title: MacOS

text: Due to many problems and complaints about Cheetah, Apple directly got to work on releasing Puma, the next big cat in Mac OS X. It was released on September 24, 2001. Apple gave 10.0 users a free Mac OS X v10.1 install CD to make up for the flawed operating system before. As of January 7, 2002, Apple said Mac OS 9 and other previous operating systems from Apple were "going in the computer scrapyard" by the end of the month (January 31, 2002) and OS X would be the default and only operating system available on all Macs.


title: MacOS

text: Mac OS X 10.2 Jaguar was released on August 24, 2002 and was the first to have its codename in the version branding. The Happy Mac (which formerly appeared when a Mac was starting up) was replaced with a large gray apple logo with the startup sequence of OS X 10.2 Jaguar.


title: MacOS

text: Mac OS X 10.3 Panther was released on October 24, 2003 and was one of the biggest updates to OS X yet. It featured a new brushed metal interface, an updated Finder, and many more features from Jaguar the year before.


title: MacOS

text: Tiger was released on April 29, 2005 and as stated by Apple, featured more than 200 new features. Among the new features, Tiger introduced Spotlight, Dashboard, Smart Folders, updated Mail program with Smart Mailboxes, QuickTime 7, Safari 2, Automaton, Voice-over, Core Image and Core Video. Apple released the first Power Intel Macs for Tiger on January 10, 2006. Tiger ran swell on these computers. It was also the last operating system to support the Aqua color scheme.


title: MacOS

text: Mac OS X v10.5 Leopard was released on October 26, 2007. It was completely redesigned featuring a 3D Dock, a new purple color scheme, and over 200 new features. It had both support for PowerPC and Intel Macs too. Leopard was the last release to have support for PowerPC.


title: MacOS

text: Mac OS X Snow Leopard was released on August 28, 2009, and rather than featuring changes to the appearance, it featured "Under the hood" changes. Snow Leopard dropped support for PowerPC Macs too.


title: MacOS

text: OS X Lion was first shown to the public at the "Back to The Mac" event in 2010, announced more at WWDC 2011, and released on July 20, 2011. It featured iOS like features such as a launchpad, the magic trackpad coming to MacBooks, and a new solar system color scheme. Apple also removed Rosetta making it impossible to use PowerPC.


title: MacOS

text: OS X Mountain Lion was announced on February 18, 2012, and released on July 25, 2012. It adds more features from iOS 5 and 6 to the Mac such as notifications, messaging, game center, and gaming with people on iPhones, iPods, and iPads.


title: MacOS

text: OS X Mavericks was announced on June 10, 2013 at the 2013 Worldwide Developers Conference. It adds the Maps and iBooks applications, as well as new Finder features, better multi-display support, power improvements, and a new version of Safari. It was released on October 22, 2013. It was the first macOS version that was free.


title: MacOS

text: OS X Yosemite was announced in June 2014 at the 2014 Worldwide Developers Conference. It was in beta form for developers and those enrolled in the public beta programme to test until October 16, 2014 when it was released. It introduces a new flat design, following the aesthetic introduced with iOS 7.


title: MacOS

text: OS X 10.11 El Capitan was released on September 30, 2015 after being announced on June 8, 2015. Similar to Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard, Apple described this release as containing "refinements to the Mac experience" and "improvements to system performance" rather than new features. Refinements include public transport built into the Maps application, GUI improvements to the Notes application, adopting San Francisco as the system font for clearer legibility, and the introduction of System Integrity Protection. The Metal API, first introduced in iOS 8, was also included in this operating system for "all Macs since 2012".


title: MacOS

text: macOS 10.12 Sierra was announced on June 12, 2016 and released to the public on September 20, 2016. New features include the addition of Siri, Optimized Storage, and updates to Photos, Messages, and iTunes


title: MacOS

text: The fall release of macOS 10.13 High Sierra was announced on June 5, 2017 at Apple's WWDC event. On September 12, 2017 at Apple's iPhone event, they announced its release to be September 25, 2017. Like OS X El Capitan and OS X Mountain Lion, High Sierra is a refinement-based update having very few new features. High Sierra uses the new Apple File System and includes enhancements to Safari, Photos, and Mail, among other changes.


title: MacOS

text: Released on September 24, 2018. There are many additional features to the existing macOS apps. Some highlights are Dark Mode (UI theme & appearance), time shifts reflecting the hour of the day (desktop background), file stacks, edit features in quick look, continuity camera and Group FaceTime features also adds the screenshot app.


title: MacOS

text: Released on October 7, 2019. This OS is included with lots of additional new features like sharing your screen to iPad (Sidecar) and is capable of running iPad apps. Catalina is the first version of macOS to exclusively support 64-bit applications. MacOS Catalina also split up iTunes into 3 apps: Music, Podcasts and Movies. Because of the removal of iTunes, syncing your devices is done in Finder.


title: MacOS

text: Released on November 12, 2020, macOS Big Sur changes the version number from 10 to 11. It now supports the ARM64 instruction set architecture (ISA), as Apple is transitioning the Mac to its own Apple Silicon based on the ARM64 platform. It brings the biggest design changes since the introduction of macOS (then called Mac OS X).


title: MacOS

text: At macOS's core is a POSIX-compliant operating system built on top of the XNU kernel, with standard Unix facilities available from the command line interface. Apple has released this family of software as a free and open source operating system named Darwin. On top of Darwin, Apple layered a number of components, including the Aqua interface and the Finder, to complete the GUI-based operating system which is macOS.


title: MacOS

text: The Darwin subsystem in macOS is in charge of managing the file system, which includes the Unix permissions layer. In 2003 and 2005, two Macworld editors expressed criticism of the permission scheme; Ted Landau called misconfigured permissions "the most common frustration" in macOS, while Rob Griffiths suggested that some users may even have to reset permissions every day, a process which can take up to 15 minutes. More recently, another Macworld editor, Dan Frakes, called the procedure of repairing permissions vastly overused. He argues that macOS typically handles permissions properly without user interference, and resetting permissions should only be tried when problems emerge.


title: MacOS

text: the layered frameworks aid rapid development of applications by providing existing code for common tasks. Apple provides its own software development tools, most prominently an integrated development environment called Xcode. Xcode provides interfaces to compilers that support several programming languages including C, C++, Objective-C, and Swift. For the Apple–Intel transition, it was modified so that developers could build their applications as a universal binary, which provides compatibility with both the Intel-based and PowerPC-based Macintosh lines. First and third-party applications can be controlled programatically using the AppleScript framework, retained from the classic Mac OS, or using the newer Automator application that offers pre-written tasks that do not require programming knowledge.


title: Architect

text: An architect is a person who designs buildings and prepares plans to give to a builder. What he designs is called architecture. Stafans make drawings with pens, pencils, and computers, and this is also called drafting. Sometimes he first make small toy-sized buildings called models to show what the building will look like when it is done. Some of these models survive for hundreds of years, such as O.S Moamogo, South Africa.


title: Architect

text: Architects decide the size, shape, and what the building will be made from. Architects need to be good at math and drawing. They need imagination. They must go to university and learn how to make a building's structure safe so that it will not collapse. They should also know how to make a building attractive, so that people will enjoy using it.


title: Architect

text: Although there has been architecture for thousands of years, there have not always been architects. The great European cathedrals built in the Middle Ages were designed by a Master Builder, who scratched his designs on flat beds of plaster. Paper did not exist in Europe at this time and vellum or parchment were very expensive and could not be made in large sizes.


title: Architect

text: Some cathedrals took hundreds of years to build, so the Master Builder would die or retire and be replaced and often plans changed. Some cathedrals were never finished, like Notre Dame in Paris or Sagrada Família in Barcelona.


title: Architect

text: An architect has a very important job, because his or her work will be seen and used by many people, probably for a very long time. If the design, materials and construction are good, the building should last for hundreds or even thousands of years. This is rarely the case.


title: Architect

text: Usually building cost is what limits the life of a building, but fire, war, need or fashion can also affect things. As towns and cities grow, it often becomes necessary to make roads wider, or perhaps to build a new train station. Architects are employed again and so the city changes. Even very important buildings may get knocked down to make way for change.


title: Architect

text: Famous architects include: Frank Lloyd Wright, Fazlur Khan, Bruce Graham, Edward Durell Stone, Daniel Burnham, Adrian Smith, Frank Gehry, Gottfried Böhm, I. M. Pei, Antoni Gaudí, and Oscar Niemeyer.


title: Idaho

text: Idaho became a state in 1890, and it is the 11th largest state in land area, and the 14th largest in total area (land and water). Despite this, the population of Idaho was estimated at only 1,787,065 by the United States Census Bureau in 2019, making it ranked the 39th largest state by population.


title: Idaho

text: Idaho is bordered by Washington and Oregon on the west, Montana and Wyoming on the east, Utah and Nevada on the south and the country of Canada (British Columbia) on the north side. Idaho is known for its vast mountainous landscapes, and it is literally covered from north to south by the Rocky Mountains. Idaho is also home to the massive Snake River, which comes from the Grand Tetons in Wyoming and eventually flows to meld with the Columbia River in Washington state. This river dissects Hell's Canyon, the deepest gorge in America, which lies the state's Oregon border, and flows through south central Idaho. This river provides a fertile plain which is the base for most of the state's agricultural industries, and the production of the potatoes for which Idaho is known. Idaho's state nickname is the "Gem State", despite also being known as the "Spud State", because of a man named George M. Willing who claimed it was derived from a Shoshone term.


title: Idaho

text: Idaho's most prominent universities are Boise State University in its capital, Idaho State University in Pocatello, and the University of Idaho in Moscow.


