title: Aishwarya Rai Bachchan

text: Aishwarya's native language is Tulu, and she also speaks English, Hindi, Marathi, and Tamil. As a child she studied classical music and dance. At an early age, she moved with her family to Bombay, where she studied at Arya Vidya Mandir high school in the suburbs of Santacruz. After graduating from Ruparel College (before that she studied at Jai Hind College for a year), she entered the university, where she began to study architecture, but then became a model. In 1994 she won the Miss World contest. After participating in the Pepsi advertising campaign, she starred for Vogue magazine.


title: Aishwarya Rai Bachchan

text: Aishwarya's first role in a film was the well-received film "Tandem" in 1997, where she played a dual role: a rural beauty and an actress.


title: Aishwarya Rai Bachchan

text: She dated Salman Khan for several years. After a while she started dating actor Vivek Oberoi. On January 14, 2007, she announced her engagement to actor Abhishek Bachchan, the son of the famous actor Amitabh Bachchan, and married him on April 20 of that year. On November 16, 2011, Aishwarya Rai gave birth to a daughter at a clinic in Mumbai. The girl was named Aaradhia Bachchan.


title: Candy

text: Candy, also called a sweet, is a sweet kind of food that is usually made from sugar and water, with flavors and other ingredients added.


title: Candy

text: The word "candy" comes from the Persian word for "cane sugar",(نیشکر), and probably also from Sanskrit khanda, which means "piece (of sugar)".


title: Candy

text: Candy is found in almost any store because they are made in many companies. Candy can also be made at home. Many people like candy and think it tastes good. Other people do not like it. Candy contains lots of sugar, so it is not very healthy, but can be eaten sometimes. It is the most common snacking food, and there are hundreds of flavors, shapes, and sizes.


title: Viscosity

text: Viscosity is a physical property of fluids. It shows resistance to flow. In a simple example, water has a low viscosity, as it is "thin". Syrup and tar, on the other hand, have a high viscosity, as they are "thick". A way to test for viscosity is the speed at which the substance runs down a slope. Syrup would reach the bottom very slowly, and water would be much quicker.


title: Viscosity

text: There are two types of viscosity: "dynamic viscosity", measured in pascal seconds, and "kinematic viscosity", measured in metres per second squared.


title: Viscosity

text: Viscosity is used as a way to predict when volcanoes erupt. When the lava comes out very thickly (viscous), there is more chance that it will erupt violently. This is because the lava has a hard time getting out and may burst out when it can. If the lava is thin (low viscosity), then it just flows out like water.


title: Worms, Germany

text: Worms (pronounced /voɐms/) is a city in southwestern Germany in the federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz). It lies on the River Rhine. Worms is famous for its local Liebfraumilch wine. It is an industrial center, producing chemicals and metal goods. At the end of 2004, it had 85,829 inhabitants.


title: Worms, Germany

text: Along with Cologne and Trier, Worms is one the oldest cities in Germany. But, there is a disagreement which of the three is actually the oldest. The town is mentioned in the "Nibelungenlied", an old Germanic saga. The town was also very important because of Martin Luther who defended his case against the emperor Charles V in Worms.


title: Worms, Germany

text: The Cathedral of Saint Peter is a very large church in the town. It is one of only three Romanesque cathedrals in Germany. The other two are in Mainz and Speyer. The Worms cathedral is one of the most important Romanesque buildings in Germany.


title: Flesch Reading Ease

text: The Flesch Reading Ease (FRES) score says how easy something is to read. J. Peter Kincaid and others made this formula for the U.S. Navy in 1975.


title: Flesch Reading Ease

text: The FRES test works by counting the number of words, syllables, and sentences in the text. It then calculates the average number of words per sentence and the average number of syllables per word. The idea is that shorter words and shorter sentences are easier to read. The higher the score, the easier the text is to understand. The formula is:


title: Flesch Reading Ease

text: The Flesch score is usually lower for technical documentation because the topic itself is complicated.


title: Flesch Reading Ease

text: Someone who uses the test regularly will develop a sense of a reasonable score for this type of writing.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: Mixed martial arts (or MMA) is hybrid martial arts. It includes any mixture of combat disciplines or any blend of two or more styles of martial arts like boxing and kick boxing, which are its integral fighting styles. MMA can also mean the sport of mixed martial arts fighting. Bellator, PFL, Rizin, ONE Championship, and UFC are companies that promote MMA sport fighting.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: There is no one group of people who decides the rules for all MMA fights, in the world. Some states regulate all professional fights, including MMA fights, and set some rules.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: MMA fights once had few rules, but now have many rules to protect the fighters. Boxing (and other fighting sports) also have many rules, different from those in MMA.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: Fighters can use any martial art, or combination of arts, they like in the fight. In these fights, fighters can fight standing with punches, kicks and other strikes, in a clinch where fighters are grabbing each other while standing, or on the ground.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: An example of an illegal strike is the 12-6 elbow strike. It is illegal under the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts, where it is called "striking downwards using the point of the elbow". The ban was made for medical / safety reasons, because of serious injuries caused by this strike.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: Each fighter will try to defeat the other either by submission, or knock out. Each fight can last only for a period of time, after the time ends, judges decide who is the winner. The referee in the fight will make sure no one gets hurt too badly and that rules are followed.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: Pankration was an old style of unarmed combat. The ancient Greeks introduced this sport into the Olympic Games in the 648 BC. Some public fights took place at the end of the 19th century. They represented different styles of fighting, including jujutsu, wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling and others in competitions and challenges across Europe. After World War I, wrestling was born again in two main flows. The first flow was real competition; the second flow began to depend more on the choreography and on the grand public shows that resulted in professional wrestling.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: Modern mixed martial arts (MMA) has its roots in two kinds of competition: the Vale Tudo (Brazil) and Japanese Shootfighting.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: Vale Tudo began circa 1930, when Carlson Gracie invited every competitor to compete in a fight. That was the so-called "Gracie's Challenge". Later, Hélio Gracie and the Gracie family continued this. Vale Tudo translates to "Anything Goes", as it had almost no rules.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: In Japan, about 1970, Antonio Inoki organized a series of mixed martial arts fights. They were the forces that produced the Shootwrestling, and they later caused the developing of the first organization of mixed martial arts, known as Shooto. Mixed martial arts obtained great popularity in the United States in 1993, when Rorion Gracie helped create the first UFC event, one of the earliest MMA events in the USA . In 1997, in Japan, the interest for this sport resulted in the creation of the greater organization of mixed martial arts - Pride Fighting Championship.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: The Gracie family caused the tournaments, as the UFC, to be well known. It should be noticed that the UFC is the most famous tournament, but the persons who practises Brazilian jiujitsu normally do not use blows. Undoubtedly, the Gracie family played an important role in the creation of open competitions of Vale Tudo and in causing them to be well known through the television. Nevertheless, before anyone created the UFC or Shooto, where the persons who represent every method of self-defense can fight, there had already existed such mixed martial arts.


title: Mixed martial arts

text: About the year 1990, three styles were famous for their effectiveness in the competitions of the mixed martial arts: the wrestling, the Brazilian jiu-jitsu, and the shootwrestling. This can be because of their attention given to the combat by means of holds. Before the year 1990, the promoters organized a lacking amount of the competitions of the mixed martial arts, and some martial arts base on blows. Therefore, probably, most instructors of these arts had given too little attention to the holds.


title: Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

text: Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur or PACA (, Italian: "Provenza-Alpi-Costa Azzurra") is one of the 18 administrative regions of France. Its capital is Marseille.


title: Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

text: The Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region is the tenth largest region of France with an area of . It is in southeastern France and borders to the east with Monaco and Italy (with the Italian regions of Liguria and Piedmont). To the north is the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region and to the west is the Occitanie region.


title: Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

text: The only main drainage basin in the region is the Mediterranean basin; some of the rivers in region are:


title: Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

text: The Barre des Écrins, at , is the highest mountain of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. It is in the Écrins National Park (), one of the ten French national parks.


title: Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur

text: The Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region had, in 2014, a population of 4,983,438, with a population density of inhabitants/km.


title: Sly Cooper (series)

text: Sly Cooper is a series of video games. It is named after the title character, Sly Cooper. They are available on the PlayStation 2, PlayStation 3, and PS Vita. The series was created by Sucker Punch and published by Sony Computer Entertainment. All of the video games were also developed by them, except "Sly Cooper: Thieves in Time", which was developed by Sanzaru Games. There are currently five games in the series, as well as a collection of the first three remastered:


title: Violence

text: Violence is when someone attacks someone else, often to get them to do something they do not want to do by making them feel pain or fear. Violence can mean anything from one person hitting another to a war between many countries that causes millions of deaths. Different people may see different acts as violent. Laws are created often to control violence.


title: Sunk cost fallacy

text: A sunk cost fallacy is a fallacy where someone convinces themselves that they should continue doing something because they put in a lot of time and/or effort into it, even if they actually get very little reward out of it. For example, a person might watch the first six episodes of "Battlestar Galactica", but decides they do not like the show. However, because there was a sunk cost, six hours of time, that person tells themselves that because they already spent so much time on it, they might as well finish the show.


title: Sunk cost fallacy

text: An example in the real-world would be pro-war Americans during the Vietnam War. Americans who supported United States' part in the Vietnam War believed that the US already spent so much money, so much time, and so many lives of veterans and civilians that if the United States were to let the communists win the war, then all the loss would have been for nothing.


title: Oil spill

text: Oil from ships and oil tankers can spill onto the sea water and pollute the water. Oil poisons and harms the aquatic organisms and sea birds. The fur of sea mammals and the feathers of sea birds can be damaged by the oil. The animals may suffer, and the effect may be fatal for them. When birds get soaked in oil they can't fly and they can't go in water.


title: Oil spill

text: The pollution of the environment with crude or mineral oil or their by-products is called an oil spill. Most often the term is used for marine environments, where coasts, lakes, rivers and oceans are polluted. There are three main ways to combat such pollution once it has occurred:


title: Oil spill

text: An oil spill can not only affect the coasts, lakes, rivers and oceans but also the environment and the ecosystems. Many animals could get injured and later die without help. Also all the vegetation could be affected by the oil.


title: Car bomb

text: A car bomb is a bomb device that is hidden within a vehicle. It is usually driven into places where there will be many people. Terrorists use car bombs more than any other type of organization. The car with the bomb attached to it will explode. This will usually cause fires and small pieces of metal which cause most of the damage.


Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu (DNHDD) is a union territory in western India. The population of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu is 585,764 (2011 census), and the union territory covers an area of 603 sq km. It was created through the merger of the union territories of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. The Government of India announced plans to merge the territories in July 2019. The necessary law was passed in the Parliament of India in December 2019, and the territories merged on 26 January 2020.


title: Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu

text: The territory is made up of four separate geographical areas: Dadra, Nagar Haveli, Daman and the island of Diu. The capital is the city of Daman.


text: Dadra and Nagar Haveli was occupied by the Portuguese in June, 1783. Residents of Dadra and Nagar Haveli got themselves liberated from Portuguese rule on August 2, 1954. From, 1954 to 1961, the territory was administered by a citizen’s council called the Varishta Panchayat of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli. In 1961, it was merged with the Republic of India and made a Union Territory.


title: Traditional Chinese characters

text: Traditional Chinese characters are one of the two commonly used forms of Chinese characters. As its name shows, it is the "traditional" written form of the Chinese language that first came about during the Han Dynasty (shortly after the Qin Dynasty) in 206 BC. The name "traditional" is used to set them apart from simplified Chinese characters.


title: Traditional Chinese characters

text: Court officials in the Han Dynasty believed that small seal script characters, which were standardized under Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi when he unified China, took too much time to write because Chinese characters at the time were written using curved lines instead of more angular lines. So Han officials decided to simplify writing Chinese characters by using multiple strokes, or lines, to form characters and radicals, rather than long curved lines. The changed small seal script characters are now commonly known as Hanzi (Simplified Chinese: 汉字 / Traditional Chinese: 漢字, meaning "Han characters"), because they were from the Han Dynasty. Hanzi became the standard writing system of Chinese and it even spread to other countries and languages. It was also used (with some differences) in the Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese languages.


title: Traditional Chinese characters

text: Today, Japanese is the only non-Chinese language that still uses Chinese characters in daily life. They call them Kanji. After WWII, the Japanese simplified many of the characters. They called their simplified characters Shinjitai (which are not to be confused with simplified characters in Chinese), while traditional characters were called Kyujitai.


title: Traditional Chinese characters

text: The older, "traditional" forms of Chinese characters remained more or less the same (although there were a few changes now and then) until the People's Republic of China (PRC) was formed in 1949. At that time, the Communist Party of China (CPC) started to create simplified Chinese characters, in which anywhere between 20-30% of all the Chinese characters used in daily life were replaced by ones that had fewer strokes and were easier to write. This move by the CPC, which took place in the 1950s throughout Mainland China, was made in order to make education more available to common people, especially farmers.


title: Traditional Chinese characters

text: At the same time, the government of the Republic of China, which had fled to Taiwan, chose not to simplify its writing system. They continue to use traditional Chinese characters, believing that simplified characters were made to take away important details in traditional characters in order to limit thought. The Cantonese-speaking territories of Hong Kong and Macau have also kept using traditional characters, even though they are politically part of the PRC, which uses simplified characters. The Chinese taught as a second language in Southeast Asia uses simplified characters, and the government of Singapore and the Chinese community in Malaysia have adopted simplified characters as their standard script. Many immigrant communities of overseas Chinese also tend to use traditional rather than simplified characters.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita is the largest city in the U.S. State of Kansas. It is the county seat of Sedgwick County. It is the 50th largest city in the United States. In 2020, 397,532 people lived there. Wichita is the main city of the Wichita metropolitan area; it had an estimated 644,888 people living there in 2018. It is in Sedgwick County, which is in the south-central part of the state.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Archaeological evidence says that people have lived near the confluence of the Arkansas and Little Arkansas Rivers (where Wichita is) since 3000 B.C. In 1541, a Spanish trip led by explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado found the area populated by the Quivira (or Wichita) people. Fighting with the Osage in the 1750s forced the Wichita people further south. Before Americans came to live in the region, the area was part of the territory of the Kiowa people. The area was part of France as part of Louisiana. It was later bought by the United States with the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. It became part of Kansas Territory in 1854. It became part of the state of Kansas in 1861.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: The Wichita came back in 1863. They came back because they were forced to leave their land in Indian Territory by Confederate forces in the American Civil War. The Wichita people created a settlement on the banks of the Little Arkansas River.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: In 1868, trader James R. Mead created another trading post in the area. Surveyor Darius Munger built a house to use as a hotel, community center, and post office.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Downtown Wichita is at (37.688888, −97.336111). It has an elevation of . Wichita is in south-central Kansas. It is at the junction of Interstate 35 and U.S. Route 54. It is part of the Midwestern United States. It is north of Oklahoma City, southwest of Kansas City, and east-southeast of Denver.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: The city is on the Arkansas River. It is near the western edge of the Flint Hills. It is in the Wellington-McPherson Lowlands region of the Great Plains.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: The United States Census Bureau says that the city has a total area of . Of that, is land and is water.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita is in North America's humid subtropical climate area (Köppen "Cfa"). Wichita usually has hot, humid summers and cold, dry winters.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita is the biggest city in Kansas, and it is the 51st largest city in the United States. It is racially more similar to the rest of the United States than any other major city.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: The 2010 census says that there were 382,368 people, 151,818 households, and 94,862 families living in Wichita.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita is the main city of both the Wichita Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) and the Wichita-Winfield Combined Statistical Area (CSA). The Wichita MSA includes Sedgwick County, Butler County, Harvey County, and Sumner County. In 2010, 623,061 people lived there. This would make it the 84th largest metropolitan area in the United States.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita's biggest industrial sector is manufacturing. Manufacturing was 21.6 percent of the employment in 2003. Aircraft manufacturing has been the main part of the local economy for a long time. It is so important, that can influence the economic health of the entire region. Kansas gives tax breaks and other incentives to aircraft manufacturers.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Healthcare is Wichita's second-biggest industry. It employs about 28,000 people in the area. Since healthcare needs remain fairly consistent regardless of the economy, this field was not subject to the same pressures that affected other industries in the early 2000s. The Kansas Spine Hospital opened in 2004. A critical care tower at Wesley Medical Center also opened in 2004. In July 2010, Via Christi Health, which is the largest provider of healthcare services in Kansas, opened a hospital that will serve the northwest area of Wichita. Via Christi Hospital on St. Teresa is the system's fifth hospital to serve the Wichita community.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Koch Industries and Cargill, the two largest privately held companies in the United States, both have headquarters in Wichita.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita is a cultural center for Kansas. It has several art museums and performing arts groups. The Wichita Art Museum is the biggest art museum in Kansas. It has over 7,000 works of art. The Ulrich Museum of Art at Wichita State University is a modern and contemporary art museum. It has over 6,300 works of art.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Music Theatre Wichita, Wichita Grand Opera, and the Wichita Symphony Orchestra perform often at the Century II Convention Hall. It is downtown. Concerts happen often by the schools of music at Wichita's two biggest universities.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita has several professional, semi-professional, non-professional, and collegiate sports teams. Professional teams include the Wichita Thunder ice hockey team, the Wichita Force indoor football team, and the Wichita Wind Surge Minor League Baseball team. The city hosts the Air Capital Classic. It is a professional golf tournament of the Web.com Tour. It was first played in 1990.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: According to Kansas law, Wichita is a city of the first class. Since 1917, it has had a council-manager form of government.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita is in Kansas's 4th U.S. Congressional District. For the Kansas Legislature, Wichita is in the 16th, 25th32nd districts of the Kansas Senate. It is in the 81st, 83rd101st, 103rd, and 105th districts of the Kansas House of Representatives.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita Public Schools (US$259) is the largest school district in Kansas. It has over 50,000 students. It has more than 90 schools in Wichita. It includes 10 high schools, 16 middle schools, 61 elementary schools, and more than a dozen special schools and programs.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Three universities are in Wichita. The biggest is Wichita State University (WSU). WSU has more than 14,000 students. It is the third-biggest university in Kansas. WSU's main campus is in northeast Wichita. They have other campuses around the Wichita area. Friends University is a private Christian university. It has its main campus in west Wichita. Newman University is a private Catholic university. It is also in west Wichita.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: The Wichita Public Library is Wichita's library system. It has a main facility. It is called the Advanced Learning Library, and it is in Delano. It also has six locations in other neighborhoods around Wichita. The library has several free programs for the public. It includes special events, technology training classes, and programs specifically for adults, children, and families. In 2009, it had more than 1.3 million books and 2.2 million items total.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: "The Wichita Eagle" is Wichita's major daily newspaper. It started in 1872. The "Wichita Business Journal" is a weekly newspaper that covers local business events and developments. Several other newspapers and magazines, many of which focus on something specific, are also published in Wichita. These include: "The Community Voice", a weekly African American community newspaper; "El Perico", a monthly Hispanic community newspaper; "The Liberty Press", monthly LGBT news; "Splurge!", a monthly local fashion and lifestyle magazine; "The Sunflower", the Wichita State University student newspaper.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: The Wichita radio market includes Sedgwick County, Butler County, and Harvey County. Six AM radio stations and many FM radio stations are in Wichita.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita is the main city of the Wichita-Hutchinson, Kansas television market. That market covers the western two-thirds of Kansas. All of the market's network affiliates broadcast from Wichita. The ABC, CBS, CW, FOX and NBC affiliates serve the wider market through networks of other stations. The city also hosts a PBS member station, a Univision affiliate, and several low-power stations.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita has had bad floods of the Arkansas River in 1877, 1904, 1916, 1923, 1944, 1951 and 1955. In 1944, Wichita flooded 3 times in 11 days. Because of the 1944 flood, Wichita built the Wichita-Valley Center Floodway in 1958. It makes the water go around Wichita.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Westar Energy gives electricity. Cox Communications and Spectrum offer cable television. AT&T U-Verse offers IPTV. Those three companies also offer home telephone and broadband internet service. Kansas Gas Service provides natural gas.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Wichita Transit has 53 buses. There are 18 bus routes in Wichita. They say there are over 2 million trips per year (5,400 trips per day) on its routes. Wichita Transit also has a paratransit service. It has 320,800 passenger trips every year.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: The Wichita Airport Authority manages the city's two main public airports. The airports are Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport and Colonel James Jabara Airport. Wichita Dwight D. Eisenhower National Airport is in western Wichita. It is the city's main airport. It is also the biggest airport in Kansas.


