title: Human history

text: During the Paleolithic Era humans grouped together in small bands. They lived by gathering plants and hunting wild animals. This way of living is called a "hunter-gatherer society". People hunted small burrowing animals like rabbits, as well as birds and herds of animals like deer and cattle. They also gathered plants to eat, including grains. Grain often grows on grasslands where herds of grass-eating animals are found. People also gathered root vegetables, green vegetables, beans, fruit, seeds, berries, nuts, eggs, insects and small reptiles.


title: Human history

text: Many Paleolithic bands were nomadic. They moved from place to place as the weather changed. They followed herds of animals that they hunted from their winter feeding places to their summer feeding places. If there was a drought,flood, or some other disaster, the herds and the people might haved moved a long distance, looking for food. During the "Ice Age" a lot of the water on Earth turned to ice. This made sea much lower than it is now. People were able to walk through Beringia from Siberia to Alaska. Bands of "Homo sapiens" ( another word for people) travelled to that area from Asia. At that time there were rich grasslands with many large animals that are now extinct. It is believed that many groups of people travelled there over a long time and later spread to other parts of America, as the weather changed.


title: Human history

text: Paleolithic people used stone tools. Sometimes a stone tool was just a rock. It might have been useful for smashing a shell or an animal's skull, or for grinding grain on another rock. Other tools were made by breaking rocks to make a sharp edge. The next development in stone tool making was to chip all the edges of a rock so that it made a pointed shape, useful for a spearhead, or arrow tip. Some stone tools are carefully "flaked" at the edges to make them sharp, and symmetrically shaped. Paleolithic people also used tools of wood and bone. They probably also used leather and vegetable fibers but these have not lasted from that time. Paleolithic people also knew how to make fire which they used for warmth and cooking.


title: Human history

text: In the "Paleolithic Era" there were many different human species. According to current research, only the modern human reached the "Neolithic Era".


title: Human history

text: The Neolithic era was marked by changes in society. During the Neolithic era, people started to settle down. They developed agriculture and domesticated animals, both of which took a very long time. Because of these two things, people did not have to migrate as much any more. Villages could grow to much larger sizes than before. Over time, villages fought and spread their control over larger areas and some became civilisations. During this time, humankind also developed further intellectually, militarily and spiritually.


title: Human history

text: When humans started to grow crops and domesticate certain animals such as dogs, goats, sheep, and cattle; their societies changed. Because people now grew crops and raised livestock, they started to stay in the same place and build permanent settlements. In most places, this happened between 10,000 and 12,000 years ago. Their diet also changed. People ate more cereals and vegetables. They started to keep extra foods and seeds for later. In some years there were surpluses (extras) that could be traded for other goods.


title: Human history

text: These changes happened independently in many parts of the world. They did not happen in the same order though. For example, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. No one is sure if Britain had agriculture, or if permanent villages existed there at all. Early Japanese societies used pottery "before" developing agriculture.


title: Human history

text: Vere Gordon Childe gave the name "Neolithic Revolution" to this process in the 1920s. He thought that it was as important as the Industrial Revolution (which happened in the 18th and 19th century).


title: Human history

text: Ancient history was the time from the development of writing to the fall of the Roman Empire. The fall of the Roman Empire caused chaos in Europe, leading to the Middle Ages (also called the Dark Ages or the Age of Faith).


title: Human history

text: The first civilizations were built along major river systems. These civilizations are called river valley civilizations. River valley civilizations were the most powerful civilizations in this time period because water was needed to have an agricultural society.


title: Human history

text: Sumer was the world's first known ancient civilization. The Sumerians took over the fertile crescent region of Mesopotamia around 3300 BCE. They grew crops on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. By 3000 BCE, many cities had been built in parts of Sumerian Mesopotamia. They formed independently and each had their own government. They were called city-states and often fought with each other.


title: Human history

text: A surplus in food led to a Division of labour. This means that some people were able to stop growing crops and do other jobs, since enough crops were already grown. This brought a split in society. Today, such a split is called "social pyramid". In a social pyramid, people are grouped into social classes based on their wealth and power. In Sumer, the king, priests, and government officials were at the top of the social pyramid. Below them were the artisans, merchants, farmers, and fishers. At the bottom of the pyramid were slaves. Slaves were often prisoners of war, criminals, or people working to pay off debt.


title: Human history

text: The Sumerians created the world's first system of writing; it was called cuneiform. The oldest versions of one of the world's first literary works, the "Epic of Gilgamesh", go back to this time. In Sumer, only the sons of the rich and powerful learned how to read and write. They went to a school called "edubba". Only the boys who went to "edubba" could become scribes.


title: Human history

text: The Sumerians also invented sun-dried bricks, the wheel, the ox plow, and were skilled at making pottery. They are also thought to have invented the sailboat.


title: Human history

text: Ancient Egypt grew along the Nile river. It was created around 3500 BC. It was most powerful in the second millennium BC. When it was its biggest, it went all the way from the Nile delta to a mountain called Jebel Barkal in Sudan. It probably ended at about 30 BC when the country was invaded by the Roman Empire.


title: Human history

text: The society of ancient Egypt depended on a balance of natural and human resources, especially the irrigation of the Nile Valley so that Egyptians could grow crops.


title: Human history

text: There was a great difference between classes in this society. Most of the people were farmers but they did not own the agricultural products they produced. These were property of the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land. There was slavery, but it is not clear how it was practiced.


title: Human history

text: The Egyptians are known for writing in hieroglyphs, building the famous pyramids, and building other sorts of tombs and big temples and for their military.


title: Human history

text: China began as city-states in the Yellow River valley. The Shang Dynasty (商朝) was the first dynasty of Ancient China.Turtle shells with writing on them have been carbon dated to about 1500 BC.


title: Human history

text: The Zhou Dynasty came after the Shang Dynasty. "Kong Fuzi" and Laozi lived at the end of the Zhou Dynasty. They were the greatest Chinese philosophers. They founded new philosophies, or ways of thinking. Confucius founded Confucianism and Laozi founded Daoism.


title: Human history

text: The Qin (秦) dynasty came after the Warring States Period. The Qin emperor Qin Shi Huang created the first centralized state in China in 221 BC. It was based on his based on his political philosophy of legalism. He made everyone write the same way. He fought against "Confucianism". He also started building what would later become the Great Wall.


title: Human history

text: In 202 BC the Han Dynasty took over. It was about as strong as the Roman Empire. Towards the end of the Han Dynasty, Buddhism became influential in China.


title: Human history

text: The Indus Valley Civilization lasted from about 2600 BC to 1900 BC. It was the first urban civilization on the Indian subcontinent. It was centered on the Indus River and its tributaries. The civilization is famous for its brick cities that had road-side drainage systems and multi-storied houses.


title: Human history

text: The Maurya dynasty started in 321 BCE. This was the first time most of the Indian subcontinent was united under a single government. Ashoka the Great was a famous Mauryan emperor. When he started ruling, he sought to expand his empire, but then followed a policy of ahimsa (non-violence) after converting to Buddhism. He wrote about this in the Edicts of Ashoka. The Edicts of Ashoka are the oldest historical documents from India that still exist. While Ashoka ruled, Buddhist ideals spread across all of East Asia and South-East Asia.


title: Human history

text: The Gupta dynasty ruled from around 320 to 550 AD. The Gupta Empire included only Central India, and the area east of current day Bangladesh. Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs. Historians place the Gupta dynasty alongside with the Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty and Roman Empire as a model of a classical civilization.


title: Human history

text: The Maya civilization is a civilization that started in Central America. They lived mostly on the Yucatán Peninsula in what is now known as Mexico, but also Honduras, Belize and Guatemala. They were the only known civilization of pre-Columbian America to have a fully developed written language. They also made great achievements in art and architecture and had a very advanced system of mathematics and astronomy.


title: Human history

text: The area where the Maya civilization developed was inhabited from around the 10th millennium BC. The first Maya settlements were built there in about 1800 BC, in the Soconusco region. This is in the modern-day state of Chiapas in Mexico, on the Pacific Ocean. Today, this is called the "Early Preclassic period". At the time, humans began to settle down permanently. They started to grow livestock. Pottery and small clay figures were made. They constructed simple burial mounds. Later they developed these mounds into step pyramids. There were other civilizations around, especially in the north, such as the Olmec, the Mixe-Zoque, and Zapotec civilizations. These people mostly lived in the area of the modern-day state Oaxaca. The exact borders of the Maya empire in the north are unclear. There were probably areas where Maya culture overlapped with other cultures. Many of the earliest significant inscriptions and buildings appeared in this overlapping zone. These cultures and the Maya probably influenced one another.


title: Human history

text: There has been a long history of contact between Papuan peoples of the Papua New Guinea and the Aboriginal people. Aboriginal people seem to have lived a long time in the same environment as the now extinct Australian megafauna. Stories about that are told in the oral culture of many Aboriginal groups.


title: Human history

text: The Hallstatt era is named after the city Hallstatt in Austria, where the first artifacts were found. It lasted from about 1200 BC to about 275 BC. There were different periods, which today are mainly told apart by the kinds of brooches used at the time. These brooches changed rather rapidly, and can therefore give us good guesses at to what time they came from. Hallstatt culture sites have been found in the east of France, in Switzerland, in the south of Germany, in Austria, in Slovenia and Croatia, northwestern Hungary, southwestern Slovakia and southern Moravia. The culture can be divided into an eastern and a western one quite easily; the dividing line runs through the Czech Republic, and Austria, between longitudes 14 and 15 degrees east.


title: Human history

text: In this time, the social structure developed into a hierarchy. This can be documented by various things that were added to graves. In the Bronze Age, people used to live in big settlements. As iron became available, trade routes changed. A new richer class evolved. Unlike before, these richer class people liked to live in big houses in the countryside, as a demonstration of their wealth. Funerals also changed, from cremation burials, to burials with stone coffins. The new upper class used their wealth for import goods, mostly from the Mediterranean.


