to it is very much harder and is extremely hard to understand. It is given here just to show what it looked like. Heisenberg's paper is a historical landmark. Many of the physicists who read his paper said that they could not disagree with his conclusions, but that they could not follow his explanation of how he got to those conclusions. The beginning equations that Heisenberg used involved Fourier series, and involved many factors. We will come back to the equation above because it is a kind of recipe for writing out and multiplying matrices.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The new equations had to be so strange and unusual because Heisenberg was describing a strange world in which some things, such as the orbits of electrons, do not slowly get larger or smaller. The new kinds of changes involve jumps and large gaps between jumps. Electrons can only jump between certain orbits, and the energy gained or lost in changing between orbits is produced when a photon of the right energy is absorbed or a new photon of the right energy is produced. If electrons in hydrogen atoms most frequently jump down (fall) between two particular orbits, then more photons will be emitted at that energy level, and so the light produced at that level will be the most intense.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: It was difficult to make equations built for continuous spectra (what you see when you put the sun's light through a prism) fit spectra that just have a few peak frequencies between which there is nothing. Almost everything that had already been learned about light and energy had been done with large things like burning candles or suns, and those large objects all produce continuous spectra. Even though these ordinary-sized things were easy to do experiments with, it had still taken a long time to figure out the law (physics)laws that govern them. Now physicists were dealing with things too small to see, things that did not produce continuous spectra, and were trying to find a way to at least get clues from what they already knew that would help them find the laws of these small and gapped-out light sources.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The original equations dealt with a kind of vibrating body that would produce a wave, a little like the way a reed in an organ would produce a sound wave of a characteristic frequency. So there was motion back and forward (like the vibrating of a reed) and there was an emitted wave that could be graphed as a sine wave. Much of what had earlier been figured out about physics on the level had to do with electrons moving around nuclei. When a mass moves in an orbit, when it rotates around some kind of a hub, it has what is called "angular momentum." Angular momentum is the way that something like a merry-go-round will continue to rotate after people have stopped pushing it. The math used for phase calculations and angular momentum is complicated. On top of that, Heisenberg did not show all of his calculations in his 1925 paper, so even good mathematicians might have trouble filling out what he did not say.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Even though many physicists said they could not figure out the various math steps in Heisenberg's breakthrough paper, one recent article that tries to explain how Heisenberg got his result uses twenty math-filled pages. Even that article is not easy to understand. The math started with some really hard stuff and would eventually produce something relatively simply that is shown at the top of this article. Getting the simpler result was not easy, and we are not going to try to show the process of getting from an outdated picture of the universe to the new quantum physics. We need just enough detail to show that almost as soon as Heisenberg made his breakthrough a part of how the universe works that nobody had ever seen before came into view.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Heisenberg must have been very excited but also very tired when, late at night, he finally made his breakthrough and started proving to himself that it would work. Almost right away he noticed something strange, something that he thought was an annoying little problem that he could make go away somehow. But it turned out that this little nuisance was a big discovery.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Heisenberg had been working toward multiplying amplitudes by amplitudes, and now Heisenberg had a good way to express amplitude using his new equation. Naturally he was thinking about multiplication, and about how he would multiply things that were given in terms of complicated equations.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Heisenberg realized that besides squaring amplitude he would eventually want to multiply position by momentum, or multiply energy by time, and it looked like it would make a difference if he turned the order around in these new cases. Heisenberg did not think it should matter if one multiplied position by momentum or if one multiplied momentum by position. If they had been just simple numbers there would have been no problem. But they were both complicated equations, and how you got the numbers to plug into the equations turned out to be different depending on which way you got started. In nature you had to measure position and then measure momentum, or else you had to measure momentum and then measure position, and in math the same general situation prevailed. (See the English Wikipedia article if you want to learn the fussy details!) The tiny but pesky differences between results were going to remain, not matter how much Heisenberg wished they would go away.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: At the time Heisenberg could not get rid of that one little problem, but he was exhausted, so he handed his work in to his immediate supervisor, Max Born, and went on vacation.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Max Born was a remarkable mathematician who soon saw that the equation that Heisenberg had given him was a sort of recipe for writing a matrix. Dr. Born was one of the few people at that time who was interested in this odd kind of math that most people figured was not good for very much. He knew that matrices could be multiplied, so doing all the calculations for accounting for one physics problem could be handled by multiplying one matrix by another. Just being able to put a complicated procedure into a standard and acceptable form would make it easier to work with. It might also make it easier for other people to accept.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Born was such a good mathematician that he almost immediately realized that switching the order of multiplying the two matrices would produce a different result, and the results would differ by a small amount. That amount would be h/2πi. In everyday life, that difference would be so small that we could not even see it.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: It took a couple of years, but Heisenberg was able to prove the Uncertainty Principle, which says that Δx × Δp = h/2, which is the number that comes out of the original equations but leaves out the π and the i that have to do with phase changes. Heisenberg explained that he derived his uncertainty principle from this earlier result when he wrote a paper in 1927 introducing this theory.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The constant written h, called the Planck constant, is a mysterious number that often occurs, so we need to understand what this tiny number is. Numerically, it is usually given as 6.62607×10^-34 J s (joule seconds). So it is a quantity that involves energy and time.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: It was discovered when Planck realized that the energy of a perfect radiator (called a black-body radiator) is emitted in units of definite size called "quanta" (the singular of this word is "quantum"). Radiated energy is emitted as photons, and the frequency of a photon is proportional to the "punch" it delivers. We experience different frequencies of visible light as different colors. At the violet end of the spectrum, each photon has a relatively large amount of energy; at the red end of the spectrum each photon has a relatively small amount of energy. The way to calculate the amount of energy of a photon is given by the equation E = hν (energy equals the Planck constant times "nu" or frequency).


