title: Christopher Plummer

text: In 2002, he appeared in "King Lear", directed by Jonathan Miller. The play had strong positive reviews. He was nominated for a Tony Award and a Drama Desk Award for his role in "King Lear". He also got a Tony Award nomination for playing Henry Drummond in the 2007 version of "Inherit the Wind". He played Julius Caesar in George Bernard Shaw's "Caesar and Cleopatra". The play was filmed and shown in Canadian movie theaters on January 31, 2009. In 2009 and 2010, Plummer was in two Stratford Festival plays of Shaw's "Caesar and Cleopatra" and William Shakespeare's "The Tempest". Plummer returned to the Stratford Festival in the summer of 2010 in "The Tempest" where he played Prospero. In 2014, Plummer presented a stage play "A Word or Two" in Los Angeles.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer's movie career began in 1958 when Sidney Lumet hired him as a young writer in "Stage Struck". That same year, Plummer played the main character in Nicholas Ray's movie "Wind Across the Everglades". Plummer did not appear in any other movie for six years after 1958. He returned to acting to play Roman emperor Commodus in Anthony Mann's "The Fall of the Roman Empire" (1964).


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer became well known for his role as Captain Von Trapp in Robert Wise's musical movie "The Sound of Music" (1965). Plummer however, said the movie was "so awful and sentimental and gooey". The movie made the most money than any other movie since "Gone with the Wind". Plummer hated being on the movie, but liked working with Julie Andrews. During his career, he tried not to talk about the movie. He did not show up at the 40th Anniversary cast reunion. He did talk about the movie for the 2005 DVD release. He appeared for the 45th anniversary with the full cast on "The Oprah Winfrey Show" on October 28, 2010. In one interview he said that he had great memories of making the movie.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: He was in "Inside Daisy Clover" (1965) and then played World War II agent Eddie Chapman in "Triple Cross" (1966). He had a role as Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in "The Night of the Generals" (1967). Plummer replaced Rex Harrison for the movie version of "Doctor Dolittle". However, Harrison later came back for the movie. Plummer was paid $87,500 for signing the contract.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer had the main role in "Oedipus the King" (1968) and "The High Commissioner" (1968). He was later in "Battle of Britain" (1969) and "Lock Up Your Daughters" (1969). That same year, he played Inca Emperor Atahualpa in "The Royal Hunt of the Sun". Plummer played the Duke of Wellington in "Waterloo" (1970) with Rod Steiger as Napoleon Bonaparte. He played Rudyard Kipling in "The Man Who Would Be King" (1975). He was also in the comedy "The Return of the Pink Panther" (1975), with Peter Sellers and "The Silent Partner" (1978). He was in "Aces High" (1976), "Starcrash" (1978), and "International Velvet" (1978). He played Sherlock Holmes in "Murder by Decree" (1979).


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer was in the romantic drama "Somewhere in Time" (1980), the drama "Eyewitness" (1981), and the comedy "Dragnet" (1987). Plummer also did some voice work. He voiced Henri the pigeon in "An American Tail" (1986) and the Grand Duke of Owls in "Rock-a-Doodle" (1991).


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer was in "" (1991). He was also in Spike Lee's drama biographical movie "Malcolm X" (1992), Mike Nichols' horror drama "Wolf" (1994), Taylor Hackford's psychological drama "Dolores Claiborne" (1995), and Terry Gilliam's science fiction drama "12 Monkeys" (1995). One of Plummer's most well known roles was as journalist Mike Wallace in Michael Mann's "The Insider" (1999). Plummer later played Dr. Rosen in Ron Howard's Academy Award-winning movie "A Beautiful Mind" (2001). He played Uncle Ralph in the 2002 movie version of Charles Dickens novel "Nicholas Nickleby". He also played the philosopher Aristotle in "Alexander" (2004). Plummer was wanted for the role of Gandalf for "The Lord of the Rings" movie series. He did not want the role.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: In 2004, Plummer played John Adams Gates in the Disney adventure movie "National Treasure". In 2005, he appeared in Stephen Gaghan's drama "Syriana", the romantic comedy "Must Love Dogs", and Terrence Malick's drama "The New World". Plummer did not like working with Malick on "The New World". He called Malick "boring" and told him to get a writer instead of Malick doing everything. He played Arthur Case in another Spike Lee's movie called "Inside Man" (2006). That same year, he was in the romantic drama "The Lake House" (2006). In 2009, Plummer voiced the main villain Charles Muntz in Pixar's animated movie "Up". Muntz character design was inspired by Plummer. That same year he also had a voice role in "9" playing 1.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: In January 2010, Plummer got his first Academy Award nomination for his role as author Leo Tolstoy in "The Last Station" (2009). In an interview about his Academy Award nomination, Plummer said: "Well, I said it's about time! I mean, I'm 80 years old, for God's sake. Have mercy". He lost the Academy Award to Christoph Waltz.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer had a role in David Fincher's "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo", playing businessman Henrik Vanger. Plummer got his second nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Hal in Mike Mills' independent comedy drama movie "Beginners" (2011). In the role, Plummer played a dying 80-year old who recently came out as gay to his son. He won the Academy Award for his role in "Beginners" at age 82. At the time, this made Plummer the oldest actor to win an Academy Award. In 2021, Anthony Hopkins won an Academy Award at age 83, beating Plummer's record. His Academy Award also made Plummer one of the few actors and only Canadian to win the Triple Crown of Acting. In 2014, he appeared with Shirley MacLaine in the comedy-drama "Elsa & Fred". In 2015, he was in "Remember" as a Holocaust survivor with dementia. Plummer played Ebenezer Scrooge in "The Man Who Invented Christmas" (2017).


title: Christopher Plummer

text: In November 2017, Plummer was hired to replace Kevin Spacey as J. Paul Getty in "All the Money in the World". He was director Ridley Scott's first choice for the role, but TriStar Pictures wanted a more well known actor for the role. Plummer was hired because Spacey had been accused of sexual harassment and sexual assault. All scenes that had Spacey were filmed again with Plummer. This happened a few weeks before the movie's release. For his role, Plummer earned Golden Globe, BAFTA, and Academy Award nominations for Best Supporting Actor. Plummer, at age 89, became the oldest actor to be nominated for an Academy Award.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer had a role in Rian Johnson's mystery thriller movie "Knives Out" (2019) as rich mystery writer Harlan Thrombey. Plummer also played Frank Pitsenbarger in the war drama "The Last Full Measure" (2020), in his final movie role. In 2021 before his death, Plummer was hired to play the main character for a movie version of Shakespeare's "King Lear".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer had his first television role in 1953 for Canadian Broadcasting Corporation version of "Othello". He was also in a 1953 "Studio One" episode "The Gathering Night". In the 1950s, he appeared in "The Alcoa Hour", "General Electric Theater", "Kraft Television Theatre", and "Omnibus". In 1956, he was in an episode of CBS's "Appointment with Adventure".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: He was in the live television drama "Little Moon of Alban". He got his first Emmy Award nomination for this role. He played Torvald Helmer in a 1959 television movie version of Henrik Ibsen's "A Doll's House". Plummer had a role in the television version of Philip Barry's "The Philadelphia Story" (1959). In 1964, his role as Gloomy Dane in the BBC's "Hamlet at Elsinore" got him his second Emmy nomination. He played Hamlet in "Hamlet at Elsinore".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: He played Herod Antipas in the television miniseries "Jesus of Nazareth" (1977). Plummer played Herbert Kappler in the television movie "The Scarlet and the Black". He had a role in the television series "The Thorn Birds". From 1993 to 1995, he narrated the animated television series "Madeline" and won an Emmy Award for his voice work. He also narrated the animated television series "The World of David the Gnome".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: In 2000, Plummer played Sir David Maxwell Fyfe in the Emmy Award-winning "Nuremberg" (2000). That same year he was in "American Tragedy" as F. Lee Bailey. He was in "Miracle Planet", and a documentary by Ric Burns about Eugene O'Neill. He got an Emmy Award nomination for his role in the television movie version of the play "On Golden Pond". Plummer voiced Arngeir, speaker for the Greybeards, in the video game "".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: At the age of 89, he appeared in a main role in "Departure". It was a Canadian-British television series. Plummer returned for season 2, but worked from home because of the COVID-19 pandemic. He finished filming for the second season before his death.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer married Tammy Grimes in 1956. Their marriage lasted four years. They had a daughter together, actress Amanda Plummer. Plummer was married to journalist Patricia Lewis from 1962, until their divorce in 1967. He later married actress Elaine Taylor in 1970. They lived together in Weston, Connecticut. He used to live in Darien, Connecticut before moving to Weston. Plummer had no children by his second or third marriages.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: In 1968, Plummer was honored as a Companion of the Order of Canada. His memoir, "In Spite of Myself", was published in November 2008. Plummer supported the Theatre Museum Canada and donated money to keep the museum open.