title: Human history

text: The La Tène culture is a culture that lasted from about 500 BC to about 100 AD. It is named after the city of "La Tène" (today, Marin-Epagnier, next to Neuchâtel). It was influenced a lot by the Roman and Greek cultures. There are two sources for this:


title: Human history

text: The Celts basically lived in clans. Each clan was headed by a leader, which came from the Druids or the Bards. Women were much better off than with the Romans, they were almost equal to men. There was polygamy and polyandry (A man could have several women, a woman could have several men).


title: Human history

text: Illyria is the part of west-south Balkan Peninsula populated by Illyrians whose descendants are Albanians.


title: Human history

text: They had their own language, the Illyrian language that was different from the Greek language and Latin.


title: Human history

text: What is known today as "Ancient Greece" is a very important period in history. Most people agree that it came after the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. It ended when the Romans invaded Greece, in 146 BC. Greek culture had a very powerful influence on later civilizations, especially the Romans. The Greeks developed what is now called a city-state, or a polis. There were many polises. Some of the more important ones were Athens, Sparta, Corinth and Thebes. The word "politics" comes from there. It literally means: things that are about the polis. Greek cities did not have much contact with each other, because of the mountains and many islands Greece is made up of. When a city no longer had enough food to care for all its citizens, some people were sent out to set up a new city. This was called a "colony". Each city was independent, and ruled by someone within that city. Colonies also looked to the city where they originally came from for guidance.


title: Human history

text: When Greece went to war (for example against the Persian Empire), there was an alliance of such city states, against the Persians. There were also many wars between different city states.


title: Human history

text: There were many artists and philosophers who lived in that period. Most of them are still important for philosophy today. A well-known artist was Homer. He wrote epics about the war against the Trojans, and the early history of Greece. Other well-known artists were Aristophanes and Sappho. Well-known philosophers include Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. A well known mathematician of the time was Euclid. Statesmen of the time were Pericles and Alexander the Great.


title: Human history

text: Ancient Rome was a civilization that started in modern-day Italy, in the 8th Century before Christ. The civilization lasted for 12 centuries. It ended, when Mehmed II conquered Constantinople, on May 29, 1453. According to legend, the Roman civilization was founded by Romulus and Remus, in the year 753 BC. The Roman Empire developed in wars against Carthage and the Seleucid Empire. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, modern France, and Augustus ended the Roman republic by becoming emperor. At its biggest extent, the empire covered all of the Mediterranean. Rome became so big, because it led war against other nations and then assimilated their culture.


title: Human history

text: In 293, Diocletian organized a separate administration of the western and the eastern part of the empire. The capital of the western part was Rome, the capital of the eastern part was Constantinople. Constantine I was the first to stop discrimination against Christians (313). Christianity became state religion under the reign of Theodosius I.


title: Human history

text: The western part of the empire had many problems with barbarians. In the 5th century, the Huns migrated westwards. This meant that the Visigoths moved into the empire, to seek protection. Rome was sacked by barbarians multiple times. On September 4, 476, the Germanic chief Odoacer forced the last Roman emperor in the west, Romulus Augustus, to quit. After about 1200 years, the rule of Rome in the West came to an end.


title: Human history

text: The eastern part had similar problems. Justinian I managed to conquer parts of North Africa and Italy. Shortly after he died, all that was left were parts of Southern Italy, and Sicily. In the east, the empire was threatened by the Sassanid Empire.


title: Human history

text: After the fall of Western Rome, the Germanic tribes that took over tried to learn from Roman civilization, but much was forgotten and up to the Renaissance not many achievements happened in Europe. But with the rise of Islam, many changes happened during the Islamic Golden Age. The Greek and Roman traditions were kept and further development took place. The Chinese civilization had a Golden Age during the Tang period, when their capital was the biggest in the world. During the Renaissance, Europe developed and made great advancements in many areas as well.


title: Human history

text: In Arabia, Muhammad founded Islam in 632. His followers rapidly conquered territories in Syria and Egypt. They soon were a danger to the Byzantine Empire. In the 8th and 9th centuries, the Byzantine Empire stopped Islamic expansion and reconquered some lost territories. In 1000 A.D. the eastern Empire was at its height: Basileios II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia. Culture and trade flourished. In 1071 the Battle of Manzikert led the empire into a dramatic decline. For the Byzantine Empire this meant centuries of civil wars and Turkic invasions. The Muslim caliphate had an Golden Age under the Abbasids.


title: Human history

text: Their power forced Emperor Alexius I Comnenus of the Byzantine Empire to send a call for help to the West in 1095. The West sent the Crusades. These eventually led to the "Sack of Constantinople" in the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Because of this, what was left of the Empire broke into successor states. The winner of these disputes was that of Nicaea. After Constantinople was again conquered by imperial forces, the empire was little more than a Greek state on the Aegean coast. The Eastern Empire came to an end when Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453. The Ottoman Empire took its place and from 1400 to 1600 was the most powerful empire in the Middle East and ruled at the southern and eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Human history

text: The Tang Dynasty (618–907), with its capital at Chang'an (today Xi'an), was the biggest city in the world at the time and is considered by historians as a high point in Chinese civilization as well as a golden age of cosmopolitan culture. The Ming Dynasty ruled from 1368 to 1644. The Ming built a vast army and navy.


title: Human history

text: From around the 6th–7th century. In South India, Chola kings ruled Tamil Nadu, and Chera kings ruled Kerala. They had trading relationships with the Roman Empire to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. In north India, Rajputs ruled in many kingdoms.


title: Human history

text: In 1336, two brothers named Harihara I and Bukka founded the Vijayanagara Empire in an area which is now in the Karnataka state of India. The most famous king of this empire was Krishnadevaraya. In 1565, rulers of this empire were defeated in a battle. But the empire continued for about the next one hundred years.


title: Human history

text: The Heian Period in Japan is famous for its art, poetry and literature. The writing system, Kana, was developed. It was followed by the feudal period (1185–1853) during which samurai and daimyos were the leading figures and the shogun the real monarch whereas the tennō had only a role as religious head. Between the years 1272 and 1281 the Mongols tried to invade but were driven out by the Japanese.


title: Human history

text: Genghis Khan in 1209 brought together the Mongol tribes and founded the Mongol Empire, one of the largest land empires in history. Later Kublai Khan would go on to expand the empire and found the Mongol-ruled Yuan Dynasty of China. The empire later broke into several empires, all of which were later destroyed.


title: Human history

text: The Middle Ages was the time from the fall of the Roman empire until the middle of the 15th century. From 500 to about 800 there was some decline compared with the Roman civilization. European villages were often destroyed and looted by barbarians such as the Vikings. During the High Middle Ages magnificent castles and large churches called cathedrals were built and important works of literature were written. In the later Middle Ages, there was a plague called the Black Death. The Black Death killed one-third to one-half of Europe's population.


title: Human history

text: A system called feudalism was a very important part of the Middle Ages. In this system, the king was at the top of the social pyramid. The king gave land to the lord in exchange for loyalty. The lords were the next in the pyramid. The lords gave land (called a fief) to knights in exchange for loyalty and protection. The knights came next in the pyramid. Peasants were not part of the feudal system because they did not give or receive land. They worked on a lord's manor in exchange for protection.


title: Human history

text: The Crusades were also fought during the Middle Ages. There is a theory that says the Crusades helped end the Middle Ages along with the Black Death, increased trade and better farming technology.


title: Human history

text: The Renaissance started in Italy. "Renaissance" is a French word meaning "rebirth". The Renaissance meant that people learned from the ancient Greek and Roman or "classical" cultures that had been forgotten for some time. Artists learned from classical paintings and sculptures. So they reinvented perspective and the art of free standing realistic sculptures that had been characteristic in Greek and Roman art. Some famous Renaissance artists are Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael. The Gutenberg printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg, was also developed during this time.


title: Human history

text: The Renaissance was also a time of great achievements in science (Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon), philosophy (Thomas More) and literature (Dante Alighieri, William Shakespeare).


title: Human history

text: What is known as the classical period lasted from about 250 to about 900. During this time, many monuments were constructed. There are also many big inscriptions from then. In this period, the Maya moved to building large cities. This is known as urbanism. Many important intellectual and artistic developments happened in an area that is known as the "southern lowlands".


title: Human history

text: Like the Ancient Greek, the Maya civilization was made of many independent city-states. Agriculture was important around these city states like Tikal and Copán.


title: Human history

text: The most important monuments are the pyramids they built in their religious centers and the palaces of their rulers. The palace at Cancuén is the largest in the Maya area. There are no pyramids in the area of the palace. Other important things the archaeologists found include the carved stone slabs usually called "stelae" (the Maya called them "tetun", or "tree-stones"). These slabs show rulers along with hieroglyphic texts describing their genealogy, military victories, and other accomplishments. In North America, they made Mississippian culture with the largest land field from around 800 CE to 1600.


title: Human history

text: The Maya also had trade routes that ran over long distances. They traded with many of the other Mesoamerican cultures, such as Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, and other groups in central and gulf-coast Mexico. They also traded with non-Mesoamerican groups, that were farther away. Archaeologists have found gold from Panama in the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza.


title: Human history

text: In the 8th and 9th century, the cities in the southern lowlands had problems, and declined. At the same time, the Maya stopped making big monuments and inscriptions. Shortly afterwards, these cities were abandoned. Currently, archaeologists are not sure why this happened. There are different theories. Either ecological factors played a role in this, or the cause of this abandonment was not related to the environment.


title: Human history

text: In the north, development went on, form the 10th to about the 16th century. The influences from the outside left more traces in the Maya culture at that time. Some of the important sites in this era were Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and Coba. At some point, the ruling dynasties of Chichen and Uxmal declined. Afterwards, Mayapan ruled all of Yucatán until a revolt in 1450. The area then degenerated into competing city-states until the Yucatán was conquered by the Spanish.


