is stored in the gallbladder, to be released on demand into the small intestine to digest fat. A toxic, overloaded liver makes irritating sediment-containing bile that inflames the gallbladder and forms stones. A high-fat diet forces the liver to make even more of this irritant.
 A toxic, overloaded, inflamed, blocked gallbladder is capable of causing an enormous array of symptoms that can seem to have no connection at all to their cause. In part these same symptoms are caused by a toxic, constipated colon that, in part, got that way because of poor fat digestion over a long time. These symptoms include: severe back pain; headache; bloating; burping; nausea; insomnia; intestinal gas; generalized aches and pains.
 Medical doctors used to remove a troublesome gallbladder without hesitation; it was an organ they considered to be highly dispensable. Without one, the bile duct takes over as a bladder but its capacity is much smaller so the person's ability to digest fats has been permanently crippled, leading to increased toxemia and earlier aging if fats are not eliminated from the diet. These days the medicos have a new, less invasive procedure to eliminate stones; they are vibrated and broken-up by ultrasonics without major surgery. Inflamed gallbladders are usually removed because gallbladder inflammations resist treatment by antibiotics.
 There are several very effective natural gallbladder remedies.
The best is a three week fast, taking the juice of one or two lemons every day, along with colonics. The lemon juice tends to clear the bile duct. The fast allows the gallbladder to heal from inflammation. In cases that aren't too severe I have had very good results simply eliminating fats from the diet and using a food supplement derived from beet tops called AF Betafood. However, in all these cases, once the gallbladder is no longer "acting up," the person must stay on a low fat diet. Any fats they do eat must be vegetable and in small quantities.
 By healing their gallbladders and cleansing their colons, several of my clients have resolved severe, debilitating back pain, pain so severe that the suffers were becoming bedridden. Medical doctors don't associate gallbladder disease with back pain.
The Frightening Heart Heart disease is one of the major causes of death among North Americans. It evokes images of resuscitation, of desperate races against time, trying to restart an arrested heart before the brain dies. It makes people think of horribly expensive surgery, last wills and testaments, terrible, paralyzing pain. Heart disease is a great profit center for the medical profession.
 Most heart problems are very easy to fix by holistic approaches, even many hereditary weaknesses and malfunctions can be healed, if the work is done before too much organic damage occurs. But it rarely is easy to get the people to take the necessary medicine; everything in their lives must change--and fast.
 First of all, people with heart problems must rapidly reach and maintain normal weight. This can be done by fasting or by dietary change, usually by eliminating all fats, sugars and refined starches. Alcohol and tobacco must instantly and forever become only past memories. It is almost as essential to eliminate flesh protein foods and dairy. Should that prove entirely too painful, fish in small quantities and only one or two times a week is tolerable.
 For starters, a long fast, especially one involving lots of bed rest, is ideal. This gives the heart a chance to heal while the body weight is adjusted. A period of intense rest even without water fasting will accomplish almost as much. Even someone with the potential for heart disease who has not yet had a heart attack would be well-served to spend a month in bed, losing weight on juice, or sitting in a rocker on the porch eating only raw foods. After the weight is down to normal or close to normal and the heart tests stronger, an exercise program should be started.
 Exercise has to become a religion. A daily aerobic program must be started on a carefully managed gradient, using the pulse rate as an regulator, at first raising their maximum heart rate to a point just below 150 percent of its resting pulse and keeping it there for thirty minutes. One can walk, jog, ride a bicycle or use an exercise machine. Actually, everyone should do this, even those with no heart problems. My husband, who hates the boredom of exercise, enjoys a ski machine in front of the TV while the stock market program is on. He finds the TV interesting enough that he pays no attention to his workout. Daily aerobic exercise will strengthen the heart, gradually slowing the heart's resting pulse rate, indicating that the heart has become much stronger, pumping more blood with each pulse. As the resting pulse drops the exercising heartbeat can be increased to double the resting rate.
 Highly aggressive, competitive, stress-oriented people have to give up being adrenaline junkies and learn to relax and assume a laid-back approach to living. Or die soon. An adrenaline junkie is someone that enjoys the feeling they get when operating under stress. Stress and the adrenaline it releases produce a kind of a drug-high. Many stressaholics cannot give up their adrenaline addiction while maintaining their previous employment and life-style, even though their life is at stake. In this sense they are like alcoholics, who should not take employment tending bar. To survive for long these people may have to retire or change professions.
Stockbrokers may have to become Organic farmers; journalists may have to operate a news stand or bookstore, or work part-time covering the society page and dog shows.
Women frequently turn their family life into a stress-filled drama too.
 With heart problems a life extension megavitamin program is essential, even for twenty somethings if they have heart disease. The sixty milligrams of Co-Enzyme Q-10 I recommend for the average middle aged person will not be enough for heart cases; they should take at least 120 milligrams daily and consider up to 250 mg. This much Q-10 greatly boosts the energy output of the heart on a cellular level. Vitamin E should also be increased, to between 600 and 2,000 iu daily. I also rebuild diseased hearts with protomorphogens; usually they must stay on protomorphogens for the rest of their lives. Niacin taken several times a day in doses, sufficient to dilate the capillaries and cause a skin flush (50 to 200 milligrams), increases the blood flow to nourish the heart. The amino acid L. Carnitine is also useful by increasing the energy output of the heart much like Co-Enzyme Q-10.
 When I put people on this program, the supplements and other measures gradually take effect, and over months the patient begins to feel enormously better. Inevitably they come to dislike the side-effects of the various medications their medical doctor has put them on and they begin to wean themselves off of heart-stimulating poisons like digitalis. Another benefit of my program is that inevitably, blood pressure also drops to a normal range so if they have been on blood pressure medication they quit that too. Their diuretics also become unnecessary. The money they save more than pays for their supplements and the sense of well-being they feel is beyond value.
Other Kinds Of Cancer There seem to be many other kinds of cancer, at least if you believe the medical doctors. They divide up cancers and their treatments by their location in the body and by the type of cancer cells present. I do not see it that way. To me, a cancer is a cancer is a cancer, and there is only one kind: it is an immune system collapse, consequence of the deadly triangle of weak spleen, thymus and liver, plus a toxic large intestine and weak pancreas. That organ profile is found in skin cancer, prostate cancer, leukemia, brain cancer, cancer of what have you. How fast or how slowly the cells multiply or spread, where they are located, what the cancer cells look like in a microscope, these are irrelevant factors compared to the body's ability to conquer the disease. Or die from it.
 If the body's immune system can stop the growth of the cancers and begin to turn them back before the cancer cells impinge catastrophically on some vital function, the person can usually survive. Even if the body cannot completely eliminate all the cancer cells, but regains enough immune function to keep the existing cancers in permanent check, a person can survive many years with an existing, stable cancer without undue pain or discomfort. Still having a non-growing tumor after a long fast indicates that a person is a lot better than they were before fasting.
 I believe that virtually


method of computation; any process of reasoning by the use of symbols; any branch of mathematics that may involve calculation.

Barycentric calculus, a method of treating geometry by defining a point as the center of gravity of certain other points to which coëfficients or weights are ascribed. -- Calculus of functions, that branch of mathematics which treats of the forms of functions that shall satisfy given conditions. -- Calculus of operations, that branch of mathematical logic that treats of all operations that satisfy given conditions. -- Calculus of probabilities, the science that treats of the computation of the probabilities of events, or the application of numbers to chance. -- Calculus of variations, a branch of mathematics in which the laws of dependence which bind the variable quantities together are themselves subject to change. -- Differential calculus, a method of investigating mathematical questions by using the ratio of certain indefinitely small quantities called differentials.
 The problems are primarily of this form: to find how the change in some variable quantity alters at each instant the value of a quantity dependent upon it. -- Exponential calculus, that part of algebra which treats of exponents. -- Imaginary calculus, a method of investigating the relations of real or imaginary quantities by the use of the imaginary symbols and quantities of algebra. -- Integral calculus, a method which in the reverse of the differential, the primary object of which is to learn from the known ratio of the indefinitely small changes of two or more magnitudes, the relation of the magnitudes themselves, or, in other words, from having the differential of an algebraic expression to find the expression itself.

 Cal"dron (kl"drn), n. [OE. caldron, caudron, caudroun, OF. caudron, chauderon, F. chaudron, an aug. of F. chaudière, LL. caldaria, fr. L. caldarius suitable for warming, fr. caldus, calidus, warm, fr. calere to be warm; cf. Skr. çr to boil. Cf. Chaldron, Calaric, Caudle.] A large kettle or boiler of copper, brass, or iron. [Written also cauldron.] "Caldrons of boiling oil." Prescott.
 ||Ca*lèche" (k*lsh"), n. [F. calèche.] See Calash.

 Cal'e*do"ni*a (?), n. The ancient Latin name of Scotland; -- still used in poetry.

 Cal'e*do"ni*an (?), a. Of or pertaining to Caledonia or Scotland; Scottish; Scotch. -- n. A native or inhabitant of Caledonia or Scotland.

 Ca*led"o*nite (?), n. (Min.) A hydrous sulphate of copper and lead, found in some parts of Caledonia or Scotland.

 Cal'e*fa"cient (?), a. [L. calefaciens p. pr. of calefacere to make warm; calere to be warm + facere to make.] Making warm; heating. [R.]

 Cal'e*fa"cient, n. A substance that excites warmth in the parts to which it is applied, as mustard.

 Cal'e*fac"tion (?), n. [L. calefactio: cf. F. caléfaction.]
 1. The act of warming or heating; the production of heat in a body by the action of fire, or by communication of heat from other bodies.

2. The state of being heated.

 Cal'e*fac"tive (?), a. See Calefactory. [R.]

 Cal'e*fac"tor (?), n. A heater; one who, or that which, makes hot, as a stove, etc.

 Cal'e*fac"to*ry (?), a. [L. calefactorius.] Making hot; producing or communicating heat.

 Cal'e*fac"to*ry, n. 1. (Eccl.) An apartment in a monastery, warmed and used as a sitting room.

2. A hollow sphere of metal, filled with hot water, or a chafing dish, placed on the altar in cold weather for the priest to warm his hands with.

 Cal"e*fy (?), v. i. [imp. & p. p. Calefied (?); p. pr. & vb. n. Calefying.] [L. calere to be warm + -fy] To make warm or hot.

 Cal"e*fy, v. i. To grow hot or warm. Sir T. Browne.
 ||Cal"em*bour' (?), n. [F.] A pun.

 Cal"en*dar (?), n. [OE. kalender, calender, fr. L. kalendarium an interest or account book (cf. F. calendrier, OF. calendier) fr. L. calendue, kalendae, calends. See Calends.] 1.
 An orderly arrangement of the division of time, adapted to the purposes of civil life, as years, months, weeks, and days; also, a register of the year with its divisions; an almanac.

2. (Eccl.) A tabular statement of the dates of feasts, offices, saints' days, etc., esp. of those which are liable to change yearly according to the varying date of Easter.

3. An orderly list or enumeration of persons, things, or events; a schedule; as, a calendar of state papers; a calendar of bills presented in a legislative assembly; a calendar of causes arranged for trial in court; a calendar of a college or an academy.

