Parsimony is central to the cladistic method and can be used for both studying the
Parsimony is central to the cladistic method and can be used for both studying the
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Parsimony is central to the cladistic method and can be used for both studying the Polarity (direction of evolution in a transformation series ) of characters and the confidence of hypotheses of relationships. Example: Drosophila chromosome banding patterns (e.g., chromosomal inversions, figs. 17.16 and 17.17, pg. 491, 494). Each species has a distinct pattern of bands in their salivary gland chromosomes. The sequence of bands appears to have been inverted for certain sections of the chromosome during evolution. One can determine a network of likely evolutionary steps from one species to another. Big problem: can start anywhere in the network. Need to establish where the network begins, i.e. where to Root the tree ? Choose an Outgroup : A taxon (or taxa) that are known to lie outside that group in question and are thus believed to be ancestral to the ingroup. Requires independent information . Once properly selected the determination of polarity falls out logically based on parsimony. the identification of an outgroup can help identify
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What is a Granulator
It only takes a Google search on the internet to find out that the word "Granulator" is one of the most widely used terms in the size reduction industry and perhaps, one of the most misused terms. In my most recent search for the word "granulator", I was not surprised to find that only a few of the results were from companies that actually offer true granulators. The vast majority of the results were from companies who simply use the word to attract people to their websites. Once you click on their link, you quickly find out that what they are calling a granulator is in reality something else; often a shredder, usually single shaft in nature or a grinder, both of which produce significantly different outputs than that of a granulator. Caution!! Selecting one of those machines to handle what is truly a granulating process can end up being a frustrating endeavor and possibly a costly mistake.
Granulator Background
With that in mind, to understand what a true granulator (or granulating process) is, we need to take into account the definition of the word. Originally, to granulate something was to turn a larger component into a "grain". Thus the name Granulator was given to any equipment that could take a larger component and reduce it to a grain sized output; perhaps on the level of corn meal or below. Sadly for those who have size reduction needs, the fact that the word has been attached to equipment other than granulators has greatly confused its usage and likely caused many to purchase equipment that simply is not capable of optimal production for a granulation process. Granted, the ability of any machine to produce a specific output is based on the material being reduced, it remains that granulators have a very specific purpose and place that no other machine can compete with.
So, how do we define a Granulator in today's size reduction market?
Granulators Defined
Simply put, a Granulator is a high speed, normally open rotor knife mill designed to take larger components of feed stock (such as plastics, bottles, organics, etc…) and reduce them to a particle size of approximately 40 mesh to 1/8" chip. And while many granulators are used for processing of material outputs of greater than 1/8", it still remains that their primary place is in the reduction to the finer grains.
While that may be an overly simplistic definition, it does comprise the most common usage of equipment. And it should also be noted that other styles do exist, such as closed rotor designs, higher production models and really, a multitude of similarly designed rotors, however; even with these options which are often to facilitate differing feed stocks – the output of a granulator still remains close to the same sizing.
Make the Right Choice
Confused about your application? At Jordan Reduction Solutions, we manufacture Granulators, Shredders and Grinders – and the output of each differs substantially. Therefore, if you're not certain of exactly what your equipment needs are, contact our engineers and they can quickly assess your needs and help you determine if a granulator is right for you.


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To many Newfoundlanders and Labradorians, Government House is an imposing grey-stone building in downtown St. John's, and the home of Their Honours the Honourable John C. Crosbie, Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland and Labrador and Her Honour Jane Furneaux Crosbie.
Many people may not know about the vegetable gardens behind the residence, and what happens to the food that's grown there.
The Government House Garden in 2012. Pictures will be added as the gardening season unfolds.
The Government House Vegetable Garden Project
by Jackson McLean
Initiated in 2010 by a collective of dedicated volunteers, including Her Honour Jane Furneaux Crosbie, the Government House Vegetable Garden Project is a unique opportunity for high school and junior high youth to learn the basics of food production. A 50 foot by 60 foot plot of 42-raised beds has been cut on the beautiful Government House grounds to accommodate weekly volunteer sessions that run from May to October and include soil preparation, planting, weeding, harvesting, and everything in between.
An additional plot was cut in 2011 and the new soil was used to grow an abundance of potatoes, turnip, corn, and squash.
As the vegetables grow, so does the young person's understanding of the delicate relationship between humans and nature, and the crucial steps that precede supermarket freshness. Issues of food preservation and security are addressed in workshops with guest facilitators from local organizations such as Food Education and Action St. John's (FEASt). Most of the produce is donated to the local food sharing organization: Bridges to Hope.
The success of the program has allowed it to expand and flourish, thereby providing more opportunities for young people to engage in a meaningful volunteer experience that will forever change the way they think about food. Current partners of this project involve Gonzaga High School, Macdonald Drive, and the Duke of Edinburgh Program. If you would like to learn more, please contact _EMAIL_.
Government House Garden 2010
Government House Garden 2011

source: HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu


How Much Waste Does London Produce?
London is the most populous city in the UK, and, with over eight million residents, it produces a lot of pollution. The government has introduced multiple policies to improve the air quality and environment surrounding the capital city, such as the congestion charge. Whilst this aims to better the air quality, it doesn't do much to solve biological pollution made by waste.
How Much Rubbish Does London Make?
More than 18 million metric tonnes of waste are produced every year in the capital, and as the population increases, so will the amount of rubbish.
Of all the rubbish produced, roughly 9.7 million tonnes can be attributed to the construction and demolition industry, most of which can be recycled. For example, rubble can be transformed into aggregate and wood can be used to make new items such as furniture. Unfortunately, most construction waste continues to be sent to landfill where it takes many years to break down.
In addition to the 9.7 million tonnes of construction waste, five million tonnes of waste is produced from the commercial industry. Commercial waste relates to business rubbish and it can include everything from wrappers and paper to food waste and cardboard.
The final portion of waste produced in London is domestic/household waste. Just over 3.1 million metric tonnes of household waste are produced every year, with most of it being food waste and recyclable waste like cardboard, bottles and tins.
Where Does London's Waste Go?
Of the 18 million metric tonnes of waste produced in London, roughly 32% is recycled or composted. This is one of the lowest rates in the country. The good news is, this number is continually increasing and the government is aiming for 65% of London's waste to be recycled by 2030, but at present, a large proportion of waste is still going into landfill or incineration – both of which are detrimental to the environment.
In 2016 alone, 560,000 tonnes of CO2e emissions were produced from incinerating London's waste. It has the highest incineration rate of any local authority in the UK, and with more incineration plants set to open, the efforts to reduce air pollution will be in vain unless waste management is improved.
What are the Challenges of Waste Disposal in London?
Whilst more needs to be done to tackle waste management in London, it doesn't come without its challenges. Space in London properties comes at a premium, and a lot of households don't have adequate room to separate their rubbish. For example, people who live in blocks of flats commonly utilise rubbish chutes, but those chutes aren't usually used for recycling which leaves residents having to take their rubbish to designated bins on the street. Busy lifestyles and high-rise blocks or overflowing bins mean many people simply add their recycling into their general waste for ease.
Not only this, but a lot of material that could be recycled becomes too contaminated, resulting in it being disposed of with general waste. This often comes from a lack of awareness people have around recycling. It's not quite as easy at putting items that can be recycled into a recycling bin – if they are too soiled with food waste, they cannot be recycled.
In addition to this, there are no uniform rules regarding waste disposal in the UK, and different councils have different guidelines. This means what can be recycled in an E14 postcode cannot necessarily be recycled in a W14 postcode. This can be confusing for people who commute from one part of the city to the next, and mixing up rubbish can make it extremely difficult to sort and dispose of properly.
For commercial businesses, food waste is a problem. Uneaten and wasted food goes to landfill, and when it decomposes it produces methane which contributes to global warming. In fact, it's thought that more than 8% of all greenhouse gas emissions in the world are a direct result of food waste. London produces anywhere between 1.5 – 1.75 million metric tonnes of food waste every year. For reference, 1kg of wasted food totals 2.5kg of CO2. The issue arises when you begin to consider alternatives for disposing of items like food.
How to Tackle London's Waste Problems
Without overhauling the entire waste disposal system in London, there are several ways businesses and Londoners can begin to make a difference to London's waste problem. The first way is to try and live a less wasteful lifestyle; for example, not wasting as much food, donating unopened/uneaten food to those in need, and buying second-hand products/furniture and donating old items.
Another way to help with the waste issue is to dispose of rubbish responsibly. It's worth taking the time to separate your rubbish and cleaning out your recyclable items to reduce contamination. If you're unsure of how to dispose of items, get in contact with Central Junk.
We will responsibly get rid of items like rubble bags, tyres, general waste, furniture and appliances in an ethical and responsible way. Any items that are able to be re-used or enjoyed by someone else will be donated. We work across the Greater London area and are on hand to assist wherever you are, whenever you need us.
Simply get in touch today and help improve the way London deals with its waste production.