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Plummer died at his home in Weston, Connecticut on February 5, 2021 at the age of 91. He died two and a half weeks after a fall where he hit his head. Plummer's wife Elaine said that he had died "peacefully" when she was at his side. Prime Minister of Canada Justin Trudeau said that there is "no doubt [that] his work will continue to inspire and entertain us all for years to come". He called Plummer an "iconic actor".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: "The Sound of Music" actress Julie Andrews said that "The world has lost a [great] actor today and I have lost a [good] friend".


title: Christopher Plummer

text: Ana de Armas, Jamie Lee Curtis, Katherine Langford, Rian Johnson, Chris Evans, Don Johnson, William Shatner, Anne Hathaway, Elijah Wood, Vera Farmiga, Ed Asner, Ridley Scott, Spike Lee, Simon Pegg, Kate Beckinsale, Antonio Banderas, Leonard Maltin, Daniel Dae Kim, George Takei, Russell Crowe, Bruce Greenwood and Joseph Gordon-Levitt also reacted to his death.


title: Mário Zagallo

text: Mário Jorge Lobo Zagallo (; born 9 August 1931) is a Brazilian former professional football player and manager, who played as a forward. Zagallo is regarded as one of the best football players of all time and is considered to be one of the greatest world's managers. Physically limited by his low stature, Zagallo began his career as a left midfielder and then moved also due to excessive competition in the role in the role of pure winger, characterized by his usefulness in defensive recoveries and in midfield as well as for his effective attacks on the offensive front.


title: Ipswich

text: Ipswich is a large town in the East Anglian county of Suffolk England. It is the county town of Suffolk. It is near the estuary of the River Orwell. 117,069 people live there. In the Tudor period Ipswich was famous for the Wool Trade and there are still a lot of Tudor buildings which survive to this day. Thomas Wolsey, who was a famous adviser to Henry VIII was born in Ipswich. In modern times Ipswich became infamous as in 2006 a serial killer murdered five sex workers over a short space of time.


title: Ipswich

text: The town is home to Ipswich Town F.C., an association football team. They play in the town at a stadium called Portman Road.


title: Baguette

text: Baguettes are long thin of bread popular in France, but now common in many other countries. Usually, they are made of white bread. Baguettes usually have a hard crust on the outside but soft white bread on the inside.


title: Baguette

text: French traditions say that bread may only contain the following four things: flour, water, yeast and salt. Anything containing more than those things must not be called bread.


title: Baguette

text: A baguette is about 5-6 cm wide, 3 to 4 cm high, and about 65 cm long. Such a baguette usually weighs about 250 grams. It is common to dip the bread into olive oil when it is eaten.


title: Baguette

text: The baguette is thought as to have come from France, but it actually came from Vienna. In the middle of the nineteenth century, steam ovens had just been brought into use. This allowed loaves to be made with a crispy crust and the white centre, similar to today's baguettes.


title: Baguette

text: Later, in 1920, a law was passed that did not let bakers work before 4am. This made it impossible to make a larger loaf in time for their customers' breakfasts. The longer, thinner baguette helped solve this problem because it could be prepared and baked much faster. However, since the French had been making long thin loaves for a long time, what exactly was invented in 1920? It seems to be just the use of the word "baguette" for those thin loaves.


title: Baguette

text: Outside France, the baguette is also called a 'French stick'. It is a loaf of bread, up to a metre long but only about four to five centimetres in diameter. The baguette is a symbol of France.


title: Baguette

text: Baguettes are eaten as a sandwich cut in half lengthwise. They are also eaten for breakfast (usually with jam or chocolate spread).


title: Baguette

text: A loaf the same length as a baguette but thicker (about 8-10 centimetres diameter) is known as 'pain'. A thin version of the baguette is called 'ficelle'.


title: Mesozoic

text: The Mesozoic was the geological era in which dinosaurs lived, as well as the first mammals. It lasted about 186 million years, starting 252.2 mya (million years ago) with the P/Tr extinction and ending 65 mya with the K/T extinction (the one that killed all dinosaurs except birds).


title: Mesozoic

text: Dinosaurs appeared around 231 mya (21 million years after the beginning of the Mesozoic). They evolved from the reptiles called archosaurs. Modern birds and crocodiles are part of that group.


title: Mesozoic

text: Although mammals originated in the Upper Triassic, their fate was quite different to the dinosaurs. Mammals spent most of the long Jurassic and Cretaceous periods as small nocturnal animals living mainly in forests. Most lost their colour vision. Mammals today have some colour vision. Most have red-green colour blindness, with only two types of cones. Primates have three types of colour receptors (cone cells), which gives them "trichromatic colour vision". Colour is needed in forests to spot ripe fruit.


title: Mesozoic

text: The Mesozoic is the middle of the three eras that make up the Phanerozoic eon. Before the Mesozoic was the Palaeozoic era. The K/T extinction in 65 mya also marks the beginning of the Cenozoic era, the one we live in.


title: Mesozoic

text: The ecology of this world was quite different to that of the Pleistocene, the era when humans evolved. For much of human history we lived in a cold world with quite a sharp difference between land and sea.


title: Mesozoic

text: The Mesozoic was a much warmer world, with a higher temperature, and a high water stand. There was little or no ice at the poles and the continents had large areas covered with shallow continental seas.


title: Mesozoic

text: Moreover, the continents were all quite near each other, or actually touching. Many land animals could walk or swim to other continents. Actually, the Mesozoic starts off with all the continents together in Pangaea. They stayed pretty close for the rest of the Mesozoic.


title: Mesozoic

text: Textbooks have always described how the Mesozoic was the age of the dinosaurs, which has even more sense now that we know birds descended from land dinosaurs. It was the age, too, of extraordinary marine reptiles. Mammals were mainly small nocturnal animals which scurried around in the night-times of the great forests. We know from their loss of colour vision (which is trichromatic in fish and reptiles) that mammals lived a nocturnal life.


title: Mesozoic

text: For most of the Mesozoic, the plants were different from those of today. Only in the Upper Cretaceous do we find flowering plants of the modern kind. Before then ferns and conifers covered the land. They were the typical food of the huge vegetarian dinosaurs. Horsetails like "Equisetum" formed the understory of the huge conifer forests.


title: Wikiversity

text: Wikiversity is a free wiki website, a sister project of Wikipedia, and run by the Wikimedia Foundation. It is used to help students learn, or teachers to teach. Wikiversity develops learning resources on every subject which users are interested in. It has many links to other wikis with educational material like Wikipedia and Wikibooks.


title: Wikiversity

text: Wikiversity started in 2006. Before that Wikiversity was a part of Wikibooks, the library of free textbooks. There are currently wikiversities in many different languages: Czech, English, French, German, Greek, Japanese, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish.


title: Wikiversity

text: Wikiversity is the best way to develop a small wiki resource to learn your favorite topic if the information is from Wikipedia or Wikibooks. It is also a good place to use the MediaWiki wiki tools.


title: Wikiversity

text: Wikiversity resources are different from Wikipedia because the user can begin research on the topic. Wikipedia uses materials that are notable and not original research. Wikiversity allows resources and articles developed among individual users. Wikiversity users don't have to share changes with other users. are used to write articles on your own.


title: Wikiversity

text: Wikiversity Beta is used to make new Wikiversities. If users speak a language that needs a Wikiversity, then Wikiversity Beta is where they make their resources.


title: Great Purge

text: It was a large-scale "repression" of the more wealthy peasants ("kulaks"). Ethnic minorities were murdered. Even members of the Communist Party, government officials, and the Red Army leadership were killed.


title: Great Purge

text: Everyone was watched by the police. Everyone was suspected. People were imprisoned without a fair trial. Executions were common. Historians think the total number of deaths due to Stalinist repression in 1937–38 was between 950,000 to 1.2 million.


title: Great Purge

text: The "Kulak Operation" and the targeting of national minorities made up the Great Terror. Together these two actions caused nine-tenths of the death sentences and three-fourths of Gulag prison camp sentences.


title: Great Purge

text: In the Western world, Robert Conquest's 1968 book "The Great Terror" popularized the phrase. Conquest's title was a reminder of the French Revolution time known as the Reign of Terror (French: "la Terreur", "the Terror"; from June to July 1794: "la Grande Terreur", 'the Great Terror').


title: Water clock

text: A water clock was a tool for measuring the times by the flow of liquid into or out of a vessel. Water clocks are one of the oldest time-measuring tools. The bowl-shaped outflow is the simplest form of a water clock and is known to have existed in Babylon, Egypt, and Persia around the 16th century BC. Other regions of the world, including India and China, also have early evidence of water clocks.


title: Water clock

text: A water clock uses the flow of water to measure time. There are two types of water clocks: inflow and outflow. In an outflow water clock, a container is filled with water, and the water is drained slowly out of the container. An inflow water clock works in basically the same way, except instead of flowing out of the container, the water is filling up the marked container. As the container fills, the observer can see where the water meets the lines and tell how much time has passed.


title: Water clock

text: The use of water clocks in Persia or Greater Iran ,especially in desert area of Iran such as Yazd, Isfahan, and Gonabad,dates back to 500 BC. Later they were also used to say the exact time of holy days of pre-Islamic religions, such as telling the time of the equal day and night ( "Nowruz)", "Chelah", or "Yaldā" – the shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years. The water clocks used in Iran were one of the most practical ancient tools for timing the yearly calendar.


title: Water clock

text: The water clock, or "Fenjaan", was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from a qanat or well for irrigation, until it was replaced by more accurate current clocks.


title: Water clock

text: The Fenjaan consisted of a large pot full of water and a bowl with a small hole in the center. When the bowl became full of water, it would sink into the pot, and the manager would empty the bowl and again put it on the top of the water in the pot. He would record the number of times the bowl sank by putting small stones into a jar. The place where the clock was situated, and its managers, were collectively known as "khaneh Fenjaan"(times house). Usually this would be the top floor of a public-house, with west- and east-facing windows to show the time of Sunset and Sunrise. The Zibad Gonabad water clock was in use until 1965 when it was substituted by modern clocks.