 Shepherds of people had need know the calendars of tempests of state. Bacon.
Calendar clock, one that shows the days of the week and month. -- Calendar month. See under Month. -- French Republican calendar.
 See under Vendémiaire. -- Gregorian calendar, Julian calendar, Perpetual calendar. See under Gregorian, Julian, and Perpetual.

 Cal"en*dar, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Calendared (?); p. pr. & vb. n. Calendaring.] To enter or write in a calendar; to register. Waterhouse.
 Cal'en*da"ri*al (?), a. Of or pertaining to the calendar or a calendar.

 Cal"en*da*ry (?), a. Calendarial. [Obs.]

 Cal"en*der (?), n. [F. calandre, LL. calendra, corrupted fr. L. cylindrus a cylinder, Gr. &?;&?;&?;&?;&?;&?;&?;&?;&?;.
 See Cylinider.] 1. A machine, used for the purpose of giving cloth, paper, etc., a smooth, even, and glossy or glazed surface, by cold or hot pressure, or for watering them and giving them a wavy appearance. It consists of two or more cylinders revolving nearly in contact, with the necessary apparatus for moving and regulating.

2. One who pursues the business of calendering.

 My good friend the calender. Cawper.
 Cal"en*der (?), v. i. [imp. & p. p. Calendered (?); p. pr. & vb. n. Calendering.] [Cf. F. calandrer. See Calender, n.] To press between rollers for the purpose of making smooth and glossy, or wavy, as woolen and silk stuffs, linens, paper, etc. Ure.
 Cal"en*der, n. [Per. qalender.] One of a sect or order of fantastically dressed or painted dervishes.

 Cal'en*dog"ra*pher (?), n. [Calendar + -graph + er.]
 One who makes calendars. [R.]

 Cal"en*drer (?), n. A person who calenders cloth; a calender.

 { Ca*len"dric (?


happen that. "In case we are surprised, keep by me." W. Irving. -- In good case, in good condition, health, or state of body. -- To put a case, to suppose a hypothetical or illustrative case.

Syn. -- Situation, condition, state; circumstances; plight; predicament; occurrence; contingency; accident; event; conjuncture; cause; action; suit.

 Case, v. i. To propose hypothetical cases. [Obs.] "Casing upon the matter." L'Estrange.
 Ca'se*a"tion (?), n. [Cf. F. caséation. See Casein.]
 (Med.) A degeneration of animal tissue into a cheesy or curdy mass.

 Case"-bay' (?), n. (Arch.) (a) The space between two principals or girders. (b) One of the joists framed between a pair of girders in naked flooring.

 Case"hard'en (?), v. t. 1. To subject to a process which converts the surface of iron into steel.

2. To render insensible to good influences.

 Case"hard'ened (?), a. 1. Having the surface hardened, as iron tools.

2. Hardened against, or insusceptible to, good influences; rendered callous by persistence in wrongdoing or resistance of good influences; -- said of persons.

 Case"hard'en*ing, n. The act or process of converting the surface of iron into steel. Ure.
Casehardening is now commonly effected by cementation with charcoal or other carbonizing material, the depth and degree of hardening (carbonization) depending on the time during which the iron is exposed to the heat. See Cementation.

 Ca"se*ic (?), a. [Cf. F. caséique, fr. L. caseus cheese.] Of or pertaining to cheese; as, caseic acid.

 Ca"se*in (?), n. [Cf. F. caséine, fr. L. caseur cheese. Cf. Cheese.] (Physiol. Chem.) A proteid substance present in both the animal and the vegetable kingdom. In the animal kingdom it is chiefly found in milk, and constitutes the main part of the curd separated by rennet; in the vegetable kingdom it is found more or less abundantly in the seeds of leguminous plants. Its reactions resemble those of alkali albumin. [Written also caseine.]

 Case" knife' (?). 1. A knife carried in a sheath or case. Addison.
2. A large table knife; -- so called from being formerly kept in a case.

 Case"mate (?), n. [F. casemate, fr. It. casamatta, prob. from casa house + matto, f. matta, mad, weak, feeble, dim. from the same source as E. -mate in checkmate.]

1. (Fort.) A bombproof chamber, usually of masonry, in which cannon may be placed, to be fired through embrasures; or one capable of being used as a magazine, or for quartering troops.

2. (Arch.) A hollow molding, chiefly in cornices.

 Case"ma'ted (?), a. Furnished with, protected by, or built like, a casemate. Campbell.
 Case"ment (?), n. [Shortened fr. encasement. See Incase 1st Case, and cf. Incasement.] (Arch.) A window sash opening on hinges affixed to the upright side of the frame into which it is fitted.
 (Poetically) A window.

 A casement of the great chamber window. Shak.
 Case"ment*ed, a. Having a casement or casements.

 Ca"se*ous (?), a. [L. caseus. Cf. Casein.] Of, pertaining to, or resembling, cheese; having the qualities of cheese; cheesy.

Caseous degeneration, a morbid process, in scrofulous or consumptive persons, in which the products of inflammation are converted into a cheesy substance which is neither absorbed nor organized.

 Ca"sern (?), n. [F. caserne.] A lodging for soldiers in garrison towns, usually near the rampart; barracks. Bescherelle.
 Case" shot' (?). (Mil.) A collection of small projectiles, inclosed in a case or canister.

 In the United States a case shot is a thin spherical or oblong cast-iron shell containing musket balls and a bursting charge, with a time fuse; -- called in Europe shrapnel. In Europe the term case shot is applied to what in the United States is called canister. Wilhelm.
 ||Ca"se*um (?), n. [L. caseus cheese.] Same as Casein.

 Case"worm' (?), n. (Zoöl.) A worm or grub that makes for itself a case. See Caddice.

 Cash (?), n. [F. caisse case, box, cash box, cash. See Case a box.] A place where money is kept, or where it is deposited and paid out; a money box. [Obs.]

 This bank is properly a general cash, where every man lodges his money. Sir W. Temple.
 £20,000 are known to be in her cash. Sir R. Winwood.
2. (Com.) (a) Ready money; especially, coin or specie; but also applied to bank notes, drafts, bonds, or any paper easily convertible into money. (b) Immediate or prompt payment in current funds; as, to sell goods for cash; to make a reduction in price for cash.

Cash account (Bookkeeping), an account of money received, disbursed, and on hand. -- Cash boy, in large retail stores, a messenger who carries the money received by the salesman from customers to a cashier, and returns the proper change. [Colloq.] -- Cash credit, an account with a bank by which a person or house, having given security for repayment, draws at pleasure upon the bank to the extent of an amount agreed upon; -- called also bank credit and cash account. -- Cash sales, sales made for ready, money, in distinction from those on which credit is given; stocks sold, to be delivered on the day of transaction.

Syn. -- Money; coin; specie; currency; capital.

 Cash, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Cashed (?); p. pr. & vb. n. Casing.] To pay, or to receive, cash for; to exchange for money; as, cash a note or an order.

 Cash, v. t. [See Cashier.] To disband. [Obs.] Garges.
 Cash, n.sing & pl. A Chinese coin.

 The cash (Chinese tsien) is the only current coin made by the chinese government. It is a thin circular disk of a very base alloy of copper, with a square hole in the center. 1,000 to 1,400 cash are equivalent to a dollar.

 Cash"book (ksh"bk), n. (Bookkeeping) A book in which is kept a register of money received or paid out.

 Ca*shew" (k*sh"), n. [F. acajou, for cajou, prob.
 from Malay kyu tree; cf. Pg. acaju, cf. Acajou.] (Bot.)
 A tree (Anacardium occidentale) of the same family which the sumac.
 It is native in tropical America, but is now naturalized in all tropical countries. Its fruit, a kidney-shaped nut, grows at the extremity of an edible, pearshaped hypocarp, about three inches long.

Cashew nut, the large, kidney-shaped fruit of the cashew, which is edible after the caustic oil has been expelled from the shell by roasting the nut.

 Cash*ier" (ksh*r"), n. [F. caissier, fr. caisse. See


sailors in cold weather.

 Peak (?), n. [OE. pek, AS. peac, perh of Celtic origin; cf. Ir. peac a sharppointed thing. Cf. Pike.] 1. A point; the sharp end or top of anything that terminates in a point; as, the peak, or front, of a cap. "Run your beard into a peak."
 Beau. & Fl.
2. The top, or one of the tops, of a hill, mountain, or range, ending in a point; often, the whole hill or mountain, esp. when isolated; as, the Peak of Teneriffe.

 Silent upon a peak in Darien.

Keats.
3. (Naut.) (a) The upper aftermost corner of a fore-and-aft sail; -- used in many combinations; as, peak-halyards, peak-brails, etc. (b) The narrow part of a vessel's bow, or the hold within it. (c) The extremity of an anchor fluke; the bill.
 [In the last sense written also pea and pee.]

Fore peak. (Naut.) See under Fore.

 Peak, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Peaked (?); p. pr. & vb. n. Peaking.] 1. To rise or extend into a peak or point; to form, or appear as, a peak.

 There peaketh up a mighty high mount.

Holand.
2. To acquire sharpness of figure or features; hence, to look thin or sicky. "Dwindle, peak, and pine." Shak.
3. [Cf. Peek.] To pry; to peep slyly. Shak.
Peak arch (Arch.), a pointed or Gothic arch.

 Peak, v. t. (Naut.) To raise to a position perpendicular, or more nearly so; as, to peak oars, to hold them upright; to peak a gaff or yard, to set it nearer the perpendicular.

 Peaked (?), a. 1. Pointed; ending in a point; as, a peaked roof.

2. (Oftener &?;) Sickly; not robust. [Colloq.]

 Peak"ing (?), a. 1. Mean; sneaking. [Vulgar] 2. Pining; sickly; peakish. [Colloq.]

 Peak"ish, a. 1. Of or relating to a peak; or to peaks; belonging to a mountainous region. "Her peakish spring." Drayton.
 "His peakish dialect." Bp. Hall.
2. Having peaks; peaked.

3. Having features thin or sharp, as from sickness; hence, sickly.
 [Colloq.]

 Peak"y (?), a. 1. Having a peak or peaks. Tennyson.
2. Sickly; peaked. [Colloq.]

 Peal (?), n. [Etymol. uncertain.] (Zoöl.) A small salmon; a grilse; a sewin. [Prov. Eng.]

 Peal, v. i. To appeal. [Obs.] Spencer.
 Peal, n. [An abbrev. of F. appel a call, appeal, ruffle of a drum, fr. appeller to call, L. appellare. See Appeal.] 1.
 A loud sound, or a succession of loud sounds, as of bells, thunder, cannon, shouts, of a multitude, etc. "A fair peal of artillery." Hayward.
 Whether those peals of praise be his or no.

Shak.
 And a deep thunder, peal on peal, afar.

Byron.
2. A set of bells tuned to each other according to the diatonic scale; also, the changes rung on a set of bells.

To ring a peal. See under Ring.

 Peal, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Pealed (?); p. pr. & vb. n. Pealing.] 1. To utter or give out loud sounds.

 There let the pealing organ blow.

Milton.
2. To resound; to echo.

 And the whole air pealed With the cheers of our men.

Longfellow.
 Peal, v. t. 1. To utter or give forth loudly; to cause to give out loud sounds; to noise abroad.

 The warrior's name, Though pealed and chimed on all the tongues of fame.

