Network Coding Master Thesis - …
Next, we perform extensive simulation study to evaluate the ad-vantage of network coding over the traditional approaches.
Network Coding Phd Thesis | Term paper for me
EECS Professors Dina Katabi and Muriel Medard have teamed to establish a new field (network coding). Read about how Medard's initial paper written ten years ago established network coding and a following paper by Medard and Katabi presented in 2006 built the means for implementation. Both papers have been cited by the IEEE in 2009 - the first for its seminal contributions to the field that’s come to be known as “network coding,” and the second for presenting the first implementation of the new field. by Larry Hardesty titled "Rethinking networking. MIT researchers helped develop a theory that promised much more efficient data networks; then they were the first to put it into practice," reprinted below in its entirety. This is the second article in a two-part series on MIT contributions to the fledgling field of network coding ().
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are rapidly being adopted in a wide range of applications and soon will have a major environmental, financial and societal impact. Some of the main technical challenges in designing and deploying WSNs are meeting their communications reliability and energy consumption requirements. In order to address these two challenges, the thesis proposes new coding schemes and communication protocols, a novel paradigm for information acquisition, and the design and implementation of specific circuits architectures.
Network Coding Master Thesis | Buy capstone project | …
In experiments, the coding scheme significantly increased the amount of data that the network could carry without requiring any more bandwidth. Although the precise figure varied according to the number of wireless devices accessing the network, which of them were sending information to which others, and the amount of interference they encountered, “in general,” Katabi says, “you can see, let’s say, threefold improvements.”
The researchers blanketed two floors of the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Lab with wireless routers programmed to execute their network coding scheme. They then used wireless devices to exchange test data over the network. Like all information sent over modern networks, the test data were broken up into smaller “packets” of information for transmission. And as is typical with most wireless networks, electromagnetic interference, physical obstacles, and sheer distance from the wireless devices meant that no one router received all the packets.
Network coding for error correction - CaltechTHESIS
In particular, it is shown that in networks with both random packet erasures and errors, increasing the relative occurrence of erasures compared to errors favors network coding over forwarding at network nodes, and vice versa.
Indeed, Katabi has found a way to make networks even more efficient by exploiting the physical characteristics of actual wireless channels. In the network described in the award-winning paper, wireless routers received electromagnetic signals, translated them into bits, mixed the bits together, and then translated the bits back into electromagnetic signals. But signals sent from different transmitters naturally blend together physically. That blending is usually a nuisance: the signals have to be separated before data can be extracted from them. But Katabi built another experimental wireless network in which routers don’t disentangle blended signals; they just amplify and forward them. It turns out that the network coding techniques that work at the level of the bit can be extended to reconstruct the original signals, without lots of intermediate translations.
In this thesis, we consider secret sharing schemes and network coding
OMNET++ NETWORK THESIS CODING | Omnet simulator
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Phd Thesis Network Coding - …
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Network Coding Master Thesis - 596416 - GAFC
Our results show that while network coding shows upto 2.43% improvement onunconstrained rectilinear grids, it shows upto 4.34% improvement in cases with con-straints along the grid.
Physical Layer Network Coding Thesis Paper
It was a good test to attempt. But Messrs Foote and Goetz have inspected the authors' computer code and found the controls missing. In other words, Messrs Donohue and Levitt did not run the test they thought they had—an “inadvertent but serious computer programming error”, according to Messrs Foote and Goetz
Mla Cover Page Thesis - Thesis Network Coding
The reliability and energy efficiency trade-offs of splitting the inserted redundancy in multiple layers of the network stack are investigated through analysis and over-the-air experiments. The energy benefits of each approach are quantified by designing a low-power custom transmitter using a 65nm TSMC process, integrating the first hardware implementation of a multi-rate forward error correction (FEC) and random linear network coding (RLNC) accelerator. In addition, a physical layer (PHY) independent partial packet reception scheme is proposed for asymmetric networks, i.e. WSNs with star topology, called packetized rateless algebraic consistency (PRAC). Experiments with off-the-shelf transceivers validate our analysis results on the data reliability and energy consumption benefits of the proposed scheme.
7 Rules You Must Violate to Finish Writing Your Thesis
Finally, we evaluate the potential benefits from network coding in practicalsettings by analyzing its performance on the International Symposium on PhysicalDesign (ISPD) benchmarks.
Microsoft: Access Modules (VBA Coding) Forum
Last year, the paper in which the researchers presented their findings received an award from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), which recognized its seminal contributions to the field that’s come to be known as “network coding.” But the same year, the IEEE honored another network-coding paper, in which MIT researchers played the leading role: the paper that, in 2006, presented the first practical implementation of network coding. [This paper, titled "XORs in The Air: Practical Wireless Network Coding" is ].
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The MINI HDMI to AV signal converter which will convert HDMI video signal or audio signal to AV(CVBS)composite video signal and the FL/FR stereo audio signals, while support DVI system sideline signals.
No need to install drivers, portable,flexible, plug and play
Low power, no need power supply
Output the audio synchronization with video
High bandwidth capability support 1920x1080@60Hz
Compatible HDMI 1.3
Input ports: HDMI type female
Resolution Support: 640x480@60Hz,800x600@60Hz,1024x768@60Hz,1280x720@60Hz,1280x1024@60Hz, 1360x768@60Hz, 1600x1200@60Hz,1920x1080@60Hz.180i/60Hz,480p/60Hz,576i/60Hz,576p/60Hz,720p50/60Hz,1080I50/60Hz,1080p/60Hz
CVBS output: PAL, NTSC_M,and NTSC_J
Output ports: AV RCA
Dimensions: Approx. 66 x 55 x 20mm
HD camera, HD DVD, Projection.
Output ports: 1x RCA (Yellow,White,Red)
Input ports: 1x HDMI


If you’ve ever called a service hotline, you’ve probably experienced an Interactive Voice Response (IVR) system. In the meantime, these systems are no longer controlled by keypad alone. Natural Language Processing (NLP) integration is also being used to enhance IVR systems.
VUI reinvents IVR. The ease of speech recognition leads to a better level of understanding and interaction for their customers. Many of the best-known vendors rely on voice control integration. This turns a call with a voicebot into a “real” conversation. Thanks to IVR analysis software, recurring business transactions are automated and problems with voice response systems are analyzed. This promotes customer service optimization. Thus, you save money and bring customer satisfaction to a new level.
We support you in the design and development of the user interface and in the technical implementation of a proficient voicebot in your service center.