title: Water clock

text: In Babylonian times, time was measured with temporal hours. So, as seasons changed, so did the length of a day. "To define the length of a 'night watch' at the summer solstice, one had to pour two mana of water into a cylindrical clepsydra; its emptying indicated the end of the watch. One-sixth of mana had to be added each succeeding half-month. At the equinox, three mana had to be emptied in order to correspond to one watch, and four mana was emptied for each watch of the winter solstitial night."


title: Water clock

text: According to N. Kameswara Rao, pots excavated from the Indus Valley Civilization site of Mohenjo-daro (around 2500 BC) may have been used as water clocks.


title: Water clock

text: Descriptions of similar water clocks are also given in the "Pañca Siddhāntikā" by the polymath Varāhamihira (6th century AD), which adds further detail to the account given in the "Sürya Siddhānta".. Further descriptions are recorded in the "Brāhmasphuṭa Siddhānta", by the mathematician Brahmagupta (7th century AD). A detailed description with measurements is also recorded by the astronomer Lalla (8th century AD), who describes the "ghati" as a hemispherical copper vessel with a hole that is fully filled after one "nadika".


title: Water clock

text: In ancient China, as well as throughout East Asia, water clocks were very important in the study of astronomy and astrology. The oldest written reference dates the use of the water clock in China to the 6th century BC. From about 200 BC onwards, the outflow clepsydra was replaced almost everywhere in China by the inflow type with an indicator-rod borne on a float.


title: Water clock

text: Some scholars suspect that the clepsydra may have been used as a stop-watch for imposing a time limit on clients' visits in Athenian brothels. Slightly later, in the early 3rd century BC, the Hellenistic physician Herophilos employed a portable clepsydra on his house visits in Alexandria for measuring his patients' pulse-beats. By comparing the rate by age group with empirically obtained data sets, he was able to determine the intensity of the disorder.


title: Water clock

text: The biggest achievement of the invention of clepsydrae during this time, however, was by Ctesibius with his incorporation of gears and a dial indicator to automatically show the time as the lengths of the days changed throughout the year. This is because of the temporal timekeeping used during his day. Also, a Greek astronomer, Andronicus of Cyrrhus, supervised the construction of his Horologion, known today as the Tower of the Winds, in the Athens marketplace (or agora) in the first half of the 1st century BC. This octagonal clocktower showed scholars and shoppers both sundials and mechanical hour indicators. It featured a 24-hour mechanized clepsydra and indicators for the eight winds from which the tower got its name, and it displayed the seasons of the year and astrological dates and periods.


title: Water clock

text: In the medieval Islamic world (632-1280), the use of water clocks has its roots from Archimedes during the rise of Alexandria in Egypt and continues on through Byzantium. The water clocks by the Arabic engineer Al-Jazari, however, are credited for going "well beyond anything" that had preceded them. Basically, at daybreak, the tap was opened and water flowed from the top tank to the bottom tank via a float regulator that maintained a constant pressure in the receiving tank.


title: Water clock

text: In 1434 during the Choson (or Joseon) Dynasty, Jang Yeong-sil (also variously transcribed Chang Yongsil or Jang Young Sil) (장영실 in Korean), Palace Guard and later Chief Court Engineer, constructed the Jagyeongnu (self-striking water clock or striking clepsydra) for King Sejong.


title: Water clock

text: What made the Jagyeongnu self-striking (or automatic) was the use of jack-work mechanisms, by which three wooden figures (jacks) struck objects to signal the time. This innovation no longer required the reliance of human workers, known as "rooster men", to constantly replenish it.


title: Water clock

text: The uniqueness of the clock was its capability to announce dual-times automatically with both visual and audible signals. Jang developed a signal conversion technique that made it possible to measure analog time and announce digital time simultaneously as well as to separate the water mechanisms from the ball-operated striking mechanisms.


title: CMYK color model

text: The CMYK color model is a subtractive color model, based on the CMY color model, used in color printing. CMYK refers to the four inks used in printing: cyan, magenta, yellow, and key (black).


title: CMYK color model

text: The CMYK model is subtractive. It means that it "subtracts" or masks colors from white background of the paper. The ink reduces the reflected light. White light minus red leaves cyan, white light minus green leaves magenta, and white light minus blue leaves yellow.


title: CMYK color model

text: White is the natural color of the paper, while black results from a full combination of colored inks. To save cost on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by using black ink instead of pure mix of cyan, magenta, and yellow.


title: CMYK color model

text: The "black" produced by mixing usual cyan, magenta, and yellow inks is actually a dark grey color. So, modern four-color printing uses black ink in addition to the subtractive primary colors. Common reasons for using black ink include:


title: Mohabbatein

text: Mohabbatein is a 2000 Hindi language musical romantic movie directed by Aditya Chopra and produced by Yash Chopra. The film has Amitabh Bachchan, Shahrukh Khan and Aishwarya Rai in the lead with six new debutants playing the supporting roles. The movie went to become superhit at the box office. The movie also won two awards.


title: Mohabbatein

text: The movie's music were done by Jatin Lalit while lyrics were written by Anand Bakshi. The music of the movie became the most sold album of 2000.


title: Francesco Totti

text: Francesco Totti (born 27 September 1976) has been an Italian football player. He has played for Roma.


title: Tyra Banks

text: Tyra Banks (born December 4, 1973 in Inglewood, California) is an American supermodel and actress. She is hosts her television programs, "America's Next Top Model" and "The Tyra Banks Show".


title: Tyra Banks

text: Tyra is tall. She is the CEO of her own company, TYInc. She was the first African American model to appear on the cover of "Sports Illustrated" Swimsuit Edition. Tyra is the "Youth Correspondent" for the "Oprah Winfrey Show". She signed modeling contract with the Elite Agency when she was 15 years old. Before she signed, Tyra planned on attending Loyola Marymount University.


title: Valencia

text: Valencia is a city in Spain, on the Mediterranean coast. It is the capital of the Community of Valencia. It has 807.396 people, making it the third-largest city in Spain and the fifteenth in the European Union.


title: Valencia

text: Valencia has a borderline hot semi-arid climate ("BSh" in the Köppen climate classification) and a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csa" in the Köppen climate classification).


title: Secession in Russia

text: Secession in Russia typically refers to state secession, which is the withdrawal of one or more states from the Republic of Russia.


title: Secession in Russia

text: This table shows only the list of movements. The source of each movement is cited in its own section. The population of each area is provided for information only.


title: Great Fire of London

text: The Great Fire of London happened in Central London in 1666. The fire lasted for just under five days, from 2nd September until 6th September.


title: Great Fire of London

text: It is believed to have destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the 80,000 people that lived in the city. It is not known how many people died in the fire. Only a few deaths are certain, but for many of the victims there were no records. The fire may have cremated many, leaving no recognisable remains. It threatened the aristocratic district of Westminster (the modern West End), Charles II's Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums, however, it never reached these districts.


title: Great Fire of London

text: The fire started at the bakery of Thomas Farriner (or Farynor) on Pudding Lane. It began just after midnight on Sunday 2nd September and grew very fast. Firefighters of the time usually made firebreaks by destroying buildings around the fire so it could not spread. This did not happen quick enough. Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Bloodworth was not certain what to do. By the time he ordered such measures, it was too late. The Tower of London guard used gunpowder to make good firebreaks that stopped the fire from spreading to the east.


title: Great Fire of London

text: The fire pushed north on Monday into the center of the city. Some people thought that foreigners were setting the fires. They believed it was the French and Dutch, who at that time were England's enemies in the Anglo-Dutch Wars. On Thursday, the fire spread over most of the city, destroying St. Paul's Cathedral and crossed over the River Fleet. It was close to setting fire to Charles II's court at Whitehall.


title: Great Fire of London

text: The social and economic problems created from this were very large. Leaving London to go and live elsewhere was strongly encouraged by Charles II. He feared a London rebellion amongst the refugees who had lost their property. Despite numerous radical proposals, London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire.


title: Great Fire of London

text: The fire is said to have also helped to get rid of the Great Plague which had hit London in 1665, and killed about 70,000 of the 90,000 population, who may have died in the fire. We are able to know a lot about the great fire of London because Samuel Pepys wrote in his famous diary at the time. When the fire started, he looked out of his window, saw the fire and started writing about it.


title: Great Fire of London

text: The damages have been calculated to 13,500 houses, 87 parish churches, 44 Company Halls, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House, St Paul's Cathedral, the Bridewell Palace and other City prisons, the General Letter Office, and the three western city gates—Ludgate, Newgate, and Aldersgate.


title: Pogrom

text: Pogrom (from Russian:"погром" (pogrom); from "громить" IPA: - to wreak havoc, to demolish violently) is a form of riot attacking people and property. The target of the attack is a group of people because of their ethnic identity or religion, usually Jews. In a pogrom, the local authorities such as the police do not arrest the rioters and do not come to the aid of the victims.


title: Pogrom

text: In a pogrom, the target people's homes, businesses, and places of worship are destroyed. People of the target group are physically attacked and some are murdered.


title: Multimeter

text: A multimeter or a multitester is an electronic measuring tool that is a combination of several tools in one unit. It usually includes an ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter. Digital multimeters are sometimes called DMM too.


title: Multimeter

text: Modern multimeters can be used to measure electrical quantities other than current, resistance and voltage. For example, they can be used to measure frequency, capacitance, transistors Hfe and temperature.


title: Multimeter

text: The multimeter can make many tests, so it is often called "multitester". When measuring resistance it acts as an ohmmeter, showing ohms. For volts it would be a Voltmeter. Sometimes it is called a mixture of things like Volt/ohm meter or VOM. Most meters can measure volts, amps, and resistance.