title: Wichita, Kansas

text: Two Class I railroads, BNSF Railway and Union Pacific Railroad (UP), operate freight rail lines through Wichita. The closest Amtrak station is in Newton. It is north. Amtrak offers service on the "Southwest Chief" line between Los Angeles and Chicago.


title: Skrillex

text: Sonny John Moore (born 15 January 1988) is an American electronic music producer, DJ and singer-songwriter. He is better known by his stage name, Skrillex.


title: Skrillex

text: Moore started his first band when he was 13, which was called The Riots. He also started a second band called Hazel-rah. He joined the band "From First to Last" in 2004 when he was 16. Moore left "From First to Last" in 2007 and announced that he would be starting a solo career. He also dropped out of school at a young age.


title: Skrillex

text: He was signed by deadmau5 to his label, mau5trap recordings, where he released his second EP, Scary Monsters and Nice Sprites. His song "Kill Everybody" was featured in the trailer for . He also made a song called "Reptile Theme" for the soundtrack to Mortal Kombat.


title: Skrillex

text: In 2011, he was nominated for five Grammy awards. He won three for "Best Dance/Electronica Album," "Best Dance Recording," and "Best Remixed Recording, Non-Classical".


title: Skrillex

text: His song "First of the Year (Equinox)" was featured in the first episode of the Beavis and Butt-head revival. He released his fourth EP "Bangarang" on 23 December 2011.


title: Skrillex

text: He made a song titled "Bug Hunt" for the 2012 animated film Wreck-It Ralph and also made a small and brief cameo as a DJ.


title: Skrillex

text: The song "Make it Bun Dem" with Damian Marley was used as a looped variant and plays during the single player mission 'Kick the Hornet’s Nest' in the 2012 video game Far Cry 3.


title: Skrillex

text: He released his sixth EP titled "Leaving" on 2 January 2013 for OWSLA's subscription service called The Nest.


title: Hanover

text: Hanover () is a German city. It is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony. Hanover has 522,944 inhabitants (1 February 2007).


title: Hanover

text: In Hanover there are some big industry companies like Volkswagen (Cars and Vans), Continental (tyres), Varta (batteries) and TUI (tourism).


title: Hanover

text: There are some very big fairs in Hanover like the CeBIT - "Ce"ntre of "O"ffice, "I"nformation and "T"elecommunication (B is for Büro that means office) and the traditional Hanover fair that shows classical industrial products.


title: Hanover

text: Hanover has a large forest near the inner city, it is called the "Eilenriede". There is also a lake (the "Maschsee") of about three km length and 500 m width near the city centre. The famous gardens of Herrenhausen (Herrenhäuser Gärten) are also in Hanover. The gardens were heavily destroyed in WWII, but they are currently under reconstruction.


title: Hanover

text: People in Hanover get around town by using the Hannover Hauptbahnhof, which has been around since 1843.


title: Hanover

text: The mayor of the city is Stefan Weil who followed Herbert Schmalstieg in 2006. Both are from the social democratic party SPD. The city has been administered by social democratic city councils since the 1950s.


title: Hanover

text: The (new) town hall is one of the famous buildings in the city, others are the Marktkirche (market church), the old (medieval) town hall, some castles like the "Leineschloss" and the "Welfenschloss".


title: Hanover

text: The classic rock band "Scorpions", the former German chancellor Gerhard Schröder and the association football player Per Mertesacker.


title: Hanover

text: Hanover has a famous football club, Hannover 96, since 2002 (again) a member of the first German football league, the Bundesliga. Its home stadium is the AWD-Arena (capacity: 49000). Hanover is also a center for ice hockey.


title: Equilibrium

text: An equilibrium is a state of a system where all forces acting on the system is balanced. A system that is in equilibrium does not change. The word has been used for different concepts from different fields of study.


title: Equilibrium

text: Chemical equilibrium is an idea which describes the behavior of chemical reactions over time. In reactions that have finished reacting and have attained equlibrium, the concentrations of the reactant and product chemicals do not change. An example of an equilibrium reaction is as follows:


title: Equilibrium

text: In the example above, the double arrow shows that the reaction is an equilibrium reaction. This means that the forward reaction and the backward reaction can happen, usually due to a small enthalpy change in each reaction. Hence, the amount of product chemicals to reactant chemicals remains a fixed value, and such a ratio is called the equilibrium constant (K).


title: Equilibrium

text: The equilibrium constant is a ratio of the concentration of the products raised to the appropriate powers to the concentration of the reactants raised to the appropriate powers. In the above example, the equilibrium constant is as follows:


title: Equilibrium

text: For some reactions, the equilibrium constant is very large, in which case nearly all of the reactant chemical is turned into products, such as when paper is burned. For other reactions, it is very small, which results in very little products being formed. If the equilibrium constant is close to 1, a mixture of both products and reactants is expected at equilibrium.


title: Equilibrium

text: When chemists talk about equilibrium constants, they call reactions with large K values favorable and reactions with small K values unfavorable. It is important to note, however, these terms are not judgements about the value or usefulness of a particular chemical reaction. In fact, some very important reactions are actually "unfavorable"; one such example is the synthesis of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen gas (Haber process), which has a rather small equilibrium constant.


title: Equilibrium

text: Understanding how chemical equilibriums work is important as it helps in understanding how a reaction happens. It allows chemists to calculate how much products will be formed from a reaction.


title: Equilibrium

text: The concept of Le Chatelier's principle is important in predicting how an equilibrium will change when different factors are changed in a system. For example, using the Le Chatelier's principle, we are able to predict how the position of equilibrium will change when the concentration of a certain reactant/product has changed, as the system will try to counteract the change by favoring either the forward or the backward reaction


title: Equilibrium

text: An exception to this rule is when an outside energy source forces the reaction to occur in the opposite direction, such as when a battery is recharged. Knowing the equilibrium constant of a reaction also helps you to understand the flow of energy that occurs during the reaction (thermodynamics).


title: Dusty Baker

text: Johnnie B. "Dusty" Baker Jr. (born June 15, 1949) is the manager of the Houston Astros. He has also managed the San Francisco Giants, Chicago Cubs, Cincinnati Reds and Washington Nationals. Before he became a manager, Baker played as an outfielder for several Major League Baseball teams: the Atlanta Braves, Los Angeles Dodgers, San Francisco Giants, and Oakland Athletics. As a player, he won the World Series in 1981 as a member of the Dodgers. He returned to the World Series in 2002 as manager of the Giants, but his team lost to the Anaheim Angels.


title: OPEC

text: OPEC, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is an international organization. Since 1965, the headquarters of OPEC has been in Vienna, Austria. OPEC was established in Baghdad, Iraq on 10–14 September 1960.


title: OPEC

text: Its work is to "coordinate and unify the petroleum policies" of its members, and also to "ensure the stabilization of oil markets in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry".


title: OPEC

text: According to the United States Department of Energy Energy Information Administration (EIA), OPEC crude oil production is an important factor affecting global oil prices. OPEC sets production targets for its member nations and generally, when OPEC production targets are reduced, oil prices increase. Projections of changes in Saudi production result in changes in the price of crude oil.


title: OPEC

text: OPEC was formed in 1960 when the international oil market was largely dominated by multinational companies known as the 'seven sisters'. The formation of OPEC was a turning point in state control over natural resources. In the 1960s OPEC made sure that oil companies could not unilaterally cut prices. In December 2014, OPEC and the oil men were named in the top 10 most influential people in the shipping industry by Lloyds.


title: OPEC

text: Member countries of the OPEC came together to form this international organization with several aims. Some of the aims are:


title: Pop Smoke

text: Bashar Barakah Jackson (July 20, 1999 – February 19, 2020), known professionally as Pop Smoke, was an American rapper. He was eventually signed to Victor Victor Worldwide and Republic Records. In April 2019, he released the song "Welcome to the Party". The song was the lead single of his first mixtape "Meet the Woo", which was released in July 2019. "Welcome to the Party" was made into two remixes featuring Nicki Minaj and Skepta in August 2019. Pop Smoke also worked with Lil Tjay, Calboy and Travis Scott.


title: Pop Smoke

text: Pop Smoke was born in Brooklyn, New York. He attended middle school there and got expelled in 8th grade. He was the son of a Jamaican mother and a Panamanian father.


title: Pop Smoke

text: On February 19, 2020, Pop Smoke was shot three times by a male teenager during a home invasion in Los Angeles, California. He was taken to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center where he died later that day. He was 20.