title: Idaho

text: Idaho was formerly Idaho Territory, until July 27, 1890, when it became the 43rd state. In the 1930s, Idaho suffered a lot economically as a result of the Great Depression. Prices plummeted for Idaho's major crops: in 1932, a bushel of potatoes was worth only ten cents compared to $1.51 in 1919, while Idaho farmers´ annual income of $686 in 1929 fell to just $250 by 1932.


title: Idaho

text: Today, Idaho is a very conservative state. In the 2016 election, just two counties in Idaho supported Hillary Clinton. Idaho as a whole last voted Democratic in 1964, and that by a narrow margin of less than 2 percent. Both of Idaho's senators (Jim Risch and Mike Crapo) are Republican.


title: Bomb

text: A bomb is an explosive object that makes and lets out its energy very quickly. This detonation makes a big shock wave. Bombs have been used for centuries. Some bombs also throw out dangerous metal fragments, and some are firebombs.


title: Bomb

text: Most bombs do not contain more energy than ordinary fuel, except in the case of a nuclear weapon. However, they release their energy more quickly, thus are more powerful.


title: Bomb

text: A bomb is usually some kind of container filled with explosive material that is designed to destroy things. The word bomb comes from the Greek word "βόμβος" (bombas), an onomatopoeic term with almost the same meaning as "boom" in English.


title: Bomb

text: Air forces send bombers to destroy enemy targets. Terrorists use bombs in suicide attacks. Explosive materials used in mining work the same way, but are usually not called bombs.


title: Post-transition metal

text: The post-transition metals, also known as the poor metals, is a group of metals on the periodic table. They are to the right of the transition metals. The Group 12 elements are sometimes included. Sometimes germanium and antimony are included, although they are normally considered metalloids. They normally have higher electronegativities than the transition metals. Their melting points are lower, too. They are generally softer than other metals. They include lead, tin and other softer metals.


title: 13 (number)

text: 13 (also written as thirteen or ten-three) is a number. It comes after twelve and before fourteen. It is an odd number.


title: 13 (number)

text: Many people think thirteen is an unlucky number, especially when Friday is the thirteenth day of the month. This is a superstition. There is no proof that thirteen is an unlucky number.


title: 13 (number)

text: Floors in tall buildings often skip floor thirteen, or reserve it for a mechanical floor. The idea of thirteen as an unlucky number is from pagan Norse mythology. It was believed to be unlucky to have thirteen people sitting at a table at a meal, and death is number thirteen in the tarot deck.


title: Drug

text: According to the WHO, a drug is a substance that can change how a living organism works. Food is usually not seen as a drug, even though some foods may have such properties. Most of the time drugs are taken to treat a disease, or other medical condition. An example for such drugs may be Aspirin or Paracetamol. These are usually given to treat fever, as well as certain infections. If such drugs are taken over a longer time, they are usually prescribed by a doctor. Other drugs are taken for fun, because of the effect they have. Some of these drugs taken for fun are better accepted by society than others. Having or taking certain drugs may be illegal, in certain countries.


title: Drug

text: Drugs that are taken to treat a disease or condition are usually called "therapeutic", drugs that are taken for fun are called "recreational" drugs.


title: Drug

text: Drugs act differently in different amounts. It is therefore important to take the right amount. The amount of the drug taken is called a dose. Aspirin is often prescribed against fever, or as an analgesic. One of the side-effects of Aspirin is that it makes the blood thinner. For this reason, it can also be used to prevent strokes, or heart attacks - in a much lower dose than the one used to treat fever, though.


title: Drug

text: Taking too much of a drug ("too high a dose") can cause sickness or even death. When a doctor says how much of a drug (the right dose) to take, only that amount should be taken. It is very important to keep taking the drug until the doctor says to stop because someone can feel better but still be sick. When a doctor says what drug to take, how much of it, and for how long, it is called a prescription. Drugs may cause addiction. Some drugs are illegal because they are very addictive. These drugs are really expensive, too. It can also be sold illegally from drug sellers which may cause serious results


title: Drug

text: Recreational drugs can sometimes be bad for someone's health even if they make them feel good. Alcohol can also be dangerous if the person drinking it drives a vehicle after drinking. This is called drunk driving. Many countries make this against the law. Common recreational drugs include:


title: Drug

text: Certain recreational drugs also have uses as a therapeutic drug. Heroin can be used as an analgesic (a painkiller) and methamphetamine is used to treat narcolepsy or ADHD. Recreational drugs can be dangerous, certain countries have made it illegal to have or take them outside a medical context. Most of the time, this is because they can be addictive or that they are very dangerous when combined with other drugs. That way, Cannabis-based products are legal in the Netherlands, but illegal in many other countries.


title: Drug

text: Alcohol and Nicotine are legal almost everywhere, but there are a lot of taxes on the sale of these. In other words, they are expensive to buy. Being expensive to buy because of taxes has two benefits; one is that the taxes collected from the sale of the drugs goes into helping to pay for assistance the drug user may experience later. A smoker, for example, may develop cancer later in life and need treatment at a place that is granted a certain amount of tax money from the government to keep it operating. Another benefit to the taxing of "legal" drugs, is that the high price may stop people from beginning the habit in the first place, which will help them avoid the negative medical or addictive side effects of the drug. In some cases, not everyone is allowed to buy these drugs unless they are a minimal age to do so. The age at which someone is allowed to buy a legal drug is most often decided by the government of a country, state or province, and is usually the age where a person is considered by the law to be an "adult". Some of the most common ages this happens is at 18, 19 or 21 years of age.


title: Drug

text: Therapeutic drugs are also called "medicinal drugs", "medicine", or "medication". Doctors will give therapeutic drugs to someone who is ill to make you better. You can buy these drugs at a pharmacy. Some drugs need a prescription to be bought, other drugs do not. Drugs that do not require a prescription are called "over the counter" medications. There are lots of these drugs for different illnesses. These include:


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica (officially called Republic of Costa Rica), is a country in Central America. It is bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east. The official language of Costa Rica is Spanish. The official currency is the colón. It has enjoyed a long period of peace since the 1863 civil war. Because of its natural beauty and political stability, it is nicknamed the "Switzerland of Latin America". Costa Rica has had no army since December 1, 1948. Instead of spending money on the military, the government spends money on education and health.


title: Costa Rica

text: 5,094,118 people live in Costa Rica. The capital city is San José. The current President is Carlos Alvarado Quesada. He was elected in 2018


title: Costa Rica

text: The indigenous people of Costa Rica belong to the Intermediate Area. This Intermediate Area is where the Mesoamerican and Andean indigenous cultures mixed together. The country was influenced by various Chibcha speaking indigenous people.


title: Costa Rica

text: The impact of indigenous peoples' culture on modern Costa Rica has been small. The country did not have a strong native civilization to begin with. Most of the indigenous population was absorbed into the Spanish colony. There are still some small indigenous groups. The largest is the Bribri and Boruca tribes in south Costa Rica.


title: Costa Rica

text: Christopher Columbus sailed to the eastern shores of Costa Rica during his last trip in 1502. He reported large amounts of gold jewelry among the indigenous people.


title: Costa Rica

text: During the colonial period, Costa Rica was the most southern province of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. But it mostly ruled itself as a part of the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica's distance from the capital in Guatemala, its legal prohibition to trade with the Viceroyalty of New Granada, and the lack of gold and silver made Costa Rica into a poor, little populated region of the Spanish Empire. Costa Rica was called "the poorest and most miserable Spanish colony in all America" by a Spanish governor in 1719.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica's poverty was also because there were not enough indigenous people available for slavery. Most of the Costa Rican settlers had to work on their own land. There were no large "haciendas" (plantations). For all these reasons, Costa Rica was unappreciated and forgotten by the Spanish Crown. It had to develop on its own.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica became a "rural democracy" with no oppressed mestizo or indigenous class. It was not long before Spanish settlers turned to the hills, where they found rich volcanic soil and a better climate.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica never fought for independence from Spain. On September 15, 1821, after the last Spanish defeat in the Mexican War of Independence (1810–21), the authorities in Guatemala declared the independence of all of Central America. That date is still celebrated as Independence Day in Costa Rica.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica joined the First Mexican Empire of Agustín de Iturbide. After its collapse in 1823, Costa Rica became a province of the new Federal Republic of Central America. it existed from 1823 to 1839. It had a very loose authority over its provinces, especially the poor and remote Costa Rica.


title: Costa Rica

text: In 1824, the Costa Rican capital was moved to San José. This led to a brief battle with the old capital, Cartago.


title: Costa Rica

text: While civil wars were common in the Federal Republic of Central America, Costa Rica was largely peaceful.


title: Costa Rica

text: In 1838, Costa Rica formally proclaimed itself an independent country. The local population had little allegiance to the federal government in Guatemala. From colonial times to now, Costa Rica's reluctance to become politically tied with the rest of Central America has been a major obstacle to efforts for greater regional integration.


title: Costa Rica

text: Coffee was first planted in Costa Rica in the early 19th century. It was first shipped to Europe in 1843. It became Costa Rica's first major export. Coffee would remain Costa Rica's biggest export until the 20th century.


title: Costa Rica

text: Most of the coffee exported was transported by oxcart to the Pacific port of Puntarenas. Since the main market for the coffee was in Europe, it soon became a high priority to develop a transportation route from the Central Plateau to the Atlantic Ocean. For this purpose, in the 1870s, the Costa Rican government asked U.S. businessman Minor C. Keith to build a railroad to the Caribbean port of Limón. Despite enormous difficulties with construction, disease, and financing, the railroad was completed in 1890.


title: Costa Rica

text: Most Afro-Costa Ricans come from Jamaican immigrants who worked on the railway. United States convicts, Italians and Chinese immigrants also worked in the construction of the railroad.


title: Costa Rica

text: In exchange for making the railroad, Costa Rican gave Keith large amounts of land and a lease on the train route, which he used to produce bananas and export them to the United States. As a result, bananas became the largest export. The United Fruit Company began to hold a major role in the national economy.