J. Barlow.
2. To assail with noise or loud sounds.

 Nor was his ear less pealed.

Milton.
3. To pour out. [Prov. Eng.] Halliwell.
 Pean (?), n. [OF. pene, F. panne.] (Her.) One of the furs, the ground being sable, and the spots or tufts or.

 Pe"an (?), n. A song of praise and triumph. See Pæan.

 Pe"an*ism (?), n. [Gr. &?;, fr. &?; to chant the pæan.]
 The song or shout of praise, of battle, or of triumph. [R.]

 Pea"nut (?), n. (Bot.) The fruit of a trailing leguminous plant (Arachis hypogæa); also, the plant itself, which is widely cultivated for its fruit.

 The fruit is a hard pod, usually containing two or three seeds, sometimes but one, which ripen beneath the soil. Called also earthnut, groundnut, and goober.

 Pear (pâr), n. [OE. pere, AS. peru, L. pirum: cf. F. poire. Cf. Perry.] (Bot.) The fleshy pome, or fruit, of a rosaceous tree (Pyrus communis), cultivated in many varieties in temperate climates; also, the tree which bears this fruit. See Pear family, below.

Pear blight. (a) (Bot.) A name of two distinct diseases of pear trees, both causing a destruction of the branches, viz., that caused by a minute insect (Xyleborus pyri), and that caused by the freezing of the sap in winter. A. J. Downing. (b) (Zoöl.)
 A very small beetle (Xyleborus pyri) whose larvæ bore in the twigs of pear trees and cause them to wither. -- Pear family (Bot.), a suborder of rosaceous plants (Pomeæ), characterized by the calyx tube becoming fleshy in fruit, and, combined with the ovaries, forming a pome. It includes the apple, pear, quince, service berry, and hawthorn. -- Pear gauge (Physics), a kind of gauge for measuring the exhaustion of an air-pump receiver; -- so called because consisting in part of a pear-shaped glass vessel. -- Pear shell (Zoöl.), any marine gastropod shell of the genus Pyrula, native of tropical seas; -- so called from the shape. -- Pear slug (Zoöl.), the larva of a sawfly which is very injurious to the foliage of the pear tree.

 Pearch (?), n. [Obs.] See Perch.

 Pearl (?), n. A fringe or border. [Obs.] -- v. t. To fringe; to border. [Obs.] See Purl.

Pearl stitch. See Purl stitch, under Purl.

 Pearl, n. [OE. perle, F. perle, LL. perla, perula, probably fr. (assumed) L. pirulo, dim. of L. pirum a pear.
 See Pear, and cf. Purl to mantle.] 1. (Zoöl.) A shelly concretion, usually rounded, and having a brilliant luster, with varying tints, found in the mantle, or between the mantle and shell, of certain bivalve mollusks, especially in the pearl oysters and river mussels, and sometimes in certain univalves. It is usually due to a secretion of shelly substance


Pilotage. [Obs.]

 Lode"-ship' (?), n. An old name for a pilot boat.

 Lodes"man (?), n. Same as Loadsman. [Obs.]

 Lode"star' (?), n. Same as Loadstar.

 Lode"stone' (?), n. (Min.) Same as Loadstone.

 Lodge (?), n. [OE. loge, logge, F. loge, LL.
 laubia porch, gallery, fr. OHG. louba, G. laube, arbor, bower, fr. lab foliage. See Leaf, and cf. Lobby, Loggia.] 1.
 A shelter in which one may rest; as: (a) A shed; a rude cabin; a hut; as, an Indian's lodge. Chaucer.
 Their lodges and their tentis up they gan bigge [to build].

Robert of Brunne.
 O for a lodge in some vast wilderness!

Cowper.
(b) A small dwelling house, as for a gamekeeper or gatekeeper of an estate. Shak. (c) A den or cave. (d) The meeting room of an association; hence, the regularly constituted body of members which meets there; as, a masonic lodge. (c) The chamber of an abbot, prior, or head of a college.

2. (Mining) The space at the mouth of a level next the shaft, widened to permit wagons to pass, or ore to be deposited for hoisting; -- called also platt. Raymond.
3. A collection of objects lodged together.

 The Maldives, a famous lodge of islands.

De Foe.
4. A family of North American Indians, or the persons who usually occupy an Indian lodge, -- as a unit of enumeration, reckoned from four to six persons; as, the tribe consists of about two hundred lodges, that is, of about a thousand individuals.

Lodge gate, a park gate, or entrance gate, near the lodge. See Lodge, n., 1 (b).

 Lodge, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Lodged (ljd); p. pr. & vb. n. Lodging (lj"ng).] 1. To rest or remain a lodge house, or other shelter; to rest; to stay; to abide; esp., to sleep at night; as, to lodge in York Street. Chaucer.
 Stay and lodge by me this night.

Shak.
 Something holy lodges in that breast.

Milton.
2. To fall or lie down, as grass or grain, when overgrown or beaten down by the wind. Mortimer.
3. To come to a rest; to stop and remain; as, the bullet lodged in the bark of a tree.

 Lodge, v. t. [OE. loggen, OF. logier, F. loger.
 See Lodge, n. ] 1. To give shelter or rest to; especially, to furnish a sleeping place for; to harbor; to shelter; hence, to receive; to hold.

 Every house was proud to lodge a knight.

Dryden.
 The memory can lodge a greater store of images than all the senses can present at one time.

Cheyne.
2. To drive to shelter; to track to covert.

 The deer is lodged; I have tracked her to her covert.

Addison.
3. To deposit for keeping or preservation; as, the men lodged their arms in the arsenal.

4. To cause to stop or rest in; to implant.

 He lodged an arrow in a tender breast.

Addison.
5. To lay down; to prostrate.

 Though bladed corn be lodged, and trees blown down.

Shak.
To lodge an information, to enter a formal complaint.

 Lodge"a*ble (?), a. [Cf. F. logeable.] 1. That may be or can be lodged; as, so many persons are not lodgeable in this village.

2. Capable of affording lodging; fit for lodging in. [R.] " The lodgeable area of the earth." Jeffrey.
 Lodged (?), a. (Her.) Lying down; -- used of beasts of the chase, as couchant is of beasts of prey.

 Lodge"ment (?), n. See Lodgment.

 Lodg"er (?), n. One who, or that which, lodges; one who occupies a hired room in another's house.

 Lodg"ing, n. 1. The act of one who, or that which, lodges.

2. A place of rest, or of temporary habitation; esp., a sleeping apartment; -- often in the plural with a singular meaning. Gower.
 Wits take lodgings in the sound of Bow.

Pope.
3. Abiding place; harbor; cover.

 Fair bosom... the lodging of delight.

Spenser.
Lodging house, a house where lodgings are provided and let. -- Lodging room, a room in which a person lodges, esp. a hired room.

 Lodg"ment (?), n. [Written also lodgement.] [Cf. F. logement.
 See Lodge, v.] 1. The act of lodging, or the state of being lodged.

 Any particle which is of size enough to make a lodgment afterwards in the small arteries.

Paley.
2. A lodging place; a room. [Obs.]

3. An accumulation or collection of something deposited in a place or remaining at rest.

4. (Mil.) The occupation and holding of a position, as by a besieging party; an instrument thrown up in a captured position; as, to effect a lodgment.

 Lod"i*cule (?), n. [L. lodicula. dim, of lodix, lodicis, a coverlet: cf. F. lodicule.] (Bot.) One of the two or three delicate membranous scales which are next to the stamens in grasses.

 Loel"ling*ite (?), n. [So called from Lölling, in Austria.] (Min.) A tin-white arsenide of iron, isomorphous with arsenopyrite.

 Loess (?), n. [G. löss.] (Geol.) A quaternary deposit, usually consisting of a fine yellowish earth, on the banks of the Rhine and other large rivers.

 Loev"en's lar"va (?). [Named after the Swedish zoölogist, S. F. Löven, who discovered it.] (Zoöl.) The peculiar larva of Polygordius.
 See Polygordius.

 Loffe (?), v. i. To laugh. [Obs.] Shak.
 Loft (?), n. [Icel. lopt air, heaven, loft, upper room; akin to AS. lyft air, G. luft, Dan. loft loft, Goth. luftus air. Cf. Lift, v. & n. ] That which is lifted up; an elevation. Hence, especially: (a) The room or space under a roof and above the ceiling of the uppermost story. (b) A gallery or raised apartment in a church, hall, etc.; as, an organ loft. (c) A floor or room placed above another; a story.

 Eutychus... fell down from the third loft.

Acts xx. 9.
On loft, aloft; on high. Cf. Onloft. [Obs.] Chaucer.
 Loft, a. Lofty; proud. [R. & Obs.] Surrey.
 Loft"i*ly (?), adv. [From Lofty.] In a lofty manner or position; haughtily.

 Loft"i*ness, n. The state or quality of being lofty.

 Loft"y (?), a. [Compar. Loftier (?); superl. Loftiest.]
 [From Loft.] 1. Lifted high up; having great height; towering; high.

 See lofty Lebanon his head advance.

Pope.
2. Fig.: Elevated in character, rank, dignity, spirit,


inclosure, Icel. garðr yard, house, Sw. gård, Dan.
 gaard, Goth. gards a house, garda sheepfold, L. hortus garden, Gr. cho'rtos an inclosure. Cf. Court, Garden, Garth, Horticulture, Orchard.]

1. An inclosure; usually, a small inclosed place in front of, or around, a house or barn; as, a courtyard; a cowyard; a barnyard.

 A yard... inclosed all about with sticks In which she had a cock, hight chanticleer.

Chaucer.
2. An inclosure within which any work or business is carried on; as, a dockyard; a shipyard.

Liberty of the yard, a liberty, granted to persons imprisoned for debt, of walking in the yard, or within any other limits prescribed by law, on their giving bond not to go beyond those limits. -- Prison yard, an inclosure about a prison, or attached to it. -- Yard grass (Bot.), a low-growing grass (Eleusine Indica) having digitate spikes. It is common in dooryards, and like places, especially in the Southern United States. Called also crab grass. -- Yard of land. See Yardland.

 Yard, v. t. To confine (cattle) to the yard; to shut up, or keep, in a yard; as, to yard cows.

 Yard"arm' (?), n. (Naut.) Either half of a square-rigged vessel's yard, from the center or mast to the end.

 Ships are said to be yardarm and yardarm when so near as to touch, or interlock yards.

 Yard"ful (?), n.; pl. Yardfuls (&?;). As much as a yard will contain; enough to fill a yard.

 Yard"land' (?), n. (O. Eng. Law) A measure of land of uncertain quantity, varying from fifteen to forty acres; a virgate. [Obs.]

 Yard"stick' (?), n. A stick three feet, or a yard, in length, used as a measure of cloth, etc.

 Yard"wand' (?), n. A yardstick. Tennyson.
 Yare (?), a. [OE. yare, aru, AS. gearu; akin to OS. garu, OHG. garo, G. gar, Icel. gerr perfect, görva quite, G. gerben to tan, to curry, OHG.
 garawen, garwen, to make ready. Cf. Carouse, Garb clothing, Gear, n.] Ready; dexterous; eager; lively; quick to move. [Obs.]
 "Be yare in thy preparation." Shak.
 The lesser [ship] will come and go, leave or take, and is yare; whereas the greater is slow.