title: Common Brittonic

text: Common Brittonic (also called Common Brythonic, British, Old Brythonic, or Old Brittonic) was an ancient language spoken in Britain. It was the language of the Celtic people known as the Britons. By the 6th century it split into several Brittonic languages: Welsh, Cumbric, Cornish, and Breton.


title: Common Brittonic

text: Common Brittonic is descended from Proto-Celtic, a hypothetical parent language. By the first half of the first millennium BC it was already dividing into separate dialects or languages. There is some evidence that the Pictish language may have had close ties to Common Brittonic and might be a fifth branch.


title: Common Brittonic

text: Evidence from Welsh shows a great influence from Latin on Common Brittonic during the Roman period. This is particularly true of the Church and Christianity, which are nearly all Latin derivatives. Common Brittonic was replaced in most of Scotland by Gaelic. South of the Firth of Forth it was replaced by Old English (which later developed into Scots). Common Brittonic survived into the Middle Ages in Southern Scotland and Cumbria. Common Brittonic was gradually replaced by English throughout England. In the north of England, Cumbric disappeared as late as the 13th century. In the south, the Cornish was a dead language by the 19th century. There were some attempts to revitalize it have met with some success.


title: American Samoa

text: American Samoa (; , ; also ' or ') is a territory of the United States. It is part of the Samoan Islands in the southern Pacific Ocean.


title: American Samoa

text: In 1899, Germany and the U.S. divided the Samoan group of islands. The U.S. got the smaller group of islands on the east side. These islands had a good harbor near the capital city, Pago Pago. The western islands were run by Germany and then by New Zealand and are now the independent country Samoa.


title: American Samoa

text: Officially, American Samoa is an "unorganized" territory. This means that the U.S. Congress has not passed an Organic Act. But the people who live in American Samoa rule themselves. Their constitution became effective on July 1, 1967.


title: American Samoa

text: People who are born in American Samoa are called U.S. nationals, not U.S. citizens. This means they have some of the same rights as citizens but not all of them. Unlike people who are not Americans at all, American Samoans can go to any other part of the United States they want and live there for as long as they want. But they are not allowed to vote, to be on juries in court, to run for office, or to hold any job that the employee has to be a citizen to hold. For contrast, someone born in Puerto Rico or Guam is a citizen, so if they move to a state, they are allowed to vote in that state and in all federal elections.


title: American Samoa

text: Some American Samoans like that they are not American citizens and others do not. Some American Samoans say that being nationals and not citizens makes it easier for them to keep the fa'a Samoa, the Samoan way of life. In 2019, three American Samoans living in Utah sued the U.S. government to say they are citizens. The judge agreed with them. The judge said that the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that anyone born in any part of the United States is a citizen, and that should mean American Samoans too. But the next day, he said they should not register to vote until after an appeal judge has seen the case.


title: American Samoa

text: In 2016, the United States Supreme Court decided they did not want to look at a case about whether American Samoans are citizens.


title: Particle accelerator

text: A particle accelerator, also called an atom smasher, is a machine that accelerates (speeds up) particles and makes them travel at very high speeds. Accelerators work by pushing particles like electrons, protons, or atomic nuclei (the centers of atoms) with electric fields and by steering them with magnetic fields. Their main use is to study particle physics.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The largest accelerators are used to study particles smaller than atoms; smaller accelerators are used to study atomic nuclei and make radioactive materials. There are two kinds of particle accelerators: linear accelerators and circular accelerators. Linear accelerators move the particles in a line, while circular accelerators move the particles in a circle. One example of a particle accelerator is the Large Hadron Collider at CERN. It is very big, stretching through two countries. Another example is the Tevatron in the United States. The cathode ray tube, used in 20th century televisions and computer monitors is also a simple accelerator for electrons.


title: Particle accelerator

text: When accelerated particles hit other particles such as atoms, smaller pieces come out. This helps people see particles smaller than an atom. Normally those particles cannot be seen, but they can in the particle accelerator. This is because in some ways energy and matter are the same thing. At the high speed created in these machines, some of the movement energy is changed into matter. It is the opposite process that nuclear weapons use; nuclear weapons turn matter into energy. Small amounts of antimatter are also created during the process.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The particle accelerator at CERN was set up to search for the Higgs Boson particle, which would complete the Standard Model of Particle Physics.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Particle accelerators often use very advanced technology. This makes them cost a lot of money which is usually paid by governments.


title: Superhero

text: Modern superheroes usually have superhuman powers, for example have better senses, are stronger and faster than normal humans. Usually a superhero is courageous and noble. They usually have a colorful name and costume.


title: Superhero

text: Some superheroes do not actually have super powers but are merely strong individuals who want to do good in the world. For example, Batman does not have any superpowers, but has been through years of training to be physically and mentally stronger than his enemies.


title: Superhero

text: Most superheroes keep their identities a secret by wearing masks or helmets. This protects the superheroes' friends and family from being hurt by villains. Also, because superheroes do not fight within the regulations of the law like police officers do, they would have to be arrested for vigilantism if they revealed their identities.


title: Superhero

text: Also, many superheroes have tragic backstories that play into why they're superheroes in the first place. Batman, for example, saw both of his parents murdered in front of him and dedicated himself to fighting crime to prevent things like that happening to other people. Another example of this is Spider-Man who let a thief go that he could've easily stopped; that same thief later broke into his home and killed Spider-Man's uncle. After this, Spider-Man realized that he had to be responsible with his power and use it to help others.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster occurred on January 28, 1986, when the NASA's  broke up 73 seconds after liftoff. All seven crew members were killed. It was the 25th flight of a Space Shuttle. The cause of the explosion was a part called an O-ring that broke in the right solid rocket booster. During the flight, hot gases escaped from the O-ring and made it break apart. Shuttles stopped flying for two and a half years.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: The mission of the flight that ended in disaster was named STS-51-L. It was the tenth mission for "Challenger". STS-51-L was scheduled to deploy the second in a series of Tracking and Data Relay Satellites. It was also going to carry out the first flight of the "Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy" (SPARTAN-203) / Halley's Comet Experiment Deployable in order to observe Halley's Comet.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: One of the crew members was Christa McAuliffe, a civilian teacher. She was going to carry out several lessons from space as part of the Teacher in Space Project and Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP). Another crew member of this mission, Gregory Jarvis, was originally going to fly on the previous shuttle flight (STS-61-C). However, he was reassigned to this flight and replaced by Congressman Bill Nelson.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: The O-ring was a part of the Shuttle's solid rocket booster that, when working correctly, stopped hot gas escaping through joins in the booster's steel skin called field joints. Each booster had three field joints, and each joint had two rubber O-rings, a main and a backup, that circled the booster. When the boosters were tested in 1977, however, the force caused by the pressure inside the booster made the steel parts bend away from each other at the field joints, breaking the O-ring seals and allowing the hot gases to escape. This was called "joint rotation", and if the "blow-by" of the hot gases against the O-rings was bad enough it could have destroyed the ring and caused the booster to explode. However, it was also found that the rubber O-rings would shift under the forces of lift-off and form a seal anyway, which was called "extrusion", so the problem was not seen as serious by NASA.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: Blow-by of the O-rings had been seen on early Shuttle flights, and a pattern was noticed by the engineers who built the boosters: more blow-by happened in cold temperatures. The company that built the boosters, Thiokol, had been working on a fix but had not told NASA even though the O-rings were "criticality 1" parts, meaning that if they should fail to do their job, the rocket would be destroyed. Criticality 1 parts were also not allowed to rely on a backup part for safety - this meant that the backup O-ring in the booster was not good enough to keep the astronauts safe.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: It was unusually cold on the morning of the Space shuttle's launch. The engineers argued that the "Challenger" should not take off because the temperature was and the O-rings could not seal right if the temperature was under . The NASA commanders did not agree and said that the backup O-ring would work. They were later proved wrong. The temperature was so low that icicles were hanging from some parts of the launch pad. However, the NASA commanders convinced the engineers' managers to overrule them and approve the launch.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: Challenger lifted off at 11:38 EST exactly. In the first four seconds of flight, grey smoke was seen on the launch pad cameras coming out of the aft (bottom) field joint in the right booster. This was the O-rings being partially destroyed - they had been frozen solid and could not seal, so the blow-by of hot gases burned them away completely before the "extrusion" could happen. However, aluminium oxide, formed by the burning rocket fuel, plugged the gap and formed a weak seal. "Challenger" was safe for now, and quickly cleared the launch tower.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: "Challenger" flew normally for almost a minute. At the 59 second mark, though, the aluminium seal broke. This allowed the burning rocket fuel to escape through the broken part of the O-ring. A visible plume of fire came out of the right SRB, burning both the external fuel tank and the piece of metal keeping the two connected. This plume burned through the bottom of the fuel tank, where the liquid hydrogen fuel was stored. At 68 seconds after liftoff, the engines increased power to produce the highest thrust possible (known as throttling up). The flight controllers informed the shuttle crew that their flight status was "go" at the throttle-up stage. The flight commander, Dick Scobee, responded with ""Roger, go at throttle up.""