title: Multimeter

text: The multimeter can be used to measure the voltage of a battery. It can also be used for measuring the voltage across two points in a circuit. The Voltmeter is placed in parallel between the positive and negative terminals of the battery. It can also be used to measure resistance and amps hence the name of some meters "Voltmeter, Ohmmeter, and Amperage".


title: Multimeter

text: In 1820, the galvanometer was the first device with a moving pointer that could measure current. The Wheatstone bridge was used to measure resistance and voltage by comparing the unknown voltage or resistance to a known voltage or resistance. Even though the devices worked well in the lab, they were too slow to be useful in the field. These galvanometers were hard to use and big.


title: Multimeter

text: The D'Arsonval–Weston meter movement has a moving coil that holds a pointer and turns on pivots or a tight band ligament. The coil spins in a permanent magnetic field and is held in place by small spiral springs that also carry electricity into the moving coil. It gives a proportional measurement instead of just a detection, and the deflection is the same no matter how the meter is turned. Instead of balancing a bridge, values could be read directly from the instrument's scale, which made measurement quick and easy.


title: Multimeter

text: The basic moving coil meter can only be used to measure direct current, which is usually between 10 A and 100 mA. It can be easily changed to measure higher currents by adding shunts, which are parallel resistances or to measure voltage by adding multipliers, which are series resistances. A rectifier is needed to measure voltages or currents that change direction. In 1927, the copper oxide rectifier made by the Union Switch & Signal Company in Swissvale, Pennsylvania, which later became part of the Westinghouse Brake and Signal Company, was one of the first rectifiers that worked well.


title: Contiguous United States

text: The contiguous United States, or officially the conterminous United States, are the 48 U.S. states that touch one another plus the District of Columbia.


title: Contiguous United States

text: This excludes the states of Alaska and Hawaii, and all island territories and U.S. possessions such as American Samoa, U.S. Virgin Islands, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam and Puerto Rico.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A bell clap is a move where a wrestler slaps both of the ears of an opponent at the same time with the palms of their hands, mess up their balance. A bell clap is usually used to escape a bear hug.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A body press or splash, is a move where a wrestler falls against their opponent with the middle of their body. A body press can either be used from a running or a jumping position. It uses momentum and weight to impact the opponent, and most versions can be transitioned into a pin. It is a plancha in lucha libre.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A big splash is a type of splash where the wrestler jumps forwards and lands stomach-first on their downed opponent.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A body avalanche is where a wrestler charges into their opponent that is in the corner of the ring. The wrestler performing the body avalanche does not leave their feet during the move.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A crossbody or crossbody block is a move where a wrestler jumps onto their opponent and lands horizontally across their torso, forcing them to the mat and sometimes resulting in a pinfall attempt. There is also an aerial version, called the diving crossbody, where wrestler will leap from a high position towards their opponent.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A Lou Thesz press is a move where a wrestler jump towards a standing opponent and knocks them over, it results in the opponent lying on their back with the attacking wrestler sitting on the opponent's chest. A version of the Lou Thesz press involves the wrestler jumping on a running opponent and repeatedly striking the opponent in the face while in the mounted position. This version was made popular by Stone Cold Steve Austin. The original move was invented, popularized and named after Lou Thesz.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A stinger splash is where a wrestler runs at their opponent, who is upright in the corner, and jumps forward so that they splash their whole body stomach-first into their opponent, crushing them between the attacking wrestler and the turnbuckle. The move is also known as a corner splash.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A tilt-a-whirl crossbody is where a wrestler, that is being held and spun into a tilt-a-whirl by the opponent, falls down and pushes the opponent down back-first against the canvas after reaching a certain point where he is horizontally positioned against the opponent's torso. The move is uncommon and is a counter to the tilt-a-whirl backbreaker/tilt-a-whirl mat slam.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A vertical press is where a wrestler does a jumping attack against a standing opponent and lands against the opponent's upper body while remaining upright, and bringing them down to the mat into a vertical splash (seated senton) position.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A bronco buster is where a wrestler jumps in the corner on a seated opponent, straddles their opponent's body, and bounces up and down on their opponent's chest. The move is usually treated as having either comic or sexual meaning rather than as a legitimately painful move, the latter mostly true during some matches that involve female wrestlers.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: The koronco buster is a move similar to the bronco buster where the wrestler jumps onto their standing opponent in the corner, straddles and sits on their opponent's chest, and rests their feet on the second rope. The attacking wrestler then follows up with mounted punches.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A backhand chop or knife edge chop is when a wrestler uses a backhand wing and slaps the chest of their opponent with the palm of their hand. The move was popularized by Ric Flair an the crowd always responds to a backhand chop with a "Wooo!" noise.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A cross chop is a version of the backhand chop where the wrestler runs and lunges forward in a crossbody-type position, crosses their arms in an "X" fashion and then hits a double backhand chop on the opponent.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A forehand chop, frying pan chop or open-hand chop is a move where the wrestler slaps the chest of their opponent with their forehand.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A kesagiri chop is a move where the wrestler does a downward diagonal backhand chop to the side of their opponents neck, collar bone or throat.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A Mongolian chop is a move where a wrestler 'karate chops' both of the opponent's shoulders and sides of the neck with their hands' edges in a swinging motion at the same time.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: An overhead chop, brain chop or tomahawk chop is a move where a wrestler draws their hand back and hits their opponent vertically with a backhand chop. It usually hits the opponent's head.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A clothesline happens when a wrestler runs toward their opponent and extends their arm out to hitting the opponent in the neck or chest while knocking them over. It is often confused with a lariat.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A cactus clothesline is a type of clothesline that was used by Mick Foley during his "Cactus Jack" gimmick which it is named after. The wrestler performing the move charges at their opponent who is against the ring ropes and clotheslines them. Both the force and momentum of the charge knocks both the wrestler and their opponent over the top rope and onto the floor.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A corner clothesline is a move where a wrestler, instead of knocking into a standing opponent, charges against them in the corner.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A flying clothesline is where a wrestler runs towards their opponent, leaps into the air and hits a clothesline. There is another version of this where a wrestler leaps into the air and hits a clothesline on the opponent leaning against the corner turnbuckle.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A rebound clothesline is where the opponent run to the ropes on one side of the ring and rebounds off of them. The wrestler doing the move then runs to the same ropes, rebounds off of them and as the opponent turns around to face to the wrestler, the attacker hits the opponent with a clothesline.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A short-armed clothesline, short clothesline or short-range clothesline is a type of clothesline where a wrestler Irish whips their opponent but holds onto their arm. When the opponents arm is completely extended, the wrestler pulls their opponent back and hits a clothesline with the other arm. The move can also be used the same way but with an arm wrench or wrist lock replacing the Irish whip.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A springboard clothesline is a type of clothesline where a wrestler jumps onto a rope, springboards off of it and clotheslines their opponent. The most common version is where a wrestler is on the apron, goes to the top rope, and hits it on the opponent either in the ring or onto the floor. Another version is where a wrestler jumps to the second rope, springboards off over the top rope, and then clothesline their opponent on the apron. There are many different versions of the springboard clothesline.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A three-point stance clothesline is where a wrestler lines up in a three-point stance, charges at the opponent and clotheslines them.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A double axe handle, Double Sledge, Polish Hammer or Double Axe Hammer is a move where a wrestler clutches both of their hands together, swings them at their opponent and hits a part of them. The name Polish Hammer came from Ivan Putski. There is also a top rope version.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: Drops are types of moves where a wrestlers either jumps or falls down onto their opponent on the floor and lands with a specific part of the body.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A chop drop is where a wrestler either falls forward, or jumps up and drops down, and hits a lying opponent with a backhand chop on the way down. The attacking wrestler usually lands on their knees.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: An elbow drop is where a wrestler jumps or falls down onto their opponent while driving their elbow into anywhere on the opponent's body. A common type of elbow drop is where a wrestler will raise one elbow before they fall to one side and strike it across the opponent. Another common type of elbow drop is where a wrestler raise both of their elbows up and drop them directly forward either dropping one, or both elbows onto the opponent. This one is known as the pointed elbow drop.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A corkscrew elbow drop is where a wrestler raises one of their elbows before they fall and twist around as they fall to one side, striking their opponent with the elbow anywhere on their body. Sometimes, the attacking wrestler will swing one of their legs around before they fall, to gain momentum for the corkscrew twist.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A spinning headlock elbow drop is where a wrestler, after applying a headlock, performs any type of elbow drop. The most well known version of this is the inverted facelock elbow drop where a wrestler puts their opponent into an inverted facelock, turns 180°, and drops their elbow across the opponent's chest, driving them down to the mat. Another version of the move is where a wrestler uses their whole arm as a lariat instead of just the elbow. A side headlock can also be executed from a jumping position, and twisted around into a sitout lariat