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I often see a recipe that require something to be boiled in "lightly salted water" e.g. Semmelknödel, but I'm always in doubt on how much salt that actually is.
Can anyone tell the "correct" ratio of salt and water for lightly salted water?
Seasoned Advice is a question and answer site for professional and amateur chefs. It only takes a minute to sign up.Sign up to join this community
There is no such correct ratio. Just go with whatever feels lightly salted to your personal taste. The point is simply to differentiate from recipes in which people go for lots of salt, such as some noodle cooking techniques which require the water to be "as salty as seawater" or similar.
In the end, every cook has their own subjective scale of what is their "typical" amount of salt, and it is impossible to meet the recipe author's without further information. And even if you happen to meet it, if your personal preferred level is ckose, you won't notice much difference. On the other hand, if your preference is very different, the food won't taste right to you if you use the same absolute ratio of salt to water. So, the only practical thing is to use your own taste as a reference.
The effects of using a bit more or less salt in the cooking water should be hardly noticeable, so it should be rather hard to make a mistake here unless you are using extrem amounts.
The goal of using salted water is to avoid too much salt dissipates from the food into the water. So if you want to take things over the top you could calculate the percentage of salt in your Knödel and adjust the water to it so food and water are sharing the same osmotic pressure to maintain the Knödels salt content exactly and unchanged.

source: openbmb/Ultra-FineWeb


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VOID ( VOID ( SOLID ) )
VOID ( POINT ( VOID ) )
Light exhibits behaviour consistent with being both a particle and a wave. The basic quantum unit of light, the photon, is both a particle of zero mass and a transmitter or carrier of the electromagnetic force.
With the appearance of the first photon arose the necessity for the continguent emergence of time and multi-dimensional space. However in accordance with the principles of time dilation, which states that distance shortens and time slows down as one approaches the speed of light, photons bridge the divide between an infinitude of nothingness and an infinitessimally small something. Bursting forth from the singlarity of a point source the photon's discreteness splays out in all directions, first one dimensionally, then two-dimensionally, then three, reaching out to all four quarters of space in its race to be everywhere in one timeless moment only known to itself.


Take the 2-minute tour ×
Civilizations record their history, but how do we derive information for periods before record keeping started? How much do we know for that era of human civilization?
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closed as not a real question by DVK, American Luke, Gangnus, knut, Russell Dec 17 '12 at 2:36
1 Answer 1
up vote 5 down vote accepted
The invention of writing, roughly in the 4th millennium BC divides human history in two major periods:
 1. Prehistory, the period before the invention of writing, and
 2. Recorded history, the period after the invention of writing.
The divide isn't uniform for all civilizations, obviously not all civilizations invented writing at the same time. Furthermore some ancient civilizations, although they thrived in a period that's generally considered part of recorded history, didn't really do a great job recording their own history. For example, in Ancient Sparta, record keeping and any kind of written history was forbidden by law. In such cases, most of the information we have are from neighbouring civilizations.
Prehistory is distinctively different than recorded history, all the information we have for prehistoric times comes from remains and artefacts. Archaeologists studying the prehistoric era of a civilization utilize a vast array of interdisciplinary techniques, such as the study of geologic records and fossils, techniques that are more commonly associated with palaeontology and geology.
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Optimization of Concrete Open-Loop Pumping Displacement Control Parameters under Variable Loads
To solve the problem of piston striking cylinder and pumping insufficiency, an optimization method of concrete open-loop pumping displacement control is derived and presented. In order to control piston stroke effectively, the optimization model of concrete open-loop pumping displacement control parameters is built based on considering the system's open-loop characteristics. Satisfying the physical constraint of preventing piston striking cylinder and maximizing piston's effective stroke are taking as the evaluation criterion during the modeling process. Using this method, simulation and experimental research has been proceeded in a type of concrete pump. The result shows that concrete pumping piston can not only meet the noninterference physical constraint, but also increase the pumping efficiency significantly under variable loads. The optimization model provides a new method that can be used in engineering practice for solving the design problem of concrete pumping open-loop control system under variable loads.
Yungang Li, Pengcheng Wang, Liqun Ai, Xiaoming Sang and Jinglong Bu
A. L. Wang et al., "Optimization of Concrete Open-Loop Pumping Displacement Control Parameters under Variable Loads", Advanced Materials Research, Vols. 291-294, pp. _PHONE_, 2011

source: m-a-p/FineFineWeb


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GOVERNMENT water inspectors plan to prosecute South West Water after more than 300 people in Devon suffered severe and long-lasting diarrhoea last month when their water supplies were contaminated with the spores of Cryptosporidium, a protozoan parasite, from animal wastes. It was the worst outbreak caused by contaminated water supplies for six years.
Water scientists believe the latest outbreak may have arisen because the company failed to change procedures at the Littlehempston water treatment works as it juggled different supplies of water during the drought. South West Water refused to speculate, but a company engineer said it was reviewing the management of water at the plant.
The outbreak calls into question the effectiveness of a £4 million research programme carried out by the water industry in an effort to prevent a repeat of a similar incident in Swindon in 1989, when at least 500 people became ill. An evaluation of...
To continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.