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: However, at 72 seconds after liftoff, the fire that had burned through the fuel tank also burned through the connecting metal, leaving the right booster hanging only by the forward (top) attaching point. "Challenger" suddenly went off its intended path, which may have been felt by the crew. Half a second later, Smith said the last words picked up by the recorder designed to record all interactions in the crew area of the shuttle during flight: ""Uh oh..."". Smith may have been responding to the shuttle's computer telling him that the engines were moving quickly to compensate for the now loose booster in a useless attempt to get the shuttle back on the planned path. The right booster, free to swing about its remaining connection, turned outwards and hit the top of the fuel tank just as the hydrogen tank broke. The burning liquid fuel pushed the hydrogen tank into the now-broken upper oxygen tank, destroying both. The two liquid fuel parts combined and exploded in one go, swallowing "Challenger" in a huge explosion. The boosters, being made of thick steel, survived this, and though the explosion itself didn't destroy "Challenger" directly, it pushed the Shuttle into the wrong angle for its flight path through the air, which caused enormous amounts of drag that ripped "Challenger" apart.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: Little is known of what happened in the minutes after the breakup. The crew cabin was still intact as it started falling, since it was built to be strong. The official report into the disaster says that the crew survived the first breakup and that at least three people were still alive. They were able to move switches which required a cover to be pulled off before they could be moved, probably when they tried to regain control of the craft, as well as activate their air packs. The crew cabin did not have any kind of parachute, and it smashed into the ocean after falling for 2 minutes and 45 seconds at roughly . Any crew that might have survived the first break up died instantly with more than 200 times the force of normal gravity. This is like going from 0 to over and then slowing back down to 0 all within a second.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: Many people wanted to know why the "Challenger" exploded. President Ronald Reagan asked for a report about the disaster. It was called the "Rogers Commission Report" and it was written by a group of astronauts, scientists and engineers. They worked out what had happened and why the "Challenger" exploded. The report said that the people in charge at NASA did not listen to the engineers who said the O-rings were not safe; and that sometimes the people in charge thought that parts of the shuttle were well made when they were not. They also wrote that NASA sometimes did unsafe things because people would get angry if the shuttle launches were delayed.


title: Space Shuttle Challenger disaster

text: There were no shuttle flights while the report was written. After the report was written, NASA had to be more careful in many different ways.


title: Martin Luther King, Sr.

text: The Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. (born Michael King; December 19, 1899 – November 11, 1984) was an African American civil rights activist and the father of Martin Luther King, Jr. He was a Baptist minister. His son - Martin Luther King, Junior - was a civil rights activist who went against racial segregation. His spouse, Alberta Williams King, was assassinated.


title: Amy Winehouse

text: Amy Jade Winehouse (14 September 1983 – 23 July 2011) was an English jazz, soul and R&B singer and songwriter. She debuted with the well-received album "Frank" in 2003. Winehouse won five Grammy Awards for her 2006 album "Back to Black". This made her the first British female to win five Grammys.


title: Amy Winehouse

text: Winehouse had many uncles who were jazz musicians, and she was interested in jazz from a young age. She named her first album after Frank Sinatra. Her music was also influenced by girl groups of the 1960s.


title: Amy Winehouse

text: Amy Jade Winehouse was born to Jewish parents Janis and Mitch Winehouse. She was given her first guitar when she was 13 years old. When she was 14 she started writing songs. She’d often write music about her day to day experiences in a book given to her by father. It was later revealed that she used some of the songs she wrote as a teenager on her debut album Frank She went to Sylvia Young Theatre School and the BRIT School. Both schools have very notable alumni including soul-singer Adele and X-Factor contestant, Leona Lewis


title: Amy Winehouse

text: On 20 October 2003 Winehouse's first album "Frank" was released. She won an Ivor Novello Award for it.


title: Amy Winehouse

text: On 30 October 2006 her second album "Back to Black" was released. Five singles were released from the album. The first single "Rehab" spent 57 weeks in the UK Singles Chart. It won Record of the Year, Song of the Year, and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 2008 Grammy Awards.


title: Amy Winehouse

text: Winehouse sung on Mutya Buena's 2007 single "B Boy Baby". Winehouse performed at Nelson Mandela's 90th Birthday Party concert at London's Hyde Park on 27 June 2008. The next day she performed at the Glastonbury Festival.


title: Amy Winehouse

text: In 2011 "Lioness: Hidden Treasures", a collection of Winehouse's unreleased songs, was released. It reached No.1 in the UK Albums Chart. Winehouse sung on the song "Cherry Wine" on Nas' 2012 album "Life Is Good".


title: Amy Winehouse

text: She married Blake Fielder-Civil in 2007. They had legal troubles that resulted in criminal convictions for both of them. He was sent to prison. They divorced in 2009.


title: Amy Winehouse

text: She was found dead her flat in Camden, north London, on the afternoon by accidental alcohol poisoning in July 23, 2011 after years of drug and alcohol addiction. This made her a member of the 27 Club, a group of popular musicians who have died at that age, often due to drug or alcohol abuse. After Winehouse's death her dad published a book about her life called "Amy: My Daughter". All of the money made from the book was given to the Amy Winehouse Foundation.


title: Itihasa

text: In Sanskrit, Itihasa means history. For Hindus, an Itihasa is a story that tells about what happened in the past in the land of India. Itihasas are usually epic poems. The important itihasas to Hindus are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Modern excavations and archaeological evidences are slowly beginning to find evidences to prove these Indian epics as actual history.


title: Itihasa

text: The original meaning of Itiihaasa had a more precise connotation than the word History. The etymology attested to by Panini indicates itiha to mean ‘thus indeed, in this tradition’ .


title: Itihasa

text: One of the earliest references to Itihaasa in the literature of antiquity is in Chanakyas’s Arthashastra. Our investigations lead us to believe that the Maurya empire for which he was the preceptor began in 1534 BCE. He defines Itihaasa, in the context of the syllabus prescribed for training of a Prince, with the following words;


title: Itihasa

text: Puraana (the chronicles of the ancients), Itivrtta (history), Akhyayika (tales), Udaaharana (illustrative stories), Dharmashastra (the canon of Righteous conduct), and Arthashastra (the science of Government) are known by (comprise the corpus of Itihaasah, ) History


title: Itihasa

text: Thus, History in this definition takes on the meaning more akin to the sense of Historiography and is perhaps even more eclectic and appears to indicate a superset of political science and History as we use them today. We feel vindicated therefore in calling our forthcoming conference a conference on Indian History ( http://www.india-forum.com/forums/index.php?showtopic=2088), since we seem to ascribe the same broad meaning that Kautilya did 3 millennia ago.


title: Itihasa

text: The quintessential quote is that of Kalhana in the Rajatarangini,12th century CE (1147 to 1149 CE) who is regarded as a modern in Indian parlance


title: Itihasa

text: History will be the narration of events as they happened, in the form of a story, which will be an advice to the reader to be followed in life, to gain the purusaarthas namely Kama the satiation of desires through Artha the tool, by following the path of Dharma the human code of conduct to gain Moksha or liberation.


title: Itihasa

text: Clearly there is an emphasis on the traditions and on the utilitarian aspect of History, embedded in the etymology of Itihaasa. The reason we draw emphasis to the ambiguity in the use of the word History is that, in our usage, while we adhere to the broader usage of the word History, it makes for clarity in usage if the Civilizational aspects are distinguished into distinct categories


title: Free will

text: Free will is being able to choose between different actions. If we judge an action (for example, as good or bad) it only makes sense if the action is freely chosen.


title: Free will

text: Things like advice, persuasion, and prohibition, are pointless unless people have some kind of free will. Free will means people can do different things. Different results come from different courses of action. Traditionally, only actions that are freely willed deserve credit or blame. If there is no free will, there is no sense or justice in rewarding or punishing anybody for any action.


title: Free will

text: Free will is a major problem in ethical philosophy, and is also relevant to the philosophy of science.


title: Free will

text: In ordinary life, and in law, people are generally assumed to have free will, and are responsible for what they do.


title: Free will

text: Determinism comes from the idea that our world – and the universe – is in some way rather like a machine. This idea goes back a long way in history (at least 2,500 years).


title: Free will

text: that events in the past fully decide (cause) events in the future. It is the same as saying "the universe is like a clockwork instrument". If you knew everything about it, you could predict exactly what will happen. To illustrate this Pierre-Simon Laplace proposed a thought experiment in 1814, which he called Laplace's demon. If determinism is the case, then there can be no free will.


title: Free will

text: The view that a deterministic universe means people do not have free will is called "incompatibilism". It means if determinism is true, it is incompatible with free will, and so free will does not exist.


title: Free will

text: Many thinkers do not like what follows from hard determinism, and ideas have been put forwards as to why we do have free will. Here we give just one of these ideas.


title: Free will

text: Soft determinism (or "compatibilism") tries keep determinism, but still claims that free will is possible. David Hume had this position. According to Hume, free will is not the ability to make a different decision under the same circumstances. Because there may be slight differences in the circumstances, a different decision can be reached. Chrysippos. a stoic philosopher gives the example of a dog which is tied to a cart. This dog can freely decide to follow the cart. William James coined the term "soft determinism" in "The dilemma of determinism" in 1884. There, James writes "A common opinion prevails that the juice has ages ago been pressed out of the free-will controversy". James went on to argue, just as did Plutarch, that events fall into two groups: the causally determined and the rest.


title: Free will

text: The law assumes we have free will. The job of courts is to find out when people do things and what they were thinking when they decided to do it. For example, think of someone who kills someone else. A court tries to figure out (1) if he or she actually killed the other person, and (2) if he or she decided to do it. The courts do not ask the philosophical question above.


title: Free will

text: In the past, people such as Democritus saw the universe as deterministic. Some people thought that getting enough information would allow them to predict perfectly what will happen in the future. Modern science, however, is a mixture of deterministic and stochastic theories.


title: Old Trafford

text: Old Trafford is a football stadium in Manchester in North West England. Its nickname is "The Theatre of Dreams". It is home to the club Manchester United F.C.. It is the biggest club stadium in Great Britain and second biggest stadium in Great Britain, with Wembley Stadium being the biggest. Old Trafford hosted most of England's home matches while Wembley was being built. It was built in 1910. It cost about £60,000,000 to build.


title: Lubricant

text: A lubricant is a substance used to reduce friction between moving surfaces. The property of reducing friction is known as "lubricity" (slipperiness).