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The Heisenberg uncertainty principle Δx × Δp ≥ h tells us that whenever we try to measure certain pairs of numbers we cannot get both values with high accuracy. More accuracy of x means less accuracy of p. In other words the less Δx, the greater Δp.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Another pair of physical quantities goes according to the uncertainty relationship: ΔE × Δt ≥ h, and that pair indicates, among other things, that if we look in interstellar space, some place where we would not expect to find anything at all, and we reduce Δt closer and closer to 0, then to keep the balance shown in the equation ΔE has to get larger and larger — and suddenly something with momentum can pop into existence just for that brief period of time.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: How is this indeterminacy (lack of certainty) to be explained? What is going on in the Universe? It is often said that a new theory that is successful can provide new information about the phenomena under investigation. Heisenberg created a math model that predicted the correct intensities for the bright-line spectrum of hydrogen, but without intending to do so he discovered that certain pairs of physical quantities disclose an unexpected uncertainty. Up until that moment nobody had any idea that measurements could not be forever made more and more precise and accurate. The fact that they could not be made more certain, more definite, was a stunning new discovery. Many people were not willing to accept it.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Bohr and his colleagues argued that photons, electrons, etc. do not have either position or momentum until they are measured. This theoretical position grew out of the discovery of uncertainty, and was not just some personal preference on what to believe. Bohr said that we know nothing about something like a photon or electron until we observe it. In order to observe such a small thing we need to interact with it somehow. In everyday life it is possible to do something like walking alongside an automobile while marking down the times it crosses points on a grid drawn on the pavement. Perhaps the weight of the automobile itself will depress little levers in the pavement that turn off clocks attached to each of them and record the automobile's weight. In the end we would have a clear record of where the car was at various times, and also could compute its direction of progress and weight. We could then know, at any time on the clock, both its position and its momentum (its velocity multiplied by its mass). We would not even imagine that the force required to move the little levers would have any influence on the progress of the car. We would also not imagine that the automobile had no location or trajectory between the points on the pavement where there are levers, or that the car exists in a kind of three-dimensional blur during those times and only settles down while it is depressing a lever. The world that we are familiar with does not reveal these strange kinds of interactions.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: To locate a ship on the sea during the darkest night we could use a searchlight, and that light would not disturb the position or direction of travel of the ship, but locating an electron with light would require hitting it with one or more photons each having enough momentum to disturb the position and trajectory of the electron. Locating the electron with other means would involve holding it in some kind of physical restraint that would also terminate its forward movement.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: To locate a photon, the best that can be done without terminating its forward movement is to make it go through a circular hole in a barrier. If one knows the time at which the photon was emitted (by a laser, for instance) and the time that the photon arrives at a detection screen such as a digital camera, then it is possible to compute the time required to travel that distance and the time at which the photon was passing through the hole. However, to permit the photon to pass through it, the circular hole must have a diameter greater than the size of the photon. The smaller the circular hole is made, the closer we come to knowing the exact position of the photon as it goes through it. However, we can never know whether the photon is off-center at that time. If the hole is exactly the same size as the photon it won't pass through. As the diameter of the hole is decreased, the momentum or the direction of the photon as it leaves the hole is more and more greatly changed.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Niels Bohr and his colleagues argued that we get into big trouble if we assume to be true of the things that are too small to be seen even with a microscope anything that we have proof for only on the scale of everyday life. In everyday life, things have a definite position at all times. On the atomic scale, we have no evidence to support that conclusion. In everyday life, things have a definite time at which they occur. On the atomic scale, we have no evidence to support that conclusion. In everyday life, if one observes a factory from the night shift of day one to the day shift of day two and one sees a finished automobile rolled out to the shipping dock it would make no sense to say that it is impossible to tell whether it was delivered during the night shift or during the day shift. But on the atomic scale, we can show instances when we have to count a single photon as having been produced at two times. (If that is not bad enough, we can also show instances where a single photon is produced from two adjacent lasers.)