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An airplane passenger sufered a broken leg and many more were left bleeding after severe turbulence onboard a Qatar Airways flight.
The jet was heading to make an emergency landing at a military base at the Portuguese islands of the Azores because a passenger had sufered a heart attack. However, the flight hit severe turbulence while heading down for landing, with several passengers being injured.
The Boeing 777 was heading from Washington to Doha but was sent to the Azores to land at the Lajes Air Base. However, turbulence sent the plane plummeting steeply, flinging a number of passengers from their seats. One is understood to have broken a leg when passengers were hurled against the roof of the plane.
The jet was carrying a total of 350 people when the incident happened. The airline said the flight had been landing to help a stricken passenger but had then suffered what was described as moderate to severe turbulence during the descent.
According to one passenger onboard, several people were hurt when the jet plummeted suddenly. Oxygen masks deployed from the roof while a number of passengers, thought to have unfastened their seatbelts were injured. The worst injured was someone who broke their leg, while others had minor injuries and a young child was flung across the aisle of the aircraft, landing on the knee of another passenger.
A journalist who was on the flight tweeted that passengers were bleeding after hitting the roof. He added: "When plane dropped, three-year-old Lebanese boy flew out of his seat, and landed across aisle into the lap of an Indian man who held him."
A spokesperson for the airbase said that passengers were taken to a hotel and are now waiting for another flight to take them onto their destination. It is understood that the passenger who suffered a cardiac arrest was rushed to hospital.


text:
Research and Development of Wave Pumpby Akira Shiki, Kajima Corp, Japan,
Kouji Iwase, Kajima Corp, Japan,
Document Type: Proceeding Paper
Part of: Ocean Energy Recovery
Abstract: A new device, 'Wave Pump' is introduced here. The authors present the mechanism of the system, the analytical method for discharge rate, the hydraulic model test to verify the analysis and some prospective applications.
Subject Headings: Water waves | Hydraulic models | Model tests | Pumps | Mathematical models | Wave equations | System analysis | Water resources
Services: Buy this book/Buy this article
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Inheritance and Traits in Scala
Inheritance and Traits in Scala
This post is part 4 of the Object Oriented Programming in Scala series. You can view all the posts in the series here.
In this blog post we will discuss Inheritance and Traits in Scala. There is nothing particularly different here in Scala compared to other languages, but it is important to understand the concepts and syntax well. Let's dive straight in and show a very simple example of Inheritance.
Single Class Inheritance
We start by creating a simple class called Animal, with a single method. This will be our Super Class:
class Animal {
 def eat = println("I am eating!")
}
To create a class that inherits from the Animal class, we use the extends keyword. This would be a Sub Class:
class Cat extends Animal
Now we can instantiate a new instant of our Cat class, and the instance has access to the eat method from the super class of Animal:
val cat = new Cat
cat.eat
Access Modifiers in Scala Inheritance
In our method definitions, if we don't include any access modifier then Scala will default to public.
If we mark the method in the super class as private, then calling the method in the sub class is not possible:
class Animal {
 private def eat = println("I am eating!")
}
The other thing we can do is mark the method as protected - this means it is only accessible within that class or within a subclass. So for example:
class Animal {
 protected def eat = println("I am eattng!")
}
So now this will no longer work:
cat.eat
But if we could still access the original eat method from within the subclass like so:
class Cat extends Animal {
 def burp = {
 eat
 println("Burp! Pardon me!")
 }
}
And then call the burp method (which calls the eat method):
cat.burp
Constructors in Scala Inheritance
Next we will look at where constructors fit in with relation to Scala inheritance. We will define a couple of classes, one for Person, and one for Adult which inherits from Person:
class Person(name: String, age: Int)
class Adult(name: String, age: Int, idCard:String) extends Person
This code above will not compile because of an error:
Unspecified value parameters for name and age
Remember, when you define a class like this (i.e. with parameters), you also define the class constructor.
This code doesn't compile because when you attempt to instantiate an instance of Adult, the JVM will need to call a parent class first (i.e. the constructor of Person). The Scala compiler forces you to guarantee that there is a correct super constructor to call when using such a derived class.
You must pass in the correct arguments otherwise the compiler will look for (and in this case fail) to find a constructor like the one provided (in this case for Person). When we extended the class, we specified a constructor of Person with no parameters, but that doesn't exist. We need to pass in the correct parameters like so:
class Adult(name: String, age: Int, idCard:String) extends Person(name, age)
This is the correct way of extending a class with parameters.
Auxiliary Constructors
If you were using an auxiliary constructor within Person, then the code below would be OK.
class Person(name: String, age: Int) {
 def this(name: String) = this(name, 0)
}
class Adult(name: String, age: Int, idCard:String) extends Person(name)
This works because the compiler would find a constructor with just the name inside the super class.
Overriding in Scala Inheritance
Let's look now at overriding when it comes to Scala inheritance. In this example, if we override the protected method eat from the super class, then we can now call that method from our instance:
class Dog extends Animal {
 override def eat = println("I am a dog eating!")
}
val dog = new Dog
dog.eat
This is because the overridden method is public, not protected.
We can also override values in our class, for example:
class Animal {
 val creatureType = "wild"
 protected def eat = println("I am eating!")
}
class Dog extends Animal {
 override val creatureType = "domestic"
 override def eat = println("I am a dog eating!")
}
val dog = new Dog
println(dog.creatureType)
Overriding Fields
Fields, as opposed to methods, have a special property that they can be overridden in the constructor directly as well. For example:
class Dog(override val creatureType: String) extends Animal {
 override def eat = println("I am a dog eating!")
}
 val dog = new Dog("puppy")
 println(dog.creatureType)
This a valid definition, with the value of createType being directly overridden in the constructor.
Alternatively, you could override the field by writing the Dog class like this:
class Dog(dogType: String) extends Animal {
 override val creatureType = dogType
 override def eat = println("I am a dog eating!")
}
Type Substitution aka Polymorphism
In Scala, the overall intention with overriding anything is that all instances of derived classes will use the overridden value whenever possible. But we can also do something called Type Substitution instead.
For example we could declare a class as an animal, but supply a Dog instead:
val unknownAnimal: Animal = new Dog("Boxer")
This is an example of Polymorphism.
Suppose that we removed the protected modifier from Animal, so that our animal class looks like so:
class Animal {
 val creatureType = "wild"
 def eat = println("I am eating!")
}
If we now call the eat method from our instance, we will see that even though unknownAnimal is an instance of Animal, it will use the Dog method of eat instead:
val unknownAnimal: Animal = new Dog("Boxer")
unknownAnimal.eat /// prints out "I am a dog eating!"
Remember that a method call will always go to the most overridden method possible.
Make sure you make the distinction between Overriding ( supplying a different implementation in derived classes) vs Overloading (methods with different signatures but the same name in the same class).
Accessing Methods of the Super Class
If we want to access a method from the super class in our sub class, we can use the super keyword. Look at this example:
class Dog(dogType: String) extends Animal {
 override val creatureType = dogType
 override def eat = {
 super.eat
 println("I am a dog eating!")
 }
}
Now if we call this eat method, we end up calling both implementations of eat - the one in the super class and the one in the sub class:
val unknownAnimal: Animal = new Dog("Boxer")
unknownAnimal.eat
Which prints out:
I am eating!
I am a dog eating!
Preventing Overrides
There are cases when you want to prevent the overriding of fields and methods in your Scala applications. There are 3 ways that you can do this:
Method 1 - Use the final Keyword on the Method
One way is to use the keyword final - this will prevent derived classes from overriding the eat method. For example:
class Animal {
 val creatureType = "wild"
 final def eat = println("I am eating!")
}
Method 2 - Use the final Keyword on the Class
The final keyword can also be used on the class itself. This prevents the entire class from being extended:
final class Animal {
 val creatureType = "wild"
 def eat = println("I am eating!")
}
Method 3 - Seal the Class
The third option is to seal the class. This is a softer restriction in that you can extend classes in this file only, but prevents extension in other files:
sealed class Animal {
 val creatureType = "wild"
 def eat = println("I am eating!")
}
You wouldn't now be able to extend this animal class in another file.
Abstract Classes in Scala
There are situations in Scala when you need to leave fields or methods blank. In this situation we say the field is abstract. Classes that are allowed to have these blank fields or methods are called Abstract Classes. They are defined by the keyword abstract, for example:
abstract class Animal {
 val creatureType: String
 def eat: Unit
}
Both of the methods in this class above are abstract, as they aren't assigned any value. This is because we want the sub classes to do that for us instead.
An Abstract class can not be instantiated. This should make sense because if some of the members aren't implemented, how would the compiler know what to do if we called one of these methods?
Let's declare an empty subclass called Dog:
class Dog extends Animal {
}
At this point the compiler complains:
"class Dog must either be declared abstract or implement abstract members"
This makes sense based on what we just discussed. We can fix the error by adding the required members like so:
class Dog extends Animal {
 override val creatureType: String = "Canine"
 override def eat: Unit = println("I am a Dog eating!")
}
Note that the override key is not required here. This is because there is no prior implementation to replace. You can leave it here if you choose though.