title: Lubricant

text: Sometimes, chemicals are added to normal oil to give it special properties. A lubricant, like motor oil, can also help in reducing heat. Simply put, cooling depends on surface area in contact. So, if something normally has a small surface area, you can put that thing into a bigger pot, and put oil in the pot. This way, oil comes in contact with small surface area of the small object, and transfers that heat to the big surface area of the big vessel. As a rule, liquids can transfer heat better than gases.


title: Lubricant

text: In manufacturing, sometimes oil is used to cool the item being made. This also helps in removing metal that was just chipped off. This chipped-off metal normally flows with the oil until it is filtered. Then the oil is reused. The filtered metal chips are normally scrapped.


title: Lubricant

text: Sometimes, lubricants are used for hydraulic machines. A hydraulic machine uses the fact that the hydraulic oil cannot be compressed, and performs a simple conversion – it works like a lever.


title: Church music

text: Church music is music that is intended to be part of Christian worship in churches, chapels, cathedrals or anywhere Christians meet to worship. Church music is sacred (religious) music, but not all religious music is church music. Some music may be inspired by religion, but it may not be church music. For example, some songs are about religion, but they may not be church music. Although it uses the words of the Requiem mass, Verdi’s "Requiem", was composed for performance in a concert hall. Britten’s "War Requiem" was written for performance in a cathedral, but it was not meant to be part of a service of worship, so it would not usually be thought of as “church music”.


title: Church music

text: Church music has varied enormously during the history of Christianity as different churches kept changing their ideas about what part music should have in religious worship. Most church music is based on singing. Music written for church choirs mostly used the words of the liturgy (the words used in services). The organ is the most important musical instrument in church music, although from time to time many other instruments have been used as well.


title: Church music

text: During many periods in history composers writing for the church used traditional music rather than the newest fashions. This was particularly the case in the early 17th century when composers such as Claudio Monteverdi often wrote in two different styles: the old style for church music (which, at the time, they called “stilo antico”) and the new style for secular (non-religious) music (which they called “stilo moderno”).


title: Church music

text: During the early history of Christian worship the churches were spread through many countries in the Roman Empire. The musical traditions that already existed in these countries were used, so there was great variety. Musical instruments were associated with the devil and with dancing, and so they were thought to be wicked and were not allowed in churches. The only music that was allowed in churches was singing. In the 4th century Bishop Ambrosius of Milan introduced the antiphon and encouraged newly composed hymns. Psalms were an important part of the early Christian worship. Responsorial psalms were psalms which were sung by one person (who may have been called a “reader”), and the congregation may have responded at the end of a verse with something simple such as “Alleluia”. Gradually “antiphonal psalmody” was developed. This meant that the choir stands on opposite sides facing one another and they sing the verses of the psalm alternately (first one side has a turn, then the other). Antiphonal psalm singing can still be heard today in Anglican cathedrals.


title: Church music

text: The kind of music heard in the Catholic Church was known as chant or plainchant, often known as “Gregorian chant” (after St Gregory the Great, who was Pope from 590-604). The text (the words that were sung) were the standard words of the liturgy. The words of the Mass were set to music by many composers. Music for the dead was called Requiem Mass. There was also music for Vespers and the Compline. Until the 16th century the organ was only used to accompany the singing. In the Renaissance period many great composers such as Giovanni da Palestrina and Orlande de Lassus wrote polyphonic music for the Catholic Church. They often wrote motets: short pieces based on texts which were not part of the liturgy.


title: Church music

text: During the period called Reformation some Protestant groups broke away from the Catholic Church. From this time on Catholic and Protestant music developed in different ways.


title: Church music

text: Martin Luther started the Protestant movement in Germany. In the Lutheran church the chorale was the most important part of the musical worship. Luther himself composed many chorale tunes. These are like hymns. The great Johann Sebastian Bach based much of his organ music on the chorale (these pieces are called Chorale Preludes). The choir often sang a motet. Sometimes these choir pieces became very long and turned into cantatas. The words were not from the liturgy but made up by poets or taken from the Bible. Bach wrote about 200 cantatas for the church. He also wrote two great passions which tell the story of Jesus dying on the cross. Other composers who have contributed to Protestant church music in Europe include Heinrich Schütz, Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, Dietrich Buxtehude, Johann Pachelbel, and Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy.


title: Church music

text: Music for the Catholic Church includes instrumental music such as “church cantatas”. Arcangelo Corelli and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote many examples of these. Mozart also wrote several masses. Great Italian composers of the 16th and 17th centuries who wrote church music include Giovanni Gabrieli and Claudio Monteverdi. In the 19th century Rheinberger and Max Reger wrote music in the Romantic style. French composers of this time wrote in a style which was similar to secular music.


title: Church music

text: When King Henry VIII broke away from the Catholic Church he founded his own church, known as the Anglican church. Many great composers wrote music for the Anglican service. Their music for choirs was mostly service settings and anthems. They also wrote many hymn tunes. Important composers include William Byrd (who also wrote Catholic church music) and Thomas Tallis in the Renaissance, Orlando Gibbons and Henry Purcell in the Baroque period, and in later periods Samuel Sebastian Wesley, Charles Stanford, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Edward Bairstow, William Mathias and John Rutter.


title: Church music

text: Church music in American churches developed, at first, in a similar way to European music. The Book of Common Prayer was the basis of American worship. Both Puritans and Baptists thought that congregational singing was important. In the 18th century Singing Masters from Singing Schools in the north eastern states used to travel around to try to teach people in church to sing properly. The most famous of these singing masters was William Billings. Because most people could not read, a system called Lined-out Hymnody developed, in which the priest sang a line and the congregation copied him. Later in the century, during the “First Great Awakening”, the hymn tunes of English composers such as Isaac Watts and Charles Wesley became popular.


title: Church music

text: In the 19th century people from different churches met at Camp Meetings. These were led by Evangelists. The songs reflect the belief that sinners can be saved by repenting. The music of black people and of folk music became important influences. Songs became tuneful and often had refrains. In the middle of the century Sunday Schools for children became extremely popular and many songs were written for them. Gospel songs and negro spirituals also became very widely used and influenced the development of church music in America.


title: Church music

text: Church music in the Orthodox Church in East European countries is always sung. It is based on the Byzantine musical tradition.


title: Mohammad Abdul Hamid

text: Mohammed Abdul Hamid (born 1 January 1944) is the 16th President of Bangladesh since 2013. He was the Speaker of the National Parliament of Bangladesh from 2009 through 2013.


title: Mohammad Abdul Hamid

text: He started his political career while a student in Kishoreganj. He was the vice president of Gurudayal Government College. He later became a lawyer in the Kishoreganj Judge Court. He was president of Kishoreganj Bar Association several times. He has been elected 7 times as a member of Parliament from 1970 to 2009.


title: Mohammad Abdul Hamid

text: On 25 January 2009, he became the Speaker of the National Parliament of Bangladesh. Currently he is the 20th President of Bangladesh.


title: Vacuum

text: A vacuum is a place where there is no matter, not even air. Sound cannot move in a vacuum. No place has a perfect vacuum, because a small number of particles remain, even in outer space.


title: Vacuum

text: A space where only some of the air is removed is also called a vacuum. The space then has lower pressure, even though most of the air remains.


title: Vacuum

text: Vacuum is needed for some kinds of machines used for industrial production. Vacuum pumps are used to pump air out of a vacuum chamber. It is not possible to create 100% vacuum, but some vacuum pumps are able to create 99.9999% vacuum. This is called "hard vacuum". Most industrial purposes do not need hard vacuum.


title: Vacuum

text: Vacuum chambers are also used in many scientific experiments in laboratories. Some experiments in physics and chemistry need hard vacuum to keep any air or other gases from interfering with delicate surfaces or chemicals that can react.


title: Cacao tree

text: The cacao tree is a small tree originally grown in tropical South America. It only grows to 4 to 8 meters in height. Its seeds are called cocoa and are used to produce cocoa butter, chocolate drinks, and chocolate. Now the trees are grown in plantations in many tropical countries.


title: Cacao tree

text: Cacao is planted on over 70000 square kilometres worldwide with 40% of production coming from Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Indonesia. Each country produces about 15%, with smaller amounts coming from Brazil, Nigeria, and Cameroon.


title: Cacao tree

text: A tree begins to bear fruit when it is 4 or 5 years old. In one year, when mature, it may have 6,000 flowers, but only about 20 pods. About 300-600 seeds (10 pods) are required to produce around 1 kg of cocoa paste.


title: Cacao tree

text: There are three main cultivar groups of cacao beans used to make cocoa and chocolate. The most prized, rare, and expensive is the Criollo Group, the cocoa bean used by the Maya. Only 10% of chocolate is made from the Criollo, which is less bitter and more aromatic than any other bean. The cacao bean in 80% of chocolate is made using beans of the Forastero Group. Forastero trees are significantly hardier than Criollo trees, resulting in cheaper cacao beans. Trinitario, a hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, is used in about 10% of chocolate. For details of processing, see cocoa.


title: Cacao tree

text: Cacao beans were commonly used as currency in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. In some areas, such as Yucatán, they were still used in place of small coins as late as the 1840s.


title: Torture

text: Torture is when someone puts another person in pain as a punishment or in order to force them to do or say something. This pain may be physical or psychological. People who have been tortured often suffer from long term physical problems or mental health issues and the person may even die.


title: Torture

text: Reasons for torture can include punishment, revenge, political re-education, deterrence, and interrogation. Victims or third parties may be forced to take actions against their will. Torture may for the sadistic gratification of those watching the torture.


title: Torture

text: A common reason for torture is to get information from the victim, for example, to get confessions or the names of accomplices. Information got by torture is unreliable, because people suffering tend to say whatever the questioner wants them to say. Nevertheless, it was used for centuries by all kinds of societies. It was authorised by the Christian Church during the Inquisition from 1252 to 1816.