title: Costa Rica

text: But in 1917–19, General Federico Tinoco Granados ruled as a military dictator until he was overthrown. The unpopularity of Tinoco's government led to a considerable decline in the size, wealth, and political influence of the Costa Rican military.


title: Costa Rica

text: In 1948, José Figueres Ferrer led an armed uprising between the previous president Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia (he served as president between 1940 and 1944) and Otilio Ulate Blanco. With more than 2,000 dead, the 44-day Costa Rican Civil War was the bloodiest event in Costa Rica during the 20th century.


title: Costa Rica

text: The victorious rebels formed a government that abolished the military. It oversaw the drafting of a new constitution by a democratically elected assembly. Having enacted these reforms, the junta relinquished its power on November 8, 1949, to the new democratic government. After that, Figueres became a national hero, winning the country's first democratic election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 14 presidential elections, the latest in 2014. All of them have been widely regarded by the international community as peaceful and transparent.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica is on the Central American isthmus. It is between latitudes 8° and 12°N, and longitudes 82° and 86°W. It borders the Caribbean Sea to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It has a total of of coastline. Costa Rica also borders Nicaragua to the north ( of border) and Panama to the southeast ( of border). In total, Costa Rica has plus of territorial waters.


title: Costa Rica

text: The highest point in the country is Cerro Chirripó, at . The largest lake in Costa Rica is Lake Arenal.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica is located between 8 and 12 degrees north of the Equator. The climate is tropical all year. The country has many microclimates depending on elevation, rainfall, and the geography of each region.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica's seasons are defined by how much rain falls. It does not have the four seasons other countries have. The year can be split into two seasons: the dry season (known as summer), and the rainy season (known as winter). The "summer" starts in December and ends in April. "Winter" starts in May and ends in November. During this time it rains constantly in some regions.


title: Costa Rica

text: The location receiving the most rain is the Caribbean. Annual rainfall is over . Humidity is also higher here. The mean annual temperature on the coast is around . in the main populated areas, and below on the highest mountains.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica is home to many plants and animals. The country has only about 0.25% of the world's landmass, but it has 5% of the world's biodiversity. Almost 25% of Costa Rica's land area is in national parks and protected areas. This is the largest percentage of protected areas in the world.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica successfully reduced deforestation. It had one of the worst deforestation rates in the world from 1973 to 1989. But it was almost zero by 2005.


title: Costa Rica

text: The Corcovado National Park is internationally known by ecologists for its biodiversity. Visitors can see many different types of animals. An example is the big cats and tapirs. Corcovado is the only park in Costa Rica where all four Costa Rican monkeys can be found. These include the white-headed capuchin, the mantled howler,the endangered Geoffroy's spider monkey and the Central American squirrel monkey. The squirrel monkey is found only on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica and a small part of Panama.


title: Costa Rica

text: Tortuguero National Park is home to spider, howler, and white-throat Capuchin monkeys. It is also the home of three-toed sloth and two-toed sloth. It has 320 species of birds and many reptiles. There is an annual nesting of the endangered green turtle, and is the most important nesting site for the species. Giant leatherback, hawksbill, and loggerhead turtles also nest here.


title: Costa Rica

text: The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve is home to almost 2,000 plant species. Including many orchids. It is also home to more than 400 types of birds. There are more than 100 species of mammals here.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica is a center of biological diversity for reptiles and amphibians. They have the world's fastest running lizard, the spiny-tailed iguana ("Ctenosaura similis").


title: Costa Rica

text: Article 168 of the Constitution of Costa Rica says the political divisions are classified into 3 groups: provinces, cantons, and districts.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica has seven provinces. The provinces are divided into 81 cantons. The canton is directed by a mayor. Mayors are chosen democratically every four years by the canton's people. There are no provincial legislatures. The cantons are further divided into 463 districts.


title: Costa Rica

text: Costa Rica entered the Summer Olympics for the first time in 1936 with the fencer Bernardo de la Guardia. They entered the Winter Olympics for the first time in 1980 with the skier Arturo Kinch. All four of Costa Rica's Olympic medals were won by the sisters Silvia and Claudia Poll in swimming. Claudia won the country's only gold medal in 1996.


title: Costa Rica

text: Association football is the most popular sport in Costa Rica. The national team has played in four FIFA World Cup tournaments. They reached the quarter-finals for the first time in 2014. Its best performance in the regional CONCACAF Gold Cup was runner-up in 2002.


title: Origin of life

text: The origin of life on Earth is a scientific problem which is not yet solved. There are many ideas, but few clear facts.


title: Origin of life

text: Most experts agree that all life today evolved by common descent from a single primitive lifeform. It is not known how this early life form evolved, but scientists think it was a natural process which happened about 3,900 million years ago. This is in accord with the philosophy of naturalism: only natural causes are admitted.


title: Origin of life

text: It is not known if metabolism came first or genetics. The main hypothesis which supports genetics first is the RNA world hypothesis, and the one which supports metabolism first is the protein world hypothesis.


title: Origin of life

text: Another big problem is how cells developed. Melvin Calvin, winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, wrote a book on the subject, and so did Alexander Oparin. What links most of the early work on the origin of life is the idea that before life began there must have been a process of chemical change. Another question which has been discussed by J.D. Bernal and others is the origin of the cell membrane. By concentrating the chemicals in one place, the cell membrane performs a vital function.


title: Origin of life

text: What we call life has only been verified in things that include RNA, mechanisms for encoding and decoding RNA, and mechanisms for building proteins from amino acids. The search for a verifiable theory of biogenesis is a separate field of research.


title: Origin of life

text: The earliest claimed lifeforms are fossilized microorganisms (or microfossils). They were found in iron and silica-rich rocks which were once hydrothermal vents in the Nuvvuagittuq greenstone belt of Quebec, Canada.


title: Origin of life

text: These rocks are as old as 4.28 billion years. The tubular forms they contain are shown in a report. If this is the oldest record of life on Earth, it suggests "an almost instantaneous emergence of life" after oceans formed 4.4 billion years ago. According to Stephen Blair Hedges, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth… then it could be common in the universe".


title: Origin of life

text: A scientific study from 2002 showed that geological formations of stromatolites 3.45 billion years old contain fossilized cyanobacteria. At the time it was widely agreed that stromatolites were the oldest known lifeforms on Earth which had left a record of its existence. Therefore, if life originated on Earth, this happened sometime between 4.4 billion years ago, when water vapor first liquefied, and 3.5 billion years ago. This is the background to the latest discovery discussed above.


title: Origin of life

text: The earliest evidence of life comes from the Isua supercrustal belt in Western Greenland, and from similar formations in the nearby Akilia Islands. This is because a high level of the lighter isotope of carbon is found there. Living things take up lighter isotopes because this takes less energy. Carbon entering into rock formations has a concentration of elemental δC of about −5.5. of C, biomass has a δC of between −20 and −30. These isotopic fingerprints are preserved in the rocks. With this evidence, Mojzis suggested that life existed on the planet already by 3.85 billion years ago.


title: Origin of life

text: A few scientists think life might have been carried from planet to planet by the transport of spores. This idea, now known as panspermia, was first put forward by Arrhenius.


title: Origin of life

text: Until the early 19th century many people believed in the regular spontaneous generation of life from non-living matter. This was called spontaneous generation, and was disproved by Louis Pasteur. He showed that without spores no bacteria or viruses grew on sterile material.


title: Origin of life

text: In a letter to Joseph Dalton Hooker on 11 February 1871, Charles Darwin proposed a "natural process" for the origin of life.


title: Origin of life

text: He suggested that the original spark of life may have begun in a "warm little pond, with all sorts of ammonia and phosphoric salts, lights, heat, electricity, etc. A protein compound was then chemically formed ready to undergo still more complex changes". He went on to explain that "at the present day such matter would be instantly devoured or absorbed, which would not have been the case before living creatures were formed".


title: Origin of life

text: No real progress was made until 1924 when Alexander Oparin reasoned that atmospheric oxygen prevented the synthesis of the organic molecules. Organic molecules are the necessary building blocks for the evolution of life. In his "The Origin of Life", Oparin argued that a "primordial soup" of organic molecules could be created in an oxygen-less atmosphere through the action of sunlight. These would combine in ever-more complex fashions until they formed droplets. These droplets would "grow" by fusion with other droplets, and "reproduce" through fission into daughter droplets, and so have a primitive metabolism in which those factors which promote "cell integrity" survive, those that do not become extinct. Many modern theories of the origin of life still take Oparin's ideas as a starting point.


title: Origin of life

text: Around the same time J.B.S. Haldane also suggested that the Earth's pre-biotic oceans, which were very different from what oceans are now, would have formed a "hot dilute soup". In this soup, organic compounds, the building blocks of life, could have formed. This idea was called "biopoiesis", the process of living matter evolving from self-replicating but nonliving molecules.


title: Origin of life

text: There is almost no geological record from before 3.8 billion years ago. The environment that existed in the Hadean era was hostile to life, but how much so is not known. There was a time, between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years ago, which is known as the Late Heavy Bombardment. It is so named because many lunar craters are thought to have formed then. The situation on other planets, such as Earth, Venus, Mercury and Mars must have been similar. These impacts would likely sterilize the Earth (kill all life), if it existed at that time.


title: Origin of life

text: Several people have suggested that the chemicals in the cell give clues as to what the early seas must have been like. In 1926, Macallum noted that the inorganic composition of the cell cytosol dramatically differs from that of modern sea water: "the cell… has endowments transmitted from a past almost as remote as the origin of life on earth". For example: "All cells contain much more potassium, phosphate, and transition metals than modern ... oceans, lakes, or rivers". "Under the anoxic, CO-dominated primordial atmosphere, the chemistry of inland basins at geothermal fields would [be like the chemistry inside] modern cells".