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Rabobank NZ believes the Government's proposed freshwater reforms will have significant implications for New Zealand's food and agribusiness sectors, with a likely impact on production costs, operational complexity and future land-use development opportunities.
In its submission this week to the Ministry for the Environment, New Zealand's only specialist food and agribusiness bank says the proposals as they stand are unnecessarily harsh and would have a detrimental impact on the rural sector, which is already facing pressures from regulatory change.
"We support the Government's goal of improving the quality of New Zealand's freshwater and reducing pollution entering waterways from cities and farms," Rabobank New Zealand chief executive Todd Charteris says.
"We also support the relevant Ministers' stated goals of ensuring the pace of change is manageable and that appropriate transitional support is in place. However, for the reasons outlined in our submission, we are not confident the proposed freshwater reforms, in their current form, will achieve those stated goals in a fair and balanced way."
Rabobank says New Zealand food and agribusinesses have proven themselves to be resilient, innovative and adaptable.
"They are among the most successful and efficient food producers in the world, they are fast adaptors of new technology, they operate without subsidies and are a long distance from their main markets," Rabobank says in its submission.
"At the same time, our farmers and growers have made significant strides forward in improving the management of freshwater on their properties – and this is often played down or overlooked in some quarters."
In its submission, Rabobank says the proposals most relevant to farmers and growers include the introduction of more stringent nutrient bottom line requirements, new national practice standards and interim controls on land use intensification.
"Our assessment, based on direct feedback from our clients and wider industry conversations, is that the overall impact of the proposed freshwater reforms on the New Zealand farming community will be significant.
"These impacts will vary considerably from farm to farm, depending on location and farming system. For some, meeting these new requirements will represent a major challenge and come at a considerable cost."
Rabobank describes the proposals as both complex and demanding, with the consultation timeframe being extremely tight during a busy time in the farming calendar.
"In addition, these proposals must be seen alongside the cumulative impact of other regulatory proposals currently affecting the food and agribusiness sector."
Overall, these series of reforms represent a substantial challenge for farmers and growers.
"The proposals also appear to underplay the significant progress many farmers and growers have already made in improving freshwater management on their properties and in stepping up their environmental sustainability practices," Rabobank says.
"From Rabobank's perspective, we remain committed to supporting our food and agribusiness clients, along with their communities, through these and other challenges. In doing so, we recognise the importance of this sector to New Zealand's wider economic success and future prosperity."
Rabobank says a thriving food and agribusiness sector is vital for both New Zealand's national economic progress and the continued wellbeing of the country's rural communities. The reputation of New Zealand farmers and food producers as among the most successful, competitive and efficient in the world should be both welcomed and celebrated, it says.
"Therefore, we encourage the Government to ensure implementation of the proposed freshwater reforms does not lead to a substantial land use shift away from farming and horticulture, and towards non-food producing forms of land use such as forestry," the bank says.
"Specifically, given that New Zealand is a large net exporter of food and agricultural products, Rabobank urges policy makers to recognise and protect the role New Zealand plays in contributing to global food security and sustainability. It would make no sense, for example, for a supply gap created by a reduction in New Zealand food production to be filled by products from countries with less environmental integrity."
In its submission, Rabobank identifies some key issues that should be considered to meet the Government's objectives of setting a manageable pace of change and achieving enduring environmental improvements.
- Uncertainty and low rural confidence: Despite healthy commodity prices, a competitive exchange rate and generally encouraging growing conditions, rural sector confidence is at a low level. This is due to a number of converging factors, but particularly uncertainty and anxiety generated by several material regulatory and policy initiatives either underway or planned.
- Transitional support and provisions: While the freshwater proposals include a commitment to work with the primary sector through the transition towards more sustainable land and water use, farmers would welcome more clarity about exactly what that would look like. Rabobank considers high quality farm environment plans to be valuable tools that can help improve both the environmental and economic performance of farming businesses. Given the significant implications for many farmers and growers, and the on-farm changes required, we recommend the Government explore funding (or contributing to) individual farm environment plans out to 2025.
- Busy pipeline of regulatory change: The cumulative impact of the proposed freshwater reforms on food and agri producers should be considered alongside other proposals affecting the sector, including the Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon) Amendment Bill, the Government's proposal to put a price on primary sector emissions from 2025, whether through the Emissions Trading Scheme or a new
alternative mechanism which has yet to be agreed, the National Policy Statement for Indigenous Biodiversity, the Government's One Billion Trees Programme and the review of the Dairy Industry Restructuring Act."
The cumulative impact of these proposals, in association with the freshwater reforms, will significantly influence New Zealand's future land use and farming systems and contribute further to the rural sector uncertainty we have highlighted," Rabobank says.


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The echinoderms - meaning spiny skin - are the starfish, sea urchins and sea cucumbers.
Starfish like the Bloody henry starfish and the Common starfish which live in our waters are predators that move across the seabed using special organs called tube feet.
Visible spines on the outside of urchins and on the skin of starfish and sea cucumbers are there to deter predators.
On the sandflats at St Martin's and Tresco there are important populations of burrowing Heart urchins. Crevice Sea cucumbers and featherstars are often seen on reefs by divers.


Find out the largest torque, C/C++ Programming
Find out the largest torque:
A flat belt is taken in use to transmit torque from pulley A to pulley B as shown in figure given below. The radius of each pulley is 50mm and coefficient of friction is 0.3. Find out the largest torque that can be transmitted if the allowable belt tension is 3KN.
Sol: Radius of each pulley = 50mm, R1 = R2 = 50mm
R1 = Radius of driver = 50mm
R2 = Radius of driven = 50mm
θ = Angle of contact= 1800 = p,
µ = Coefficient of friction = 0.3
568_Find out the largest torque.png
T1 = Allowable tension = 3KN
T1 greater than T2
Using relation T1/T2 = eµθ
By putting all the value,
3/T2 = e(0.3)(p)
On solving T2 = 1.169KN .......ANS
Since Radius of both pulley is same;
So, Torque exerted on both the pulley is same and
= (T1-T2).R1 = (T1-T2).R2
By putting all the value we get,
(3 - 1.169) X 50 = 91.55 KN-mm .......ANS