Sir W. Raleigh.
 Yare, adv. Soon. [Obs.] Cursor Mundi.
 Yare"ly, adv. In a yare manner. [Obs.] Shak.
 Yark (?), v. t. & i. To yerk. [Prov. Eng.]

 Yar"ke (?), n. (Zoöl.) Same as Saki.

 Yarn (?), n. [OE. yarn, arn, AS. gearn; akin to D. garen, G., OHG., Icel., Sw., & Dan. garn; of uncertain origin. Cf. Cord.]

1. Spun wool; woolen thread; also, thread of other material, as of cotton, flax, hemp, or silk; material spun and prepared for use in weaving, knitting, manufacturing sewing thread, or the like.

2. (Rope Making) One of the threads of which the strands of a rope are composed.

3. A story told by a sailor for the amusement of his companions; a story or tale; as, to spin a yarn. [Colloq.]

 Yarn"en (?), a. Made of yarn; consisting of yarn. [Obs.] "A pair of yarnen stocks." Turbervile.
 Yar"nut' (?), n. (Bot.) See Yernut.

 Yarr (?), v. i. [OE. arren.] To growl or snarl as a dog.
 [Obs.] Ainsworth.
 Yar"rish (?), a. [Prov. E. yar sour, yare brackish.]
 Having a rough, dry taste. [Prov. Eng.]

 Yar"row (?), n. [OE. yarowe, yarwe, arowe, AS.
 gearwe; akin to D. gerw, OHG. garwa, garawa, G. garbe, schafgarbe, and perhaps to E. yare.] (Bot.)
 An American and European composite plant (Achillea Millefolium) with very finely dissected leaves and small white corymbed flowers. It has a strong, and somewhat aromatic, odor and taste, and is sometimes used in making beer, or is dried for smoking. Called also milfoil, and nosebleed.

 Yar"whip' (?), n. [So called from its sharp cry uttered when taking wing.] (Zoöl.) The European bar-tailed godwit; -- called also yardkeep, and yarwhelp. See Godwit. [Prov. Eng.]

 Yat"a*ghan (?), n. [Turk. ytghn.] A long knife, or short saber, common among Mohammedan nations, usually having a double curve, sometimes nearly straight. [Written also ataghan, attaghan.]
 Chaucer.
 Yate (?), n. A gate. See 1st Gate. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.] Spenser.
 Yaud (?), n. See Yawd. [Prov. Eng. & Scot.]

 Yaul (?), n. (Naut.) See Yawl.

 Yaulp (?), v. i. To yaup.

 Yaup (?), v. i. [See Yap, and Yelp.] To cry out like a child; to yelp. [Scot. & Colloq. U. S.] [Written also yawp.]

 Yaup, n. [Written also yawp.]

1. A cry of distress, rage, or the like, as the cry of a sickly bird, or of a child in pain. [Scot. & Colloq. U. S.]

2. (Zoöl.) The blue titmouse. [Prov. Eng.]

 Yaup"er (?), n. One who, or that which, yaups.

 Yau"pon (?), n. (Bot.) A shrub (Ilex Cassine) of the Holly family, native from Virginia to Florida. The smooth elliptical leaves are used as a substitute for tea, and were formerly used in preparing the black drink of the Indians of North Carolina. Called also South-Sea tea. [Written also yapon, youpon, and yupon.]

 Yaw (?), v. i. [imp. & p. p. Yawed (?); p. pr. & vb. n. Yawing.] [Cf. Yew, v. i.] To rise in blisters, breaking in white froth, as cane juice in the clarifiers in sugar works.

 Yaw, v. i. & t. [Cf. Prov. G. gagen to rock, gageln to totter, shake, Norw. gaga to bend backward, Icel. gagr bent back, gaga to throw the neck back.] (Naut.) To steer wild, or out of the line of her course; to deviate from her course, as when struck by a heavy sea; -- said of a ship.

 Just as he would lay the ship's course, all yawing being out of the question.

Lowell.
 Yaw, n. (Naut.) A movement of a vessel by which she temporarily alters her course; a deviation from a straight course in steering.

 Yawd (?), n. [Cf. Icel. jalda a mare, E. jade a nag.]


iii.]

 13 (return) [ "That at the eastern extremity of Loch Katrine, so often mentioned in the text."]

 14 (return) [ "Beallach an duine."]

 15 (return) [ "The reader will find this story told at greater length, and with the addition in particular of the King being recognized, like the Fitz-James of the Lady of the Lake, by being the only person covered, in the First Series of Tales of a Grandfather, vol. iii, p. 37. The heir of Braehead discharged his duty at the banquet given to King George IV. in the Parliament House at Edinburgh, in 1822" (Lockhart).]


servings of starch to mellow them out. It is wise not to start out life a happiness addict with a severe weight problem.
 Now that the chemistry of sugar addiction is understood, there currently is a movement afoot to cast the obese as helpless victims of serotonin imbalances and to "treat" them with the same kinds of serotonin-increasing happy drugs (like Prozac) that are becoming so popular with the psychiatric set.
This promises to be a multiple billion dollar business that will capture all the money currently flowing into other dieting systems and bring it right back to the AMA/drug company/FDA nexus. The pitch is that when serotonin levels are upped, the desire to eat drops and so is weight. This approach is popular with the obese because it requires no personal responsibility other than taking a pill that really does make them feel happy. However, the same benefit can be had by strict adherence to a low-fat, low-carbohydrate diet. Eventually, the brain chemistry rebalances itself and serotonin levels stabilize.
Glycemic Index (compared to glucose, which is 100) Grains Fruits Vegetables all bran 51 apples 39 baked beans 40 brown rice 66 bananas 62 beets 64 buckwheat 54 cherries 23 black-eyed peas 33 cornflakes 80 grapefruit 26 carrots 92 oatmeal 49 grapes 45 chic peas 36 shred. wheat 67 orange juice 46 parsnips 97 muesli 66 peach 29 potato chips 51 white rice 72 orange 40 baked potato 98 white spagetti 50 pear 34 sweet potato 48 whole wheat spagetti 42 plum 25 yams 51 sweet corn 59 raisins 64 peas 51 Nuts Baked Goods Sugars peanuts 13 pastry 59 fructose 20 sponge cake 46 glucose 100 Meats white bread 69 honey 87 sausage 28 w/w bread 72 maltose 110 fish sticks 38 whole rye bread 42 sucrose 59 Dairy Products yogurt 36 whole milk 34 skim milk 32 Remember, the pancreas has another major service to perform for the body: secreting digestive enzymes to aid in the digestion of proteins. When the diet contains either too much protein or too much sugar and/or high-glycemic index starch foods, the overworked pancreas begins to be less and less efficient at maintaining both of these functions.
 Sometimes a stressed-out pancreas gets overactive and does too good a job lowering the blood sugar, producing hypoglycemia. Hypoglycemia is generally accompanied by unpleasant symptoms such as fatigue, dizziness, blurred vision, irritability, confusion, headache, etc. This condition is typically alleviated by yet another hit of sugar which builds an addiction not only to sugar, but to food in general. If the hypoglycemic then keeps on eating sugar to relieve the symptoms of sugar ingestion, eventually the pancreas becomes exhausted, producing an insulin deficiency, called diabetes. Medical doctors treat diabetes with insulin supplements either oral or intramuscular plus a careful diet with very low and measured amounts of sugar and starch for the remainder of the persons inevitably shortened and far less pleasant life. However, sometimes diabetes can be controlled with diet alone, though medical doctors have not had nearly as much success with this approach as talented naturopaths. Sometimes, long fasting can regenerate a pancreas. It is far better to avoid creating this disease!
 The dietary management of hypoglycemia requires that not only refined but also unrefined sugars and starches with a high glycemic index be removed from the diet. (The glycemic index measures the ease with which the starch is converted into glucose in the body, and estimates the amount of insulin needed to balance it out.) This means no sugar, no honey, no white flour, no whole grains sweetened with honey, no sweet fruits such as watermelons, bananas, raisins, dates or figs. Potatoes are too readily converted into sugar. Jerusalem artichokes are a good substitute.
 People with hypoglycemia can often control their symptoms with frequent small meals containing vegetable protein every two hours. When a non-sweet fruit is eaten such as an apple, it should be eaten with some almonds or other nut or seed that slows the absorption of fruit sugar. Hypoglycemics can improve their condition with vitamins and food supplements. See the next chapter.
 Allergies to foods and environmental irritants are frequently triggered by low blood sugar. Mental conditions are also triggered by low blood sugar levels, frequently contributing to or causing a cycle of acting out behavior accompanied by destruction of property and interpersonal violence, as well as psychosis and bouts of depression. It is not possible to easily deal with the resulting behavior problems unless the hypoglycemia is controlled. Unfortunately most institutions such as mental hospitals and jails serve large amounts of sugar and starch and usually caffeinated beverages, with a high availability of soda pop, candy, and cigarettes at concessions.
If the diet were drastically improved, the drugs given to control behavior in mental hospitals would be much more effective at a lower dose, or unnecessary.
 The insulin-cycle overworked pancreas may eventually not be able to secrete enough enzymes to allow for the efficient digestion of foods high in protein. As stated earlier, poor protein digestion leads to a highly toxic condition from putrefied protein in the intestines. This condition is alleviated by eliminating animal proteins from the diet and taking digestive aids such as pancreatin pills with meals to assist in the digestion of vegetable proteins.
Food Combining And "Healthfood Junkfood."
 This brings us to a topic I call healthfood junkfood. Many people improve their diet, eliminating meat and chemicalized food in favor of whole grains and organically grown foods, but they then proceed to make these otherwise good foods into virtual junkfood by preparing them incorrectly. In my travels, I've noticed this same thing happens everywhere on Earth. What should be health-producing dietaries are ruined by frying, salting and sugaring.
 Healthfood junkfoods include organically grown potato chips deep fried in cold pressed organic unsaturated canola oil (made rancid by frying) sprinkled with natural sea salt; organically grown oat and nut granola roasted with cold-pressed unsaturated oil (made rancid by roasting) hideously sweetened with honey; carrot cake made with rancid whole wheat flour, cold pressed unsaturated oil (made rancid by baking), honey, and cream cheese (salted); whole wheat cookies (stale, rancid flour) sweetened with honey, made with vegetable oil baked at high heat (rancid); whole wheat pizza vegetarian style with lots of soy cheese; whole wheat pizza vegan style with lots of real raw milk cheese; organically grown corn chips deep fried in cold pressed vegetable oil with or without natural sea salt, yogurts made from powdered milk without an active culture of beneficial bacteria and covered with highly sugared fruits, etc. These foods may well represent an improvement over the average American diet, but they still are not healthy foods, and should never be used in a diet for a sick person. Nor are they worthy of a person attempting to maximize health.
 The problem with healthfood junkfoods is not their major ingredients, but how they were combined and processed and adulterated. Remember, fats, animal or vegetable, subjected to high heat become indigestible and toxic and make anything they're cooked with indigestible; salt is a toxic drug; cheese, hard enough to digest as it is, when raised to high temperatures as it is when making pizza, becomes virtually indigestible and cheese inevitably contains a lot of butterfat which, though saturated animal fat, when raised to high temperatures, still becomes slightly rancid. And all these foods represent indigestible combinations


, OSlav. dupl&?; hollow, and to E. dive. Cf.
 Deep, Dive.] 1. To plunge or immerse; especially, to put for a moment into a liquid; to insert into a fluid and withdraw again.