title: Human history

text: By 1250, there developed other city-states. The Itza maintained their capital at Tayasal. It ruled over an area extending across the Peten Lakes region, including the community of Ekckixil on Lake Quexil. Postclassic Maya states also survived in the southern highlands. One of the Maya kingdoms in this area is responsible for the best-known Maya work of historiography and mythology, the Popol Vuh.


title: Human history

text: The Spanish started to conquer Maya lands. This took them much longer than with the Inca or Aztecs, because there was no capital city. This meant that when they had conquered one city, this had little influence on the whole empire. The last Maya states were finally subdued in 1697.


title: Human history

text: The Maya people did not disappear though. There are still about 6 million of them. Some are well-integrated, others continue speak one of the Maya languages and uphold their cultural heritage.


title: Human history

text: The Aztecs built an empire in Central America, mainly in Mexico. The empire lasted from the 14th to the 16th century. They spoke the Nahuatl language. Their capital was Tenochtitlan. It was built on islands in a lake. Tenochtitlan was one of the greatest cities of the world in that time.


title: Human history

text: The Aztecs believed in polytheism. Quetzalcoatl (feathered snake), Huitzilopochtli (hummingbird of the south) and Tezcatlipoca (smoking mirror) were the most important Gods. Sometimes the Aztecs killed humans to please their gods. Between 1519 and 1521 the Spanish leader Hernán Cortés defeated the Aztecs and took their empire. Some Aztecs did not want to fight against the soldiers of Cortés, because they thought they were Gods.


title: Human history

text: Today many Mexicans have Aztec and other Native American forefathers. People still use Aztec symbols in Mexico. On the Mexican flag there is a picture of an eagle on a cactus with a snake in its mouth. This was an Aztec symbol. Also the name "Mexico" is an Aztec word.


title: Human history

text: The Aztecs ate a lot of plants and vegetables that could be grown easily in the Mexico area. The main food that they ate was corn, which they called maize. Another food that they ate was squash.


title: Human history

text: Aztecs also had a lot of harsh punishments for certain crimes. For the following crimes the punishment was death: adultery, wearing cotton clothes (cotton clothes were only for the nobles), cutting down a living tree, moving a field boundary making your land bigger, making someone else's smaller, major theft and treason.


title: Human history

text: The Incas were a civilized empire in western South America. The Incas are called a "pre-Columbian" empire. This means that their country was here before Christopher Columbus. They ruled parts of South America around what is now Peru for a little over 100 years, until the Spanish invasion in the 16th century.


title: Human history

text: The Incan empire or , meaning "four regions" in Quechua, only lasted for about 100 years as the arrival of the Spaniards in 1532 conquered them. Their main language was Quechua, but as the Incas were basically made up of many different groups there were probably many other different languages.


title: Human history

text: Manco Capac founded the first Inca state around 1200. It covered the area around Cusco. In the 1400s, Pachacuti began to absorb other people in the Andes. The expansion of the Inca Empire had started. The Inca Empire would become the biggest empire in the Americas before Columbus.


title: Human history

text: In 1532, the civil war ended. The brothers Huascar and Atahualpa, fought for who would succeed their father. During this time, the Spanish conquerors took possession of the Inca territory. They were led by Francisco Pizarro. In the following years the conquistadors managed to extend their power over the whole Andean region. They suppressed successive Inca rebellions until the establishment of the Viceroyalty of Perú in 1542 and the fall of the resistance of the last Incas of Vilcabamba in 1572. The Inca civilization ends at that time, but many cultural traditions remain in some ethnic groups as Quechuas and Aymara people.


title: Human history

text: Ancient Egypt and Carthage are well known civilizations of ancient Africa. But because there are not many written sources in large parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, the history of Africa is not easy to write about. But with new techniques such as the recording of oral history, historical linguistics and archeology knowledge has improved, not only for the empires and kingdoms of Ethiopia, Ghana, Mali, Nubia, Kush and Kerma.


title: Human history

text: Colonization happened after Christopher Columbus came to the Americas. European countries such as England, France, and Spain built colonies in the Americas. These settlers fought the Native Americans to take over their land. The colonisation of the Americas was the beginning of modern times.


title: Human history

text: An important part about contact with the Americas was the Columbian Exchange The Columbian Exchange brought new foods, ideas, and diseases to the Old World and New World, changing the way people lived. Historians believe that almost everyone as far as Asia was affected in some way by the Columbian Exchange.


title: Human history

text: Protestant Reformation started with Martin Luther and the posting of the 95 theses on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg, Germany. At first he protested against corruption such as simony or the sale of indulgences. But then it became clear that he had different ideas about the church doctrine. He thought that Christians should only read the Bible to find out what God wants from them. That meant that they did not need priests (see: Five solas). The three most important traditions that came directly from the Protestant Reformation were the Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist, Presbyterian, etc.), and Anglican traditions.


title: Human history

text: The Counter-Reformation, or Catholic Reformation, was the Catholic Church fighting the Protestant Reformation. New religious orders, such as the Jesuits were founded and missionaries sent around the world. Decisions were taken at the Council of Trent (1545–1563).


title: Human history

text: The Industrial Revolution started in Great Britain. It brought many advances in the way goods were produced. These advances allowed people to produce much more than they needed for living. The early British Empire split as its colonies in America revolted to establish a representative government.


title: Human history

text: The French Revolution lead to massive political change in continental Europe, as people following the ideas of Enlightenment asked for human rights with the slogan "liberté, egalité, fraternité" (liberty, equality, fraternity). That led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, but also to terror and the execution of King Louis XVI. The French leader, Napoleon Bonaparte, conquered and changed Europe through war up to 1815. As more and more small property holders were granted the vote, in France and the UK, socialist and trade union activity developed and revolution gripped Europe in 1848. The last vestiges of serfdom were abolished in Austria-Hungary in 1848. Russian serfdom was abolished in 1861. The Balkan nations began to regain their independence from the Ottoman Empire. After the Franco-Prussian War, Italy and Germany became unified in 1870 and 1871. Conflict spread across the globe, in a chase for empires. The search for a "place in the sun" ended with the outbreak of World War I. In the desperation of war, the Russian Revolution promised the people "peace, bread and land". The defeat of Germany came at the price of economic destruction, which was written down in the Treaty of Versailles.


title: Human history

text: From 1644 to 1912 the Qing or "Manchu Dynasty" ruled China. The dynasty was founded by the Manchu clan in northeast China (Manchuria). It expanded into China proper and its surrounding territories, establishing the "Empire of the Great Qing".


title: Human history

text: Its military power weakened during the 1800s, and faced with international pressure, massive rebellions and defeats in wars, the Qing Dynasty declined after the mid-19th century. It was overthrown in 1912.


title: Human history

text: During the Edo period, Japan had many small rulers. There were about 200 of them, called the daimyo. Out of them, the Tokugawa clan was most powerful. They ruled from a place called Edo. This place was around the present day’s Tokyo. For fifteen generations they were the most powerful clan in Japan.


title: Human history

text: Beginning from the early 17th century, the rulers (known as shogunate) started a policy of seclusion (stopping some people coming in), known as sakoku in Japanese language. They suspected that traders, merchants and missionaries wanted to bring Japan under the control of European powers. Except the Dutch and the Chinese, all foreigners, traders and merchants from other countries, missionaries were no longer allowed into Japan.


title: Human history

text: Still even during the period of seclusion, Japanese continued to gain information and knowledge about other parts of the world.


title: Human history

text: This policy of seclusion lasted for about 200 years. It ended 1868 with Meiji Restoration, when the emperor took over again and started a lot of reforms.


title: Human history

text: The Mughal Empire existed from 1526 to 1857. When it was biggest it ruled most of the Indian subcontinent, then known as Hindustan, and parts of what is now Afghanistan. It was founded by Babur in 1526 and ruled until 1530. Its most important ruler was Akbar (1556–1605). After the death of Aurangjeb (1658–1707), the Mughal Empire became weak. It continued until 1857. By that time, India came under the British Raj.


title: Human history

text: Settlement by the Spanish started the European colonization of the Americas, it meant genocide of the native Indians. The Spanish gained control of most of the Caribbean and conquered the Aztecs. So they founded the Spanish Empire in the New World.


title: Human history

text: The first successful English settlements were in North America at Jamestown (Virginia), 1607 (along with its satellite, Bermuda in 1609) and Plymouth (Massachusetts), 1620. The first French settlements were Port Royal (1604) and Quebec City (1608). The Fur Trade soon became the primary business on the continent and as a result transformed the Native Americans lifestyle. Plantation slavery of the West Indies lead to the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade.


title: Human history

text: Rivalry between the European powers created a series of wars on the North American landmass. The American Revolution led to the creation of the United States of America. Spain's hold on its colonies weakened till it had to give them independence.


title: Human history

text: During the 15th century the Portuguese began exploring Africa. At the Guinea coast they built their first fort in 1482. They started slave trade after the first European contact with America in 1492 to supply settlers from there with workers. Soon English, Spanish, Dutch, French and Danish merchants also built forts. But their influence on the inland was minor (except from decimation of population by slave trade) till during the 19th century larger colonies were founded.


title: Human history

text: The 20th century was a very important time in history. New technology and different ideas led to many worldwide changes in the time of just 100 years.


title: Human history

text: World War I was a war fought from 1914 to 1918. During the time of the war, it was called "The Great War", or "The War to End All Wars". Chemical poisons, tanks, aeroplanes, and bombs were used for the first time.


title: Human history

text: These were causes that made it likely that a war would start in Europe. The "spark" that started the war was the assassination of the heir to the throne in Austria-Hungary: Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a group of young Serbians. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and each country's allies then joined the war. This created a bigger conflict which turned into World War I.