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A fist drop is a move where a wrestler either jumps or falls down on an opponent and drives their fist into anywhere on the opponent's body.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A forearm drop is where a wrestler jumps down onto an opponent and drives their forearm into anywhere on the opponent's body.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A headbutt drop is a move where a wrestler either jumps or falls down onto an opponent and drives their head into anywhere on the opponent's body.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A knee drop is a move where a wrestler either jumps or falls down onto an opponent and drives their knee into anywhere on the opponent's body. The move is usually sold as more powerful if the attacking wrestler bounces off the ropes first. A type of knee drop called the Knee drop bulldog is where wrestler places one of their knees against the base of the leaning opponent's neck and dropping. This forces the opponent's head down to the mat, while the wrestler lands on the opponent's upper body, and drives their knee to the neck of their opponent. There is also a diving version.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A leg drop is where a wrestler either jumps or falls and lands so that the back of their leg hits across either the opponent's chest, throat, or face.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: An elbow attack is where a wrestler uses either their elbow of back elbow to attack opponent's chest, face, neck, etc.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A back elbow or reverse elbow is a move where a wrestler stands with their back to either a standing or a running opponent and strikes the opponent with the back of the elbow.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: The bionic elbow is a mover where a wrestler jumps or falls from a higher position and drops to the floor, dropping the point of their elbow right on the opponent. The move is banned from many mixed martial arts organizations, including the UFC and Strikeforce.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A corner back elbow is a move where a wrestler strikes their back elbow to an opponent in the corner, lying (facing inwards or outwards the ring) against the corner. The move is usually struck from a wrestler that is running.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A discus back elbow is a move where a wrestler that is facing away from the opponent, spins around to face away from the opponent and strikes the opponent in the face with a back elbow.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A discus elbow smash or roaring elbow is where a wrestler facing away from the opponent, spins 180°, and hits their opponent with an elbow smash. Another version of the move is where a wrestler that is first facing the opponent, spins a full 360° to face the opponent again to hits them with an elbow smash.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: An elbow smash is where a wrestler makes a punching motion, tucks their hand towards their chest so the elbow and forearm make contact. The elbow smash can be used as a replacement for punches because hitting opponents with a clenched fist is illegal in most wrestling matches.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A mounted elbow drop is where a wrestler approaches an opponent in the corner, and climbs up to either the second or top rope beside the opponent with one of their legs on either side of the opponent. The wrestler jumps off the ropes, and hits a bionic elbow on either the opponent's head, neck (if the opponent's neck is bent-down) or shoulder.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A short-arm elbow smash is a version of the elbow smash where a wrestler Irish whips their opponent but holds on to their arm. After the opponent's arm is completely extended, they wrestler pulls the opponent back and hits them with an elbow smash while using their other arm. The move can also be used in the same way but instead of an Irish whip, it is replace with either an arm wrench or wrist lock. It is used by grabbing hold of one of the opponent's arms, pulling it back towards the wrestler and elbowing them with the spare arm.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A facewash is a move where a wrestler rubs the sole of their boot across the face of the seated opponent in the bottom corner turnbuckle. The wrestler then runs and rebounds off of the opposing ropes, charges at the opponent and does either a running front kick, a running knee, a running low-angle big boot, a running low-angle single leg dropkick, or any other striking move.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A forearm club is a move where a wrestler uses one of their hands to take a hold of an opponent by either their head or hair. They then lean the opponent forward while extending their other arm, clench their fist and throw the arm down onto the opponent, either hitting the back of their head of neck. There is lesser used version of this move where the wrestler takes hold of the opponent, leans them backwards to expose their chest and clubs their chest.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A forearm smash is when a wrestler charges at their opponent and hits them in either the chest or face with a forearm to force them back and down to the mat.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A flying forearm smash is a where a wrestler runs towards an opponent (usually bouncing off the ropes), leaps into the air and hits the opponent with a forearm smash. The Springboard version is known by AJ Styles, called the "Phenomenal Forearm".


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A sliding forearm smash is where a wrestler runs towards an opponent (usually bouncing off the ropes), does a slide across the mat and hits their opponent with a forearm smash.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A headbutt is where a wrestler uses their head to hit an opponent in a part of their body. It is usually used to hit the face. Unlike a actual headbutt, the professional wrestling version usually impacts with the opponent's forehead and counts on the superior hardness of the wrestler's head as well as the momentum that is delivered to hurt the opponent without hurting the attacking wrestler.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A battering ram is where a wrestler stands and faces an upright opponent. The wrestler then lowers their head, either jumps or charges forwards and drives the top of their head into their opponent's abdomen. It can also be used as a double-team move.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: Trapping headbutts are where a wrestler holds both of the opponent's arms under their own and hits the opponent with a series of headbutts. The opponent is not able to counter it.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A knee strike is where a wrestler strikes their opponent using their knees. The idea of using knees as an offensive move is popular throughout British wrestling.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A Go 2 Sleep or Go to Sleep (often abbreviated to "GTS") is a move where the wrestler places their opponent in a fireman's carry and drops the opponent in front of them. While their opponent is falling, the wrestler lifts a knee up and striks the opponent in the face. KENTA, the creator of the move, also uses an inverted version where he lifts the opponent up into an Argentine backbreaker rack, throws them forward, and strikes the back of the opponent's head with his knee. Former WWE superstar CM Punk popularized the move.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A double knee is where a wrestler charges towards their opponent and strike them in either the head, chest or back with both of their knees.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A high knee is where a wrestler charges towards their opponent, jumps up, and raises their knee so it hits either the side of their face or head. The move has been closely associated with Harley Race and is often referred to as a "Harley Race-style High Knee".


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A shining wizard is where a wrestler delivers a knee strike to an opponent that is down on one knee. The wrestler steps off of the opponent's raised knee with one of their feet and swings their other leg so it strikes the opponent's head with either the side of their knee or shin. There a slight version of this where the wrestler uses a running enzuigiri to the kneeling opponent's head without the use of the opponent's knee for leverage. That version is known as a Shining Apprentice. The move can also be used on a standing opponent as well. The standing version is likely applied by stepping off of the opponent's chest and delivering a knee to their face. The move was created by Keiji Mutoh, otherwise known as the Great Muta