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Part of the difficulty with finding out what is happening on the atomic scale is that we would like to know both where something is and what its trajectory is, and to know both things for the same time, but we cannot measure both position and trajectory at the same time. We either measure the momentum of a photon or electron at one time and then without any more delay than necessary measure its position, or we switch things around and measure position first and momentum second. The problem is that in making the first one take on a pretty definite form (by squeezing down on it in some way) we increase the uncertainty involved in the next measurement. If our initial measurements were so crude that lots of error was introduced in each, then we could improve things by using a lighter touch to do each of them, but we could never get beyond a certain limit of accuracy.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: We know from everyday life that trying to weigh something on a bathroom scale placed on a washing machine in spin cycle will produce inaccurate results because the needle on the scale will jiggle badly. We can turn off the washing machine. But for very accurate measurements we find that trucks going by in the neighborhood make the needle jiggle, so we can put the scale on a something to insulate it from the outside disturbances. We believe that we can eliminate vibrations enough to give us results just as accurate as we want. We never consider that the thing on the scale is itself vibrating or that it possesses an indefinite momentum.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Arguing backwards from the Uncertainty Principle, it looks as though there is in fact no definite position and no definite momentum for any atomic scale thing, and that experimenters can only force things into definiteness within the limit stated by the Uncertainty Principle. Bohr and his colleagues only argued that we could not know anything without making measurements, and when measurements were made we can push things in the direction of more definite position or more definite momentum, but that we can't get the absolute definiteness or certainty that we would like. But others took the possibility seriously, and argued that if the math is right then there cannot be definiteness or certainty in the world of the ultra small. The nature of science is that the math is only a model of reality, and there is no guarantee that it is a correct model.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The math and the practical consequences of the things that the math predicts are so reliable that they are very hard to disagree with, but what the math says about the real world has produced several different ideas. Among the scientists who worked with Niels Bohr in Copenhagen, the uncertainty principle was taken to mean that on an elementary level the physical universe does not exist in a deterministic form. Rather, it is a collection of probabilities or potentials.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Counter to the story woven around the math by the Copenhagen group, there are other stories such as the "multiple universes interpretation" that says that every time there are multiple possible outcomes according to quantum theory, each outcomes occurs in its own new universe. Einstein argued that there are no multiple possible outcomes, so there is only one universe and it is determinate, or, as he put it, "God does not play dice."