title: Human history

text: Europe divided into two groups of allies: the Central Powers and the Allied Powers (the "Allies"). The Central Powers were made up of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria. The Allies were made up of Britain, France, Russia, Italy and the United States.


title: Human history

text: World War I was fought on two fronts; the Eastern Front and the Western Front. Trench warfare was commonly used on the Eastern Front.


title: Human history

text: Because of a British blockade, Germany began using U-boats, or submarines, to sink British ships. After the sinking of two ships with Americans on board, and the public release of the Zimmermann Note, The U.S. declared war on Germany, joining the Allies.


title: Human history

text: On November 11, 1918, Germany signed the armistice, meaning "the laying down of arms", to end the war. After the war ended, the Treaty of Versailles was written and Germany was made to sign it. They had to pay $33 million in reparations (payment for damage). The influenza pandemic of 1918 spread around the world, killing millions.


title: Human history

text: After the war the German Empire, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire and Austrian Empire ended and France and Britain got weaker.


title: Human history

text: The 1920s and 1930s had military-related fascist dictators take control of Italy, Germany, Japan and Spain. They were helped by the Great Depression starting in 1929. When Hitler in 1933 had gained power in Germany he prepared World War II.


title: Human history

text: Of all the wars ever fought, World War II involved the most countries and killed the most people. More than 60 million people died, making it the worst disaster of all time. It lasted six years in Europe, from 1939 to 1945.


title: Human history

text: It was fought between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) and the Allied Powers. At first the Axis Powers were successful, but that ended in Europe with the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943 and the invasion in Normandy in 1944. But Hitler was able to pursue his plan to annihilate Jews nearly all over Europe. Today, this plan is called the Holocaust.


title: Human history

text: In the Pacific it ended with the battles of Midway and Guadalcanal. Germany surrendered on May 8. The Soviet invasion of Japan led Japan to surrender on August 15, 1945.


title: Human history

text: After World War II the United Nations was founded in the hope that it could solve arguments among nations and keep wars from happening. Communism spread to Central and Eastern Europe, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, North Vietnam and North Korea. In 1949, China became communist. During the 1950s and 1960s, many third world countries became communist.


title: Human history

text: This led to the Cold War, a forty-year argument between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their allies (mainly countries that were members of NATO or the Warsaw Pact). Each country wanted to promote their type of government. The Soviet Union wanted to spread communism, and the United States wanted to spread democracy. People across the world feared a nuclear war because of the tension.


title: Human history

text: Communism became less popular when it became clear that it could not promote economic growth as well as Western states and that it was not suited for a reform that allowed freedom of speech for everybody. Therefore, the Soviet Union forced Hungary to give up its reform in 1956, it favored the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961 and it stopped reform in Czechoslovakia in 1968. When in 1988/89 Gorbachev made clear that he would not force the countries of the East block to stick to Communism the Berlin Wall was torn down in 1989 and the Soviet Union collapsed (1991). Then the United States was the only superpower left.


title: Human history

text: After Mao Zedong's death China's communist party proved that economic reform was possible without political freedom and paved the way for enormous economic growth.


title: Human history

text: As the 20th century ended, the European Union began to rise and included former satellite states and even parts of the Soviet Union. States in Asia, Africa and South America tried to copy the European Union.


title: Human history

text: The twentieth century was a time of great progress in terms of technology. People began to live longer because of better medicine and medical technology. New communications and transportation technologies connected the world. But these advances also helped cause problems with the environment.


title: Human history

text: The last half of the century had smaller wars. Improved information technology and globalization increased trade and cultural exchange. Space exploration expanded through the solar system. The structure of DNA was discovered.


title: Human history

text: The same period also raised questions about the end of human history because of global dangers: nuclear weapons, greenhouse effect and other problems in the environment.


title: Human history

text: As the 20th century ended, globalization has continued. During this period, communications with mobile phones and the Internet have expanded, which has led to fundamental social changes in corporation, political, and individuals' personal lives. Due to the population of growth and industrialization, worldwide resource competition is becoming increasingly highly, especially in India, China and the United States. The increasing demand on the environmental degradation and global warming.


title: Human history

text: A new Great Recession affected the world in the late 2000s and the early 2010s, and the COVID-19 pandemic spread in 2020, causing further economic and political disruption. Some scientists referred to this as a "Planetary Phase of Civilization".


title: Cumbria

text: Cumbria is a county in England. It is in the very north-western part of England on the border with Scotland. The most important and biggest town is Carlisle, in the north of the county. This is the county town and there is an ancient (very old) castle in the centre of the town.


title: Cumbria

text: In 1974, Cumberland, Westmorland and bits of Yorkshire and Lancashire were put into the new county of Cumbria. The world famous Lake District national park is in Cumbria. Millions of tourists visit the Lake District to enjoy sailing on the lakes and the impressive mountains that are here. The highest mountain in England is in the Lake District, it is called Scar Fell.


title: Cumbria

text: Cumbria is very popular with people who enjoy walking although the weather is very poor here. It often rains and is cold. Many tourists from Japan and China visit Cumbria. Popular places for them and other tourists to see are the poet William Wordsworth's two houses, the home of the famous children's writer Beatrix Potter and the island and lake where the writer Arthur Ransome based his books about the 'Swallows And Amazons'.


title: Book of Jeremiah

text: The Book of Jeremiah, or Jeremiah (, Yirməyāhū), is part of the Hebrew Bible, Judaism's Tanakh, and later became a part of Christianity's Old Testament.


title: Book of Jeremiah

text: Jeremiah began began his work in the thirteenth year of king Josiah (about 627 BC) and finished in the eleventh year of king Zedekiah (586 BC), when Jerusalem went into exile. During this period, Josiah reformed their religion, Babylon destroyed Assyria and Egypt briefly made Judah their subject. Then Babylon defeated Egypt and made Judah their subject (605 BC). Judah revolted several times and after the final time, Babylon destroyed Jerusalem and its Temple and took away its king and many of the leading people in 586 BC.


title: Book of Jeremiah

text: Jeremiah's name is found in the Chronicles and the Book of Ezra, both written after the exile. He said that the exile would last 70 years. This was mentioned in the Book of Daniel.


title: Book of Jeremiah

text: Christians believe that Jesus was a suffering prophet and that this was like what happened to Jeremiah in chapters 37–44, as well as to the suffering servant described in the book of Isaiah Chapter 53.


title: Algebraic geometry

text: Algebraic geometry is a type of mathematics, studying polynomial equations. Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry.


title: Algebraic geometry

text: The main objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of sets of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves and quartic curves like lemniscates, and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates match a given polynomial equation. Simple questions involve the study of points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity. More difficult questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations.


title: Algebraic geometry

text: Algebraic geometry takes a central place in modern mathematics. The concepts it uses connects it to diverse fields such as complex analysis, topology and number theory. At the start, algebraic geometry was about studying systems of polynomial equations in several variables. Algebraic geometry starts at the point where equation solving leaves off: In many cases, finding the properties of all the solutions in a given set of equations have, are more important than finding a particular solution: this leads into some of the deepest place in all of mathematics, both conceptually and in terms of technique.


title: Algebraic geometry

text: Much of the development of the main stream of algebraic geometry in the 20th century occurred within an abstract algebraic framework, with increasing emphasis being placed on "intrinsic" properties of algebraic varieties not dependent on any particular way of embedding the variety in an ambient coordinate space. The developments in topology, differential and complex geometry came much in the same way.


title: Algebraic geometry

text: One key achievement of this abstract algebraic geometry is Grothendieck's scheme theory. This allows one to use sheaf theory to study algebraic varieties in a way which is very similar to its use in the study of differential and analytic manifolds. This is obtained by extending the notion of point: In classical algebraic geometry, a point of an affine variety may be identified, through Hilbert's Nullstellensatz, with a maximal ideal of the coordinate ring, while the points of the corresponding affine scheme are all prime ideals of this ring. This means that a point of such a scheme may be either a usual point or a sub variety.


title: Algebraic geometry

text: This approach also enables a unification of the language and the tools of classical algebraic geometry, mainly concerned with complex points, and of algebraic number theory. Wiles's proof of the Fermat's last theorem is an example of the power of this approach.


title: Frisian languages

text: Frisian refers to three languages that come from Friesland, a province in the Netherlands. They are spoken in the Netherlands, in Eastern Germany, and in some areas of Jutland, Denmark. It is also spoken on the Frisian Isles (Wadden Isles) and Western German (East Frisian) Isles such as Borkum.


title: Frisian languages

text: They are West Germanic languages that are related to Dutch and are also the closest living languages to English. All of them have been spoken since Roman times.


title: Yvelines

text: Yvelines is a department in the Île-de-France region. Its prefecture is Versailles. About 1,395,000 people live there (2006 estimation).


title: Moulin Rouge

text: Moulin Rouge ("Red Windmill") is a traditional cabaret and nightclub which began in 1889. It is on Boulevard de Clichy in the 18th "arrondissement" (district of the city). This is near the French quarter of Montmartre in the red-light district of Paris called Pigalle. The theatre can be recognized by the large red windmill on its roof.


title: Moulin Rouge

text: The Moulin Rouge puts on cabaret shows every day. It is where the famous French dance, the Can-can, was first performed. It is also famous because many artists and writers have often gone there. Henri Toulouse-Lautrec designed many posters for the cabaret. Because of this, the management always set aside a table where he could have a meal and watch the show.


title: Moulin Rouge

text: Several movies have been made about the Moulin Rouge. The latest is "Moulin Rouge!" directed by Baz Luhrmann. Jean Renoir made another film about the Moulin Rouge.


title: Julianne Moore

text: Julianne Moore (born Julie Anne Smith; December 3, 1960) is an American actress with Scottish origins. She was born in Fayetteville, North Carolina. She has been nominated for four Oscars, six Golden Globes, three BAFTAs and nine Screen Actors Guild Awards.