 The priest shall dip his finger in the blood.

Lev. iv. 6.
 [Wat'ry fowl] now dip their pinions in the briny deep.

Pope.
 While the prime swallow dips his wing.

Tennyson.
2. To immerse for baptism; to baptize by immersion. Book of Common Prayer. Fuller.
3. To wet, as if by immersing; to moisten. [Poetic] A cold shuddering dew Dips me all o'er.

Milton.
4. To plunge or engage thoroughly in any affair.

 He was... dipt in the rebellion of the Commons.

Dryden.
5. To take out, by dipping a dipper, ladle, or other receptacle, into a fluid and removing a part; -- often with out; as, to dip water from a boiler; to dip out water.

6. To engage as a pledge; to mortgage. [Obs.]

 Live on the use and never dip thy lands.

Dryden.
Dipped candle, a candle made by repeatedly dipping a wick in melted tallow. -- To dip snuff, to take snuff by rubbing it on the gums and teeth. [Southern U. S.] -- To dip the colors (Naut.), to lower the colors and return them to place; -- a form of naval salute.

 Dip, v. i. 1. To immerse one's self; to become plunged in a liquid; to sink.

 The sun's rim dips; the stars rush out.

Coleridge.
2. To perform the action of plunging some receptacle, as a dipper, ladle. etc.; into a liquid or a soft substance and removing a part.

 Whoever dips too deep will find death in the pot.

L'Estrange.
3. To pierce; to penetrate; -- followed by in or into.

 When I dipt into the future.

Tennyson.
4. To enter slightly or cursorily; to engage one's self desultorily or by the way; to partake limitedly; -- followed by in or into.
 "Dipped into a multitude of books." Macaulay.
5. To incline downward from the plane of the horizon; as, strata of rock dip.

6. To dip snuff. [Southern U.S.]

 Dip, n. 1. The action of dipping or plunging for a moment into a liquid. "The dip of oars in unison." Glover.
2. Inclination downward; direction below a horizontal line; slope; pitch.

3. A liquid, as a sauce or gravy, served at table with a ladle or spoon. [Local, U.S.] Bartlett.
4. A dipped candle. [Colloq.] Marryat.
Dip of the horizon (Astron.), the angular depression of the seen or visible horizon below the true or natural horizon; the angle at the eye of an observer between a horizontal line and a tangent drawn from the eye to the surface of the ocean. -- Dip of the needle, or Magnetic dip, the angle formed, in a vertical plane, by a freely suspended magnetic needle, or the line of magnetic force, with a horizontal line; -- called also inclination. -- Dip of a stratum (Geol.), its greatest angle of inclination to the horizon, or that of a line perpendicular to its direction or strike; -- called also the pitch.

 Di*pas"chal (?), a. [Pref. di- + paschal.] Including two passovers. Carpenter.
 Dip"chick' (?), n. (Zoöl.) See Dabchick.

 Di*pet"al*ous (?), a. [Pref. di- + petalous.] (Bot.)
 Having two petals; twopetaled.

 Di*phe"nyl (?), n. [Pref. di- + phenyl.] (Chem.)
 A white crystalline substance, C6H5.C6H5, obtained by leading benzene through a heated iron tube. It consists of two benzene or phenyl radicals united.

 Diph*the"ri*a (?), n. [NL., fr. Gr. &?; leather (hence taken in the sense of membrane): cf. &?; to make soft, L. depsere to knead.] (Med.) A very dangerous contagious disease in which the air passages, and especially the throat, become coated with a false membrane, produced by the solidification of an inflammatory exudation. Cf.
 Group.

 { Diph*the"ri*al (?), Diph*ther"ic (?), } a. Relating to diphtheria; diphtheritic.

 Diph'the*rit"ic (?), a. (Med.) 1. Pertaining to, or connected with, diphtheria.

2. Having characteristics resembling those of diphtheria; as, diphtheritic inflammation of the bladder.

 Diph"thong (?; 115, 277), n. [L. diphthongus, Gr. &?;; di- = di's- twice + &?; voice, sound, fr. &?; to utter a sound: cf. F. diphthongue.] (Orthoëpy) (a) A coalition or union of two vowel sounds pronounced in one syllable; as, ou in out, oi in noise; -- called a proper diphthong.
 (b) A vowel digraph; a union of two vowels in the same syllable, only one of them being sounded; as, ai in rain, eo in people; -- called an improper diphthong.

 Diph"thong, v. t. To form or pronounce as a diphthong; diphthongize. [R.]

 Diph*thon"gal (?; 115), a. Relating or belonging to a diphthong; having the nature of a diphthong. -- Diph*thon"gal*ly, adv.
 Diph*thon"gal*ize (?; 115), v. t. To make into a diphthong; to pronounce as a diphthong.

 Diph'thon*ga"tion (?), n. See Diphthongization.

 Diph*thong"ic (?; 115), a. Of the nature of diphthong; diphthongal.
 H. Sweet.
 Diph'thong*i*za"tion (?), n. The act of changing into a diphthong.
 H. Sweet.
 Diph"thong*ize (?), v. t. & i. To change into a diphthong, as by affixing another vowel to a simple vowel. "The diphthongized long vowels." H. Sweet.
 Diph'y*cer"cal (?), a. [Gr. difyh's double (di- = di's- twice + fy'ein to produce) + ke'rkos tail.] (Anat.) Having the tail fin divided into two equal parts by the notochord, or end of the vertebral column; protocercal. See Protocercal.

 Diph'y*gen"ic (-jn"k), a. [Gr. difyh's of double form + - genic.]
 (Zoöl.) Having two modes of embryonic development. [1913 Webster] Diph"yl*lous (df"l*ls or d*fl"-), a. [Gr. di- = di's- twice + fy'llon leaf: cf. F. diphylle.] (Bot.) Having two leaves, as a calyx, etc. [1913 Webster] Diph"y*o*dont (?), a. [Gr. &?; double (di- = di's- twice + &?; to produce) + 'odoy's, 'odo'


sa music is different from most primitive music I have heard either in America or Luzon. The player beats 4/4 time, with the accent on the third beat. Though there may be twenty gang′-sa in the dance circle a mile distant, yet the regular pulse and beat of the third count is always the prominent feature of the sound. The music is rapid, there being from fifty-eight to sixty full 4/4 counts per minute.
It is impossible for me to represent Igorot music, instrumental or vocal, in any adequate manner, but I may convey a somewhat clearer impression of the rhythm if I attempt to represent it mathematically. It must be kept in mind that all the gang′-sa are beaten regularly and in perfect time—there is no such thing as half notes.
The gang′-sa is struck at each italicized count, and each unitalicized count represents a rest, the accent represents the accented beat of the gang′-sa. The ka′-los is usually beaten without accent and without rest. Its beats are 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4; etc. The co-ong′-an is usually beaten with both accent and rest. It is generally as follows: 1, 2, 3′, 4; 1, 2, 3′, 4; 1, 2, 3′, 4; 1, 2, 3′, 4; etc. Sometimes, however, only the first count and again the first and second counts are struck on the individual co-ong′-an, but there is no accent unless the third is struck. Thus it is sometimes as follows: 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4; etc.; and again 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4; 1, 2, 3, 4; etc. However, the impression the hearer receives from a group of players is always of four rapid beats, the third one being distinctly accented. A considerable volume of sound is produced by the gang′-sa of the central part of the area; it may readily be heard a mile, if beaten in the open air.
In pueblos toward the western part of the area, as in Balili, Alap, and their neighbors, the instrument is played differently and the sound carries only a few rods. Sometimes the player sits in very un-Malayan manner, with legs stretched out before him, and places the gang′-sa bottom up on his lap. He beats it with the flat of both hands, producing the rhythmic pulse by a deadening or smothering of a beat.
Again the gang′-sa is held in the air, usually as high as the face, and one or two soft beats, just a tinkle, of the 4/4 time are struck on the inside of the gang′-sa by a small, light stick. Now and then the player, after having thoroughly acquired the rhythm, clutches the instrument under his arm for a half minute while he continues his dance in perfect time and rhythm.
The lover's "jews'-harp," made both of bamboo and of brass, is found throughout the Bontoc area. It is played near to and in the olag wherein the sweetheart of the young man is at the time. The instrument, called in Bontoc "ab-a′-fü," is apparently primitive Malayan, and is found widespread in the south seas and Pacific Ocean.
Page 192 The brass instrument, the only kind I ever saw in use except as a semitoy in the hands of small boys, is from 2 to 3 inches in length, and has a tongue, attached at one end, cut from the middle of the narrow strip of metal. (The Igorot make the ab-a′-fü of metal cartridges.) A cord is tied to the instrument at the end at which the tongue is attached, and this the player jerks to vibrate the tongue. The instrument is held at the mouth, is lightly clasped between the lips, and, as the tongue vibrates, the player breathes a low, soft tune through the instrument. One must needs get within 2 or 3 feet of the player to catch the music, but I must say after hearing three or four men play by the half hour, that they produce tunes the theme of which seems to me to bespeak a genuine musical taste.
I have seen a few crude bamboo flutes in the hands of young men, but none were able to play them. I believe they are of Ilokano introduction.
A long wooden drum, hollow and cannon-shaped, and often 3 feet and more long and about 8 inches in diameter, is common in Benguet, and is found in Lepanto, but is not found or known in Bontoc. A skin stretched over the large end of the drum is beaten with the flat of the hands to accompany the music of the metal drums or gang′-sa, also played with the flat of the hands, as described, in pueblos near the western border of Bontoc area.
Vocal music The Igorot has vocal music, but in no way can I describe it—to say nothing of writing it. I tried repeatedly to write the words of the songs, but failed even in that. The chief cause of failure is that the words must be sung—even the singers failed to repeat the songs word after word as they repeat the words of their ordinary speech. There are accents, rests, lengthened sounds, sounds suddenly cut short—in fact, all sorts of vocal gymnastics that clearly defeated any effort to "talk" the songs.
I believe many of the songs are wordless; they are mere vocalizations—the "tra la la" of modern vocal music; they may be the first efforts to sing.
I was told repeatedly that there are four classes of songs, and only four. The mang-ay-u-wĕng′, the laborer's song, is sung in the field and trail. The mang-ay-yĕng′ is said to be the class of songs rendered at all ceremonies, though I believe the doleful funeral songs are of another class. The mang-ay-lu′-kay and the tĭng-ao′ I know nothing of except in name.
Most of the songs seem serious. I never heard a mother or other person singing to a babe. However, boys and young men, friends with locked arms or with arms over shoulders, often sing happy songs as they walk along together. They often sing in "parts," and the music Page 193produced by a tenor and a bass voice as they sing their parts in rhythm, and with very apparent appreciation of harmony, is fascinating and often very pleasing.
Dancing The Bontoc Igorot dances in a circle, and he follows the circle contraclockwise. There is no dancing without gang′-sa music, and it is seldom that a man dances unless he plays a gang′-sa. The dance step is slower than the beats on the gang′-sa; there is one complete "step" to every full 4/4 count. At times the "step" is simply a high-stepping slow run, really a springing prance. Again it is a hitching movement with both feet close to the earth, and one foot behind the other. The line of dancers, well shown in Pls. CXXXI, CLI, and CLII, passes slowly around the circle, now and again following the leader in a spiral movement toward the center of the circle and then uncoiling backward from the center to the path. Now and again the line moves rapidly for half the distance of the circumference, and then slowly backs a short distance, and again it all but stops while the men stoop forward and crouch stealthily along as though in ambush, creeping on an enemy.
In all this dancing there is perfect rhythm in music and movements. There is no singing or even talking—the dance is a serious but pleasurable pastime for those participating.
As is shown also by the illustrations, the women dance. They throw their blankets about them and extend their arms, usually clutching tobacco leaves in either hand—which are offerings to the old men and which some old man frequently passes among them and collects—and they dance with less movement of the feet than do the men. Generally the toes scarcely leave the earth, though a few of the older women invariably dance with a high movement and backward pawing of one foot which throws the dust and gravel over all behind them. I have more than once seen the dance circle a cloud of dust raised by one pawing woman, and


In the West Indies, the decayed leaves and stems of canes are called field trash; the bruised or macerated rind of canes is called cane trash; and both are called trash. B. Edwards.
3. A worthless person. [R.] Shak.
4. A collar, leash, or halter used to restrain a dog in pursuing game. Markham.
Trash ice, crumbled ice mixed with water.