title: Torture

text: Almost all countries agree that torture is a violation of human rights and one of crimes against humanity. On 10 December 1948, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Article 5 states, "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment". To ensure human rights protection against torture, the Convention against Torture has adopted by United Nations in 1984.


title: Torture

text: Amnesty International is the leading non-governmental organisation against the use of torture. It has regularly reported on which countries it thinks still use torture. It says "Over the last five years, Amnesty has reported torture in at least three quarters of the world - 141 countries".


title: Gwen Stefani

text: Gwen Renée Stefani (born October 3, 1969) is an American singer, songwriter, fashion designer, actress and television presenter. She was born on October 3, 1969 in Fullerton, California. She was raised in Anaheim, California. She has millions of fans around the world. She is a member of the band No Doubt, and has also released two solo albums. One of her biggest hits is "Hollaback Girl".


title: Gwen Stefani

text: On September 14, 2002 Gwen married Gavin Rossdale, the singer of Bush. They have two sons, Kingston James McGregor Rossdale (born on May 26, 2006) and Zuma Nesta Rock Rossdale (born on August 21, 2008). On September 4, 2013 it was reported that Stefani was pregnant with her third child.


title: Gwen Stefani

text: Stefani says as a child she was diagnosed with dyslexia and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. On October 20, 2014, Stefani released the first single from her third album, "Baby Don't Lie".


title: Prussian blue

text: It is one of the first pigments made synthetically. It was accidentally found in 1704 by two chemists in Berlin.


title: Prussian blue

text: A colour can be shown by hex triplet is a six-digit, three-byte hexadecimal number used in HTML, CSS, and other computing applications. The hex triplet to represent Prussian blue is 003153.


title: Prussian blue

text: When using the RGB color model where red, green, and blue light are added together, Prussian blue has the RGB code of 0, 49, 83


title: Prussian blue

text: Prussian blue is a medicine that is sometimes given by doctors to help remove certain radioactive materials from people’s bodies. It has been used this way since the 1960s.


title: Prussian blue

text: Researchers have experimented replacing some of the iron atoms in Prussian blue with cobalt. When the Prussian blue compound is lit with a red light at -150 C, the compound shifts from being non-magnetic (off) to magnetic (on). The magnetic shift does not change back except if deliberately reversed (or undone) with heat.


title: Prussian blue

text: This magnetism is due to the transfer of an electron from the cobalt to the iron, with light providing the energy, while the electron moves back when heat is applied, the researchers said.


title: Prussian blue

text: This magnetic property means the compound can be used in computer storage. Because the compound can be turned "on" and "off" in a controlled way, it can remember binary information. Binary information is used for computer storage.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Darmstadtium is a chemical element. It has been named ununnilium (Uun) or eka-platinum but is now named darmstadtium. It has the symbol Ds. It has the atomic number 110. It is a transuranium element.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Darmstadtium is a radioactive element that does not exist in nature. It has to be made. The isotopes with an atomic mass from 267 to 273 have very short half-lifes. The half life of these isotopes is measured in milliseconds. Isotopes of darmstadtium with an atomic mass of 279 and 281 were synthesised after the other isotopes. Ds-279 and Ds-281 decay more slowly. The isotope with an atomic mass of 279 has a half life of 180 milliseconds and Ds-281 has a half life of 11.1 seconds.


title: Darmstadtium

text: No uses for darmstadtium are known. What darmstadtium looks like is not known because not enough has been made to see it with human eyesight.


title: Darmstadtium

text: Darmstadtium was first made on November 9, 1994. It was made at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany. Only a few atoms of it were made. It was made by bombarding a lead target with nickel. A nuclear fusion reaction happened and made the element.


title: Darmstadtium

text: This is shown by the equation below that is the reaction that happened. Pb is the symbol for lead, Ni is the symbol for nickel and n is the symbol for a neutron.


title: Darmstadtium

text: The element was named for Darmstadt which was the place of its discovery. The GSI is in Wixhausen, a part of the north of the city of Darmstadt. The new name (darmstadtium) was given to the chemical element by the IUPAC in August 2003.


title: Vic Sotto

text: Marvic Castelo Sotto, commonly known as Vic Sotto and Bossing, is a Filipino actor, TV host, comedian, and film producer. He is known for working for "Eat Bulaga!".


title: Vic Sotto

text: He was born on April 28, 1954, to Marcelino Ojeda Sotto and Dr. Herminia Castelo. He went to at Colegio de San Juan de Letran. He is the brother of Marcelino Antonio "Maru" Sotto, Jr., Vicente "Tito" Sotto, and Valmar "Val" Sotto.


title: Vic Sotto

text: In 1982, Sotto, together with co-hosts in "Eat Bulaga!", Richie D Horsie and Joey De Leon, were accused of rape by Pepsi Paloma, a 16-year old actress. The case was not filed in court after the three apologized publicly on national TV.


title: Vic Sotto

text: Sotto has done sitcoms and television shows on the three major networks in the Philippines, ABS-CBN, GMA Network and TV5. He has mostly done shows for GMA Network.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: Adeline Virginia Woolf (; ; 25 January 1882 28 March 1941) was an English modernist writer, essayist and feminist.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: She was born into a well-known family. Her father, Leslie Stephen, was a Victorian scholar. Her mother, born in India, was a favourite model of the Preraphaelite artists. Her sister, Vanessa Bell, was a painter. She had two brothers; one of them, Thoby, died in 1906.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: Her mother died when she was thirteen and four years later her half-sister Stella died. In these times Virginia started to have her psychological, or mental problems. She had bipolar disorder in the time when few people knew this illness and most thought she was strange.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: After the death of her mother, Leslie Stephen was not able to keep good relations in the family. Virginia and her sister Vanessa were sexually abused by their half-brothers George and Gerald. It affected Virginia for the rest of her life.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: In their childhood, all the Stephens children wrote diaries, but only Virginia kept it for her whole life (and after her death, lots of them were published). It was important for her when she was sexually abused, because there was no one with whom she could talk about it. In the diary, she could write everything.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: After her father's death, Virginia and her brothers and sister moved to Bloomsbury, London and there they became members of the famous group of artists called Bloomsbury Group. Here Virginia met writer Leonard Woolf (1880-1969), whom she was married to from 1912 until her death. Together, they moved to Richmond, where they opened a publishing office called Hogarth House Press, which later published all of Virginia's novels and essays.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: She was bisexual. When she was a teenager, she fell in love with Violet Dickinson and she wrote her lots of love letters. Violet probably never loved her back. Later, Virginia had a sexual relationship with Vita Sackville-West, a writer and a poet. Their letters, which have been published, show how deeply they were in love.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: Her most famous novels are "Mrs Dalloway" and "To the Lighthouse". She completed "Mrs Dalloway" in 1925. It is about a day in the life of an English woman called Clarissa Dalloway. Clarissa is throwing a party and she spends the entire day preparing. The story can appear stupid, but it is not so important in the book. What's more important are the feelings, the colours, or the mood of the story.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: "To the Lighthouse" was published in 1927 for the first time. It is about a family of Ramsays and its friends. These people are altogether spending a summer in Ramsay's house on an island. The youngest of Ramsays children, James, wants to go to the lighthouse, but they can't go there because of bad weather. In the next part of the book, James is ten years older and his father is taking him to the lighthouse, although he doesn't want to go there anymore.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: Virginia Woolf is also an author of these novels: "Jacob's Room" (1923), "Orlando" (1928) and "The Waves" (1931). She was a feminist and she wrote a few essays about women's position in the society, for example "The Room of One's Own" and "Three Guineas".


title: Virginia Woolf

text: On 28 March 1941, Woolf drowned herself by filling her overcoat pockets with stones and walking into the River Ouse near her home. Her body was not found until 18 April. Her husband buried her cremated remains beneath an elm tree in the garden of Monk's House, their home in Rodmell, Sussex.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: In 1998, American writer Michael Cunningham wrote a novel in which she appeared, called "The Hours" (a winner of the Pulitzer award), which is best known because of the "same named movie", in which the role of Virginia was played by actress Nicole Kidman. Kidman won an Oscar for her performance.


title: Virginia Woolf

text: Rather better known is "Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf", in which her name is used as a catch-phrase by the lead couple. This was a play, and then a film starring Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton. The film won five Academy Awards.


title: Invasion

text: Invasion is a word that comes from Latin. Originally, it meant that something "goes in" (as in military occupation) of a foreign territory. So far, the following uses are known:


title: Invasion

text: One of many examples is the importing of rabbits to Australia. As they had no enemies, they did what rabbits do best. They multiplied. To get rid of them, people then thought about importing foxes as well.


title: Parrotfish

text: Parrotfishes are a group of marine fishes that live in shallow tropical and subtropical oceans around the world. Previously considered to form a separate family ("Scaridae"), these fish are now thought to belong to the large family of wrasses (Labridae). Their numbers are largest in the Indo-Pacific region where they are found in and around coral reefs and seagrass beds. They play an important part in bioerosion. There are about 95 species of parrotfish living today.


title: Parrotfish

text: Parrotfish are very colourful. Their name comes from the parrot-like beak formed by their teeth. The buccal cavity (cheek) of the parrotfish secretes the 'sleeping sack' that the fish sleeps in overnight. It is a semi-translucent sack which completely surrounds the parrot fish. In the morning the sack is discarded. You can see these on the sea bed floor during the following day.


title: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2

text: SARS coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA coronavirus which causes the disease COVID-19. It used to be known as 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) by the World Health Organization (WHO).


text: The virus started the 2019–20 coronavirus outbreak. The first suspected cases were reported to the WHO on December 31, 2019.


text: Many early cases of this new coronavirus were linked to Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, a large seafood and animal market in Wuhan, China. The virus may have come from infected animals. It is not certain that this place was the source of the pandemic.