Posted Date: 10/18/2012 8:11:37 AM | Location : United States
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As new technologies emerge, roofing systems evolve to reduce energy costs associated with cooling buildings and to maintain a consistent, comfortable interior temperature.
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The Joseph Smith Papyri have been a hot topic among scholars, especially since the resurfacing of fragments of the collection in the late 1960s. The facsimiles in particular have received much attention in scholarly circles, especially in relation to their accompanying explanations given by Joseph Smith. This article contributes evidence of the accuracy of Smith's explanations, despite his lack of knowledge concerning Egyptology. Specifically, this article discusses the relationship between " the idolatrous god of pharaoh" in Facsimile 1 with the Egyptian crocodile god, Sobek (also known as Sebek, Sobk, and Suchos), and his connection to the Middle Kingdom pharaoh Amenemhet III. Evidence both from historical texts and from archaeology demonstrates the important role Sobek played in the Fayyum region during the reign of Amenemhet III. Sobek was thus a likely candidate for the " idolatrous god of pharaoh" of Facsimile 1 in the Book of Abraham.
BYU ScholarsArchive Citation
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2, Article 3.
Available at: _URL_


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Tip
 - If you get caught using a linear amp, you can be fined. People do use these amps, but they use them responsibly and have no problems with the FCC.
Warning
 - Never intentionally use a linear amp (kicker) to bleed over on someone else, or you will have problems.
About the Author
Pamela Gardapee is a writer with more than seven years experience writing Web content. Being functional in finances, home projects and computers has allowed Gardapee to give her readers valuable information. She studied accounting, computers and writing before offering her tax, computer and writing services to others.
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Racial Disparities in Cholecystectomy Rates During Hospitalizations for Acute Gallstone Pancreatitis: A National Survey
Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
The American Journal of Gastroenterology (Impact Factor: 10.76). 09/2008; 103(9):2301-7. DOI: 10.1111/j._PHONE_.2008.01949.x
Source: PubMed
ABSTRACT Practice guidelines advocate performing cholecystectomy for acute gallstone pancreatitis during the same hospitalization stay. Our objectives were to determine nationwide rates of adherence to these guidelines in the United States and whether this varied with race and ethnicity.
We queried the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) to identify admissions for acute gallstone pancreatitis between 1998 and 2003. We calculated overall and race-specific proportions of patients who underwent cholecystectomy or endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) prior to discharge. We used multivariate analysis to determine racial effects while adjusting for age, comorbidity, health insurance payer, and hospital factors.
The overall rate of cholecystectomy was 51% and that of either cholecystectomy or ERCP was 62%. Cholecystectomy rates were lower among African Americans (AAs) and Asians compared to Whites (44% and 43%, respectively, vs 50%, P < 0.001). After multivariate adjustment, the odds of cholecystectomy was lower in AAs (OR 0.68, 95% CI 0.63-0.73) and Asians/Pacific Islanders (OR 0.75, 95% CI 0.65-0.87) relative to Whites, while rates were modestly higher among Hispanics (OR 1.12, 95% CI 1.03-1.22). AAs were less likely to receive ERCP than Whites (OR 0.71, 95% CI 0.65-0.78). In contrast, Asians/Pacific Islanders (OR 1.40, 95% CI 1.16-1.69) and Hispanics (OR 1.19, 95% CI 1.09-1.29) were more likely to receive ERCP than Whites.
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Cousins are basically extra siblings. Source: Pixabay
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You have friends for life in cousins. Source: Pixabay
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You can learn MORE about the Kids Smoothie HERE.
Connect with other like-minded women in our Healthy Mummy Community
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There are OVER 1.1 million mums across our social communities!!
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Hairy Bat Tongue
Bat tongue
Micrograph: Cally Harper
You're looking at a scanning electron microscope image of a Pallas's long-tongued bat. The hairs act as a "mop" to scoop up nectar. Cally Harper and Beth Brainerd of Duke University found out exactly how such a weird tongue works:
The researchers knew the bat tongues were covered with little hairs, so they watched what happened to those hairs as the bats reached out for food.
When the tongue is inside the bat's mouth, they found, the hairs lie flat on the tongue's surface.
"And then very close to when the tongue is maximally extended, these hairs become erect," Harper says. "And when that happens, a space is created between each of the rows of hairs on the tongue tip. And nectar is loaded onto each one of those spaces."
It's like the bat's tongue is working like a mop, Brainerd says. "Not a sponge mop, but a stringy mop."
Brainerd says it turns out that each hair has blood vessels supplying it. When the bat sticks its tongue out to feed, the muscles of the tongue contract, pushing blood into the hair and making it stand on end. "The mechanism is like an active mop that's opening up to make more space for this liquid nectar to be collected," she says.
Rhitu Chatterjee of NPR's Morning Edition has the story: Link
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[Pick one] A code resource to load from a Google Cloud Storage URI (gs://bucket/path).
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[Pick one] An inline resource that contains code for a user-defined function (UDF). Providing a inline code resource is equivalent to providing a URI for a file containing the same code.
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[Optional] The schema for the data. Schema is required for CSV and JSON formats. Schema is disallowed for Google Cloud Bigtable, Cloud Datastore backups, and Avro formats.
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[Required] The data format. For CSV files, specify "CSV". For Google sheets, specify "GOOGLE_SHEETS". For newline-delimited JSON, specify "NEWLINE_DELIMITED_JSON". For Avro files, specify "AVRO". For Google Cloud Datastore backups, specify "DATASTORE_BACKUP". [Beta] For Google Cloud Bigtable, specify "BIGTABLE".
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[Optional] The maximum number of bad records that BigQuery can ignore when reading data. If the number of bad records exceeds this value, an invalid error is returned in the job result. The default value is 0, which requires that all records are valid. This setting is ignored for Google Cloud Bigtable, Google Cloud Datastore backups and Avro formats.
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Try to detect schema and format options automatically. Any option specified explicitly will be honored.
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[Optional] Indicates if BigQuery should allow extra values that are not represented in the table schema. If true, the extra values are ignored. If false, records with extra columns are treated as bad records, and if there are too many bad records, an invalid error is returned in the job result. The default value is false. The sourceFormat property determines what BigQuery treats as an extra value: CSV: Trailing columns JSON: Named values that don't match any column names Google Cloud Bigtable: This setting is ignored. Google Cloud Datastore backups: This setting is ignored. Avro: This setting is ignored.
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[Optional] The compression type of the data source. Possible values include GZIP and NONE. The default value is NONE. This setting is ignored for Google Cloud Bigtable, Google Cloud Datastore backups and Avro formats. An empty string is an invalid value.
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Additional properties to set if sourceFormat is set to CSV.
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[Optional] Additional options if sourceFormat is set to GOOGLE_SHEETS.
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[Optional, Trusted Tester] When set, configures hive partitioning support. Not all storage formats support hive partitioning -- requesting hive partitioning on an unsupported format will lead to an error, as will providing an invalid specification.
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[Optional][Experimental] This field is in testing and should not yet be used.
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[Optional] The separator for fields in a CSV file. BigQuery converts the string to ISO-8859-1 encoding, and then uses the first byte of the encoded string to split the data in its raw, binary state. BigQuery also supports the escape sequence "\t" to specify a tab separator. The default value is a comma (',').
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[Optional] The number of rows at the top of a CSV file that BigQuery will skip when reading the data. The default value is 0. This property is useful if you have header rows in the file that should be skipped. When autodetect is on, the behavior is the following:
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quote
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[Optional] The value that is used to quote data sections in a CSV file. BigQuery converts the string to ISO-8859-1 encoding, and then uses the first byte of the encoded string to split the data in its raw, binary state. The default value is a double-quote ("). If your data does not contain quoted sections, set the property value to an empty string. If your data contains quoted newline characters, you must also set the allowQuotedNewlines property to true.
allowQuotedNewlines
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[Optional] Indicates if BigQuery should allow quoted data sections that contain newline characters in a CSV file. The default value is false.
allowJaggedRows
boolean
[Optional] Indicates if BigQuery should accept rows that are missing trailing optional columns. If true, BigQuery treats missing trailing columns as null values. If false, records with missing trailing columns are treated as bad records, and if there are too many bad records, an invalid error is returned in the job result. The default value is false.
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text:
It isn't really common, but at times you might want to remove a WordPress theme. For example, if you were editing a theme manually and have to revert back to the unedited theme, then you may delete the modified theme and then reinstall the theme as you originally did.
Deleting a WordPress Theme
With the following steps you can delete a WordPress theme:
Step 1: Begin by logging to the WordPress Dashboard.
Step 2: Navigate to Appearance and then themes.
Step 3: If the theme you want to remove is already in use, simply activate a different theme
Step 4: After the theme you want to delete is not activated, look for it and click on Delete.
You might receive a pop up message which requests you to verify that you'd like to remove the them. If you receive this, simply press on OK.
You should then get a confirmation which says your theme was deleted.
This is all you need to know about deleting a WordPress theme!