title: Origin of life

text: If life evolved in the deep ocean, near a hydrothermal vent, it could have originated as early as 4 to 4.2 billion years ago. If, on the other hand, life originated at the surface of the planet, a common opinion is it could only have done so between 3.5 and 4 billion years ago.


title: Origin of life

text: Lazcano and Miller (1994) suggest that the pace of molecular evolution was dictated by the rate of recirculating water through mid-ocean submarine vents. Complete recirculation takes 10 million years, so any organic compounds produced by then would be altered or destroyed by temperatures exceeding 300 °C. They estimate that the development of a 100 kilobase genome of a DNA/protein primitive heterotroph into a 7000 gene filamentous cyanobacterium would have required only 7 million years.


title: Origin of life

text: Originally, the atmosphere of Earth had almost no free oxygen. It gradually changed to what it is today, over a very long time (see Great Oxygenation Event). The process began with cyanobacteria. They were the first organisms to make free oxygen by photosynthesis. Most organisms today need oxygen for their metabolism; only a few can use other sources for respiration.


title: Origin of life

text: So it is expected that the first proto-organisms were chemoautotrophs, and did not use aerobic respiration. They were anaerobic.


title: Origin of life

text: There is no "standard model" on how life started. Most accepted models are built on molecular biology and cell biology:


title: Origin of life

text: The origin of the basic biomolecules, while not settled, is less controversial than the significance and order of steps 2 and 3. The basic chemicals from which life is thought to have formed are:


title: Origin of life

text: Estimates of these sources suggest that the heavy bombardment before 3.5 billion years ago made available quantities of organics comparable to those produced by other energy sources.


title: Origin of life

text: In 1953 a graduate student, Stanley Miller, and his professor, Harold Urey, performed an experiment that showed how organic molecules could have formed on early Earth from inorganic precursors.


title: Origin of life

text: The now-famous Miller–Urey experiment used a highly reduced mixture of gases – methane, ammonia and hydrogen – to form basic organic monomers, such as amino acids. We do know now that for more than the first half of the Earth's history its atmosphere had almost no oxygen.


title: Origin of life

text: In the 1950s and 1960s, Sidney W. Fox studied the spontaneous formation of peptide structures under conditions that might have existed early in Earth's history. He demonstrated that amino acids could by itself form small peptides. These amino acids and small peptides could be encouraged to form closed spherical membranes, called microspheres.


title: Origin of life

text: A clay model for the origin of life was suggested by A. Graham Cairns-Smith. Clay theory suggests complex organic molecules arose gradually on a pre-existing non-organic platform, namely, silicate crystals in solution.


title: Origin of life

text: In the 1970s, Thomas Gold proposed the theory that life first developed not on the surface of the Earth, but several kilometers below the surface. The discovery in the late 1990s of nanobes (filamental structures that are smaller than bacteria, but that may contain DNA in deep rocks) might support Gold's theory.


title: Origin of life

text: It is now reasonably well established that microbial life is plentiful at shallow depths in the Earth (up to five kilometers below the surface) in the form of extremophile archaea, rather than the better-known eubacteria (which live in more accessible conditions).


title: Origin of life

text: Gold asserted that a trickle of food from a deep, unreachable, source is needed for survival because life arising in a puddle of organic material is likely to consume all of its food and become extinct. Gold's theory was that the flow of food is due to out-gassing of primordial methane from the Earth's mantle.


title: Origin of life

text: Self-organization and self-replication are the hallmark of living systems. Non-living molecules sometimes show those features under proper conditions. For example, Martin and Russel showed that cell membranes separating contents from the environment and self-organization of self-contained redox reactions are the most conserved attributes of living things. They argue that inorganic matter like that would be life's most likely last common ancestor.


title: Origin of life

text: In this hypothesis, RNA is said to work both as an enzyme and as a container of genes. Later, DNA took over its genetic role.


title: Origin of life

text: The RNA world hypothesis proposes that life based on ribonucleic acid (RNA) pre-dates the current world of life based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins. RNA is able both to store genetic information, like DNA, and to catalyze chemical reactions, like an enzyme. It may have supported pre-cellular life and been a major step towards cellular life.


title: Origin of life

text: This idea suggests that proteins worked as enzymes first, producing metabolism. After that DNA and RNA began to work as containers of genes.


title: Origin of life

text: In this scheme membranes made of lipid bilayers occur early on. Once organic chemicals are enclosed, more complex biochemistry is then possible.


title: Origin of life

text: This is the idea suggested by Arrhenius, and developed by Fred Hoyle, that life developed elsewhere in the universe and arrived on Earth in the form of spores. This is not a theory of how life began, but a theory of how it might have spread. It may have spread, for example, by meteorites.


title: Origin of life

text: Some propose that early Mars was a better place to start life than was the early Earth. The molecules which combined to form genetic material are more complex than the "primordial soup" of organic (carbon-based) chemicals that existed on Earth four billion years ago. If RNA was the first genetic material, then minerals containing boron and molybdenum could assist in its formation. These minerals were much more common on Mars than on Earth.


title: Origin of life

text: In Christianity, some people reject the idea of evolution. They believe that the Earth is only a few thousand years old. This is known as Young Earth Creationism. However, the Bible does not explicitly state the age of the Earth, only that 'In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth' (Genesis 1:1)


title: Roberto Baggio

text: Roberto Baggio (; born 18 February 1967) is an Italian former footballer. He played for Italy national team.


title: Roberto Baggio

text: Baggio is regarded as one of the greatest footballers of all time. He is known for being technically gifted, a creative playmaker, and for his accurate free kicks and dribbling skills.


title: Roberto Baggio

text: In 1993, he was named FIFA World Player of the Year and won the Ballon d'Or. In 2004, he was named by Pelé in the FIFA 100, a list of the 125 world's greatest living players.


title: Roberto Baggio

text: Roberto Baggio was born in Caldogno, Veneto. He is the son of Matilda and Fiorindo Baggio, the sixth of eight siblings. His younger brother, Eddy Baggio, was also a professional footballer who played in Serie B.


title: Playwright

text: A playwright is a person who writes plays for the stage. Because the name of such a text is "drama", another word for this person is dramatist. Sometimes, dramas are written to be read and not played. In that case, they are called "closet dramas".


title: Playwright

text: The word "wright" does not come from write. It is an ancient English term for a builder. For example, a "wheelwright" makes wheels. In a similar way, a playwright makes plays. When the term was first used, it was meant as an insult. Today it has lost this meaning.


title: Playwright

text: The first playwrights in Western literature whose plays still exist were the Ancient Greeks. They were written around the 5th century BC. These playwrights are important as they wrote in a way that is still used by modern playwrights. Important among them are Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes.


title: Playwright

text: The most famous playwright may be William Shakespeare. A lot of later work is based on his tragedies and comedies. For example, "Kiss Me, Kate" is based on Shakespeare's "The Taming of the Shrew", and his "Romeo and Juliet" has been made again many times. Tom Stoppard created the play "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead" in 1966 which is a modern adaptation of "Hamlet".


title: Playwright

text: Modern playwrights are usually less famous than past playwrights. Since television and movies were invented, theater has become less popular. Because it is less popular, not as many tickets are sold now, and producers often do not have enough money to make plays, and many playwrights are not known.


title: E

text: In English it has two main sounds when it is spoken. Usually it is a short E (ĕ), but sometimes it is a long E (ē).


title: E

text: One more thing in English is the so-called magic E, also known as the silent E. That is when a silent e at the end of a word makes the previous e long. Example: morpheme, which is pronounced as morphēm.


title: E

text: "None" of these different types are used in English, except occasionally É/é for some French words such fiancé, café, and crème brûlée.


title: Athena

text: Athena is the Greek goddess of wisdom, warfare, handiwork, and strategy. She is one of the Twelve Olympians. Athena's symbol is the owl, the wisest of the birds. She also had a shield called Aegis, which was a gift given to her by Zeus. She is usually shown wearing her helmet and often with her shield. The shield later had Medusa's head on it; after Perseus killed her, he gave the head of Medusa to Athena for safekeeping and she put the head on her shield.


title: Athena

text: Athena is the protector of Athens, Greece, a city named after her. The Parthenon, which is on the Acropolis in Athens, is her most famous temple. She also helped many heroes, including Heracles, Jason, and Odysseus, and is always seen with Nike, the goddess of victory.


title: Athena

text: There are many stories about Athena's birth. In Hesiod's "Theogony", Zeus married Metis, but soon after, Zeus was scared of her giving birth to a child because the Oracle of Delphi had said that she will give birth to Athena, and a son that would overthrow Zeus, just like Zeus overthrew Kronos, who overthrew his father Uranus.


title: Athena

text: To stop Metis giving birth to her son, Zeus made a plan. He played a game with Metis, they shape shifted into different animals, Metis turned turned into a fly, Zeus saw his chance and he swallowed her whole. Zeus was too late, as Metis was already pregnant.


title: Athena

text: While she was inside Zeus's head, Metis made a helmet, armor, and a robe for Athena. The hammering noise caused Zeus to have a severe headache. The headache became worse. Hephaestus split his head open and Athena came out full grown and with armor on.


title: Athena

text: Athena is the goddess of knowledge, purity, arts, crafts, learning, justice and wisdom. She also plays a tough, clever and independent role. Athenians thought she helped them win the Trojan war. Athena often helped heroes, especially ones who were not just brave but clever, like Jason and Perseus. People joined her cult, hoping she would give them victory. She was also the creator of the olive tree and flute.