title: Julianne Moore

text: After studying theatre at Boston University Moore began her acting career in 1983 with minor roles. She then joined the soap opera "As the World Turns". She had several supporting roles in movies. Her performance in "Boogie Nights" (1997) brought her fame.


title: Julianne Moore

text: Her success continued with movies such as "The Big Lebowski" (1998), "The End of the Affair" (1999) and "Magnolia" (1999). She received particular praise for acting as a betrayed wife in "Far from Heaven" (2002). This won several awards. The same year, she was also nominated for several awards for her work in "The Hours". The critics have liked her for her recent performances in "The Kids Are All Right" and portraying Sarah Palin in "Game Change".


title: Julianne Moore

text: Since August 23, 2003 she has been married to Bart Freundlich. They have a son, Caleb Moore Freundlich (born on December 4, 1997) and a daughter, Liv Helen Moore Freundlich (born on April 11, 2002).


title: Ralph Puckett

text: Ralph Puckett Jr. (born December 8, 1926) is an American Army soldier and colonel. He led the Eighth Army Ranger Company during the Korean War. He was born in Tifton, Georgia.


title: Ralph Puckett

text: Puckett was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his actions on November 25, 1950, when his company of 51 Rangers was attacked by Chinese forces at the battle for Hill 205.


title: Ralph Puckett

text: On May 20, 2021, President Joe Biden awarded Puckett the Medal of Honor for his actions in the Battle for Hill 205.


title: Gemini (constellation)

text: Gemini is one of the constellations of the zodiac. It was one of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century AD astronomer Ptolemy. It is one of the 88 modern constellations today. Its name is Latin for "twins." It is from the twins Castor and Pollux in Greek mythology. Its symbol is ().


title: Gemini (constellation)

text: Gemini lies between Taurus to the west and Cancer to the east. Auriga and Lynx are to the north. Monoceros and Canis Minor are to the south.


title: Gemini (constellation)

text: The Geminids are a meteor shower that can be seen best on December 13–14. People watching it see about 100 meteors per hour at most. It one of the richest meteor showers. The Epsilon Geminids peak between October 18 and October 29. They have only been recently confirmed. They overlap with the Orionids. This makes the Epsilon Geminids hard to see. Epsilon Geminid meteors move faster than Orionids.


title: Gemini (constellation)

text: In Babylonian astronomy, the stars Castor and Pollux were known as the Great Twins (MUL.MASH.TAB.BA.GAL.GAL). The Twins were thought of as minor gods. They were called Meshlamtaea and Lugalirra. These names meant 'The One who has arisen from the Underworld' and the 'Mighty King'. Both names can be understood as titles of Nergal, the major Babylonian god of plague and pestilence. He was king of the Underworld.


title: Gemini (constellation)

text: Castor and Pollux are the brightest stars in Gemini. They are two bright stars that appear very close together forming an o shape.


title: Gemini (constellation)

text: The Sun appears in the constellation Gemini from June 20 to July 20. In tropical astrology, the Sun is in the sign Gemini from May 21 to June 22, and in sidereal astrology, from June 16 to July 15.


title: Plywood

text: Plywood is a manufactured wood which is made by gluing several thin sheets of wood together with the grain alternately running along the sheet then across it.


title: Plywood

text: The veneer is usually about 3 millimetres thick for each layer. Interior layers of these boards are usually made from an inexpensive wood while the outer veneer layers are made from more expensive timber to give the board a nice wood grain appearance. The glued layers are heated together to make the seal become better bonded.


title: Plywood

text: A common reason for using plywood instead of plain wood is its resistance to cracking, shrinking and changing shape. It is cheaper and stronger than most plain woods.


title: Plywood

text: It is used to make a range of things from sheds, to cladding to cabinets. It is graded on the quality, from class A to class D, A being the best quality and D being the worst quality.


title: Plywood

text: Different kinds of plywood are made for different purposes. Marine plywood, for example, is especially resistant to water. There is a world-wide industry making plywood for structural purposes. IKEA is well-known for using mostly plywood and chipboard in their indoor and outdoor furniture products.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The spiny dogfish ("Squalus acanthias") is one of the most common and well known species of dogfish. It is a small species of shark, with an average length of 28-39 inches (70–100 cm), and reaching a maximum weight of 9.8 kg.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The dogfish is found in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, and can be found from the surface to depths as deep as 1,460 metres. The spiny dogfish feeds mainly on pelagic fish such as herring, menhaden, capelin, sand lance, and mackerel.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The spiny dogfish has a slim, long body and a flattened head. The snout is narrow, with a pointed tip. The eyes of this species are quite large. The first dorsal fin is located about halfway between the pectoral fins and the pelvic fins. The second dorsal fin is about two-thirds the size of the first one and is located behind the pelvic fins.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: On the front of each dorsal fin there is a sharp spine attached to them, giving the spiny dogfish its name. The first spine is about half as long as the second spine. The pectoral fins form nearly perfect equilateral triangles, with rounded rear tips, and slightly concave rear margins. The pelvic fins are closer to the second dorsal fin than to the first dorsal fin. One the caudal fin, there is no notch on the upper lobe and the lower lobe is not well-developed. There is no anal fin on the Spiny dogfish.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The dorsal surface of the dogfish is slate-coloured and may have a brownish cast. There are rows of white spots along each side, from above the pectoral fins to above the pelvic fins. These spots are more visible on immature spiny dogfish, and they fade as the shark matures. With some individuals, the spots completely disappear. The edges of the dorsal fins and the caudal fin have a dusky-colour at birth, but this colour quickly fades. The ventral surface of the dogfish ranges from pale grey to pure white.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The average length of the spiny dogfish is 28-39 inches (70–100 cm), with adult males ranging from 24-35 inches (60–90 cm), and adult females ranging from 30-42 inches (76–107 cm). The maximum reported length of males is 39 inches (100 cm), and females is 49 inches (124 cm). Mature females can weigh as much as 3.2-4.5 kg (7-10 pounds), with a maximum recorded weight of 9.8 kg (22 pounds). The all-tackle game fish record is 7.14 kg (16 pounds), and was caught off the coast of Ireland in 1989.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: In the western Atlantic, the spiny dogfish ranges from Greenland to Argentina, and in the eastern Atlantic it is found from Iceland and the Murmanski Coast (Russia) to South Africa, including the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. In the western Pacific, the dogfish occurs from the Bering Sea to New Zealand, while in the eastern Pacific, this species is found from the Bering Sea to Chile.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Spiny dogfish are benthopelagic, meaning that they are found just above the bottom of the ocean. They are found from the surface to depths as deep as 1,460 metres. Spiny dogfish can be found in brackish water, but prefer seawater, and are commonly found in waters with the temperature of 7-15 °C. Spiny dogfish are found inshore and offshore, over continental and insular (island) shelve, and upper slopes. They are often found in enclosed bays and estuaries. They have been reported to enter freshwater but cannot survive there for more than a few hours.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Spiny dogfish have been found in the stomachs of cod, red hake, and goosefish, as well as other dogfish. Larger species of sharks, as well as seals and Killer whales also feed on the spiny dogfish. To defend itself, the dogfish curls into a ball, and strikes at predators with its spines on the dorsal fins.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The spiny dogfish usually feeds in groups. They feed mainly on pelagic fish such as herring, menhaden, capelin, sand lance, and mackerel, often consuming large numbers of them. They have been known to bite through fishing nets to be able to feed on the caught fish, usually releasing most of the fish. This has given the dogfish a bad reputation among fishermen. Other food items of this species includes molluscs (such as squid and octopus), crustacea (such as shrimp and crab), jellyfish, sea cucumber, algae, smaller sharks, and shark egg cases.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The gestation period of the spiny dogfish lasts up to 2 years. Spiny dogfish are ovoviviparous, meaning that the embryos develop inside eggs inside the female, and are nourished by yolk-filled sacs. Finally, the female gives birth to 1-20 pups, each one measuring around 20 to 33 centimeters. The spiny dogfish lives to the age of 20–75 years.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The dogfish poses little threat to humans, but if it is not handled properly, the spines on its dorsal fins can give a harmful wound. Also, the spiny dogfish has earned itself a bad reputation among fishermen due to its habit of biting through fishing nets to get at any fish which is caught in the nets.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The spiny dogfish is the most common living shark, yet two populations in the northwest and northeast Atlantic are at great risk due to overfishing. This shark is caught for food, liver oil, and is used to make sand paper, vitamins, leather, fertiliser, and pet food. Between 1900 and 1910, when the dogfish was at its peak abundance, it was estimated that up to 27 million spiny dogfish were caught off the Massachusetts coast every year.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Due to their long gestation period and the low number of pups they give birth to at a time, the spiny dogfish must be managed carefully. This species is extremely vulnerable to overfishing and is currently on the brink of collapse.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Commercial fishermen target mature females because they grow to larger sizes than males. The fishing of spiny dogfish increased dramatically in the U.S.A during the 1990s, resulting in the population of mature females to decrease by 75%, leading to low number of pups. In 2001, the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission (ASMFC) voted to extend an emergency action that closes state waters to fish for the vulnerable dogfish. This was in response to heavy fishing that devastated dogfish populations during the 1990s.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: In late 2000, a fishery management plan for the spiny dogfish began to develop, followed by its approval in November 2002. Federal and state recovery plans are currently in place but are continually challenged. The National Marine Fisheries Service, with new data predicting the collapse of the spiny dogfish populations, closed federal waters to dogfish fishing in July 2003. The spiny dogfish is currently listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN.


title: Salvatore Riina

text: Salvatore "Totò" Riina (; 16 November 1930 – 17 November 2017), called Totò 'u Curtu (; Totò being the diminutive of "Salvatore"), was an Italian mobster and chief of the Sicilian Mafia. He known for the murder campaign that reached a peak in the early 1990s when the assassinations of Antimafia Commission prosecutors Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino occurred.