Home : Technical Terms : Integer Definition
Integers are a commonly used data type in computer programming. For example, whenever a number is being incremented, such as within a "for loop" or "while loop," an integer is used. Integers are also used to determine an item's location within an array.
When two integers are added, subtracted, or multiplied, the result is also an integer. However, when one integer is divided into another, the result may be an integer or a fraction. For example, 6 divided by 3 equals 2, which is an integer, but 6 divided by 4 equals 1.5, which contains a fraction. Decimal numbers may either be rounded or truncated to produce an integer result.
Cite this definition:
TechTerms - The Tech Terms Computer Dictionary
This page contains a technical definiton of Integer. It explains in computing terminology what Integer means and is one of many technical terms in the TechTerms dictionary.
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Maximal-ratio combining
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
In telecommunications, maximal-ratio combining (MRC) is a method of diversity combining in which:
 1. the signals from each channel are added together,
 3. different proportionality constants are used for each channel.
It is also known as ratio-squared combining and predetection combining. Maximal-ratio combining is the optimum combiner for independent AWGN channels.
MRC can restore a signal to its original shape.
Example: Least Squares estimate in the case of Rx diversity[edit]
We consider an example of which the receiver is endowed with N antennas. In this case, the received vector y is
y=hs+\rho n \,
where n is noise vector n-CN(0,I_{N \times N}). Following the ML detection criterion the detection procedure may be written as
\tilde{s}=argmin_{s \in QPSK}|\hat{s}-s|^2,
where \hat{s} is the least square solution to the above model.
The least square solution in this case is also known as maximal-ratio-combining (MRC). In the case of N antennas the LS can be written as
which means that the signal from each antenna is rotated and weighted according to the phase and strength of the channel, such that the signals from all antennas are combined to yield the maximal ratio between signal and noise terms.
See also[edit]
Diversity combining


text:
In a collaborative effort spanning several departments, MSU scientists will determine the functions of roughly 4,400 nuclear genes from the Arabidopsis plant. Arabidopsis is a flowering plant whose entire 29,000 gene sequence is known.
Scientists will focus on the genes which encode the chloroplast-targeted proteins that trigger photosynthesis. Understanding how these genes operate could yield significant breakthroughs in biotechnology and genomics worldwide, resulting in advances in human health and agriculture.
The chloroplast gives green plants their color and carries out photosynthesis and produces oxygen. It can be thought of as the world's life-support system. It is an attractive target for biotechnology because it produces many different molecules important to agriculture and human health, such as vegetable oils, starch for ethanol-based fuels, vitamin E and amino acids. Despite the many functions of a chloroplast, the MSU team estimates that it takes only around 4,000 genes to make a functional chloroplast, which is similar to a simple bacterium, rather than the tens of thousands of genes required to make a whole plant.
"If we completely understand the chloroplast, it should then be possible to engineer plants to be more productive harvesters of the sun's energy into biomass to decrease dependence on oil," said Robert Last, professor of biochemistry and molecular biology and plant biology at MSU. "We also will be able to more efficiently make nutrients important to human health. These include vitamins and heart-healthy oils."
The NSF's Arabidopsis 2010 project is a worldwide effort to catalogue the function of every gene in the plant C something ne
Contact: Robert Last
Michigan State University


Boogieboard vs. Paipo
What's the difference between a paipo and a boogieboard?
We get quite a few questions asking how our Paipos compare with the modern day boogie boards. Truth be told, there isn't much comparison. But if that were all to the story, then there wouldn't be much reason to keep writing! While paipos and boogie boards both share a common ancestor, they differ drastically in construction methods, maneuverability, and actual use. Hopefully this article will answer your questions and help you transition from your sponge to a rigid paipo.
Paul showing off the thickness of the solid fiberglass construction.
HPD Paipos don't float like boogieboards
Unlike foam-core bodyboards and boogie boards, HPD Paipos are rigid in construction. Made from solid fiberglass, HPD Paipos do not retain any air within the fiberglass material. Instead, we rely on the relative density of our boards to allow our paipos to rise to the top of the water column when released under water. This is a primary principle of HPD Paipos that makes our boards super durable.
Paipos use hydrodynamic properties to push the board to the surface and stay "afloat" while under speed. Much like an airplane uses air to stay flying, an HPD Paipo is curved in such a way to force water underneath the board, pushing the board upward. When water is no longer flowing over the board (like after a wipeout), the board is no longer able so surf, so it will stop not far away from the wipeout, and slowly rise to the surface. This is why many old timers never went out with leashes, as their boards usually weren't far away.
On the other hand, boogie boards rely on encapsulated foam to retain air within the structure. This of course makes paddling very easy, and launching on waves a no-brainer, but it is very difficult to duck-dive under sets. And forget about riding one without a leash.
Paipo XL bottom turn at Pipeline.
HPD Paipos are durable
Thanks to their solid fiberglass construction, HPD Paipos last pretty much forever. Back in the 90's Paul would drive his truck over the boards in the parking lot, and take videos slamming the boards into a coconut tree. We'll try and dig these up and post them, but be warned they are definitely cringe-worthy!
HPD Paipos are FAST!
Like we mentioned before, HPD's rigid fiberglass construction allows our Paipos to maintain shape under high-speed and stress. Foam boogieboards "squish" down when under stress, or under a heavy rider. This can deform the boogieboard and slows it way down in the water.
A Swimaster Duck Feet ad thought to be from the 1970s, showing the Voit/Swimaster UDT Duck Feet fins that were popular among paipo riders.
Wear Fins!
You might not need fins with a boogieboard on the small stuff, but everybody knows having powerful fins is a must when bodyboarding on large wave. Good fins provide thrust to help catch surf, and make swimming in strong current possible. Without fins, it will be an exhausting and frustrating day.
We used to use the UDT Duck Feet fins back in the day, and I still own a pair today. They are stiffer than normal fins, and really long to provide lots of thrust. Just google VOIT UDT Duck Feet and you'll be able to find them for a decent price online.
Taking Off
Catching a wave on a paipo is not the same as a boogieboard. Since flotation is minimal, the secret to catching waves on a Paipo is to push the board out infront of you, and make yourself as long as possible.
This is where nice, powerful fins come in handy. When the board is way out in front of you, start kicking and build up speed.
Once you feel the wave start to pick you up, pull the board in towards your chest and you will feel the speed pick up. This is very counter-intuitive coming from a boogieboard background, where flotation assists in catching waves. Getting the hang of this process might take a few tries, but once you figure it out, it becomes second nature, and catching waves gets easy.
Still Have Questions?
We love talking to our riders and helping them get used to our bodyboards. If you have any questions, just give us a call. We're here to help!
2 thoughts on "Boogieboard vs. Paipo"
 1. I bodyboard, make my own the past 10 years. I have made several boards, usually a foam core, shaped like a surfboard, 4 ft long with a 4 inch rocker in front and usually quad fins. Some I've fiberglassed like a surfboard and some I've made like a soft top surfboard. Can't use fins anymore, see below, is why the longboard for better float, speed paddling, etc.
 I basically use what you suggest is a paipo technique while surfing. In big waves and in air drops I also push the board way out ahead. The technique eliminates what surfers call "perling", or digging the nose in and wiping out. Once i've reached the bottom, I pull the board in and start the bottom turn. It's only a technique necessary when dropping straight down the wave. Not necessary in small or when I'm already in the wave moving parallel to it.
 The most dangerous board I surfed was a solid, balsa wood bodyboard a friend made for me in Ecuador. In my ignorance I used a leash and tore up both rotator cuffs when the leash was in front like a bodyboard, and destroyed both knees when I switched the leash to my ankle like a surfboard. I now have replacement knees. I'm 76 and usually surf everyday. Cheers, mate.
 Love the article. Was my first time on your site.
 1. Aloha Jimmy! That's why I've never had a Paipo with a leash. I've borrowed a few boogie boards over the years tho and I cannot stand being leashed on to something that floats so much. Sounds like you were really charging the big waves though! Mahalos for the stories. Be safe and stay salty!
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text:
Submitted to: Poultry Science
Publication Type: Peer Reviewed Journal
Publication Acceptance Date: 1/8/1997
Publication Date: N/A
Interpretive Summary: Twenty-two known, functional genes have been placed on the chicken gene map using a defined international reference population that was developed at the Avian Disease and Oncology Laboratory. The location of known genes will contribute to the ordering of the numerous other markers already placed on the map. Identification of these conserved groups of genes will also contribute to comparative gene mapping involving other livestock such as pigs, cattle and sheep. Ultimately, an integrated map with many markers will help to identify genes that are of commercial importance to the poultry industry such as disease resistance and productivity traits.
Technical Abstract: The placement of known genes on linkage maps provides an informative framework for comparative gene mapping. In comparative gene mapping, conserved synteny is broadly defined as groups of two or more linked markers that are also linked in two or more species. Although many anonymous markers have been placed on the chicken genome map, locating known genes will augment the number of conserved syntenic groups and consolidate linkage groups. In this report, 22 additional genes have been assigned to linkage groups or chromosomes; five syntenic groups were identified. Ultimately, conserved syntenic groups may help to pinpoint important quantitative trait loci.