 Trash, v. t. [imp. & p. p. Trashed (?); p. pr. & vb. n. Trashing.] 1. To free from trash, or worthless matter; hence, to lop; to crop, as to trash the rattoons of sugar cane. B. Edwards.
2. To treat as trash, or worthless matter; hence, to spurn, humiliate, or crush. [Obs.]

3. To hold back by a trash or leash, as a dog in pursuing game; hence, to retard, encumber, or restrain; to clog; to hinder vexatiously.
 [R.] Beau. & Fl.
 Trash, v. i. To follow with violence and trampling. [R.] The Puritan (1607).
 Trash"i*ly (?), adv. In a trashy manner.

 Trash"i*ness, n. The quality or state of being trashy.

 Trash"y (?), a. [Compar. Trashier (?); superl.
 Trashiest.] Like trash; containing much trash; waste; rejected; worthless; useless; as, a trashy novel.

 Trass (?), n. [D. tras or Gr. trass, probably fr. It.
 terrazzo terrace. See Terrace.] (Geol.) A white to gray volcanic tufa, formed of decomposed trachytic cinders; — sometimes used as a cement. Hence, a coarse sort of plaster or mortar, durable in water, and used to line cisterns and other reservoirs of water. [Formerly written also tarras, tarrace, terras.]

 The Dutch trass is made by burning and grinding a soft grayish rock found on the lower Rhine.

 Trau"lism (?), n. [Gr. &?; a lisping, fr. &?; to lisp, to mispronounce.] A stammering or stuttering. [Obs.] Dalgarno.
 Trau*mat"ic (?), a. [L. traumaticus, Gr. &?;, from &?;, &?;, a wound: cf. F. traumatique.] (Med.) (a) Of or pertaining to wounds; applied to wounds. Coxe. (b) Adapted to the cure of wounds; vulnerary. Wiseman. (c) Produced by wounds; as, traumatic tetanus. — n. A traumatic medicine.

 Trau"ma*tism (?), n. (Med.) A wound or injury directly produced by causes external to the body; also, violence producing a wound or injury; as, rupture of the stomach caused by traumatism.

 Traunce (?), n. & v. See Trance. [Obs.]

 Traunt (?), v. i. Same as Trant. [Obs.]

 Traunt"er (?), n. Same as Tranter. [Obs. or Prov. Eng.]

 Trav"ail (?; 48), n. [F. travail; cf. Pr. trabalh, trebalh, toil, torment, torture; probably from LL. trepalium a place where criminals are tortured, instrument of torture. But the French word may be akin to L. trabs a beam, or have been influenced by a derivative from trabs (cf. Trave). Cf. Travel.] 1. Labor with pain; severe toil or exertion.

 As everything of price, so this doth require travail.

Hooker.
2. Parturition; labor; as, an easy travail.

 Trav"ail, v. i. [imp. & p. p. Travailed (?); p. pr.
 & vb. n. Travailing.] [F. travailler, OF. traveillier, travaillier, to labor, toil, torment; cf. Pr. trebalhar to torment, agitate. See Travail, n.] 1. To labor with pain; to toil. [Archaic] "Slothful persons which will not travail for their livings." Latimer.
2. To suffer the pangs of childbirth; to be in labor.

 Trav"ail, v. t. To harass; to tire. [Obs.]

 As if all these troubles had not been sufficient to travail the realm, a great division fell among the nobility.

Hayward.
 Trav"ail*ous (?), a. Causing travail; laborious. [Obs.] Wyclif.
 — Trav"ail*ous*ly, adv. [Obs.] Wyclif.
 Trave (?), n. [Through French, fr. L. trabs, trabis, a beam; cf. OF. tref a beam, also F. travail a frame to confine a horse, OE. trave, trevys, travise, It. travaglio, F. travée the space between two beams.] 1. (Arch.)
 A crossbeam; a lay of joists. Maundrell.
2. A wooden frame to confine an unruly horse or ox while shoeing.

 She sprung as a colt doth in the trave.

Chaucer.
 Trav"el (?), v. i. [imp. & p. p. Traveled (?) or Travelled; p. pr. & vb. n. Traveling or Travelling.] [Properly, to labor, and the same word as travail.] 1. To labor; to travail. [Obsoles.] Hooker.
2. To go or march on foot; to walk; as, to travel over the city, or through the streets.

3. To pass by riding, or in any manner, to a distant place, or to many places; to journey; as, a man travels for his health; he is traveling in California.

4. To pass; to go; to move.

 Time travels in divers paces with divers persons.

Shak.
 Trav"el (?), v. t. 1. To journey over; to traverse; as, to travel the continent. "I travel this profound." Milton.
2. To force to journey. [R.]

 They shall not be traveled forth of their own franchises.

Spenser.
 Trav"el, n. 1. The act of traveling, or journeying from place to place; a journey.

 With long travel I am stiff and weary.

Shak.
 His travels ended at his country seat.

Dryden.
2. pl. An account, by a traveler, of occurrences and observations during a journey; as, a book of travels; — often used as the title of a book; as, Travels in Italy.

3. (Mach.) The length of stroke of a reciprocating piece; as, the travel of a slide valve.

4. Labor; parturition; travail. [Obs.]

 Trav"eled (?), a. Having made journeys; having gained knowledge or experience by traveling; hence, knowing; experienced. [Written also travelled.]

 The traveled thane, Athenian Aberdeen.

Byron.
 Trav"el*er (?), n. [Written also traveler.] 1. One who travels; one who has traveled much.

2. A commercial agent who travels for the purpose of receiving orders for merchants, making collections, etc.

3. (Mach.) A traveling crane. See under Crane.

4. (Spinning) The metal loop which travels around the ring surrounding the bobbin, in a ring spinner.

5. (Naut.) An iron encircling a rope, bar, spar, or the like, and sliding thereon.

Traveler's joy (Bot.), the Clematis vitalba, a climbing plant with white flowers. — Traveler's tree. (Bot.)
 See Ravenala.

 Trav"el-taint'


of the skin; the nerve-action being induced through the agency of the eye.

 The mechanism and the conditions for the change in colouration were made clear through the beautiful investigations of Keeble and Gamble, on the colour-change in crustaceans. According to these authors the pigment-cells can, as a rule, be considered as consisting of a central body from which a system of more or less complicated ramifications or processes spreads out in all directions. As a rule, the centre of the cell contains one or more different pigments which under the influence of nerves can spread out separately or together into the ramifications. These phenomena of spreading and retraction of the pigments into or from the ramifications of the pigment-cells form on the whole the basis for the colour changes under the influence of environment. Thus Keeble and Gamble observed that Macromysis flexuosa appears transparent and colourless or grey on sandy ground. On a dark ground their colour becomes darker. These animals have two pigments in their chromatophores, a brown pigment and a whitish or yellow pigment; the former is much more plentiful than the latter. When the animal appears transparent all the pigment is contained in the centre of the cells, while the ramifications are free from pigment. When the animal appears brown both pigments are spread out into the ramifications.
 In the condition of maximal spreading the animals appear black.

 This is a comparatively simple case. Much more complicated conditions were found by Keeble and Gamble in other crustaceans, e.g. in Hippolyte cranchii, but the influence of the surroundings upon the colouration of this form was also satisfactorily analysed by these authors.

 While many animals show transitory changes in colour under the influence of their surroundings, in a few cases permanent changes can be produced.
 The best examples of this are those which were observed by Poulton in the chrysalids of various butterflies, especially the small tortoise-shell.
 These experiments are so well known that a short reference to them will suffice. Poulton (Poulton, E.B., "Colours of Animals" (The International Scientific Series), London, 1890, page 121.) found that in gilt or white surroundings the pupae became light coloured and there was often an immense development of the golden spots, "so that in many cases the whole surface of the pupae glittered with an apparent metallic lustre. So remarkable was the appearance that a physicist to whom I showed the chrysalids, suggested that I had played a trick and had covered them with goldleaf." When black surroundings were used "the pupae were as a rule extremely dark, with only the smallest trace, and often no trace at all, of the golden spots which are so conspicuous in the lighter form." The susceptibility of the animal to this influence of its surroundings was found to be greatest during a definite period when the caterpillar undergoes the metamorphosis into the chrysalis stage. As far as the writer is aware, no physico-chemical explanation, except possibly Wiener's suggestion of colour-photography by mechanical colour adaptation, has ever been offered for the results of the type of those observed by Poulton.

 V. EFFECTS OF GRAVITATION.

 (a) EXPERIMENTS ON THE EGG OF THE FROG.

 Gravitation can only indirectly affect life-phenomena; namely, when we have in a cell two different non-miscible liquids (or a liquid and a solid) of different specific gravity, so that a change in the position of the cell or the organ may give results which can be traced to a change in the position of the two substances. This is very nicely illustrated by the frog's egg, which has two layers of very viscous protoplasm one of which is black and one white. The dark one occupies normally the upper position in the egg and may therefore be assumed to possess a smaller specific gravity than the white substance. When the egg is turned with the white pole upwards a tendency of the white protoplasm to flow down again manifests itself. It is, however, possible to prevent or retard this rotation of the highly viscous protoplasm, by compressing the eggs between horizontal glass plates. Such compression experiments may lead to rather interesting results, as O. Schultze first pointed out. Pflueger had already shown that the first plane of division in a fertilised frog's egg is vertical and Roux established the fact that the first plane of division is identical with the plane of symmetry of the later embryo. Schultze found that if the frog's egg is turned upside down at the time of its first division and kept in this abnormal position, through compression between two glass plates for about 20 hours, a small number of eggs may give rise to twins. It is possible, in this case, that the tendency of the black part of the egg to rotate upwards along the surface of the egg leads to a separation of its first cells, such a separation leading to the formation of twins.