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Albert Einstein saw that the new quantum mechanics implied a lack of position and momentum in the time prior to measurements being made, and he objected strongly. He firmly believed that things had definite positions and definite momentums before they were measured, and that the fact that measuring one of a pair of things and disturbing the possibility of accurately measuring the other does not argue for there being a lack of either of them beforehand. He and two of his colleagues wrote what has come to be known as the "EPR paper." That paper argues that there must be characteristics that do determine position and momentum, and that if we could see them, or if we can get information about them, then we can mathematically know and predict position and momentum. For a long time people thought that there was no way to prove or disprove what was for Einstein an article of faith. The argument was very productive because it led to all the modern developments in entanglement.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Mathematically, Einstein has been proven wrong. In 1964 John Stewart Bell developed a math method to distinguish between the behavior of two particles that have determinate states that are merely unknown to the two individuals that investigate them, and two particles that have entangled states that are indeterminate or uncertain until they are measured. His method shows that the probabilities for getting certain results are different under the two different assumptions. His work is called Bell's theorem or Bell's Inequality. Experiments have shown that nature behaves as Bell describes it.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The initial discussions of Heisenberg's uncertainty principle depended on a model that did not consider that particles of matter such as electrons, protons, etc. have a wavelength. In 1926 Louis de Broglie showed that all things, not just photons, have their own frequency. Things have a wave nature and a particle nature, just as photons do. If we try to make the wave of a thing like a proton narrower and taller, that would make its position clearer, but then the momentum would get less well defined. If we try to make the momentum part of a wave description clearer, i.e., make it stay within a narrower range of values, then the wave peak spreads out and its position becomes less definite.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The wave that is part of the description of a photon is, in quantum mechanics, not the same kind of thing as a wave on the surface of the ocean or the regions of compressed air and rarefied air that make up sound waves. Instead, these wave have peaks or high amplitude regions that have to do with probability of finding something at that point in space and time. More precisely, it is the square of the amplitude that gives the probability of some phenomenon showing up.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The wave that applies to a photon might be a pure sine wave. In that case, the square of the value of every peak would give the probability of observing the photon at that point. Since the amplitudes of the sine waves are everywhere the same, the probability for finding the photon at each of them would be the same. So, practically speaking, knowing the wave for one of these photons would not give a clue about where to look for it. On the other hand, the momentum of a photon is mathematically related to the amplitude of its wave. Since in this case we have a pure sine wave, the amplitude of every cycle of the wave is the same and therefore there is only one momentum value associated with this wave. We would not know where the photon would hit, but we would know exactly how hard it would hit.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: In beams of light that focus on some point on a detection screen, the waves associated with the photons are not pure sine waves. Instead, they are waves with high amplitude at one point and much lower amplitudes on either side of that highest peak. Mathematically it is possible to analyze such a wave into a number of different sine waves of different wavelengths. It is a little easier to visualize the reverse of this process by looking at an initial sine wave of one frequency to which is added a second sine wave of a different wavelength, then a third, then a fourth, and so on. The result will be a complex wave showing one high peak and containing a large number of waves of different wavelengths and therefore of different momentums. In that case, the probability that the photon will appear at a certain point is extremely high, but the momentum it delivers can turn out to be related to the wavelength of any one of the component waves. In other words, the value of p = ħ/λ is no longer a single value because all the lengths of the assembled "waves of different wavelength" have to be taken into account.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The simulation shows how to mathematically model the sharpening up of the location of a particle: Superimpose many different wave forms over the original sine wave. The center will form a higher and higher peak, and the rest of the peaks will be increased in number but decreased in height because they will interfere with each other. So in the end there are many different waves in the superposition, each with a different wavelength and (by p = ħ/λ) a different momentum, but only one very high peak, one that grows higher and narrower and gives us something closer and closer to a determinate position.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: To make momentum more and more definite, we would have to take away more and more of the superimposed sine waves until we had only a simple sine wave left. In so doing we would progressively diminish the height of the central peak and progressively increase the heights of the competing places where one might find the particle.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: So when we start with a wave picture of subatomic particles we typically will always deal with cases with relatively tall central peaks and relatively many component wavelengths. There never will be an exact position or an exact momentum predicted under these circumstances. If the mathematical model is an accurate representation of the real world, then no photon or other subatomic particle has either an exact position or a definite momentum. When we measure such a particle we can choose a method that further squeezes the peak and makes it narrower, or we can choose a method that lowers the peak and evens out the component wavelengths. Depending on what we measure and how we measure it, we can make our location come out more definite or we can make our momentum range narrower. We can take care in designing the experiment to avoid various ways of jiggling the apparatus, but we cannot get rid of the fact that there was nothing completely definite to begin with.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle has greatly influenced arguments about free will. Under the theories of classical physics it is possible to argue that the laws of cause and effect are inexorable and that once the universe began in a certain way the interactions of all matter and energy to occur in the future could be calculated from that initial state. Since everything is absolutely the result of what came before it, they argued, every decision a human being makes and every situation into which that human being enters was predetermined since the beginning of time. We then have no choice in what we do.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: People who believe in free will argue that the laws of quantum mechanics do not predict what will happen but only what is more and what is less likely to occur. Therefore every action is the result of a series of random "coin tosses" and no decision could be traced back to a set of necessary preconditions.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: The expressions "quantum leap" and "quantum jump" have become ordinary ways of talking about things. Usually people intend to describe something as involving a huge change that occurs over a short period of time. The term actually applies to the way an electron behaves in an atom either when it absorbs a photon coming in from the outside and so jumps from one orbit around the atom's nucleus to a higher orbit, or when it emits a photon and so falls from a higher orbit to a lower orbit. The idea of Niels Bohr and his colleagues was that the electron does not move between orbits but instead it disappears from one orbit and instantaneously appears in another orbit. So a quantum jump is really not some earth shattering change, but a sudden tiny change.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: When humans measure some process on the subatomic scale and the uncertainty principle manifests itself, then human action can be said to have influenced the thing that was being measured. Making a measurement intended to get a definite indication of a particle's location will inevitably influence its momentum and whatever is done to measure that momentum as soon as possible after measuring its position, the probabilities of what momentum will be discovered cannot fail to have been changed. So the uncertainty principle can explain some kinds of interference produced by investigators that influence the results of an experiment or an observation. However, not all observer effects are due to quantum effects or the uncertainty principle. The remainder are "observer effects" but not quantum uncertainty effects.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Observer effects include all kinds of things that operate at our ordinary human scale of events. If an anthropologist tries to get a clear idea of life in a primitive society but his or her presence upsets the community he or she is visiting, then the observations made may be very misleading. However, none of the relevant interactions occur at the level described by quantum mechanics or the uncertainty principle.