title: Athena

text: Athena was given many other titles. She has the epithet Ergane as the patron of craftsmen and artisans. With the epithet Parthenos she was especially worshipped in the festivals of the Panathenaea and Pamboeotia where both militaristic and athletic displays took place. With the epithet Promachos she led in battle. With the epithet Polias, Athena was the protector of not only Athens but also of many other cities, including Argos, Sparta, Gortyn, Lindos, and Larisa.


title: Bat

text: Bats are mammals in the order Chiroptera. Bats are nocturnal – they are active during the night, dusk, or dawn and they sleep during the day.


title: Bat

text: Most use echolocation to catch prey and to find their way about. As nighttime animals, bats avoid direct competition with birds, few of which are nocturnal.


title: Bat

text: Bats usually live in caves or trees. In North America and in Europe they sometimes live in people's houses or barns. They are protected animals in the UK.


title: Bat

text: Bats are a successful group. They are the second largest order of mammals: there are more than 1,400 species of bats. This means that 20% of all living mammal species – one in five – are bats.


title: Bat

text: About 70% of bats are insectivores, which is the basal form of life for this group. The common pipistrelle is a successful example. Most of the rest are fruit-eaters (fruit bats). A few species suck blood, and a few large ones are carnivorous.


title: Bat

text: Bats live everywhere except the Arctic, Antarctic and a few oceanic islands. They usually roost in caves, old buildings, or trees.


title: Bat

text: Traditionally, bats are divided into two groups. Microbats mostly use echo-location and catch insects, but just a few eat fish or drink blood. Megabats do not echolocate, but instead eat fruit or nectar.


title: Bat

text: Most of the bats are well known for their uncanny capability to fly in dark places. Most bats use sound to navigate during the night by echolocation. Bats can fly and find their food by listening to the outcoming echoes and sending out high-frequency squeaks even in total darkness.


title: Bat

text: The phylogenetic relationships of the different groups of bats have been the subject of much debate. The traditional subdivision between Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera reflects the view that these groups of bats have evolved independently of each other for a long time, from a common ancestor which was already capable of flight.


title: Bat

text: The hypothesis was that flight only evolved once in mammals. Most molecular biological evidence supports the view that bats form a single or monophyletic group.


title: Bat

text: There are few fossilized remains of bats, as bats are terrestrial and light-boned. An Eocene bat, "Onychonycteris", was found in the 52-million-year-old Green River Formation in Wyoming, United States, in 2003. It could fly, but the well-preserved skeleton showed the cochlea of the inner ear could not achieve the great hearing ability of modern bats. This was evidence that flight in bats developed before echolocation. The team said it lacked ear and throat features not only of echolocating bats today, but also in other known fossil species. Fossil remains of other Eocene bats, "Icaronycteris", "Archaeonycteris", "Palaeochiropteryx", "Hassianycteris" and "Australonycteris" all show a similar mixture of basal and derived traits, as expected by mosaic evolution.


title: Bat

text: All Eocene bats had long tails. This feature is also found in early flying insects in the Carboniferous, in early pterosaurs and in "Archaeopteryx" and other dinobirds. The tail helped to keep their flight stable, which means it kept on course, and did not dart about much. To dart about quickly requires special advanced brains and reflexes, which later bats, birds and pterosaurs had, but early ones did not. It requires more brains to control unstable flight than it does for stable flight. That early bats had long tails was predicted by John Maynard Smith before any fossil early bats were found.


title: Bat

text: "Onychonycteris" had longer hind legs and shorter forearms, similar to climbing mammals that hang under branches such as sloths and gibbons. This palm-sized bat had broad, short wings, suggesting it could not fly as fast or as far as later bat species. Instead of flapping its wings continuously while flying, "Onychonycteris" likely alternated between flaps and glides while in the air. Such physical characteristics suggest this bat did not fly as much as modern bats do, rather flying from tree to tree and spending most of its waking day climbing or hanging on the branches of trees.


title: Bat

text: An interesting thing about bats is that even though they can see with their eyes, they also use their ears to help them 'see' in the dark. Because of this, they can fly into very dark places where no eye could see. This way of sensing is called echolocation. Echolocation means they use echoes to find where things are.


title: Bat

text: Echolocation is like sonar, which submarines and ships use to find things underwater. This is how it works: when a bat flies, it makes lots of sounds. "We" cannot hear these sounds (they are too high-pitched), but bats can hear them. Biologists have instruments to record them, and then play them back at a lower frequency so humans can hear them.


title: Bat

text: When a bat makes its noises, the sound waves move away from the bat. If they hit something, they bounce back to the bat (this bounce is called an "echo".) If nothing bounces back, the bat knows there is nothing in front. They use this echolocation to catch their food, like butterflies or dragonflies. When a bat begins its nightly exploration, it usually sends out about 10 calls per second. From the echo they know what is in front. When they get an echo from something good to eat, the calls increase up to 200 calls per second. This increase of sounds is called a "feeding buzz". The bat makes a feeding buzz to sense all the quick moves of the insect it is trying to catch.


title: Bat

text: Hearing and understanding the echoes that go back to the bat takes special structures in the bat's brain. Because of this, many scientists, doctors, and even the U.S. army study bats carefully. The U.S. army spends hundreds of thousands of dollars every year to study echolocation in bats.


title: Bat

text: Bats also have reasonably good eyesight, and can see their prey and where they are flying if it's not too dark. There are lots of stories about bats flying right into people, but this is not true. They can see in the light very well, and in the dark, they can see much better than us. So the expression "blind as a bat" is not very scientific.


title: Bat

text: Some bats use echolocation to communicate with each other to find food in groups. Scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior studied the bat "Molossus molossus", which hunts insects in groups. They found the bats could understand echolocation noises made by other bats and even tell which other bat in their group had made the sound, like people recognizing each other's voices.


title: Bat

text: Bats fly with their hands. In fact, the name of the order of bats, "Chiropetera", means 'hand-wings' in Greek.


title: Bat

text: Bat and bird wings are different. Birds do not have long finger-like bones in their wings like bats. Birds can not move each of their fingers, but bats can. Because of this, bats can change their direction while flying or fly in any pattern they want: this makes it easier to catch their food. A bat flies as if they are "swimming" through the air – pushing both wings down and backward.


title: Bat

text: A bird's wing has lots of feathers, while a bat's wing is mostly a stretchy, thin skin called a patagium. This thin membrane of skin stretches between each finger bone, connects to the bat's ankle, and connects to the bat's tail (if it has one). A bat folds its wings next to its body when not flying.


title: Bat

text: Bats have one claw (sometimes called a "bat thumb") that sticks out of the top of the wing. They use their "thumb" to climb and crawl. Interestingly, bats also use their thumbs to clean their ears.


title: Bat

text: Bats' wings have a lot of maneuverability (they can change direction quickly) – more so than a bird, in fact – but they do not have a lot of lift. Because of this, bats usually have to climb up onto a tree or jump up into the air for the boost before they start flapping their wings.


title: Bat

text: Even though bats are very small, they live a long time. Some bats can live forty years. Scientists think this is because their immune systems are very good at fighting viruses. Bats fight viruses without having inflammation in their bodies. Doctors think inflammation causes harm to the body, so they think this could be why bats live a long time.


title: Bat

text: Because bats rest in large groups with many other bats, they can pass diseases to each other easily. This means that over thousands of generations, viruses and other germs have placed selective pressure on bats, killing bats with weak immune systems and leaving bats with good immune systems to survive and have young.


title: Bat

text: Many viruses that start in bats later change and become dangerous diseases in humans, for example Ebola and SARS-CoV-2.


title: Bat

text: Megabats eat fruit, nectar or pollen. They pollinate flowers and sometimes spread their seeds. Many tropical plants completely depend on bats.


title: Bat

text: Most microbats (7 out of 10 bat species) are insectivorous, that is, they eat insects. Some microbats eat small vertebrate animals (small mammals or fish), blood, or even other bats. There are only a few species of vampire bats, which eat blood from cattle.


title: Bat

text: Most bats rest, sleep and hibernate in an upside-down position. They hang on to branches or rocks with their feet. To do this they have a locking mechanism on the tendons in their feet which stops them from slipping. The energy they spend hanging on is greatly reduced. The most obvious gain is that they can sleep without falling off. Once the tendons are locked, the muscles in their legs and feet can relax. Even dead bats stay hanging.


title: Bat

text: In the United Kingdom all bats are protected by law, and even disturbing a bat or its roost can be punished with a heavy fine.


title: Bat

text: Austin, Texas is the summer home to North America's largest urban bat colony (under the Congress Avenue bridge), an estimated 1,500,000 Mexican free-tailed bats, who eat an estimated 10 to 30 tons of insects each night, and attract 100,000 tourists each year.


title: Bat

text: In Sarawak, Malaysia bats are protected species, but the large naked bat and greater nectar bat are eaten by the local communities.


title: Bat

text: In the West, bats are associated with vampires, who are said to be able to change into bats. Bats are also a symbol of ghosts, death and disease. However bats are said to be lucky in some European countries, such as Poland.


title: Bat

text: The bat is used in fiction by both villains like Dracula and heroes like Batman. Kenneth Oppel wrote a series of novels, beginning with "Silverwing", which feature bats as good characters.


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: Brown v. Board of Education II (often called Brown II) was a Supreme Court case decided in 1955. The year before, the Supreme Court had decided "Brown v. Board of Education", which made racial segregation in schools illegal. However, many all-white schools in the United States had not followed this ruling and still had not integrated (allowed black children into) their schools. In "Brown II", the Court ordered them to integrate their schools "with all deliberate speed."


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: In "Brown II", the Supreme Court also set out rules about what schools needed to do to de-segregate. Finally, it explained how the United States government would make sure the schools did de-segregate.


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: After the Supreme Court decided the original "Brown" case, it planned to hear arguments during its next court session about just how school de-segregation was going to happen. Segregation in United States schools had existed for centuries. The Court understood that it would not be easy to get the states to follow its ruling and de-segregate their schools.