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A spinning knee, discus knee, or rolling knee is where a wrestler moves towards their opponent, performs a 360° spin and uses the momentum that they gained to deliver a jumping knee strike to their opponent's head. The maneuver can be delivered to either a sitting or standing opponent.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A hip attack, butt bump, or butt thump is a move where a wrestler gains a running start, jumps into the air, spins around, and thrusts their pelvis backwards, hitting either the opponent's head or chest with their hip or buttocks.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A back kick or reverse side kick is a move where a wrestler that is facing their opponent, turns 180° so their back is facing the opponent, extends their leg backwards which exploits the turning momentum to hit the opponent in wither the chest or stomach with the sole of their foot. There is also a jumping back kick where a wrestler does the turning motion when they jump.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A backflip kick or Pelé kick (named after the Brazilian Association football player) is a move where a wrestler has their back turned to the opponent, performs a standing backflip and hits their opponent in the head with either one or both of their legs. There is also a version called the Corner backflip kick where the opponent is in the corner and a wrestler charges at them, running the ropes beside the opponent (sometime up the opponent), reaches the top and kicks off the opponent's chest to do a backflip so the wrestler lands on their feet.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A big boot, Yakuza kick or Mafia kick is a move where when the opponent is charging at the wrestler, the wrestler lifts their leg up and uses the opponent's momentum to hit the wrestler's boot with their head or face. The move is usually done by taller wrestlers to further show its view as a strong attack although the wrestler is not moving and its the opponent that runs into their foot because of the wrestler's height making it easy for their leg to reach the head of a normal-sized opponent.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A bicycle kick is a move where the wrestler jumps up and kicks forward with both feet in a pedaling motion. The foot that gets lifted second extends fully and hits the charging opponent in the face. There is another version of the kick where the wrestler charges from a standing opponent and delivers the kick.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A calf kick is a move where the wrestler either one of their sides and connects the side of their rear leg to either the opponent's face or neck.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A crane kick is where a wrestler performs a crane stance, by standing on one of their legs, with their other knee raised and their arms extended in a crane position. They then strike either the opponent's head or face with either the standing or raised leg.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A dragon whip is a type of leg lariat or spinning heel kick where an opponent catches the wrestlers leg (after some attempt at a kick). The opponent throws the leg away from them self and the wrestler continues to spin all the way out with their leg still extended to hit a leg lariat.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A dropkick is a move where a wrestler jumps up and kicks the opponent with both the soles of their feet, the wrestler twists as they jump so that when the feet hit with the opponent, one of the feet is raised higher that the other. The wrestler then falls back to the mat on either their side or their front. The move is usually done by lighter wrestlers to gain an advantage with their agility.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: An enzuigiri is any move that hits the opponent in the back of the head. The move is usually done by lighter wrestlers and wrestlers that have a martial arts background or gimmick. The move is usually used as a counter move after one of the wrestler's kick is blocked and caught by the opponent. One of the more common versions of the enzuigiri is when the wrestler steps up the opponent's chest and hits the back of their head with the other leg or foot. The name enzuigiri comes from "Enzui" (the Japanese word for medulla oblongata) and "giri" (meaning "to chop"). The name of the move is sometimes misspelled as 'ensuigiri' or 'enzuiguri'. The move was created by Antonio Inoki.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A football kick or soccer kick is a move where a wrestler kicks an opponent, that is sitting on the mat, vertically into their back, with their foot hitting the base of the opponent's spine, and the shin hitting the back of the head.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: The jumping high kick or gamengiri is a move where the wrestler jumps up and kicks the opponent in either the face or the side of their head. It is often confused with the enzuigiri because of the similar nature of the move.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A legsweep is a move where a wrestler drops to one knee and extends their other leg, they then quickly pivot their body around and using their extended leg to knock away the opponent’s legs.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A mule kick is a move where a wrestler that is facing away from a charging opponent, bends down and pushes out one of their feet, hitting the opponent with the bottom of it. There is also another version called the double mule kick where a wrestler that is facing away from the opponent jumps and kicks backwards with both of their legs, hitting the opponent with both soles of their feet. The move is sometimes done in the corner. If the wrestler is acrobatically talented enough, they can roll forward into a standing position.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: An overhead kick is a move where a wrestler starts by either lying down or dropping down on the mat while the opponent standing near their head. The wrestler then lifts one of their legs and kicks up over their waist and chest, hitting the opponent with the top of their foot, usually in the head. The move can be used as a counter attack to an attack from behind.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A punt kick is a move where a wrestler runs up to a kneeling opponent and hits them in the head with the sole of their foot. It is based on the field goal kick but is named after the punt kick from American football.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A rolling wheel kick, abisegiri, rolling koppou kick, or a rolling liger kick is a move where a wrestler rolls towards a standing opponent, and extends a leg which hits the opponent in either the back, chest, or head.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: The most common type of savate kick is the "chassé", a piston-action kick, where the wrestler kicks the opponent so that the sole of their foot hits either their head or chin.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A scissors kick, jumping axe kick or butterfly kick is a type of leg drop where a wrestler bounces off the ropes, jumps, and drives their leg(s) into the back of the opponent's head and neck, similar to a pair of scissors. There is also a corkscrew version where the wrestler twists during the strike and faces the floor while performing the scissor kick.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A shoot kick is move where a wrestler hits the opponent in the face, chest or legs with their shin. It is a kickboxing-style kick. The shoot kick is used in many shoot-style environments and by many Japanese wrestlers.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A sole kick is a move where a wrestler turns their torso away from their opponent while lifting their leg horizontally and extending it forward at the same time. It then hits the opponent in the torso with the sole of the wrestler's foot. There is also a spin kick version where a wrestler spins around and performs the sole butt kick with their outer leg. It is known as the rolling sole butt in Japan. There is a jumping version as well where the wrestler jumps straight up, spins in midair and hit the sole butt with their outer leg, hitting the opponent's head.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A spin kick or reverse roundhouse kick is a high kick that gains power and momentum after the wrestler spins in place. The move is similar to the spinning heel kick but the wrestler does not jump off of the ground which makes it a leg lariat of some sorts. It is a common move after an opponent was Irish whipped off of the ropes. The move is known as La Filomena in Mexico.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A spinning heel kick is a move where a wrestler spins 360° as they jump so their body is somewhat horizontal, before they hit their opponent with back of either their leg(s) or heel(s) on either the face, neck or chest.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A stomp or foot stomp is a move where a wrestler stamps their foot on any part of a downed opponent. Another version of the foot stomp is where a wrestler performs a series of stomps all over the body of a downed opponent in the order of left arm, left chest, left stomach, left upper leg, left lower leg, right lower leg, right upper leg, right stomach, right chest, right arm, and finally the jaw. It has become known as the "Garvin Stomp" and it was created in the late 1980s by former NWA World Heavyweight Champion Ron Garvin. There is also a double foot stomp or double stomp version where a wrestler jumps and stamps both of their feet on any part of an opponent.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A superkick happens when a wrestler delivers a kick to the opponent's face or chin and is usually preceded by a sidestep. Shawn Michaels used a superkick known as the Sweet Chin Music as his finishing move during his in-ring career.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A tiger feint kick is a move where a wrestler jumps through both the second and top rope while they hold on to the ropes, and use the momentum to swing back around into the ring. The move was first performed as a fake dive to trick the opponents and fans into thinking that the wrestler was going to dive through the ropes to opponents outside the ring. The move is usually used by smaller wrestlers in Japan and Mexico. Rey Mysterio uses a tiger feint kick called the "619" as his finishing move.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A toe kick is a move where the wrestler hits the opponent in either the midsection or stomach with the point of their foot in order to bend the opponent over. The move is used by mostly all wrestlers and is used to setup a hold or throw.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: In professional wrestling, a lariat is a move where a wrestler runs towards and wraps their arm around both the upper chest and neck of an opponent. The move forces the opponent to the ground. The move is similar to a clothesline but the difference between a lariat and a clothesline is that in a clothesline, the wrestler's arm is kept straight to the side of the wrestler while performing it and in the lariat, the wrestler hits their opponent with their arm. The lariat to the back of the neck and shoulders is sometimes called the northern lariat or enzui lariat. A lariat where a wrestler doesn't run but strikes the opponent while standing next to them is sometimes called a short range lariat or a burning lariat. The wrestler can hold the opponent's head up before performing the lariat with the other arm. A short-arm lariat is a version where the wrestler grabs one of the opponent's wrists with their hand and pulls the opponent closer, they then strike the opponent with the lariat with their other arm. Usually, a lariat is used as a finishing move and the clothesline as just a regular move. The main differences between the two moves are stiffness. The lariat is basically a very stiff clothesline that is used as a finisher rather than a regular move.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A crooked arm lariat is a move where a wrestler runs towards their opponent with the arm bent upward at the elbow 60–90 degrees and wraps their arm around the opponent's head which forces them to the ground.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A flying lariat is a move where a wrestler uses the ropes to build up speed, leaps forward and wrap their arm around the opponent's neck which causes the power of the force to knock the opponent down.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A lariat takedown, running neckbreaker, or bulldog lariat is a move where a wrestler runs towards their opponent, wraps their arm around the opponent's upper chest and neck, and the wrestler swings their legs forward, while using their momentum to pull the opponent down with them to the mat, on to their upper back.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A leg lariat, jumping leg lariat, or a running calf kick is a move where a wrestler runs at an opponent, jumps and wraps their leg around the opponent's head / neck knocking the opponent to the ground.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A leapfrog body guillotine is move where a wrestler running from behind towards an opponent resting on the second rope, jumps and lands on their opponent's back, neck and head, sliding through the ropes out of the ring and forcing the opponent against the second rope.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: It is a close-fisted punch, that usually hits the opponent's body or face. Unlike most of the other illegal attack, the punch almost never result in disqualification. Instead, the referee warns the wrestler to stop but they usually don't.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: The back fist is a version of the close-fisted punch where the wrestler hits their opponent with the back of their fist. There is also a spinning back fist version where the wrestler holds their arm out and does a back fist while turning their body with speed so that the back of their fist hits the opponent in either the head or chest on rotation.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A heart punch is a move where a wrestler either raises the opponent's left arm over their head or folds it behind their neck and delivers a strong punch into the side of the opponent's ribcage. The move is alleged to rely on "Oriental pressure points" to strike a nerve causing the opponent's heart to momentarily stop, rendering them unconscious.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: One of the most common versions of mounted punches involves the wrestler standing on the middle or top ropes and delivering repeated punches to the face while the opponent is backed up against the turnbuckles. The punches usually go until ten with the crowd counting along unless the opponent pushes the wrestler off of the ropes. Another version of mounted punches is where a wrestler either does a standing double leg takedown or Lou Thesz press first, mounts the opponent's chest or back and starts punching them in the head area.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A wind-up punch is a move where a wrestler rotates their arm in a "winding-up" motion before they hit the opponent, making the punch seem more effective. The wind-up punch was commonly used by Hulk Hogan.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A double slap is where a wrestler slaps both of the opponent's cheeks with both of their hands. It call also sometimes be referred to as a bell clap.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A palm strike or shotei is where a wrestler delivers an open-hand strike with the palm of their hand, usually to the opponent's chin.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A senton is similar to a big splash except the wrestler jumps over an opponent while falling backwards and landing back-first onto the opponent. The move is also referred to as either a senton splash or back splash in reference to the big splash as well as to difference itself from the diving version of the senton. Another variation of a standard senton is where a wrestler jumps forward and performs a somersault to land back-first onto the opponent. It is called the somersault senton, and is also referred to as a front flip senton/rolling senton.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A cannonball senton is a move where the wrestler performs a front flip senton onto an opponent sitting in a corner. When the opponent is sitting in the corner, the wrestler runs towards them flips forward 180° so that their back impacts on both the opponents chest and head which causes the opponent to be sandwiched between both the turnbuckle and the wrestler.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A seated senton, vertical splash or butt drop is a move where the wrestler jumps down into a sitting position across the fallen opponent's chest or stomach. The move is usually done one of two ways: either from a standing position over the opponent or from the middle rope with the opponent in the corner. Some larger wrestlers, like Rikishi and Earthquake used the seated senton as their finishers. It is also an used as a counter to the sunset flip.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A shoulder block is where a wrestler hits their opponent with their shoulder by usually ramming their shoulder, keeping their arm to their side and into either the opponent's shoulder or abdomen of an opponent that is running towards them. Often times, larger wrestlers will stand still and have the opponent run towards them to try and perform the move only to get knocked down. The move is often used to show the size and strength of the wrestler, with the larger wrestler challenging to run off the ropes and hit the move. It usually sees the opponent try and attempt to charge at the larger wrestler many times only for their attempts to either have no effect or the opponent to get knocked down themselves. A slight version of this is called the body block which is usually used by large wrestler and sees the opponent run a the larger wrestler and the wrestler just engulfing the charging opponent by swinging their arms around and forcing the opponent to impact the wrestler's entire body.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A chop block is a move where a wrestler does a shoulder block and targets the back of the opponent's knee. The wrestler comes from behind, drops down and connects their shoulder with the back of the opponent's knees. It's often used to weaken the leg for a submission hold.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A spear or shoulder block takedown is a move where a wrestler charges at the standing opponent and brings their body parallel to the ground so that it drives their shoulder into the opponent's midsection, which pulls on the opponent's legs, as in a double leg takedown, and forces them back-first into the mat. There is also a striking spear version where a wrestler charges towards a standing opponent and drives his shoulder into the opponent's midsection, which tackles the opponent and forces them down into the mat back-first. Instead of the regular spear, the wrestler does not pull on the opponent's legs, as in a double leg takedown, and relies on the momentum of the strike to force the opponent down. Goldberg and Edge used the spear as their finishing moves in WCW and WWE. Rhyno also uses a move similar to the spear called the Gore.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: The turnbuckle thrust is move where the wrestler performs a shoulder block to an opponent that is set up on the turnbuckle. The opponent usually rests back-first against the turnbuckles and the wrestler places their shoulder against the opponent, swinging their legs back and forth to gain momentum for the wrestler driving their shoulder into the opponent's chest.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A standing moonsault is a type of moonsault that happens when a wrestler turns their back to a downed opponent, does a backflip and lands on their opponent chest-first.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A standing shooting press is a type of shooting star press that happens when a wrestler jumps forward and performs backflip, landing on the downed opponent's chest.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A stink face is where a wrestler rubs their buttocks in the face of an opponent that is lying in the corner of the ring. It is done to humiliate the opponent. Rikishi used it as one of his signature move.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A uppercut is a type of punch that is used in boxing. It is usually aimed at the opponent's chin. The uppercut is, along with the hook, one of the two main punches that count as power punches in the statistics. In boxing, the uppercut refers only to a punch, while in wrestling the other forms of uppercuts are used including an open-handed punch version.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A European uppercut is a forearm uppercut where a wrestler uses a quick grapple and brings their arm up inside to hit their opponent under the chin.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A knee lift is a move where a wrestler uses their knee and brings it up to hit the opponent under the chin. The move can either be used mid clinch or while the wrestler is charging at a kneeling or bent over opponent, lifting their knee upwards to strike underneath the opponent's jaw or the side of their head. There is also a double knee lift versions where a wrestler forces the opponent’s head down and quickly jumps, bending at the knees, and hitting the opponent in either the face or chest.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A throat thrust, throat strike, sword stab, or an open-hand uppercut is a move where a wrestler strikes at the opponent's throat with their open hand and usually with their palm facing upwards and with all five fingers together. The move is done like a normal uppercut. It can also be used with their opponent in a side headlock.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A weapon shot is where a wrestler takes a weapon and strikes their opponent with it. Common weapons in professional wrestling are folding chairs, guitars, folding tables, title belts, "kendo sticks", and trash cans. Using weapons as weapons are usually illegal except in matches with No Disqualifications.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A chair shot is where a wrestler hits their opponent with a chair. The strike with the chair is used with the flat face of the chair to slow the swing and deal out the impact, to prevent injury to the opponent.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A chair thrust or guillotine shot is where a wrestler placing the top of a chair either under the opponent's chin or by the Adam's Apple, and while holding the chair with one hand and the back of the opponent's head with another, the wrestler hits the mat with the legs of the folded chair while it is still placed under the opponent's chin and at the same time forcing the opponent's head down. This highly damages that part of the opponent.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A guitar shot or El Kabong (a reference to Quick Draw McGraw) is where a wrestler breaks a guitar over an opponent's head. Jeff Jarrett Honky Tonk Man and Elias performed the move a lot during his career.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: This attack has a wrestler lay their opponents head on a folding chair, they take another chair and hit their opponents head sandwiching the head in-between the two chairs.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: Some of the moves that are done by wrestlers are not meant to pin an opponent, weaken them or force them to submit. Some of the moves are used to set up the opponent for another attack.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A discus is a move where a wrestler spins in place before they hit an attack, like the discus clothesline, discus punch, or the discus forearm. The move is usually used instead of charging towards an opponent to build up momentum for an attack, or using the discus spin to evade other attacks.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A handspring is a move where a wrestler runs towards the ropes and performs a handstand next to the opponent. The wrestler then uses the momentum to throw their legs against the ropes and uses the spring that is gained to throw themselves backwards and back onto their feet. They still us the momentum to leap backwards and usually to deliver an attack. The most common version is the back elbow strike. Another common version is a handspring transition which the wrestler Irish whips the opponent onto a turnbuckle from the opposite corner. The wrestler then does a handspring combination towards the opponent. The combination usually features a cartwheel followed by either one or two back-tucks which leaves the wrestler's back facing the opponent. The wrestler then uses the momentum of the handspring combo to leap backwards and hit their opponent either a back elbow, back thump, dropkick, or any other type of attack.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A pendulum is a move where a wrestler does a tilting sequence, similar to that of a pendulum, in between the ropes (usually near a ringpost) to gain momentum to perform either an attack or counterattack.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A rolling thunder is a move where a wrestler does a forward roll towards an opponent and uses the complete rotation to spring up onto their feet and into the air to perform an attack. The most popular version of the move ends with a jumping somersault senton. Rob Van Dam does a rolling thunder as one of his signature moves.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: Illegal moves are moves that can result in a disqualification. Illegal moves are usually done by heel wrestlers. The moves are usually done when the referee is either downed or distracted.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: Asian mist is the illegal move of spitting a colored liquid into an opponent's face in professional wrestling. After the wrestler does this, the opponent will (in storyline) be blinded and will experience intense stinging in their eyes. The Asian mist comes in almost any color, but the most common color that is used is green. On a rare occasion, a wrestler will use a flammable substance (like alcohol for example).