text: The genetic material of this virus showed many similarities to SARS-CoV (79.5%) and bat coronaviruses (96%). This means the virus may have originally come from bats. Scientists did more experiments that showed the virus probably went from bats to an intermediate host, meaning another animal in between bats and humans. The viruses in that other animal changed over time until they could infect humans. Scientists are close to sure that the original animal was a bat but not sure what the intermediate animal was. Some scientists think it could have been a pangolin because there are coronaviruses that live in pangolins even though they are not exactly the same as SARS-CoV-2 or the ones in bats. Pangolins are an endangered species and buying, selling or moving them from place to place is illegal in China and many other countries. But their scales are an ingredient in many traditional Chinese medicines, so they are often sold on the black market.


text: Although SARS-CoV-2 began in bats, scientists noticed that the bats do not get sick and die from it. They think this is because the bats have very careful immune systems that fight the virus without causing inflammation. Scientists are studying bats because of this.


text: Scientists are still looking at SARS-CoV-2 infection in animals, but only a variant strain has been confirmed to spread to minks which has become a huge problem worldwide. It is also inducing fear in humans as there are cases being reported of transmission of COVID-19 from minks to humans. Cats, dogs and other mammals are said to at relative risk but how they can get infected is still a mystery.


text: In early February 2020, the International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses' Coronavirus Study Group gave SARS-CoV-2 its official name, for sudden acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus number two. Before that, people called the virus "2019-nCoV," for "novel (new) coronavirus that appeared in 2019." The study group chose this name because the new virus was so similar to another virus that was already called SARS-CoV with no number.


text: First, the virus enters the cell with the help of the S protein or spike protein expressed on the surface of the virus beyond its envelope. The spike protein attaches to the human cell receptor hACE2 or human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 "." ACE2 is found on the cells of the epithelial cell linings of the lungs, kidneys, and intestines. After the attachment of the S- protein to the virus, the S protein splits into its two components- S1 head and S2 stalk . The S1 head is now able to bind to the TMPRSS2 receptor which is a serine protease enzyme containing a transmembrane domain. The interaction of TMPRSS2 and S1 trigger the cell membrane of the human cell to merge with that of the virus leading to viral genome entry into cells via endosomes. The viral genome in the endosomes which convert to lysosomes is then processed by , which is then replicated in the human cells and released after viral packaging and maturation in the cells to infect others. In October 2020, scientists said they had seen SARS-CoV-2 use another receptor, , to enter cells with the help of the furin cleavage site in its genome which was not found in any of its previous ancestors.


text: SARS-CoV-2 can infect many kinds of cells, but it mostly infects cells in the respiratory system, such as the cells of the nose, pharynx and lungs. Because it is in cells inside the nose, it can spread via aerosol or droplets when people breathe, talk, cough or sneeze.


text: The expanding part of the lungs, pulmonary alveoli, have two main types of cells. One cell, type I, absorbs oxygen from the air, i.e. gas exchange. The other, type II, produces surfactants, that help keep the lungs fluid, clean, infection free, etc. COVID-19 finds a way into a surfactant producing type II cell, and smothers it by reproducing COVID-19 virus within it. Each type II cell which is killed by the virus causes an extreme reaction in the lungs. Fluids, pus, and dead cell material flood the lung, causing the coronavirus pulmonary disease.


text: Scientists looked at the lungs from people who died of COVID-19. They compared them to lungs from people who died of influenza A and to lungs from people who died but not from any problem with their lungs. They saw the cells that made up the skins of the blood vessels in the lungs were more badly damaged in the lungs from COVID-19 patients, and there was more blood clotting. The most important difference the scientists saw was that the lungs had begun to grow new blood vessels.


text: In February 2020, the World Health Organization announced they had chosen a name for the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2: COVID-19. "Covi" for "coronavirus," "D" for "disease," and "19" for the year 2019. They said they did not want the name to have any person, place, or animal in it, like "Wuhan," or “pangolin,” because then people might blame the disease on that place, person, or animal. They also wanted the name to be easy to say out loud.


text: According to the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, COVID-19 makes people feel sick in different ways, but it usually affects the lungs. People usually cough and have difficulty breathing. They often also have a fever, chills, headache, pain in their muscles, or trouble tasting or smelling things.


text: According to an April 2020 study by the American Gastroenterological Association, COVID-19 can make sick people vomit or have diarrhea but this is rare. They said about 7.7% of COVID-19 patients threw up, about 7.8% had diarrhea and about 3.6% had pain in their stomachs.


text: A study from the University of Arizona found that SARS-CoV-2 can prevent an infected person from feeling pain. It does this by giving off vascular endothelial growth factor-A, which binds to the human body's neuropilin receptor. This way, sick people do not feel pain, do not know they are sick, and spread the virus more than if they could feel pain.


text: The SARS-CoV-2 virus looks like a round ball with spikes all around it. There are four parts to the virus: the spikes, a membrane, an envelope, and the virus' genetic material, or ribonucleic acid (RNA) Each of these four parts is a different protein molecule. The spikes, membrane, and envelope are together called the "viral envelope", or outer layer, of the virus.


text: SARS-CoV-2 is a "positive-strand" RNA virus, meaning that it uses ribonucleic acid (RNA) to hold the patterns to make the proteins it needs instead of using DNA the way humans and other multicellular living things do.


text: In early 2020, some people began to think that the SARS-CoV-2 may have been made on purpose in a laboratory at the Wuhan Institute of Virology and released in Wuhan like a weapon. When the leader of Iran, Ayatollah Khamenei, said that he did not want the United States to help his country against coronavirus, he named the idea that Americans had made the virus on purpose to harm Iranains as one of his reasons: "I do not know how real this accusation is but when it exists, who in their right mind would trust you to bring them medication?" said Khamenei.


text: One survey by Pew Research showed 29% of Americans who answered thought SARS-CoV-2 could have been made in a lab on purpose and 23% thought it could have been made in a lab by accident. A survey of people in the United Kingdom showed many of them thought COVID-19 was caused by 5G wireless networks.


text: On March 17, 2020, scientists from Columbia University and other places published a paper in "Nature Medicine" showing that SARS-CoV-2 was almost surely not made by humans in a laboratory. They did this by comparing the genomes of different viruses to each other. The scientists saw that SARS-CoV-2 did not match any of the viral backbones that already exist for virologists to use. The paper in "Nature Medicine" soon became one of the most cited scientific papers of all time.


text: There are no fixed cures for the treatment of COVID-19, but there are various drugs that have been approved for use such as Hydroxychloroquine and Remdesivir which are detailed below. Other antiviral drugs, interferon therapy and combination of anti-viral and interferons are also being experimented on to get the best possible outcome for patients. These treatments are used to reduce the symptoms and to keep the patients comfortable.


text: In April 2020, scientists from the University of Pittsburgh said they had made a vaccine, called PittCoVacc and tested it in mice.


text: Another team of scientists led by Dr. Josef Penninger of the University of British Columbia invented a medicine called APN01 and tested it in engineered human tissue, meaning human cells put together in a lab to look and act like they were inside a body. The scientists learned that adding human soluble recombinant angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) to these tissues infected with SARS-CoV-2 made it harder for the virus to reproduce.


text: In late April 2020, a team from Oxford University announced that they had developed a COVID-19 vaccine. The United States National Institutes of health tested it in rhesus monkeys, and it worked. The Oxford scientists said because they had already been working on a vaccine against a different coronavirus, they had a head start working on one for SARS-CoV-2. The scientists said they would try to test their vaccine on 6000 people by the end of May 2020, and that their vaccine could be ready for people to use in September 2020.


text: In mid-May 2020, a company called Moderna said they tested their mRNA vaccine in forty-five people and eight of them produced antibodies but they did not publish the specific data or publish an article in a scientific journal. Anna Durbin of Johns Hopkins University said it was too soon to tell if people would keep the antibodies long enough for the vaccine to work. The United States Food and Drug Administration gave Moderna permission to test the vaccine again in more people. Moderna's chief medical officer said the vaccine could be ready in January 2021.


text: Some people think hydroxychloroquine, a medicine given to people with malaria, lupus, and arthritis, could work against COVID-19 and some do not. One study from China showed that COVID-19 patients who took hydroxychloroquine got better faster, but the study was not peer reviewed. Other studies in France and China seemed to show hydroxychloroquine helped, but the studies did not include control groups, meaning the doctors did not compare patients who took hydroxychloroquine to patients who did not, so they could not be sure it was the hydroxychloroquine that was helping them or whether it was something else. In March, the United States Food and Drug Administration gave doctors permission to give hydroxychloroquine to COVID-19 patients.


text: United States President Donald Trump suggested the malaria drug hydroxychloroquine could help cure COVID-19, but Dr. Anthony Fauci, who is part of the White House's official coronavirus team said no one could know if hydroxychloroquine worked against SARS-CoV-2. In early April, the "New York Times" reported that President Trump has "a small personal financial interest" in Sanofi, one of the companies that makes hydroxychloroquine, meaning that if the company sold more hydroxychloroquine, he would have more wealth.


text: In early April, Fauci said, "The data are really just at best suggestive. There have been cases that show there may be an effect and there are others to show there's no effect." Dr. Megan L. Ranney of Brown University said that hydroxychloroquine can cause heart attacks and other problems. Other doctors worry that if people take hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19, there will not be enough left for people with malaria, lupus, and arthritis. Still, some hospitals have given hydroxychloroquine to COVID-19 patients who are very sick because the doctors think it is worth the risk.


text: Scientists in France and China performed more studies on larger groups of patients taking hydroxychloroquine. They watched patients who were taking the medicine and other treatment together and at patients who were only taking the other treatment. Both studies showed that hydroxychloroquine did not help and did cause side effects. Both studies were published in May 2020.