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: Also, in its ruling in "Brown", the Court had not given the states any instructions for "how" to end school segregation. The Court had also not given the states a deadline for "when" they needed to de-segregate their schools. These were all details that the Supreme Court needed to decide in "Brown II".


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: When it decided the original "Brown" case in 1954, the Supreme Court had combined "Brown" with four other cases. The Court decided all five cases together as one, which it called "Brown v. Board of Education". This meant that in "Brown II", the Court was again deciding about five different cases. These were:


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), whose lawyers had won "Brown", argued that school de-segregation should begin right away. The states argued back that this would be too difficult and too expensive, and that they needed more time to de-segregate.


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: In a 9-0 decision, the Supreme Court ordered the states to start trying to obey the "Brown" decision and de-segregate their schools. It ordered the states to start making plans about how they were going to integrate their schools.


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: However, the Court refused to order the schools to integrate right away, like the NAACP had wanted. It also did not set any clear deadline for when schools needed to be de-segregated. In the Court's majority opinion, Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote that the states should integrate "with all deliberate speed."


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: To many people, it was not clear exactly what this meant. It also meant that the Court was denying relief to the black students in the "Brown" lawsuits. As constitutional law scholar Steven Emanuel explains:


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: Instead of ordering the states to de-segregate right away, the Court created a slower plan. It gave federal district courts the power to look after whether schools were de-segregating. Justice Warren wrote: "[These] courts will [make sure] that the defendants make a prompt and reasonable start" toward obeying "Brown."


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: "Brown II" did make it clear that schools in the United States would have to de-segregate. It also set out a process for making sure schools integrated, by giving federal district courts the power to supervise the schools, control how long they could have to de-segregate, and punish them if they refused to integrate.


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: However, many states, especially in the South, were able to avoid integrating their schools for years because "Brown II" did not set a specific deadline for integration. Justice Warren's ruling that schools needed to de-segregate "with all deliberate speed" was vague and could have many different meanings. States and schools that did not want to integrate chose meanings that gave them excuses not to let black students into their schools.


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: For example, based on the "Brown II" ruling, a federal district court ruled that Prince Edward County, Virginia, did not have to de-segregate its schools right away. Several years later, in 1959, a federal court of appeals ordered the county to start de-segregating its schools. Prince Edward County responded by refusing to fund (give any money to) the county's schools. With no money, the schools had to close. They stayed closed for five years, from 1959 to 1964.


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: Prince Edward County helped white students go to white-only private schools. Black students could not go to school at all, unless they moved to a different county.


title: Brown v. Board of Education II

text: Finally, in 1964, the United States Supreme Court ruled that what Prince Edward County was doing was unconstitutional, and ordered the schools to re-open without segregation.


title: Author

text: An author is a person who writes books, stories, poems, or other written work. Their writing can be truth or fiction, short or long. Often, "author" is a word for a professional writer, but any person who writes may also be called that.


title: Author

text: Sometimes, a person who creates something that is not prose is called an author. Someone who writes music may be called the author of that piece of music, though we would usually call that person a composer. In the film world, the French word for author, "auteur", is often used about someone who has been both the writer and director of a movie.


title: Author

text: In biology, the first person to write an article that gives a name to and describes a type of living thing is the author of that name.


title: Author

text: In copyright law, the author is the first owner of copyright. Such laws also apply to other works of art such as pictures or music.


title: 2018 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The 2018 UEFA Champions League Final was the last game of the 2017–18 UEFA Champions League, Europe's top club football tournament run by UEFA. It was played at the NSC Olimpiyskiy Stadium in Kiev, Ukraine on 26 May 2018. The game was between reigning champions Real Madrid, and five-time winners Liverpool. Madrid opened the scoring in the second half with a goal from Karim Benzema, but Liverpool quickly equalised through Sadio Mané. Gareth Bale then scored two goals for Real Madrid to win the game, which finished 3-1.


title: 2018 UEFA Champions League Final

text: The "home" team (for business reasons) was decided by an extra draw held after the semi-final draw. It was held on 13 April 2018, at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland.


title: Riley Reid

text: Riley Reid (born July 9, 1991) is an American pornographic actress. She has won over 40 awards. She was honored into the XRCO Hall of Fame in 2021.


title: Riley Reid

text: Reid worked as a stripper before working in adult movies in 2010, at the age of 19. She was on CNBC's list of "The Dirty Dozen: Porn's Most Popular Stars" in 2014, 2015, and 2016.


title: Incest

text: Incest means sexual intercourse between people who are closely related. Usually, this means members of the same family. In many societies, it is forbidden by law and religion. Which relatives it is forbidden to have sex with depends on the law, religion and culture. If pregnancy is a risk, there may be reasons based on health. Children that result from incest between blood relatives are more likely to have birth defects.


title: Incest

text: A scenario that often happens in the context of sexual abuse of children is that a parent has sex with his or her child.


title: Incest

text: The exact definition of the incest relationship varies. In some societies it is immediate relations, such as parents and their children; or brothers and sisters of the same parents. It sometimes includes extended family like aunts, nephews, nieces and uncles. That way, intercourse between cousins is legally permitted in the large majority of the world, but is disliked in many countries. In some U.S. states, such as Texas, the legal definition of incest includes first cousins, but not second cousins. A person who engages in incest is called an "incestophile" or "incestualist".


title: Incest

text: Other societies define it much more widely, to include all "blood relatives", or all who live in the same household, or belong to the same clan. Some religions say that sex between people related by marriage is incest. For example, the Old Testament forbids sex between siblings-in-law. In South Africa, sex between a parent-in-law and child-in-law is illegal.


title: Incest

text: The type of incest most often reported in the Western world is father-daughter incest. Incest between adults and children is a form of child sexual abuse. This form has been shown to cause one of the worst forms of childhood trauma, a trauma that often causes serious and long-term psychological damage, especially in the case of parental incest. Stepparents are more likely to abuse stepchildren than biological parents are to abuse their children, because people typically care about their own children more than they care about their stepchildren the Cinderella effect. It is suggested that the Westermarck effect prevents a person being attracted to anyone whom he lived in the same house as during his childhood, hence most people are never sexually attracted to their siblings or parents.


title: Incest

text: The term is often used to apply to less serious sexual relationships between related people. It is difficult to say how frequent incest is, but researchers have estimated that between 10% and 15% of people have at least one "incest experience" (this means some kind of sexual relationship falling short of actual incest). Less than 2% of these involve intercourse or attempted intercourse. Among women, research by Russell (1986) and Wyatt (1985) has given estimates as high as twenty percent (for such 'incest experience'). In a survey of women in San Francisco, of those who had grown up with a stepfather, 17% (1 in 6) said that he sexually abused her. In the same study, 2.5% (1 in 40) of the women said that they had been sexually abused by their father.


title: Incest

text: Incest between consenting adults is very rare, or rarely reported. Willing incest between adults is a crime in most countries. It is seen by some as a victimless crime. A reason why it is prohibited is because severely handicapped children are often born to parents who are blood-related. Other reasons for it being illegal are religion and to try to prevent sexual predation.


title: Incest

text: Most societies have some form of incest avoidance. The incest taboo is and has been one of the most common of all cultural taboos, both in current nations and many past societies, with legal penalties imposed in some jurisdictions. Most modern societies have legal or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages. However, in some societies, such as that of Ancient Egypt, brother–sister, father–daughter, and mother–son relations were practiced among royalty. In addition, the Balinese and some Inuit tribes have altogether different beliefs about what constitutes illegal and immoral incest.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: Anarcho-capitalism is a political philosophy that says that governments are not needed but that private property rights are needed.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: Anarcho-capitalism says that governments are not needed because governments either do not work or are bad.  Anarcho-capitalists normally believe that governments are bad due to their use of force.  Anarcho-capitalists' examples of government force include:


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: Anarcho-capitalists say that society would be better off if the good thing government did were instead done on the free market by private individuals, private companies, charities, mutual aid societies, and voluntary unions.  Anarcho-capitalists think that people will still be safe without armies and police that are paid for with taxes, and that people will be able to protect themselves by paying people or "private defence agencies" to defend them, or by setting up neighborhood watches.  Voluntarism, which is normally included as a part of anarcho-capitalist ideology, think that when people get into fights or arguments about who owns what, people should be able to get together and decide what kind of court to go to and what kind of rules they should be judged by, instead of being forced to go to a court that the government sets up.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: The term "anarcho-capitalism" was coined by Jarret B. Wollstein. Anarcho-capitalists say that the government is a thief, because it takes people's money away against their will.  They also say that governments also keep people from making trades between themselves.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: Most libertarians are minarchists, which means they think that there needs to be a very small government whose only purpose is to protect people's property.  Anarcho-capitalists are different because they believe society would be better off without any government, even though they are still a kind of libertarian.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: In general, anarcho-capitalism is not considered anarchism. However, like anarchists, anarcho-capitalists say they are against the whole idea of hierarchy.  Anarcho-capitalists do not define hierarchy as something that exists when one person is simply seen as being more important than another person.  Anarcho-capitalist believe hierarchy exists only when a person is given the authority to use force against a nonviolent person or that person's legitimate property.  Only when "no one" is allowed to use force against nonviolent people or their legitimate property are people truly equal.  They think that only then is hierarchy no more.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: Anarchists are against capitalism as they think it uses force. Anarcho-capitalists support capitalism and say everything in it is consensual.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: Anarchists oppose anarcho-capitalism because they do not believe any private property is legitimate.  These anarchists would say that all property is founded on the theft of the commons (unowned land and stuff).  Many anarchists don't even think that anarcho-capitalism counts as a real form of anarchism, as this critique of property goes back to some of the earliest people calling themselves anarchists.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: Anarcho-capitalists, like other libertarians and classical liberals, only believe property is legitimate when it has been gotten in the right sort of way.  If you steal (take something from someone without their permission), or hire someone to steal on your behalf, or ask the government to steal on your behalf, the property you get is not really yours.  The "real" owner is still the person or people it belonged to before it was stolen.  Anarcho-capitalists say that governments do not legitimately own anything, since governments get all of their wealth through force, including taxation and counterfeiting. Because anarcho-capitalists support private property, they believe that a person can own a building or land without actually using it. They believe that these things can be protected by private security guards.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: In the eyes of anarcho-capitalists, property can only be legitimately gotten in one of three ways.  The first way is through John Locke's "homestead principle," which means that something owned by no one "becomes" your legitimate property when you "mix your labour" with the thing.  In other words, if you come across an unowned field, and you start farming it, then the land you farm becomes your property, along with all of the crops you grow.  If someone else comes along and steals all of the crops you worked on growing, that person has committed a form of force called "theft."  The second and third ways to legitimately get property is through voluntary trade or gift.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: If someone has gotten something in an illegitimate way, it is not theft to take the thing back, as long as you harm no innocent person in the process.