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: Biting is when a wrestler grabs their opponent and bites them with their teeth. The move is usually used as a desperation move when a wrestler is "trapped".


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: An eye poke or a thumb to the eye is when a wrestler pokes their thumb or finger(s) into the opponent's eye(s). The move is usually done by heel wrestlers to gain an advantage on their opponent.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: An eye rake is where a wrestler moves his hand down an opponent's eye(s), to make it appear that the wrestler dragged their fingers across the opponent's eye(s). The move is usually done by heel wrestlers to gain an advantage on their opponent.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A fireball is when the wrestler (using a concealed lighter) lights a piece of flash paper and throws it in the opponent's face which gives the impression that a supernatural ball of fire emerged from their hand.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A hangman is a move where a wrestler on the other side of the ring ropes from an opponent, grabs the opponent by the head and drops down which forces their throat to land across the ropes. There is a common version where the wrestler perform a catapult to the opponent while the opponent is lying down in between both the bottom and second ropes. There is also a reverse hangman or "reverse" hotshot which is similar to the normal hangman but when the wrestler is standing outside either the ring or on the apron, they grab the back of either the opponent's head or neck.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A hair pull is when a wrestler pulls the opponent's long hair. It is usually used by female wrestlers. The wrestler is given a 5 count to let go or they will be disqualified.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A low blow happens when a wrestler either kicks or strikes the opponent in the groin. It can cause a disqualification and is usually used by heel wrestlers or valets.


title: Professional wrestling attacks

text: A testicular claw is a clawhold where a wrestler grabs a hold of the opponent's testicles and squeezes. There is also version called Vaginal Claw which is rarely used in woman's wrestling.


title: Federated States of Micronesia

text: Micronesia, officially the Federated States of Micronesia, is an island nation in the Pacific Ocean, northeast of Papua New Guinea. The country is a sovereign state in free association with the United States. The capital city of Federated States of Micronesia is Palikir.


title: Federated States of Micronesia

text: The Federated States of Micronesia were formerly part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, a United Nations Trust Territory under US administration. In 1979, they adopted a constitution, and in 1986 independence was attained under a Compact of Free Association with the United States. Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, and overdependence on U.S. aid.


title: Federated States of Micronesia

text: The Federated States of Micronesia is hundreds of small islands divided in seven territories in Micronesia. The term "Micronesia" may mean the Federated States or to the region as a whole. This area is in Oceania.


title: Federated States of Micronesia

text: The first people here lived about 3000 years ago. Spain colonized the islands in 1886, but sold them to Germany 3 years later.


title: Richard Wagner

text: Richard Wagner (22 May 1813 in Leipzig – 13 February 1883 in Venice) was a German opera composer. He was one of the most important opera composers in Germany during the Romantic period. Apart from some music that he wrote as a student he wrote ten operas which are all performed regularly in opera houses today. Most of his operas are about stories from German mythology. He always wrote the words himself.


title: Richard Wagner

text: Wagner changed people's ideas of what operas should be. He thought that the drama (the story that is being told with all its tensions) was very important, and he chose the singers for his operas himself, so that he could train them into his way of thinking. The music in his operas did not give the audience a chance to applaud after big solos as it had done in the 18th century: it continues throughout the whole act. He made his music tell the story by using what he called “leitmotifs”. These were melodies or short musical phrases which belonged to particular characters in the opera, or to particular ideas. He had more influence on other composers than anybody else in his time, largely because of his harmonies which became more and more chromatic (using lots of sharps and flats), with many changes of key. He built an opera house to his own design in the German town of Bayreuth. Nearly all musicians in Europe tried to make a journey to Bayreuth to hear Wagner's music. The Wagner festival still takes place every year there.


title: Richard Wagner

text: He studied at the University of Leipzig, although he was not allowed to be a full student because he did not have proper school qualifications. Although he lived a wild life he worked hard at his music. He studied the scores of Beethoven's string quartets and symphonies and he wrote his own symphony which was performed in 1833 at the famous Leipzig Gewandhaus. He wrote his first opera, "Die Feen" ("The Fairies") in Würzburg. He became the conductor of a travelling opera group and fell in love with one of the singers called Minna Planer and he married her in 1836. His second opera, "Das Liebesverbot", based on Shakespeare's play "Measure for Measure" was a failure.