text:
|25 May 2010|
Take a walk along the coast and help us monitor the effects of climate change and invasive species on the UK's seaweeds.
Seaweeds are easy to find and occur all around the UK coastline. There are a staggering 650 seaweed species in the UK, around 7% of the world's species, and they play a vital role in the functioning of the marine environment.
Scientists think that the effects of climate change and the spread of invasive species are starting to have an effect on where they are found but they need more information to be sure.
This is where you can help. Identify the seaweeds you spot on the UK's coast and tell us what you find. This will help researchers from the British Phycological Society and Natural History Museum to find out what is happening to our seaweeds.
The aim of the Big Seaweed Search is to map the distribution of 12 key kinds of seaweed that can be found around the UK coast. We hope to track how these distributions are changing through time.
You don't need to be an expert as our easy-to-use identification guide should allow everyone, from children to scientists, to take part.
When you get home from carrying out your survey, tell us about the seaweeds you find using our online system, or by posting completed forms to the Museum.
There is no deadline - you can send in records at any time of the year and take part as many times as you like.
Your data will be added to our online interactive map. As we analyse the data, we will post updates on what your records show and how they are being used.


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AnswerWorks 4.0 Runtime - English
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iSEEK AnswerWorks™ is a search application developed by Vantage Linguistics (formerly distributed by Wextech product). The Answerworks™ product allows product development teams and help system authors to enrich their existing help systems with linguistic and natural language based search. When embedded in a local or on... Read more
AnswerWorks 4.0 Runtime - English is a program developed by Vantage Linguistics. In comparison to the total number of users, most PCs are running the OS Windows 7 (SP1) as well as Windows Vista (SP2). While about 99% of users of AnswerWorks Runtime - English come from the United States, it is also popular in Canada and Spain.
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user comment