title: Salvatore Riina

text: Riina advocated the killing of women and children, and killed blameless members of the public solely to distract law enforcing agencies. Assassin Giovanni Brusca estimated he murdered 100-200 people on behalf of Riina.


title: Salvatore Riina

text: Riina died on 17 November 2017 at the hospital in Parma of sepsis caused by surgery at the age of 87.


title: Cowry

text: The shell itself is almost always very smooth and shiny. They have with a long, narrow, slit-like opening. All varieties have a porcelain-like shine and many have colorful patterns. In life the shell is covered by the slippery mantle.


title: Cowry

text: Shell sizes range from 5 mm (1/5") for some tropical species to 15 cm (6") for the tiger cowry, "Cypraea tigris".


title: Cowry

text: The slippery shell is very difficult for most animals to grip. The very narrow toothed aperture of the cowry shell makes it difficult for predators to reach into. However cowries are still vulnerable to predation:


title: Cowry

text: For nearly 200 years, every species in the family Cypraeidae was placed in one genus, "Cypraea", but in 2002 the cowries were divided into many different genera.


title: Cowry

text: Cowries (esp. "Cypraea moneta") were used as a currency in Africa (Ghanaian cedi in Ghana named after cowry shells) and elsewhere, such as in China where the shell or copies of the shell were in theory used as a means of exchange. They are also worn as jewelry or otherwise used as ornaments or charms, as they are viewed as symbols of womanhood, fertility, birth and wealth. Many find the shiny, porcelain-like shells pleasing to look at.


title: Cowry

text: Cowry shells are sometimes used in a way similar to dice, e.g., in board games like Pachisi, or in divination (cf. Ifá and the annual customs of Dahomey).


title: Cowry

text: A number of shells (6 or 7 in Pachisi) are thrown, with those landing aperture upwards indicating the actual number rolled.


title: Cowry

text: Cowries have also been used in the recent past as a frame over which sock heels were stretched for darning. The cowry ridges allowed the needle to get under the cloth more easily.


title: Cowry

text: The Ojibway aboriginal people in North America used the cowry shells in ceremonies, and the Whiteshell Provincial Park in Manitoba, Canada is named after this type of shell. There is some debate about how they traded for or found these shells so far inland, away from the natural sources. Oral stories and birch bark scrolls seem to indicate that they were found in the ground, and/or washed up on the shores of lakes or rivers. The cowry shells so far inland may indicate the use of them by an earlier tribe or group in the area, and an extensive trade network in the ancient past.


title: Polypropylene

text: Polypropylene (PP), or polypropene, is a type of plastic. It is a thermoplastic polymer which can be made into a fibre for yarn and fabric, film for packaging, or many other shapes.


title: Polypropylene

text: As a plastic it can be made translucent but usually is opaque and often brightly colored. It is tough, and resists many solvents, acids and bases.


title: Polypropylene

text: It can be formed into a thin thread and woven into a strong strap, often used on backpacks, bags, and other things.


title: Polypropylene

text: In 2008, the global market for polypropylene had a volume of 45.1 million metric tons, which led to a turnover of about $65 billion (~ €47.4 billion).


title: Marion County, Florida

text: Marion County is a county in the U.S. state of Florida. The U.S. Census Bureau 2006 population for the county is 316,183. Its county seat is Ocala.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: Marion County was created in 1844 from portions of Alachua, Mosquito (Orange), and Hillsborough counties. Until 1853, Marion County included most of what are now Lake and Sumter counties. The county is named after General Francis Marion of South Carolina, a guerilla fighter and hero of the American Revolutionary War. Many of the early settlers of Marion County were from South Carolina. The county motto is "Kingdom of the Sun." Farms in the county are known for breeding champion race horses such as Affirmed and Needles.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: According to the 2000 census, the county has a total area of , of which (or 94.94%) is land and (or 5.06%) is water.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: Marion County is generally composed of rolling hills, some high and some low. The majority of its trees consist of live oaks, pine, and palm trees. Marion County is considered the southernmost county in North Central Florida, and the northernmost county in Central Florida.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: It is about a two hour drive from many of Florida's major cities. Orlando is 75 minutes to the southeast while Daytona Beach is about 90 minutes to the east. Tampa is about 75 minutes to the southwest. Jacksonville is roughly a two hour drive northeast. Miami is about five hours to the southeast. Fort Lauderdale is about a four-hour drive from Marion County.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: Marion County also has three large lakes at its opposite borders. Orange Lake is in the far northern part of Marion County, near the border with Alachua County. Lake Kerr is in the northeastern part of the county, near the town of Salt Springs. Lake Weir, the largest of the three, is in the far southern region near the border with Lake County. Part of Lake George is also in Marion County.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: Marion County is inland, centered between the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Gulf of Mexico to the west. Because of this, Marion County is not affected as much by hurricanes compared to the more coastal counties to its east and west. However, tornadoes are a major threat to this region of the state. Although Marion County is not near either of Florida's coasts, it is situated slightly to the west, so it takes a little less than an hour to get to the Gulf of Mexico while it takes about half an hour longer to get to the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 258,916 people, 106,755 households, and 74,621 families living in the county. The population density was 164 people per square mile (63/km²). There were 122,663 housing units at an average density of 78 per square mile (30/km²). The racial makeup of the county was 84.16% White, 11.55% Black or African American, 0.45% Native American, 0.70% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.69% from other races, and 1.44% from two or more races. 6.03% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: According to the 2000 Census the largest European ancestry groups in Marion County were English (18.7%), German (16.7%) and Irish (14.0%).


title: Marion County, Florida

text: There were 106,755 households out of which 24.70% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.60% were married couples living together, 10.70% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.10% were not related. 25.00% of all households were made up of people living alone and 13.00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.36 and the average family size was 2.79.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: In the county the population was spread out with 21.40% under the age of 18, 6.40% from 18 to 24, 23.80% from 25 to 44, 23.90% from 45 to 64, and 24.50% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 93.30 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.90 males.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: The median income for a household in the county was $31,944, and the median income for a family was $37,473. Males had a median income of $28,836 versus $21,855 for females. The per capita income for the county was $17,848. About 9.20% of families and 13.10% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.20% of those under age 18 and 7.40% of those age 65 or over.


title: Marion County, Florida

text: The Florida Department of Corrections operates facilities in unincorporated areas in the county, including the Lowell Correctional Institution and the Lowell Annex. The annex houses Florida's female death row.


title: Cinco de Mayo

text: and pride, and is held on May 5. It is celebrated in the United States and in some parts of Mexico, mostly in the state of Puebla. Cinco de Mayo is not Mexico's Independence Day, the most important national holiday in Mexico.


title: Cinco de Mayo

text: In the Mexican state of Puebla, Cinco de Mayo is celebrated because the Mexican army won the Battle of Puebla from the French army on May 5, 1862. This was a surprising victory. The army was under the leadership of General Ignacio Zaragoza Seguín.


title: Cinco de Mayo

text: In the United States Cinco de Mayo is more important than in Mexico. It is a day to celebrate the culture and experiences of Americans of Mexican ancestry. This is in the same way as other holidays like Saint Patrick's Day, Oktoberfest, and the Chinese New Year are used to celebrate those of Irish, German, and Chinese ancestry. Cinco de Mayo is celebrated by many Americans, not only by Americans of Mexican origin. Celebrations use both traditional Mexican symbols, like the Virgen de Guadalupe, and prominent figures with Mexican roots in the United States, including César Chávez. Many people display Cinco de Mayo banners while schools organize events to educate pupils about Mexico. Special events and celebrations highlight Mexican culture, especially its music and regional dancing. Examples include "baile folklórico" and "mariachi" demonstrations held every year at the Plaza del Pueblo de Los Angeles, near Olvera Street. Businesses advertise Mexican products and services, especially Mexican drinks, foods, and music.


title: Cinco de Mayo

text: Cinco de Mayo is also celebrated outside Mexico and the United States. For example, a sky-diving club near Vancouver, Canada, holds a Cinco de Mayo skydiving event. In the Cayman Islands, in the Caribbean, there is a yearly Cinco de Mayo air guitar competition. As far away as the island of Malta, in the Mediterranean Sea, revelers are encouraged to drink Mexican beer on May 5.


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: Eduardo "Eddie" Gory Guerrero Yañez (October 9, 1967 – November 13, 2005) better known as Eddie Guerrero, was an American professional wrestler from a legendary Mexican wrestling family. He wrestled in Mexico, Japan, Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW), World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and, most famously, in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE).


title: Normal force

text: Normal force is the force that the ground (or any surface) pushes back up with; If there was no normal force, you would slowly seep into the ground.


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: He started his wrestling career in 1987 in the Mexican Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre promotion. He became a star in Mexico long before he wrestled in the United States. In 1993, Guerrero began wrestling in Japan for New Japan Pro Wrestling, as Black Tiger II. He was one of the best Mexican wrestlers there are in the world and he made so many accomplishments throughout his lifetime. He won the NJPW Junior Heavyweight Super Grade Tag League Championship with The Great Sasuke making him the most successful Black Tiger. He also won the Best of the Super Juniors 1996 tournament of junior heavyweights. He got a shot at the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Champion The Great Sasuke at NJPW Skydiving J but lost the match.


title: Normal force

text: The normal force on a object is always perpendicular (at a right angle) to the surface the object is on.


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: Guerrero’s first break came in late 1994 when the owner of Extreme Championship Wrestling, Paul Heyman, noticed him and Art Barr. Barr died before he could join ECW with Guerrero. In honor of his fallen friend, Guerrero did his finishing move, the Frog Splash.


title: Normal force

text: On a flat surface, the normal force of an object is formula_1 (the object's weight, that is its mass multiplied by the force of gravity).