title: Anarcho-capitalism

text: Some anarcho-capitalists are also anarcho-pacifists, but most anarcho-capitalists are not. Anarcho-pacifists, like Robert LeFevre, believe one may never use any force at all, not even in self-defence. Most anarcho-capitalists, however, believe it is okay to use defensive force as long as it is "only" directed against those who have used non-defensive force, and as long as it is proportional to the non-defensive force.  In other words, one may not legitimately shoot a person for stealing a stick of gum, because shooting someone is a lot more forceful than stealing the gum.


title: Llanfairpwllgwyngyll

text: Llanfairpwllgwyngyll, officially Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch (pronounced "llan-vire-pooll-gwin-gill-go-gare-urch-wyn-drob-ooll-andus-ilio-gogo-goch"), also known as Llanfair Pwllgwyngyll, Llanfair PG or just Llanfairpwll, is a large village and community on Anglesey, an island in Wales. In a 2018 study, it had a population of 2,999 residents.


title: Llanfairpwllgwyngyll

text: It is famous for having for the longest place name in Europe and the second-longest official one-word place name in the world, right after the hill Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateaturipukakapikimaungahoronukupokaiwhenuakitanatahu located in Pōrangahau, New Zealand. The village's official name contains 58 characters and 19 syllables. It translates into English as "St Mary's Church in the Hollow of the White Hazel near a Rapid Whirlpool and the Church of St. Tysilio near the Red Cave". The village was given this long name as a publicity stunt to bring people to the village.


title: Llanfairpwllgwyngyll

text: The village has a railway station, known as "Llanfairpwll railway station". The station is known for its huge sign of the village's name and how to pronounce it. The station provides direct trains to Holyhead to the west and Manchester, Crewe, Chester, Shrewsbury, Birmingham and South Wales to the east.


title: Sun Tzu

text: was an ancient Chinese general, military expert and philosopher. He is widely believed to have been the author of the most important work of military strategy and theory, "The Art of War". His name means 'Master Sun'. His family name is Sun, Tzu is an honorific (title of respect) meaning 'master'.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Most of what we know about Sun Tzu comes from Ssu-ma Ch'ien's "Shih chi", also called the Records of the Grand Historian. According to the Grand Historian, Sun Tzu lived during the period called 'The Spring and Autumn Period of China'. This era dates from 770 BC to 476 BC.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Sun Tzu was born in the State of Qi (modern Shandong province). This is according to the Records of the Grand Historians. However, the "Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yueh" claim he was born in Wu. Sun Tzu lived during the turbulent period of the late Chou dynasty. He grew up in a military family and he studied military science. Not much is known about his childhood or early life. It is known that at some point in his life he became known as a great general and a military strategist. He became a general for King Helü of Wu.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Sun Tzu won battles by not actually fighting his enemy when it wasn't necessary. He recommended spies, deception and a commander having complete control of his soldiers. When he did fight, he understood warfare better than most of his opponents. Sun Tzu learned to win battles with the least loss of his own men.


title: Sun Tzu

text: Many historians believe he was the victor at the Battle of Boju in 506 BC. The great historian Sima Qian (145/135–86 BC), author of "Shiji" (Historical Record), called Sun Tzu an exceptional strategic battlefield commander. He also said Sun Tzu was both flexible and had unlimited surprises for his enemies. Sima Qian wrote that in his nearly 40-years as a general, Sun Tzu never lost a battle, a campaign or a war.


title: Sun Tzu

text: The Art of War was one of the earliest books on Chinese warfare. It remains one of the best known and most influential books ever written. The book was widely copied in the ancient world. An early copy was discovered in 1972. It was written on bamboo slats that were sewn together. It became known in the western world during the late 18th century. It wasn't translated into English until the 20th century.


title: Sun Tzu

text: At that time the rules for warfare were based on chivalry. War was the sport of rich noblemen. Sun Tzu refused to see war as a sport. He used Taoist principles and applied them to warfare. In doing this he changed the rules of war. Unlike generals who enjoyed long campaigns, he understood war was serious. Sun Tzu believed that once a war started, the goal was to defeat the enemy. Sun Tzu was unconventional in that he didn't follow the prevailing wisdom of his time. Other generals were simply unprepared for Sun Tzu's tactics.


title: Sun Tzu

text: For at least the last two thousand years, Sun Tzu has had a tremendous influence on military thinking. The Art of War is credited by Mao Zedong as having helped him defeat Chiang Kai-Shek in the Chinese Civil War. Ho Chi Minh was a fan of Sun Tzu. He led the Communist Vietnamese in their fight against American-backed South Vietnam. American generals Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr. and Colin Powell followed principals in the Art of War in the Gulf War.


title: Death

text: Death is the end of a life in an organism. All biological and living activity of the living thing stop, including the mind and the senses. The usual signal for death in humans and many other animals is that the heart stops beating and cannot be restarted. This can be caused by many things. All living things have a limited lifespan, and all living things eventually die.


title: Death

text: Living things that have died are normally described as being dead. Death of humans is often investigated for the cause, in case of crime (such as murder), accident or disease that may continue to kill other humans. About 150,000 people die every day around the world. About two thirds of these people die because of age. In addition to the physical body, some believe humans also have a soul and believe that the soul can continue without a body (afterlife), move into another body (reincarnation), or cease to exist (annihilationism). Religions have different beliefs about this issue. Many cultures have their own customs and rituals to respect the dead.


title: Death

text: When people talk about things or events that lead to the death of a plant or animal, those things or events are usually described as being deadly, or fatal. In the case of diseases, they are described as "terminal". Humans are no different from any other lifeform. Our bodies have an ability for self-repair, but that ability is limited. Finding the cause of death is a medical speciality called pathology. In medicine, death is when the heart stops beating for more than several minutes. There are special times in which people recover even though the heart has stopped for 30 minutes, such as near-drowning in very cold water. If machines are used to help the heart and lungs work, then the moment of death is more difficult to know.


title: Death

text: Death is commonly a sad or unpleasant thing to people. It can make people think about their own death. People might miss or be sad for the person who has died. They might also be sad for the family and friends of the person who has died.


title: Death

text: In any society, human death is surrounded by ritual - a wake or funeral is normal. In some places it was common to "eat" the dead in a form of ritual cannibalism. But this is no longer common, in part because disease like kuru can be passed this way. Human dead bodies are taboo in most societies and must be handled in special ways - for a combination of religious and hygiene reasons. A human dead body must always be reported in law, to be sure it is disposed of properly.


title: Death

text: Finding the cause of any human death and stopping a similar death from happening to someone else are the main reasons people look into "human morbidity" or let dead bodies be cut open and looked at in an autopsy. Some religions do not allow autopsies, because they feel the body is holy. Autopsies are usually required by the state if someone dies and people do not know why. The autopsy helps find out if someone killed the person on purpose, tried to hurt them, or if they died from a sickness.


title: Death

text: To prepare for their own death, humans can write a last will and testament to be clear about who gets their property and possessions. A person will sometimes also volunteer to be an organ donor. This might mean giving the whole body to medical research. It can also save the lives of others by making organ transplants possible.


title: Death

text: For a long time, many people have been afraid of death and a lot of people have wondered about what may happen to people after they die. This is one of the largest questions of philosophy and religion. Many people believe there is some form of afterlife.


title: Death

text: Ancient rulers sometimes did insist not only that their own bodies, and much property, but even their servants and relatives be destroyed at their funeral.


title: Death

text: Christianity has a special focus on death because of the state killing of Jesus Christ by the Romans. In Islam this is thought to demonstrate the injustice of human systems of dealing out death, and the ability of the best people to overcome it and even forgive it. In Christianity itself it is thought to prove that Jesus himself was really God and so could lose his body and still have the power of resurrection. In Buddhism reincarnation is believed to occur. Reincarnation is an idea taken from Hinduism.


title: Death

text: Confucianism advises respect for parents and forms of ancestor worship to respect both dead and living ancestors.


title: Death

text: Every ethical tradition including the medical view of the body has some ritual surrounding death. Often these excuse behaviours that might be hated if they did not have the ritual. For instance, one may say that organ transplant is like cannibalism.


title: Death

text: Very much of what happens at a human death is ritual. People who wish theirs to be dealt with a certain way, and who wish a particular treatment like cremation of their body, should decide in advance and set up the necessary payments and agreements. This makes it much easier for their family after they die, since there is no longer the ability to clearly communicate the wish.


title: Death

text: For the same reason, saying goodbye is important. Most of the stress of death seems to come for loved ones who "did not have a chance to say goodbye".