title: Uncertainty principle

text: Sometimes the word "quantum" will be used for advertising purposes to indicate something new and powerful. For instance, the manufacturer of small gasoline motors, Briggs and Stratton, has one line of four-cylinder low horsepower motors for gasoline mowers and similar garden tools that it calls "Quantum."


title: Vending machine

text: An automated teller machine is a kind of vending machine, as are arcade games and bulk vending machines for toys or prizes, or anything that sells a physical item, service, or fun in exchange for money. Vending machine foods include snacks such as potato chips, chocolate bars, and candy. Hot vending machine drinks include coffee, tea, and hot chocolate. Cold vending machine drinks include juice, bottled water, and soft drinks. Other merchandise includes newspapers or cigarettes. Vending machines in bathrooms sometimes sell condoms, mouthwash, or toothpaste and toothbrushes.


title: Vending machine

text: The machines usually work when some money (usually coins or paper money) is put in a slot. Then, a button needs to be pushed, or a lever pulled. If there is enough money, the selected item will be dropped to a tray, where it can be taken out by hand. Ticket vending machines will print the ticket. Older vending machines were all mechanical, but most newer ones are partly electronic. Many modern vending machines can accept debit or credit cards in addition to cash.


title: Vending machine

text: The first vending machine came about during 1st century AD in Roman Egypt and was invented by the Greek mathematician and engineer, Hero of Alexandria. It dispensed a certain amount of holy water, so people would not take much of it from the temple. People dropped tokens to release a certain amount of water.


title: Vending machine

text: In 1615, small machines that dispensed tobacco were placed in English taverns. In 1822, Richard Carlile, an English bookseller and publisher, created a machine that dispensed banned works, so allowing readers to purchase them. During the 1850s and 60s, the first, fully-automatic vending machine was introduced which sold stamps and writing paper.