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: Eddie started wrestling for the WCW in late 1995 along with Dean Malenko and Chris Benoit, with whom he had worked in NJPW and ECW. At World War 3 he competed in the 3-ring, 60-man World War 3 battle royal for the vacant WCW World Heavyweight Championship. Guerrero was one of the final 10 men in the battle royal, but was tossed out of the ring by Four Horsemen members. Randy Savage won the match. At Starrcade 1995, Guerrero represented WCW in a WCW vs. NJPW World Cup tournament series. He fell to NJPW wrestler Shinjiro Ohtani in the match but WCW went on to win the series.


title: Normal force

text: Note that on a flat surface, formula_3 (angle)would be 0, and so formula_4 would be 1. Thus, the two equations are equal.


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: Despite Guerrero's success and popularity, he had been one of many wrestlers that were upset at never being given a chance to be main event stars in WCW. Guerrero responded to Bischoff's actions by forming the Latino World Order (or LWO) with Hector Garza and Damien, a take-off on Bischoff's New World Order. with Hector Garza and Damien.


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: On August 1, 2002 Guerrero began to wrestle for WWE's SmackDown! brand Guerrero aligned himself with his nephew Chavo, forming the tag team Los Guerreros. At Survivor Series 2002, Guerreros faced the tag team champions Edge and Rey Mysterio, and Angle and Benoit for the titles. Eddie made Mysterio submit to The Lasso From El Paso to win their first WWE Tag Team Championship.


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: During the summer of 2003 Guerrero had begun driving a lowrider to ringside. Guerrero would also capitalize on his "Lie, Cheat, and Steal" anti-hero image by using illegal tactics behind the referee's back to win matches. This caused his increase popularity to rise.


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: On January 29, 2004 Eddie won SmackDown’s! 15-man Royal Rumble, earning a shot at the WWE Championship At No Way Out 2004, Guerrero defeated the WWE Champion Brock Lesnar in the main event with help from Goldberg at WrestleMania XX he kept his title by beating Kurt Angle. At the end of this event, Guerrero celebrated in the ring with the WWE World Heavyweight Champion Chris Benoit.


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: At the 2005 No Way Out Eddie teamed with Rey Mysterio and defeated the Basham Brothers to win his final title, the WWE Tag Team Championship for a fourth time, with being it Mysterio's third reign. At WrestleMania 21 Guerrero began a feud with Rey.


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: Following his, Guerrero was named number one contender to the World Heavyweight Championship and given a title match with Batista. Batista defeated Guerrero at No Mercy 2005 to retain the World Heavyweight Championship.


title: Eddie Guerrero

text: Eddie Guerrero’s last televised match was November 11, 2005 on SmackDown. He defeated Mr. Kennedy earning a place on the SmackDown! team in the 2005 Survivor Series, He was not able to be in this match because he died on November 13, 2005 of acute heart failure and Eddie was replaced by Randy Orton. Eddie Guerrero was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame in 2006. Eddie's last match was actually on November 12th, 2005 in Albuquerque, New Mexico against Dave Batista for the World Heavyweight Championship.


title: Anniversary

text: An anniversary is a day on which people remember or celebrate an event that happened on the same date in a past year. The most common example is a birthday, where the birth of a person is celebrated every year on the month and day of which they were born. The first "anniversary" of something is celebrated exactly one year after the initial event occurred. The word was first used for Catholic feasts to commemorate saints.


title: Anniversary

text: Other examples of common anniversaries are those of weddings and deaths. Having anniversaries for sad incidents can be for remembering someone special, like a famous person that touched many peoples lives or to remember a tragic incident, so that it doesn't happen again. Most countries around the world celebrate national anniversaries. These could be the date of independence of the nation or the adoption of a new constitution, or the coronation of a monarch.


title: Anniversary

text: There are different Latin names used for anniversaries depending on the number of years that has passed since the initial event. For example, "biennial" means that two years has passed, "decennial" means that ten years has passed, and "centennial" means that 100 years has passed. For example, many countries have held a big celebration in the 100th anniversary of their country.


title: Bedroom

text: The bedroom is a room where people sleep. A bedroom mainly has a bed and drawers to hold clothes in. Many bedrooms also have closets. Some houses have more than one bedroom, and the biggest one is called a master bedroom. Master bedrooms also have bathrooms attached to them called an ensuite.


title: Serene Highness

text: Serene Highness is a style of address used by several princely and noble families throughout present-day Europe. It has also been used historically. It ranks below Royal Highness and Imperial Highness.


title: Serene Highness

text: is the title reserved for the princes of the sovereign princely families, currently unique the ruling families of Monaco and Liechtenstein. Some heraldists believe it is also due to the descendants of the sovereign Principality of Sperlinga, who sold the Castle but kept the title, and it is from all its members.


title: Style of the British sovereign

text: The precise style of British sovereigns has varied over the years. style is officially proclaimed in two languages:


title: Côte-d'Or

text: Côte-d'Or (literally, "Slope of Gold", "Golden Slope") is a department in the eastern France. It is one of the 83 first French departments made during the French revolution and one of the eight departments of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region.


title: Côte-d'Or

text: Its prefecture (capital) is the city of Dijon. The inhabitants of the department are called "Costaloriens" (women:"Costaloriennes") or "Côte-d'Oriens" (women:"Côte d'Oriennes").


title: Côte-d'Or

text: Côte-d'Or is one of the original 83 departments created during the French Revolution on 4 March 1790. It was formed from part of the old province of Burgundy. It was divided in seven districts: Arnay-le-Duc, Beaune, Châtillon-sur-Seine, Dijon, Is-sur-Tille, Saint-Jean-de-Losne and Semur-en-Auxois.


title: Côte-d'Or

text: In 1800, with the creation of the "arrondissements" in France, the seven districts were changed into four "arrondissements": Dijon, Beaune, Châtillon-sur-Seine and Semur-en-Auxois.


title: Côte-d'Or

text: After the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), the department was occupied by the Austrian army from June 1815 to November 1818.


title: Côte-d'Or

text: In 1926, the "arrondissement" of Montbard was made with the "arrondissements" of Châtillon-sur-Seine and Semur-en-Auxois.


title: Côte-d'Or

text: Côte-d'Or is the only French department who was not named after a geographical feature: a river, a mountain, and so on. The name was chosen by Charles-André-Rémy Arnoult, member of the National Constituent Assembly of 1789, who suggested the name, inspired by the golden hue that took the vineyards of the region in the autumn.


title: Côte-d'Or

text: The French word "" means, in this case, a slope that geologists usually name with the Spanish word "".


title: Côte-d'Or

text: Côte-d'Or is part of the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. The department borders with 7 departments that are part of 2 regions:


title: Côte-d'Or

text: The department has an area of . The highest point of the department is Mont de Gien (), high; it is in the "commune" Ménessaire. The lowest point of the department, high, is where the river Saône leaves the department, in the "commune" Chivres.


title: Côte-d'Or

text: A chain of hills called the Plateau de Langres runs from north-east to south-west through the department to the north of Dijon and continues south-westwards as the Côte d'Or escarpment, which takes its name from that of the department (without the hyphen). It is the south-east facing slope of this which is the site of the celebrated Burgundy vineyards. To the south-east of the plateau and escarpment, the department lies in the broad valley of the middle section of the river Saône.


title: Côte-d'Or

text: The Köppen climate classification type for the climate at Dijon is an "Oceanic climate" (also known as Maritime Temperate climate) and of the subtype "Cfb".


title: Côte-d'Or

text: The average temperature for the year in Dijon is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month, on average is January, with an average temperature of .


title: Côte-d'Or

text: The average amount of precipitation for the year in Dijon is . The month with the most precipitation on average is October with of precipitation. The month with the least precipitation on average is February with an average of .


title: Côte-d'Or

text: The department is managed by the "Departmental Council of Côte-d'Or" in Dijon. Côte-d'Or is part of the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté.


title: Côte-d'Or

text: There are 3 "arrondissements" (districts), 23 "cantons" and 704 "communes" (municipalities) in Côte-d'Or.


title: Côte-d'Or

text: The following is a list of the 23 cantons of the Côte-d'Or department (with their INSEE codes), following the French canton reorganisation which came into effect in March 2015:


title: Côte-d'Or

text: Côte d'Or has a population, in 2014, of 531,380, for a population density of inhabitants/km. The "arrondissement" of Dijon, with 373,574 inhabitants, is by far the one with more inhabitants. The other two, Beaune and Montbard, have respectively 97,107 and 60,699 inhabitants.


title: Parts per million

text: Parts per million is a unit which expresses a small amount of dimensionless quantities. Proportionally, parts per million represents one thousandth of a millilitre of something per litre of water, or one milligram of something per kilogram of soil.


title: Amelita Ramos

text: Amelita "Ming" Jara Martinez-Ramos (born December 29, 1926) is the wife of Fidel V. Ramos–the twelfth President of the Philippines–and was the eleventh First Lady of the Philippines from 1992 to 1998.


title: Religious symbol

text: A religious symbol is a symbol that is used to represent a religion. These include a star and crescent for Islam, a cross for Christianity, and the Star of David for Judaism. Religious symbols have been used by the military in many countries, including the United States military chaplain symbols.


title: Paul Pelosi

text: Paul Francis Pelosi Sr. (born April 15, 1940) is an American businessman. He owns Financial Leasing Services, Inc., a San Francisco-based real estate and investment company. He also owned the Sacramento Mountain Lions, a team in the United Football League (which does not exist any more).


title: Paul Pelosi

text: In the early hours of October 28, 2022, a man broke into Pelosi's San Francisco home screaming "Where's Nancy?" multiple times and attacked Pelosi with a hammer. The suspect was taken into police custody, while Pelosi was hospitalized with blunt force injuries and had surgery on his skull.