title: Richard Wagner

text: Wagner always liked spending money, and he soon found he owed money to a lot of people, so he went away to Paris where he lived for three years. He was not successful at all there, none of the French musicians showed any interest in him and he was very poor. He still managed to write an opera "Rienzi" in 1841, and this was soon followed by "Der fliegende Holländer", ("The Flying Dutchman"), which still remains a favourite to opera lovers today. It was first performed in Dresden in 1843. The audience did not like it much because they were used to operas like "Rienzi" which were written in the old way. Wagner was given the job of court opera composer in Dresden. He stayed there until 1849. During that time he worked very hard to make opera performances better, improve the orchestra and train the singers. In 1845 he wrote another great opera, "Tannhäuser". People gradually started to understand the way that Wagner's music was telling the drama of the story. After this all his operas were great successes, although there always remained some people who hated his music, e.g. the music critic Eduard Hanslick.


title: Richard Wagner

text: In 1848 he finished working on "Lohengrin" but it was not performed because he was supporting the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states, joining in the demonstrations. Although he did join the fighting he was going to be arrested, so Franz Liszt helped him to escape to Switzerland. He lived in Zürich until 1858. There he wrote about music, conducted, and read stories from Norse mythology. He was starting to think about writing operas about these stories. It was something that would take him over 25 years to complete. They were to become the four operas known as "Der Ring des Nibelungen" ("The Ring of the Nibelung") which, together, tell one long story. The four operas which make up this famous Ring cycle are "Das Rheingold" (The Rhinegold), "Die Walküre" ("The Valkyrie"), "Siegfried" and "Götterdämmerung" ("Twilight of the Gods"). Because of the political situation in Germany at the time, Wagner expected the rise of a socialist state. The operas in the Ring cycle were a new kind of music drama (which Wagner simply called “drama”). These operas can be seen as describing a new kind of world in which humans are free. The music used the idea of leitmotif (in English: “leading motive”), where musical ideas represent characters or emotions, and help the development and understanding of the story.


title: Richard Wagner

text: By 1857 Wagner had written the first two operas as well as Acts One and Two of "Siegfried". However, the third Act of "Siegfried" was not written until many years later, because he could see that at that time there was no suitable opera house to have these operas performed. He fell in love with a woman called Mathilde Wesendonk, whose husband was very rich. This affair led to a separation with his wife, Minna. He wrote an opera about an unhappy love affair: "Tristan und Isolde" ("Tristan and Isolde").


title: Richard Wagner

text: Meanwhile, he wrote another opera: "Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg" ("The Mastersinger of Nűrnberg"). It is the only comedy Wagner wrote.


title: Richard Wagner

text: By 1864 Wagner was in debt once more. He fled to Stuttgart to avoid being put into prison (Germany at that time was still made up of many small countries, each with their own laws). Then he had a big stroke of luck. The new king of Bavaria, Ludwig II, who was only 18 years old, adored the music of Wagner. He had read the poem about the Ring of the Nibelungs (Wagner had written the words, but had not finished the music). King Ludwig invited Wagner to finish the Ring cycle for performances in Munich. He gave him somewhere to live, and his new operas were performed in Munich: "Tristan und Isolde" in 1865, "Die Meistersinger von Nűrnberg" in 1868, "Das Rheingold" in 1869 and "Die Walkűre" in 1870. There were plans for a new opera house in Munich, but it was never built because people were angry with Wagner for being in debt in spite of having lots of money from the king. Another thing people did not like was that he fell in love with the wife of the man who had conducted his operas, Hans von Bülow. Her name was Cosima. Her father was the composer Franz Liszt who had not been married to Cosima's mother. Wagner had already left Munich in 1865, but the king still supported him, making it possible for him to live in a large house called Triebschen on Lake Lucerne. Cosima divorced von Bülow in 1870 and married Wagner in the same year.


title: Richard Wagner

text: By now Wagner was working hard at the Ring cycle again. He had promised the king that the four operas would be performed in Munich when they were ready, but he realized that they would need a special kind of opera house. So he designed his own opera house and had it built in the town of Bayreuth. He spent a lot of time travelling and conducting in order to raise money for this huge project. The King Ludwig also gave him a lot of money, and a lovely new house in Bayreuth which Wagner called "Wahnfried" (the name of the house means something like: "Peace from the mad world"). Finally, the complete cycle of four operas was performed in August 1876 in the new opera house, the (Bayreuth Festspielhaus). The third and fourth operas of the cycle, "Siegfried" and "Götterdämmerung " were being performed for the first time.


title: Richard Wagner

text: Wagner spent the rest of his life living in "Wahnfried". Sometimes he travelled. He went to London and made several trips to Italy. He wrote his last opera, "Parsifal", which almost has a religious feeling to it. The story is related to the legends about King Arthur and the Holy Grail. Wagner dictated his memoirs to his wife. His autobiography is called "Mein Leben" ("My Life"). He died of a heart attack when he was staying in Venice. He was buried in the grounds of "Wahnfried".


title: Richard Wagner

text: Wagner had enormous influence on the development of music. Many composers imitated his harmonies, or let themselves be influenced by them. By the early 20th century some composers like Arnold Schoenberg had gone even farther in making more and more complicated harmonies, and composers had to find new ways of composing.


title: Richard Wagner

text: Wagner made his orchestras much bigger than usual. The woodwind, for example, need four of each instrument (four flutes, four oboes etc.), and there are extra instruments like the bass clarinet and Wagner tubas. His ideas about music drama were very important. His music helps the drama to be told because it develops all the time, like the music in a symphony.


title: Richard Wagner

text: Wagner was anti-semitic. Wagner's writings on Jews, including ‘Jewishness in Music’, corresponded to some existing anti-semitic trends of thought in Germany during the 19th century. The published essay attacks two Jewish composers and Jews in general.


title: Richard Wagner

text: Wagner died long before the Nazis arose. Wagner's widow and heirs established direct political links with the Nazis. Their actions to belittle Jewish artists and involvement in anti-semetic organisations after 1914 helped prepare the ground for state-organised expulsion of Jewish artists after 1933.


title: Richard Wagner

text: When Hitler came to power in the 1930s he liked Wagner's music and thought that it was something typically German. Wagner's ideas in "Die Meistersinger von Nűrnberg" about German art suited some of Hitler's thoughts. After the war, the music was wrongly thought of as being something of the Nazis. Wagner wrote things that freely expressed his dislike of Jewish composers, although he praised Felix Mendelssohn for his Hebrides Overture. Wagner also had some Jewish friends. Wagner's music is played very rarely in Israel. Daniel Barenboim made people in Israel angry by conducting Wagner's music at a Jerusalem festival in 2001.


title: Fluorescent lamp

text: A fluorescent lamp, is a type of electric light (lamp) that uses ultraviolet emitted by mercury vapor to excite a phosphor, which emits visible light. There are two general types, traditional fluorescent and compact fluorescent. This article is about traditional (straight tube shaped) fluorescent lamps.


title: Fluorescent lamp

text: The purchase price of a fluorescent lamp is often much higher than an incandescent lamp of the same output, and the light from fluorescent lamps looks different to light from incandescent lamps. Fluorescent lamps have a longer rated life and use less energy than an incandescent lamp of the same brightness. A fluorescent lamp can save over US$30 in electricity costs over the lamp’s lifetime compared to an incandescent lamp.


title: Fluorescent lamp

text: An electric current is applied to mercury vapor inside the tube, causing it to emit ultraviolet (UV) light. A phosphor on the walls of the tube absorbs the ultraviolet light. This causes an electron to jump up to an orbital with a higher energy. When the electron drops back down to its normal orbital, the phosphor re-emits its energy as visible light.


title: Fluorescent lamp

text: The ballast prevents too much electricity from flowing through the tube. It also starts the lamp with a high voltage for a split second when it is switched on. The ballast is located inside the fixture in traditional fluorescent tube fixtures. In compact fluorescent bulbs the ballast is in or near the base of the bulb. There are two types of ballasts, magnetic and electronic. Magnetic ballasts have mostly fallen out of use, as they are less efficient than electronic ballasts, they cause the bulb to flicker, and they do not start instantly. Electronic ballasts were at one time more expensive than magnetic ballasts, but now the price is about the same.


title: Fluorescent lamp

text: The average rated life of a fluorescent light bulb is 8 to 15 times longer that of incandescent light bulbs. Fluorescent light bulbs typically have a rated lifespan of 7,000 to 15,000 hours, whereas incandescent lamps are usually manufactured to have a lifespan of 750 hours or 1,000 hours.


title: Fluorescent lamp

text: The lifetime of any lamp depends on many factors, including operating voltage, manufacturing defects, exposure to voltage spikes, mechanical shock, frequency of cycling on and off, lamp orientation, and ambient operating temperature. The life of a fluorescent lamp is significantly shorter if it is turned on and off frequently. In the case of a 5-minute on/off cycle the lifespan of a fluorescent lamp can be reduced to "close to that of incandescent light bulbs". The U.S. Energy Star program suggests that fluorescent lamps be left on when leaving a room for less than 15 minutes so that this problem does not happen. If the light must be switched on and off often, Cold cathode fluorescent lamps can be used. Cold cathode fluorescent lamps are designed for many more on/off cycles than standard lamps.


title: Fluorescent lamp

text: The mercury inside the tube is toxic and makes these bulbs hazardous waste. The bulbs must be taken to a recycling center after they stop working. During normal use, the mercury cannot escape, although it will escape if the bulb is broken. If a single bulb breaks, it is not usually a problem. It is recommended to open windows to air out the room, and to clean up broken glass with duct tape instead of a vacuum cleaner.


title: Fluorescent lamp

text: Many people and businesses do not want to use fluorescent lamps due to their mercury content. Halogen, LED, and traditional incandescent bulbs are possible alternatives.


title: Fluorescent lamp

text: LED tubes can be installed in fluorescent tube fixtures, but sometimes an electrician needs to rewire the fixture first to remove the ballast.