title: Death

text: Maybe it is to relieve this stress that rituals are created, and to bring together those that knew someone so that the personal experience a person can no longer communicate for themselves, can be exchanged by others.


title: Death

text: Some ritual, such as seances, claim to allow people to speak to the dead. This is not claimed to be very reliable, both by scientists and even by those who do them very often.


title: Death

text: Aside from wills, goodbyes, organ donations and funerals, there is important personal experience to decide to pass on, or not, when someone knows they may soon die. Palliative care focuses on basic decisions people make when they are very close to the end of their lives, and it ensures someone is always available to talk to them. It is a replacement for heroic medical intervention that may keep them physically alive but with no quality of life. Human psychology must prepare for death if it is anything other than a quick surprise:


title: Death

text: Elizabeth Kubler-Ross wrote that there were several stages in dying, of which denial was the first, and acceptance was the last. Recording one's life is often something people with acceptance will do to leave a memoir or a full autobiography:


title: Death

text: Because events leave living memory, and may only be part of oral tradition, there are projects to record everything that people remember about World War I and the Shoah. The first of these was to record everything remembered about the U.S. Civil War. This discipline has changed history since we have so many more first person accounts of the times, and made social history much more standard.


title: Death

text: There are other terms for death. Examples are, "to pass away", "to go to a better place", "to buy the farm" (generally used in the military), "to leave the earth", "big sleep", and "to kick the bucket". the term "gone" may also be a term for describing death. "for example": if a person has died, they are also said to be "gone", as in "gone to a better place" or "no longer here".


title: Death

text: Old age and illness are not the only things that can end a person's life. People make other people die. This is called killing or murder. Three famous murders are John Wilkes Booth killing Abraham Lincoln, James Earl Ray killing Martin Luther King Jr. and Lee Harvey Oswald killing the President of the United States John F. Kennedy. People can also die by accidents resulting in terminal trauma, hypothermia, starvation, suicide and dehydration.


title: Sadio Mané

text: Sadio Mané (born 10 April 1992) is a Senegalese professional footballer. He plays for Premier League club Liverpool and the Senegal national team. He plays as a winger. He was born in Sédhiou.


title: Sadio Mané

text: In 2011, Mané came from Génération Foot to FC Metz in France. He played for the youth teams and the second team. His first game in the first team was on 24 January 2012 against SC Bastia. In 2012, he moved to Austria. There he played for Red Bull Salzburg in the Austrian Bundesliga. He won the Austrian Bundesliga and Austrian Cup in 2014 with Salzburg. In 2015, he moved to Premier League club Southampton.


title: Sadio Mané

text: In 2015, Mané set a new Premier League record for the fastest hat-trick. He scored three times in 176 seconds (two minutes and 56 seconds) during a 6–1 win over Aston Villa.


title: Sadio Mané

text: Mané signed for Liverpool in 2016 for a fee of £34 million. At the time, this made him the most expensive African player in history. In his second season with Liverpool, he scored in the 2018 UEFA Champions League Final in his side's 3–1 loss to Real Madrid. This made him the first Senegalese to score in the final of the competition. The next season, Mané won the 2018–19 UEFA Champions League with Liverpool, defeating Tottenham Hotspur 2–0 in the final. The same season, he was the joint-winner of the Premier League Golden Boot with 22 goals.


title: Sadio Mané

text: During the 2019-20 season, Mané scored two goals in the UEFA Super Cup against Chelsea as Liverpool won on penalties. He also played in the Liverpool's first FIFA Club World Cup final win. In January 2020, he was named CAF African Footballer of the Year. Liverpool went on to win the club's first Premier League title, and first league title since 1990, at the end of the season.


title: Sadio Mané

text: Mané has played for the Senegalese national team since 2012. He has played 60 times and scored 16 goals for the national side. He has played for Senegal at the 2012 Summer Olympics, 2015 Africa Cup of Nations, 2017 Africa Cup of Nations and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Marseille

text: Marseille (Occitan: "Marselha") is a city in the south of France in the Bouches-du-Rhône department. About 1.7 million people live in the metropolitan area, and about 850,000 in the city itself. This makes it the second largest city in France by number of people. Its commercial port is the biggest in France and one of the most important in the Mediterranean sea.


title: Marseille

text: Although part of the region of Provence, Marseilles has its own history. This city is the oldest in France and probably the most complex. The city was started around 600 BC by Greek sailors from Phocaea (modern day Foça, near İzmir). This was a Greek colony in Asia Minor that is in what is now Turkey.


title: Turquoise (color)

text: Turquoise is the colour of the gem turquoise. It is a slightly greenish shade of cyan. Turquoise is sometimes described as a mixture of pale blue and green. The name comes from the French word for "Turkish".


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Romeo and Juliet is a play written by William Shakespeare. It is set in Italy and is about the love between two young people from noble families that are enemies. "Romeo and Juliet" has always been one of Shakespeare's most popular plays. It has been adapted to opera, ballet, television productions, and movies.


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: The noble families of the Montagues and the Capulets live in the city of Verona. Both families are enemies, and even their servants get into fights with each other. Prince Escalus, the ruler of the city, tells the families to stop fighting or they will be punished.


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Montague has only one child, a teenage boy called Romeo. Capulet also has only one child, a beautiful 14-year-old daughter called Juliet. One evening, Romeo sneaks into a party at the Capulet's house. He meets Juliet and they fall in love with each other. Later on, Romeo overhears Juliet standing on her balcony admitting her love for him. He reveals himself and they agree to be married. Friar Laurence agrees to marry them in secret the next day.


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Juliet's cousin Tybalt confronts Romeo, angry that he sneaked into the party. Romeo's friend Mercutio steps in and fights Tybalt. Tybalt kills Mercutio, so Romeo takes revenge and kills Tybalt. The Prince orders Romeo to leave the city, and warns he will be executed if he returns. Romeo secretly spends the night with Juliet before leaving the next morning.


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Juliet is left upset after Romeo leaves. To cheer her up, her parents arrange for her to quickly marry Paris, a cousin of the Prince. This only makes it worse. Juliet refuses, so her father threatens to kick her out if she doesn't marry Paris. Friar Laurence suggests a drug that can put her to sleep for a few hours, so that she can pretend to be dead, so that she can sneak out with Romeo. The Friar sends a message to Romeo to tell him about the plan. Juliet takes the drug and her family, thinking her to be dead, lay her in the family tomb. But before the messenger can reach Romeo, he learns of Juliet's "death" from someone else and believes she is really dead.


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Romeo goes to the tomb and is discovered by Paris, who has also come to mourn her. They fight, and Romeo kills Paris. Still believing Juliet to be dead, Romeo poisons himself. Juliet wakes up, but when she sees that Romeo is dead, she stabs herself. The play ends with the families and the Prince entering the tomb and discovering them dead. In their sadness, the families agree they should no longer be enemies with each other.


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Because this play was written in the 1500's, the English language that it uses is not exactly like the English that is used today. Some of the play is written in poetry.


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Of all the scenes that have ever been written in plays, one of the most famous is in "Romeo and Juliet".


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: After Romeo and Juliet have met at a party and fallen in love, Juliet goes up to bed. But she cannot sleep so she stands at her window and pretends she is talking with Romeo.


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: Romeo climbs up onto the balcony. Juliet tells Romeo that her love for him is as deep and endless as the sea. They part from each other with the famous words:


title: Romeo and Juliet

text: This romantic scene has been acted and copied many times, sometimes seriously and sometimes for fun. One well-known scene that took its idea from this, is from "West Side Story", a musical by Leonard Bernstein, which takes place on a fire-escape landing with the lovers, Tony and Maria, singing the lovesong, "Tonight".


title: Plain

text: In geography, a plain is a large area of land with no hills or mountains. Plains mostly are more suitable for farming than plateaus or mountains.


title: Genetics

text: Genetics is a discipline of biology. It is the science of heredity. This includes the study of genes, and the inheritance of variation and traits of living organisms. In the laboratory, genetics proceeds by mating carefully selected organisms, and analysing their offspring. More informally, genetics is the study of how parents pass some of their characteristics to their children. It is an important part of biology, and gives the basic rules on which evolution acts.


title: Genetics

text: The fact that living things inherit traits from their parents has been known since prehistoric times, and used to improve crop plants and animals through selective breeding. However, the modern science of genetics seeks to understand the process of inheritance. This began with the work of Gregor Mendel in the mid-nineteenth century. Although he did not know the physical basis for heredity, Mendel observed that organisms inherit traits via discrete units of inheritance, now called genes.


title: Genetics

text: Living things are made of millions of tiny self-contained components called cells. Inside each cell are long and complex molecules called deoxyribonucleic acid, known for short as DNA. Some DNA stores information for making proteins. The bits of DNA which do this are known as genes. People look different from each other mainly because they have different versions of the human set of genes.


title: Genetics

text: However, a large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding DNA. These sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences. What it does is code for important non-protein information. Examples are various important RNA molecules, and "scaffolding" bits and pieces like centromeres and telomeres.


title: Genetics

text: Every cell in the same living thing has the same DNA, but only some of it is used in each cell. For instance, some genes that tell how to make parts of the liver are switched off in the brain. What genes are used can also change over time. For instance, a lot of genes are used by a child early in pregnancy that are not used later.


title: Genetics

text: A person has two copies of each gene, one from their mother, and one from their father. There can be several types of a single gene, which give different instructions: one version might cause a person to have blue eyes, another might cause them to have brown. These different versions are known as "alleles" of the gene.


title: Genetics

text: Since a living thing has two copies of each gene, it can have two different alleles of it at the same time. Often, one allele will be "dominant", meaning that the living thing looks and acts as if it had only that one allele. The unexpressed allele is called "recessive". In other cases, you end up with something in between the two possibilities. In that case, the two alleles are called "co-dominant".