title: Alan Dershowitz

text: Alan Morton Dershowitz (born September 1, 1938) is an American lawyer, professor, and political commentator who is Jewish. He has spent most of his career at Harvard Law School, where he became the youngest full professor of law in its history in 1967, at the age of 28. He has held the Felix Frankfurter professorship there since 1993. He was born in Brooklyn.


title: Alan Dershowitz

text: Dershowitz is known for his role in several important legal cases and as a commentator on the Arab–Israeli conflict. As a criminal lawyer, he has won 13 of the 15 murder and attempted murder cases he has handled, and has represented many celebrity clients, such as Mike Tyson, Patty Hearst, Jeffrey Epstein and Jim Bakker. His most famous cases include his role in 1984 in overturning the conviction of Claus von Bülow for the attempted murder of his wife, Sunny, and as the appellate adviser for the defense in the trial of O.J. Simpson in 1995. In 2020, he was hired by President Donald Trump to defend him during his impeachment trial.


title: Alan Dershowitz

text: He is a political liberal, and has written several books on politics and law, including "Reversal of Fortune: Inside the von Bülow Case" (1985), the basis of the 1990 film; "Chutzpah" (1991); "Reasonable Doubts: The Criminal Justice System and the O.J. Simpson Case" (1996); "The Case for Israel" (2003); "Rights From Wrongs: A Secular Theory of the Origins of Rights" (2004) and "The Case for Peace" (2005).


title: Funk rock

text: Its earliest incarnation was heard in the late 1960s through the mid-1970s by acts such as the Jimi Hendrix Experience (last two albums), Eric Burdon and War, Trapeze, Parliament-Funkadelic, Betty Davis and Mother's Finest. In the 1990s acts such as Prince, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Rage Against the Machine and Faith No More revived the genre.


title: Funk rock

text: Funk rock is a fusion of funk and rock. Many instruments may be incorporated into the music, but the overall sound is defined by a definitive bass or drum beat and electric guitars. The bass and drum rhythms are influenced by funk music but with more intensity, while the guitar can be funk-or-rock-influenced, usually with distortion, which is similar to overdrive or fuzz.


title: Sheila Houlahan

text: Sheila Houlahan is an American actress and musician based in Seattle, Washington. Sheila is best known for portraying "Optima Prime" in the feature movie "Wallflower". In 2012, Sheila won an award in the "American Protégé"


title: Sheila Houlahan

text: Sheila studied at the Manhattan School of Music and obtained a Bachelor of Music in Vocal Performance. In 2009, Sheila performed at the "Salzburg Festival" as a featured soprano soloist. She appeared on the Science Fiction TV series "Exceptionals" (2017), where she played the role of Ghania. Sheila also appeared in the feature movie "Wallflower" (2017), which was produced by Seattle based "Paradigm Studios".


title: Sheila Houlahan

text: Notably, in 2016 she performed as a headliner soloist at the CES Intel Live Show, Las Vegas along with Indian music director A.R. Rahman. According to IMDB, in August 2018, Sheila will appear on one episode of "The Wonderland Murders" (2018).


title: Preschool

text: Preschool is a term for early childhood education. It is education for very young children between the ages of three and six, before the start of compulsory education at elementary school/primary school. There are theories of child development which influence preschool activities, with the ideas of Jean Piaget that categorise this age group as a “preoperational” stage of development being the most influential.


title: Preschool

text: Early childhood education usually encourages children to learn by playing. But basic topics like counting or the alphabet may start to be taught.


title: Grid plan

text: A grid plan is the first basic plan in urban planning. It was developed in ancient Greece.It is a type of city plan in which streets run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. In ancient Rome a grid plan method of land measurement was called a centuriation.


title: Art Fleming

text: Arthur Fleming Fazzin (May 1, 1924-April 25, 1995) was an American television host. He is best known as the original host of the game show "Jeopardy!" from 1964 until 1975 and again from 1978 to 1979.


title: Art Fleming

text: He was born in New York City to William and Marie Fazzin, who had emigrated to the United States from Austria. Art studied at Colgate and Cornell Universities, and he later served in the United States Navy during World War II.


title: Art Fleming

text: Fleming first appeared on television as a body double for Ralph Bellamy in a detective series called "Man Against Crime". He later starred in movies like "The Flying Tigers" and "International Detective". He also played a lawyer named Jeremy Pitt in an NBC series called "The Californians". It was set during the gold rush in San Francisco in the 1850s. He also appeared in television commercials before becoming the first host of the game show "Jeopardy!" on March 30, 1964. Fleming hosted "Jeopardy!" until 1975. He won two Emmy Awards for that program.


title: Art Fleming

text: Fleming died after a two week battle with pancreatic cancer on April 25, 1995, just six days before turning 71. The same disease would later affect his successor on "Jeopardy!", Alex Trebek, 25 years later when he died on November 8, 2020 at the age of 80.


title: Fauna

text: Fauna means animal life. It is a group term; it means the animal life typical of the time or place. It is a similar term to flora in Botany.


title: Fauna

text: So one might speak of the Eocene fauna as being different from the Miocene fauna. Or say, the fauna of a particular habitat. The flora and fauna of a savannah differ from those of a rain forest.


title: Mikel Arteta

text: Mikel Arteta (born 26 March 1982) is a Spanish professional football manager and former player. He is currently the manager of Premier League club Arsenal.


title: Mikel Arteta

text: He first signed for Everton on loan from Spanish side Real Sociedad in 2005, but after many good performances manager David Moyes made this move permanent.


title: Mikel Arteta

text: Despite being rated one of the best midfielders in English football, Arteta has never played for Spain.


title: Mikel Arteta

text: On 12 March 2020, it was announced that Arteta had tested positive for COVID-19 amid its pandemic in the UK.


title: Baker

text: A baker is somebody who makes mainly bread. Some bakers also make cakes and desserts, but a traditional baker only makes bread. The place where a baker works is called a bakehouse or a bakery.


title: Baker

text: The first bread was made by the Egyptians in 8000 BC and in the Middle Ages most landlords had a bakery. They had a public oven and housewives brought the dough to the baker to cook.


title: Baker

text: Bread is now much sweeter than it was in the Middle Ages because a lot of corn syrup or honey is used.


title: Propane

text: Propane is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is an alkane with three carbon atoms. It is used in fuels.


title: Homicide

text: Homicide is when one person kills (causes the death of) another person. Homicide is sometimes a crime and sometimes not. If the killer wanted to cause death, it can be a crime called murder. If the killer did not want to cause death, but had no care for their own behavior, it can be a crime called manslaughter. Fighting to keep oneself safe from harm is called self-defense. If a person needed to kill for self-defense, it is usually not a crime. If a person killed in self-defense when they did not need to kill, it may be a crime.


title: Palm Beach County, Florida

text: Palm Beach County is the largest county in Florida. It is one of three counties that makes up the Miami metropolitan area. In 2007 the number of people in Palm Beach County was 1,351,236. The area of Palm Beach County is 2,386 square miles. Palm Beach County was made in 1909. The three largest cities in Palm Beach County are West Palm Beach (first, 150,000 people), the county seat, Boca Raton (second, almost 90,000 people), and Boynton Beach (third, almost 70,000 people). The county owns the southeastern area of Lake Okeechobee.


title: Palm Beach County, Florida

text: Palm Beach County was made from part of Miami-Dade County in 1909. It was split into more counties later on. In 1915 the southern part of Palm Beach County became Broward County. In 1917 the northwest part of the county became Okeechobee County. In 1925 the northern part of the county became Martin County.


title: WWE Championship

text: The WWE Championship is a professional wrestling world championship in WWE. It is the first world title of WWE. The title is said to be the biggest prize in professional wrestling and millions of people around the world watch matches for it.


title: WWE Championship

text: The WWE World Championship was created in 1963, and Buddy Rogers became the first world champion on April 29. It may have been created because of things that happened in the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) which is a wrestling company (or promotion) that had many "territories" in North America and some around the world. In the 1950s, Capitol Wrestling Corporation (CWC) was an NWA territory, and in 1963, people in CWC had a lot of control over the rest of the NWA. During this time, Buddy Rogers held the NWA World Heavyweight Championship, the world title of the NWA, until Lou Thesz defeated Rogers for the championship on January 24, 1963. After an argument over who should have won, CWC left the NWA and created a new promotion called the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF). The new company then made up a story for its new title, and said that the WWWF World Heavyweight Championship was separated from the NWA World Championship, and there was a tournament in Rio de Janeiro to decide a new champion. They said that Buddy Rogers won this tournament, by beating Antonino Rocca in the finals. (The tournament actually did not happen.) The WWWF came back to the NWA once again, and the WWWF was renamed to World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in 1979. After WWF left the NWA forever in 1983 the championship was named the WWF World Heavyweight Championship and later the WWF World Championship or WWF Championship in the 1990s.


title: WWE Championship

text: In 1991, World Championship Wrestling (WCW), another NWA territory, created the WCW World Heavyweight Championship and it was just as important as the NWA world title. WCW then left the NWA and became a rival promotion to the WWF. Both promotions became popular, and fought the "Monday Night Wars". This was a fight to see who could get better ratings on TV. Near the end of the ratings war, WCW started to lose money, and the Monday Night Wars ended in March 2001 with WWF buying WCW. After that, WWF had all of WCW's videos, some of their wrestlers and championships, and other things. The group of wrestlers who were in WCW joining the WWF was called "The Invasion". After this, the WCW World Championship was made one with the WWF World Championship, at Vengeance 2001 in December. At the show, Chris Jericho beat The Rock to win the WCW World Championship, and Stone Cold Steve Austin to win the WWF World Championship. Because of this, Chris Jericho was the last WCW World Champion and the Undisputed WWF World Champion as there was no dispute over what the most important prize in professional wrestling was anymore.