 T.H. Morgan made an interesting additional observation. He destroyed one half of the egg after the first segmentation and found that the half which remained alive gave rise to only one half of an embryo, thus confirming an older observation of Roux. When, however, Morgan put the egg upside down after the destruction of one of the first two cells, and compressed the eggs between two glass plates, the surviving half of the egg gave rise to a perfect embryo of half size (and not to a half embryo of normal size as before.) Obviously in this case the tendency of the protoplasm to flow back to its normal position was partially successful and led to a partial or complete separation of the living from the dead half; whereby the former was enabled to form a whole embryo, which, of course, possessed only half the size of an embryo originating from a whole egg.

 (b) EXPERIMENTS ON HYDROIDS.

 A striking influence of gravitation can be observed in a hydroid, Antennularia antennina, from the bay of Naples. This hydroid consists of a long straight main stem which grows vertically upwards and which has at regular intervals very fine and short bristle-like lateral branches, on the upper side of which the polyps grow. The main stem is negatively geotropic, i.e. its apex continues to grow vertically upwards when we put it obliquely into the aquarium, while the roots grow vertically downwards.
 The writer observed that when the stem is put horizontally into the water the short lateral branches on the lower side give rise to an altogether different kind of organ, namely, to roots, and these roots grow indefinitely in length and attach themselves to solid bodies; while if the stem had remained in its normal position no further growth would have occurred in the lateral branches. From the upper side of the horizontal stem new stems grow out, mostly directly from the original stem, occasionally also from the short lateral branches. It is thus possible to force upon this hydroid an arrangement of organs which is altogether different from the hereditary arrangement. The writer had called the change in the hereditary arrangement of organs or the transformation of organs by external forces HETEROMORPHOSIS. We cannot now go any further into this subject, which should, however, prove of interest in relation to the problem of heredity.

 If it is correct to apply inferences drawn from the observation on the frog's egg to the behaviour of Antennularia, one might conclude that the cells of Antennularia also contain non-miscible substances of different specific gravity, and that wherever the specifically lighter substance comes in contact with the sea-water (or gets near the surface of the cell) the growth of a stem is favoured; while contact with the sea-water of the specifically heavier of the substances, will favour the formation of roots.

 VI. THE EXPERIMENTAL CONTROL OF ANIMAL INSTINCTS.

 (a) EXPERIMENTS ON THE MECHANISM OF HELIOTROPIC REACTIONS IN ANIMALS.

 Since the instinctive reactions of animals are as hereditary as their morphological character, a discussion of experiments on the physico-chemical character of the instinctive reactions of animals should not be entirely omitted from this sketch. It is obvious that such experiments must begin with the simplest type of instincts, if they are expected to lead to any results; and it is also obvious that only such animals must be selected for this purpose, the reactions of which are not complicated by associative memory, or, as it may preferably be termed, associative hysteresis.

 The simplest type of instincts


which immediately unite with other oxygen molecules on the surfaces of particles in the upper atmosphere. It is this union which forms ozone, or O3. The heat released by the ozone-forming process is the reason for the curious increase with altitude of the temperature of the stratosphere (the base of which is about 36,000 feet above the earth's surface).
While the natural chemical reaction produces about 4,500 tons of ozone per second in the stratosphere, this is offset by other natural chemical reactions which break down the ozone. By far the most significant involves nitric oxide (NO) which breaks ozone (O3) into molecules. This effect was discovered only in the last few years in studies of the environmental problems which might be encountered if large fleets of supersonic transport aircraft operate routinely in the lower stratosphere. According to a report by Dr. Harold S. Johnston, University of California at Berkeley--prepared for the Department of Transportation's Climatic Impact Assessment Program--it now appears that the NO reaction is normally responsible for 50 to 70 percent of the destruction of ozone.
In the natural environment, there is a variety of means for the production of NO and its transport into the stratosphere. Soil bacteria produce nitrous oxide (N2O) which enters the lower atmosphere and slowly diffuses into the stratosphere, where it reacts with free oxygen (O) to form two NO molecules. Another mechanism for NO production in the lower atmosphere may be lightning discharges, and while NO is quickly washed out of the lower atmosphere by rain, some of it may reach the stratosphere. Additional amounts of NO are produced directly in the stratosphere by cosmic rays from the sun and interstellar sources.
It is because of this catalytic role which nitric oxide plays in the destruction of ozone that it is important to consider the effects of high-yield nuclear explosions on the ozone layer. The nuclear fireball and the air entrained within it are subjected to great heat, followed by relatively rapid cooling. These conditions are ideal for the production of tremendous amounts of NO from the air. It has been estimated that as much as 5,000 tons of nitric oxide is produced for each megaton of nuclear explosive power.
What would be the effects of nitric oxides driven into the stratosphere by an all-out nuclear war, involving the detonation of 10,000 megatons of explosive force in the northern hemisphere? According to the recent National Academy of Sciences study, the nitric oxide produced by the weapons could reduce the ozone levels in the northern hemisphere by as much as 30 to 70 percent.
To begin with, a depleted ozone layer would reflect back to the earth's surface less heat than would normally be the case, thus causing a drop in temperature--perhaps enough to produce serious effects on agriculture. Other changes, such as increased amounts of dust or different vegetation, might subsequently reverse this drop in temperature--but on the other hand, it might increase it.
Probably more important, life on earth has largely evolved within the protective ozone shield and is presently adapted rather precisely to the amount of solar ultraviolet which does get through. To defend themselves against this low level of ultraviolet, evolved external shielding (feathers, fur, cuticular waxes on fruit), internal shielding (melanin pigment in human skin, flavenoids in plant tissue), avoidance strategies (plankton migration to greater depths in the daytime, shade-seeking by desert iguanas) and, in almost all organisms but placental mammals, elaborate mechanisms to repair photochemical damage.
It is possible, however, that a major increase in solar ultraviolet might overwhelm the defenses of some and perhaps many terrestrial life forms. Both direct and indirect damage would then occur among the bacteria, insects, plants, and other links in the ecosystems on which human well-being depends. This disruption, particularly if it occurred in the aftermath of a major war involving many other dislocations, could pose a serious additional threat to the recovery of postwar society. The National Academy of Sciences report concludes that in 20 years the ecological systems would have essentially recovered from the increase in ultraviolet radiation--though not necessarily from radioactivity or other damage in areas close to the war zone. However, a delayed effect of the increase in ultraviolet radiation would be an estimated 3 to 30 percent increase in skin cancer for 40 years in the Northern Hemisphere's mid-latitudes.
SOME CONCLUSIONS We have considered the problems of large-scale nuclear war from the standpoint of the countries not under direct attack, and the difficulties they might encounter in postwar recovery. It is true that most of the horror and tragedy of nuclear war would be visited on the populations subject to direct attack, who would doubtless have to cope with extreme and perhaps insuperable obstacles in seeking to reestablish their own societies. It is no less apparent, however, that other nations, including those remote from the combat, could suffer heavily because of damage to the global environment.
Finally, at least brief mention should be made of the global effects resulting from disruption of economic activities and communications.
Since 1970, an increasing fraction of the human race has been losing the battle for self-sufficiency in food, and must rely on heavy imports. A major disruption of agriculture and transportation in the grain-exporting and manufacturing countries could thus prove disastrous to countries importing food, farm machinery, and fertilizers--especially those which are already struggling with the threat of widespread starvation. Moreover, virtually every economic area, from food and medicines to fuel and growth engendering industries, the less-developed countries would find they could not rely on the "undamaged" remainder of the developed world for trade essentials: in the wake of a nuclear war the industrial powers directly involved would themselves have to compete for resources with those countries that today are described as "less-developed."
Similarly, the disruption of international communications--satellites, cables, and even high frequency radio links--could be a major obstacle to international recovery efforts.
In attempting to project the after-effects of a major nuclear war, we have considered separately the various kinds of damage that could occur. It is also quite possible, however, that interactions might take place among these effects, so that one type of damage would couple with another to produce new and unexpected hazards. For example, we can assess individually the consequences of heavy worldwide radiation fallout and increased solar ultraviolet, but we do not know whether the two acting together might significantly increase human, animal, or plant susceptibility to disease. We can conclude that massive dust injection into the stratosphere, even greater in scale than Krakatoa, is unlikely by itself to produce significant climatic and environmental change, but we cannot rule out interactions with other phenomena, such as ozone depletion, which might produce utterly unexpected results.
We have come to realize that nuclear weapons can be as unpredictable as they are deadly in their effects. Despite some 30 years of development and study, there is still much that we do not know. This is particularly true when we consider the global effects of a large-scale nuclear war.
Note 1: Nuclear Weapons Yield The most widely used standard for measuring the power of nuclear weapons is "yield," expressed as the quantity of chemical explosive (TNT) that would produce the same energy release. The first atomic weapon which leveled Hiroshima in 1945, had a yield of 13 kilotons; that is, the explosive power of 13,000 tons of TNT. (The largest conventional bomb dropped in World War II contained about 10 tons of TNT.)
Since Hiroshima, the yields or explosive power of nuclear weapons have vastly increased. The world's largest nuclear detonation, set off in 1962 by the Soviet Union, had a yield of 58 megatons--equivalent to 58 million tons of TNT. A modern ballistic missile may carry warhead yields up to 20 or more megatons.
Even the most violent wars of recent history have been relatively limited in terms of the total destructive power of the non-nuclear weapons used. A single aircraft or ballistic missile today can carry a nuclear explosive force surpassing that of all the non-nuclear bombs used in recent wars. The number of nuclear bombs and missiles the superpowers now possess runs into the thousands.
Note 2: Nuclear Weapons Design Nuclear weapons depend on two fundamentally different types of nuclear reactions, each of which releases energy