values may be used if desired.
Rewriting Eq. 3 gives the reflection efficiency profile of the Bragg envelope as:
I ( ki , ko ) [ 2 π · δ n · D λ ] 2 [ sin ( x ) x ] 2 Eq . 4
where:
x=(ki−ko)D/2=(πD/λ)*(cos θi−cos θo)
Thus, when the input angle θi is equal to the output (or reflected) angle θo (i.e., θi=θo), the reflection efficiency I (Eqs. 3 & 4) is maximized, which is at the center or peak of the Bragg envelope. When θi=θo, the input light angle is referred to as the Bragg angle as is known. The efficiency decreases for other input and output angles (i.e., θi≠θo), as defined by Eqs. 3 & 4. Thus, for maximum reflection efficiency and thus output light power, for a given grating pitch Λ and input wavelength, the angle θi of the input light 24 should be set so that the angle θo of the reflected output light equals the input angle θi.
Also, as the thickness or diameter D of the grating decreases, the width of the sin(x)/x function (and thus the width of the Bragg envelope) increases and, the coefficient to or amplitude of the sin c2 (or (sin(x)/x)2 function (and thus the efficiency level across the Bragg envelope) also increases, and vice versa. Further, as the wavelength λ increases, the half-width of the Bragg envelope as well as the efficiency level across the Bragg envelope both decrease. Thus, there is a trade-off between the brightness of an individual bit and the number of bits available under the Bragg envelope. Ideally, δn should be made as large as possible to maximize the brightness, which allows D to be made smaller.
From Eq. 3 and 4, the half-angle of the Bragg envelope θB is defined as:
θ B = η λ π D sin ( θ i ) Eq . 5
where η is a reflection efficiency factor which is the value for x in the sin c2(x) function where the value of sin c2(x) has decreased to a predetermined value from the maximum amplitude as indicated by points 204,206 on the curve 200.
We have found that the reflection efficiency is acceptable when η≦1.39. This value for n corresponds to when the amplitude of the reflected beam (i.e., from the sin c2(x) function of Eqs. 3 & 4) has decayed to about 50% of its peak value. In particular, when x=1.39=η, sin c2(x)=0.5. However, other values for efficiency thresholds or factor in the Bragg envelope may be used if desired.
The beams 26-36 are imaged onto the CCD camera 60 to produce the pattern of light and dark regions 120-132 representing a digital (or binary) code, where light=1 and dark=0 (or vice versa). The digital code may be generated by selectively creating individual index variations (or individual gratings) with the desired spatial periods Λ1-Λn. Other illumination, readout techniques, types of gratings, geometries, materials, etc. may be used as discussed in the aforementioned patent application.
Referring to FIG. 26, illustrations (a)-(c), for the grating 12 in a cylindrical substrate 10 having a sample spectral 17 bit code (i.e., 17 different pitches Λ117), the corresponding image on the CCD (Charge Coupled Device) camera 60 is shown for a digital pattern of 7 bits turned on (10110010001001001); 9 bits turned on of (11000101010100111); all 17 bits turned on of (11111111111111111).
For the images in FIG. 26, the length of the substrate 10 was 450 microns, the outer diameter D1 was 65 microns, the inner diameter D was 14 microns, δn for the grating 12 was about 10−4, n1 in portion 20 was about 1.458 (at a wavelength of about 1550 nm), n2 in portion 18 was about 1.453, the average pitch spacing Λ for the grating 12 was about 0.542 microns, and the spacing between pitches ΔΛ was about 0.36% of the adjacent pitches Λ.
Referring to FIG. 27, illustration (a), the pitch Λ of an individual grating is the axial spatial period of the sinusoidal variation in the refractive index n1 in the region 20 of the substrate 10 along the axial length of the grating 12 as indicated by a curve 90 on a graph 91. Referring to FIG. 27, illustration (b), a sample composite grating 12 comprises three individual gratings that are co-located on the substrate 10, each individual grating having slightly different pitches, Λ1, Λ2, Λ3, respectively, and the difference (or spacing) ΔΛ between each pitch Λ being about 3.0% of the period of an adjacent pitch Λ as indicated by a series of curves 92 on a graph 94. Referring to FIG. 27, illustration (c), three individual gratings, each having slightly different pitches, Λ1, Λ2, Λ3, respectively, are shown, the difference ΔΛ between each pitch Λ being about 0.3% of the pitch Λ of the adjacent pitch as shown by a series of curves 95 on a graph 97. The individual gratings in FIG. 27, illustrations (b) and (c) are shown to all start at 0 for illustration purposes; however, it should be understood that, the separate gratings need not all start in phase with each other. Referring to FIG. 27, illustration (d), the overlapping of the individual sinusoidal refractive index variation pitches Λ1-Λn in the grating region 20 of the substrate 10, produces a combined resultant refractive index variation in the composite grating 12 shown as a curve 96 on a graph 98 representing the combination of the three pitches shown in FIG. 27, illustration (b). Accordingly, the resultant refractive index variation in the grating region 20 of the substrate 10 may not be sinusoidal and is a combination of the individual pitches Λ (or index variation).
The maximum number of resolvable bits N, which is equal to the number of different grating pitches Λ (and hence the number of codes), that can be accurately read (or resolved) using side-illumination and side-reading of the grating 12 in the substrate 10, is determined by numerous factors, including: the beam width w incident on the substrate (and the corresponding substrate length L and grating length Lg), the thickness or diameter D of the grating 12, the wavelength λ of incident light, the beam divergence angle θR, and the width of the Bragg envelope θB (discussed more in the aforementioned patent application), and may be determined by the equation:
N η β L 2 D sin ( θ i ) Eq . 6
Referring to FIG. 28, instead of having the input light 24 at a single wavelength λ (monochromatic) and reading the bits by the angle θo of the output light, the bits (or grating pitches Λ) may be read/detected by providing a plurality of wavelengths and reading the wavelength spectrum of the reflected output light signal. In this case, there would be one bit per wavelength, and thus, the code is contained in the wavelength information of the reflected output signal.
In this case, each bit (or Λ) is defined by whether its corresponding wavelength falls within the Bragg envelope, not by its angular position within the Bragg envelope 200. As a result, it is not limited by the number of angles that can fit in the Bragg envelope 200 for a given composite grating 12, as in the embodiment discussed hereinbefore. Thus, using multiple wavelengths, the only limitation in the number of bits N is the maximum number of grating pitches Λ that can be superimposed and optically distinguished in wavelength space for the output beam.
Referring to FIGS. 28 and 29, illustration (a), the reflection wavelength spectrum (λ1-λn) of the reflected output beam 310 will exhibit a series of reflection peaks 695, each appearing at the same output Bragg angle θo. Each wavelength peak 695 (λ1-λn) corresponds to an associated spatial period (Λ1-Λn), which make up the grating 12.
One way to measure the bits in wavelength space is to have the input light angle θi equal to the output light angle θo, which is kept at a constant value, and to provide an input wavelength λ that satisfies the diffraction condition (Eq. 1) for each grating pitch Λ. This will maximize the optical power of the output signal for each pitch Λ detected in the grating 12.
Referring to 29, illustration (b), the transmission wavelength spectrum of the transmitted output beam 330 (which is transmitted straight through the grating 12) will exhibit a series of notches (or dark spots) 696. Alternatively, instead of detecting the reflected output light 310, the transmitted light 330 may be detected at the detector/reader 308. It should be understood that the optical signal levels for the reflection peaks 695 and transmission notches 696 will depend on the "strength


text:
AEA To Launch National Spreader Testing Scheme At Tillage Live
The Agricultural Engineers Association (AEA) is to launch a nationwide fertiliser spreader testing protocol to ensure all spreaders – disc, boom and pendulum - are tested to the same exacting standard.
Called the National Spreader Testing Scheme, it sits alongside the AEA's proven National Sprayer Testing Scheme, and takes on board economic, environmental and compliance issues to deliver a national standard for fertiliser spreader tests.
"While the immediate impact of inaccurate spreading is financial, there are also concerns that different test mechanisms – or no test at all - can also affect conservation field margins and lead to contamination of water courses," explains NSTS manager Duncan Russell.
According to Defra's fertiliser manual (RB209), fertiliser spreaders should be regularly maintained and serviced, replacing worn out parts as necessary. To check spreading uniformity, trays should be used to allow a coefficient of variation across the spreading pattern to be determined.
A coefficient of variation above 20% will lead to visible striping in crops. And as this figure increases from 20-30%, crop yields in wheat and oilseed rape for example, are likely to be reduced. Even those with no visible stripes in their crops are not guaranteed that fertiliser is being evenly distributed across the desired working width.
"By developing a universal spreader test, which should be carried out at least once a year when applying recommended fertiliser rates to crops, this new NSTS scheme can ensure that best practice is being observed," he says. "You won't know if spreading is right or wrong, unless you have your spreader tray tested."
Supported nationally by fertiliser spreader manufacturers, this industry initiative has been created to promote more efficient use of fertilisers and help growers to achieve better yields. In addition, further benefits of annual testing includes meeting cross compliance and NVZ regulations, and ultimately delivering peace of mind that fertiliser application is correct.
AEA spreader tests manager, Ian Forman, says the NSTS.org.uk website will carry a list of approved spreader examiners, which will be constantly updated as the scheme evolves, in preparation for fertiliser applications in Spring 2016.
"We expect that many NSTS-approved sprayer examiners will adopt the spreader test," he says. "But to be an approved spreader examiner, candidates will need to gain City & Guilds accreditation for fertiliser spreader examination."
Visit the AEA's stand at Tillage Live to learn more about the new National Spreader Testing Scheme.
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text:
Costume and Textiles
Man's Hat and Hat BoxMade in China, Asia
or United States, North and Central America
Artist/maker unknown, American or Chinese
Plaited straw. Hat box (not pictured): leather
Currently not on view
1925-28-6a,bGift of Mrs. Edward S. Sayres, 1925
LabelWhile this early nineteenth century example appears extreme, top hats in a tremendous variety of shapes were the headgear of choice for respectable and fashionable men throughout the nineteenth century. The high-crowned, cylindrical style was usually black, although light colors were worn during the day. Silk plush versions were the shiniest, often made of felted beaver fur, rabbit fur, or wool, with a rough or smooth finish. Plaited straw was also used for informal summer wear.