Minoan or Mycenean Linear B, Indus Valley script, Chinese, Mayan, Aztec, and others.
Ritual: a set form or system of rites, religious or otherwise.
Ralph Merrifield. The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic. London: B. T. Ratsford, 1987.
Catherine Bell. Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Rite: a ceremonial or formal, solemn act, observance, or procedure in accordance with prescribed rule or custom, as in religious use (cf. Webster's Unabridged Dictionary).
Roger Grainger. The Language of the Rite. London: Darton, Longman & Todd, 1974.
Mythe-rite-symbole: 21 essais d'anthropologie littéraire sur des textes de Homère. Angers: Presses de l'Université d'Angers, 1984.
Weltanschauung: one's philosophy or conception of the universe and of life (cf. Webster's Unabridged Dictionary). A particular philosophy or view of life; a conception of the world (cf. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English).
Francesco d'Errico. Paleolithic human calendars: a case of wishful thinking? in Current Anthropology, 30, 1989, pp.
117-118.
He regards petroglyphs were looked at as a possible mathematical conception of the cosmos, a numbering or even a calculation system, a rhythmical support for traditional recitation, a generic system of notation.
B.A. Frolov. Numbers in Paleolithic graphic art and the initial stages in the development of mathematics, in Soviet Anthropology and Archaeology, 16 (3-4), 1978, pp. 142-166.
A. Marshack. Upper paleolithic notation and symbol, in Science, 178: 817-28, 1972.
E.K.A. Tratman. Late Upper Paleolithic Calculator? Gough's Cave, Cheddar, Somerset, in Proceedings, University of Bristol, Speleological Society, 14(2), 1976, pp.115-122.
Iwar Werlen. Ritual und Sprache: Zum Verhältnis von Sprechen und Handeln in Ritualen. Tübingen: Narr Verlag, 1984.
Inner clock, or biological clock, defines the relation between a biological entity and the time-based phenomena in the environment. As with the so-called circadian cycles (circadian meaning almost the day and night cycle, circa diem), rhythms of existence persist even in the absence of external stimuli. The appearance, at least, is that of an inner clock.
The notion of genetic code describes a system by which DNA and RNA molecules carry genetic information. Particular sequences of genes in these molecules represent particular sequences of amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) and thereby embody instructions for making of different types of proteins. On the same subject, but obviously at a deeper level than a dictionary definition, is James D. Watson's celebrated book, The Double Helix: a personal account of the discovery of the structure of DNA. (A new critical edition, including text, commentary, reviews, original papers, edited by Gunther S. Stent). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981.
Homeostasis: the tendency towards a relatively stable equilibrium between interdependent elements of the human body.
Physiological processes leading to body equilibrium are interlocked in dynamic processes.
References to the oral phase of language in Claude Lévi-Strauss: La Pensée Sauvage (1962). Translated as The Savage Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966. Le Cru et le Cuit (1964) The Raw and the Cooked. Trans. John and Doreen Weightman. New York: Harper and Row, 1970.
Andrew and Susan Sherrat (quoted by Peter S. Bellwood, Op.cit): A distinction accepted is that between unvocalized (Hebrew, Arabic) and vocalized alphabets (starting with the Greek, in which the vowels are no longer omitted). Some languages use syllabaries, reuniting a consonant and a following vowel (such as in the Japanese Katakana: ka, ke, ki, ko, ku). When two different conventions are applied, the writing system is hybrid: the Korean language has a very powerful alphabet, hangul, but also uses Chinese characters, but pronouned in Korean. The hangul system (15th century) expressed, for Koreans, a desire for selfidentity.
Plato. Phaedrus, and The Seventh and Eighth Letters (translated from the Greek), with an introduction by Walter Hamilton.
Harmondsworth: Penguin Press, 1973.
In Phaedrus, Socrates, portrayed by Plato, articulates arguments against writing: "it will implant forgetfulness in their souls [of people, M.N.]; they will cease to exercise memory because they rely on that which is written, calling these things to remembrance no longer from within themselves, but by means of external marks; what you have discovered is a recipe [pharmakon, a potion; some translate it as recipe] not for memory, but for reminder" (274-278e).
Oraltity and Language Today: What Do People Understand When They Understand Language?
Ludwig Wittgenstein. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Translated by D.F. Pears and B.F. Guinness. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1961.
Amos Oz refers to self-constitution in language as follows: "…a language is never a'means' or a 'framework' or a'vehicle' for culture. It is culture. If you live in Hebrew, if you think, dream, make love in Hebrew, sing in Hebrew in the shower, tell lies in Hebrew, you are 'inside'. […] If a writer writes in Hebrew, even if he rewrites Dostoevksy or writes about a Tartar invasion of South America, Hebrew things will always happen in his stories. Things which are ours and which can only happen with us: certain rhythms, moods, combinations, associations, longings, connotations, atavistic attitudes towards the whole of creation, and so forth," (Under This Blazing Light, Cambridge, England: University Press, 1979, p. 189).
J. Lyons. Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Semantics requires that one "abstract from the user of the language and analyze only the expressions and their designata" (Vol. 1., p.115).
Noam Chomsky. The distinction between competence and performance in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1965. Many scholars noticed the dualism inherent in the Chomskyan theory. Competence is "the speakerhearer's knowledge of his language;" performance is "the actual use of language in concrete situations" (p.4).
Noam Chomsky started to formulate the idea of the innate constitution of a speaker's competence in the famous article A review of B.K. Skinner's Verbal Behavior in Language, 35 (1959), an idea he has developed through all his scholarly work. In the review, he considered the alternatives: language is learned (within Skinner's scheme of stimulus-response), or it is somehow innate. In Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1965), Reflections on Language (London: Fontana, 1976), and Rules and Representations (Oxford: Blackwell, 1980), the thought is constantly refined, though not necessarily more convincing (as his critics noticed).
Roman Jakobson. Essais de Linguistique Générale, Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1963.
Jakobson refused to ascertain any "private property" in the praxis of language. Everything in the domain of language "is socialized" (p. 33).
Feedback: "The property of being able to adjust future conduct by past performance" (Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings, p.47).
In 1981, Martin Gardner and Douglas Hoffstaedter shared a column in Scientific American, which Hoffstaedter called Metamagical Themes. In his first article, he defined self-reference: "It happens every time anyone says 'I' or'me' or 'word' or'speak' or'mouth


after a few years' service, as they are supposed to be exhausted, whereas fertilization would restore them.
Seed planting Pad-cho-kan′ is the name of the sementera used as a rice seed bed. One or more small groups of sementeras in every pueblo is so protected from the cold rains and winds of November and December and is so exposed to the warm sun that it answers well the purposes of a primitive hotbed; consequently it becomes such, and anyone who asks permission of the owner may plant his seed there (see Pl. LXV).
The seed is planted in the beds after they have been thoroughly worked and softened, the soil usually being turned three times.
The planting in Bontoc occurs the first part of November. November 15, 1902, the rice had burst its kernel and was above water in the Bontoc beds. The seed is not shelled before planting, but the full fruit heads, sĭn-lu′-wi, are laid, without covering, on the soft ooze, under 3 or 4 inches of water. They are laid in rows a few inches apart, and are so close together that by the time the young plants are 3 inches above the surface of the water the bed is a solid mass of green.
Bontoc pueblo has six varieties of rice. Neighboring pueblos have others; and it is probable that fifty, perhaps a hundred, varieties are Page 98grown by the different irrigating peoples of northern Luzon. In Bontoc, ti′-pa is a white beardless variety. Ga′-sang is white, and cha-yĕt′-ĭt is claimed to be the same grain, except it is dark colored; it is the rice from which the fermented beverage, tapui, is made. Pu-i-a-pu′-i and tu′-pĕng are also white; tu′-pĕng is sowed in unirrigated mountain sementeras in the rainy season. Gu-mĭk′-i is a dark grain.
Camotes, or to-ki′, are planted once in a long period in the sementeras surrounding the buildings in the pueblo. There is nothing to kill them, the ground has no other use, so they are practically perpetual.
The average size of all the eight varieties of Bontoc camotes is about 2 by 4 inches in diameter. Six of the varieties are white and two are red. The white ones are the following: Li-no′-ko, pa-to′-ki, ki′-nûb fa-fay′-i, pi-i-nĭt′, ki-wĕng′, and tang-tang-lab′. The red ones are si′-sĭg and pĭt-ti′-kan.
To illustrate the many varieties which may exist in a small area I give the names of five other camotes grown in the pueblo of Balili, which is only about four hours from Bontoc. The Balili white camotes are bi-tâk′-no, a-go-bang′-bang, and la-ung′-an and the red are gĭs-gĭs′-i and ta-mo′-lo.
Millet, called "sa′-fug," is sowed on the surface of the earth. The sowing is "broadcast," but in a limited way, as the fields are usually only a few rods square. The seed is generally sowed by women, who carry a small basket or dish of it in one hand and scatter the seed from between the thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the free hand.
There are said to be four varieties of millet in Bontoc. Mo-di′ and poy-nĕd′ are light-colored seeds; pi-tĭng′-an is a darker seed—the Igorot says "black;" and si-nang′-a is the fourth. I have never seen it but I am told it is white.
Maize, or pi′-ki, and beans, practically the only other seeds planted, are planted annually in "hills." The rows of "hills" are quite irregular. Maize, as is also millet, is planted immediately after the first abundant rains, occurring early in April.
The Bontoc man has three varieties of beans. One is called ka′-lap; the kernel is small, being only one-fifth of an inch long. Usually it is pale green in color, though a few are black; both have an exterior white germ. I′-tab is about one-third of an inch long. It is both gray and black in color, and has a long exterior white germ. The third variety is black with an exterior white germ. It is called ba-la′-tong, and is about one-fourth of an inch in length.
Transplanting Transplanting is always the work of women, since they are recognized as quicker and more dexterous in most work with the hands than are the men.
Page 99 The women pull up the young rice plants in the seed beds and tie them in bunches about 4 inches in diameter. They transport them by basket to the newly prepared sementera and dump them in the water so they will remain fresh.
As has been said, the manure fertilizer is placed about the sementera in piles. The women thoroughly spread this fertilizer with their hands and feet when they transplant (see Pl. LIX). When the soil is ready the transplanter grasps a handful of the plants, twists off 3 or 4 inches of the blades, leaving the plant about 6 inches long, and, while holding the plants in one hand, with the other she rapidly thrusts them one by one into the soft bed. They are placed in fairly regular rows, and are about 5 inches apart. The planter leans enthusiastically over her work, usually resting one elbow on her knee—the left elbow, since most of the women are right-handed—and she sets from forty to sixty plants per minute.
When the sementeras are planted they present a clean and beautiful appearance—even the tips of the rice blades twisted off are invariably crowded into the muddy bed to assist in fattening the crop.
As many as a dozen women often work together in one sementera to hasten the planting. There are usually two or three little girls with their mothers, who while away the hours playing work. They stuff up the chinks of the stone walls with dirt and vegetable matter; they carry together the few camotes discovered in this last handling of the old camote bed; and they quite successfully and industriously play at transplanting rice, though such small girls are not obliged to work in the field.
Camotes are also transplanted. The women cut or pick off the "runners" from the perpetual vines in the sementeras near the dwellings. These they transplant in the unirrigated mountain sementeras after the crops of millet and maize have been gathered.
The irrigated sementeras are also planted to camotes by transplanting from these house beds. This transplanting lasts about six weeks in Bontoc, beginning near the middle of July.
Some little sugar cane is grown by the Igorot of the Bontoc area. It is claimed to grow up each year from the roots left at the preceding harvest. At times new patches of cane are started by transplanting shoots from the parent plants. It is said that in January the stalks are cut and set in a rich mud, and that in the season of Baliling, from about July 15 until early in September, the rooted shoots are transplanted to the new beds.
Cultivating The chief cultivation given to Igorot crops is bestowed on rice, though all cultivated lands are remarkably free from weeds.
The rice sementeras are carefully weeded, "suckers" are pulled out, and the beds are Page 100thinned generally, so that each plant will have all needful chance to develop fruit. This weeding and thinning is the work of women and half-grown children. Every day for nearly two months, or until the fruit heads appear, the cultivators are diligently at work in the sementeras. No tools or agricultural implements other than bare hands are used in this work.
The men keep constant watch of the sementera walls and the irrigating canals, repairing all, thus indirectly assisting the women in their cultivation by directing water to the growing crop and by conserving it when it is obtained.
Protecting The rice begins to fruit early in April, at which time systematic effort to protect the new grain from birds, rats, monkeys, and wild hogs commences. This effort continues until the harvest is completed, practically for three months. Much of this labor is performed by water power, much by wind power, and about all the children and old people in a pueblo are busied from early dawn until twilight in the sementera as independent guards. Besides, throughout the long night men and women build fires among the sementeras and guard their crop from the wild