In this section you will find Emergency Contact Information, Announcements, Alerts, State Emergency Operations Center (SEOC) Activations, Briefings, and Publications.
The MEMA newsroom delivers the latest breaking news and information on the latest Emergency and Non-Emergency stories, weather, conditions and more.
Email, phone and website for local Emergency Centers during Emergencies
The National Terrorism Advisory System, or NTAS, replaces the color-coded Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS). This new system will more effectively communicate information about terrorist threats by providing timely, detailed information to the public, government agencies, first responders, airports and other transportation hubs, and the private sector.
Emergency Alert System - allows alerts and warnings to be broadcasted even if the participating radio station is unmanned after certain hours. The Emergency Alert System (EAS), is a national system in the U.S. put into place in 1997, superseding the Emergency Broadcast System and administered by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). The EAS covers both radio and television (including low-power stations), and cable television companies.


This compact and robust LoRa® base station (gateway) is ideal for all your projects deployments. Its smart form factor makes it easy to install anywhere, its thoughtful design and quality materials make it very robust and resistant to the most aggressive environments. The embedded software is reliable, secure and intuitive to use via its modern and clear web interface.
The LORIX Operating System is a stable, secure and reliable system built especially for the LORIX.
LORIX OS provides intuitive ways for you to install, maintain and monitor your gateway simply and efficiently.
- Secure, reliable and transparent remote system update
- Reactive web interface for smartphone, tablet and desktop
- Free choice and configuration of LoRa cloud
- Advanced LoRa forwarder management and monitoring
- Performance and diagnostic tools
The structure, tools and documentation of LORIX OS is designed and built to help integrators to make the gateway part of their solution in a reliable and lasting way.
- Easy and secure integration and automation via the HTTP REST API using OpenAPI specifications
- Full access to the system configuration and tools through SSH
- Standard and recognized embedded tools
- Complete ARM® toolchain for compiling additional applications
The open and standardized build system of LORIX OS allows you to adapt the result at all levels to fit your needs.
- Fully open and customizable build system to generate your own system image
- Ability to integrate your own applications and tools into the image to create custom gateways
- Intelligent construction using Yocto Project that allows you to maintain your long-term business without wasting time
Available packet forwarder
Two version available depending your regional needs.
863-870 MHz version
- 8 channels, 49 demodulators @ 863-870MHz
- RX Sensitivity: -140dBm
- TX Power: 27dBm
902-928 MHz version
- AU915 (Subbands 1-8)
- US915 (Subbands 1-8)
- 8 channels, 49 demodulators @ 902-928MHz
- RX Sensitivity: -135dBm
- TX Power: 27dBm
Ethernet 10/100Mbps with passive PoE 24VDC
Permits to bring power and data with only one cable
SD-CARD Slot to extend/replace the internal flash
USB connector providing serial interface to manage/update the gateway
ARM® Cortex-A5 600MHz
128MBytes DDR2 200MHZ
HW < 1.0d : 256MBytes flash with PMECC
HW > 1.0d2 : 512MBytes flash with PMECC
PoE 24V passive
Operating ambient temperature
-30 à +55°C
Indoor antenna 2 dBi (only for version EU868)
Indoor 210mm (8,27 inches) inclinable antenna @ 2 dBi (only for EU868 version)
Outdoor antenna 3 dBi
Outdoor 280mm (11,02 inches) IP65 antenna @ 3 dBi
Outdoor antenna 5 dBi
Outdoor 500mm (19,69 inches) IP65 antenna @ 5 dBi
The IP65 protection can be easily converted to IP43 if required. To do so, simply drill the three pre-drilled holes under the cap.


How To Make Non Bluetooth Speakers
Right click on the dfu.ini file and select Install. There are some corrupted system logitech m310 driver files on the computer, preventing the Bluetooth adapter from being enabled and working properly.
Luckily, Bluetooth Driver Installer makes it possible to prevent this by changing your network settings with minimal interference with the functions of your device. If you are constantly fiddling with the Bluetooth driver, you should make an attempt to check as well start Bluetooth services. Now press on the Bluetooth icon located on the taskbar to see all available Bluetooth Devices.
You can access Device Manger via the Control Panel window. Bluetooth Device Driversare operating system and device specific. In other words, for the sameBluetooth Device, you are likely to require a differentDriver for Windows 10, Windows 8 or Windows 7to the Driver you would need forWindows XP.
For details, refer to the user manual of your computer. Once you see your driver, right-click on it and click on Update driver option.
Permission is granted to use this software for personal and commercial purposes. Owners of bluetooth related resources are welcome to add their links.
While Bluetooth connectivity is widely available in new cars, it’s easy to add at least some level of the same functionality to any car with any head unit. Depending on the route you go, you may be able to gain access to useful features such as hands-free calling or music streaming. You may even be able to control your car radio using your smartphone.
- There is no doubt you will enjoy owning one as it delivers on some powerful features.
- This one comes with the reliable 4.0 Bluetooth technology.
- It should now be possible to connect it with the other devices with so much ease.
- The model also offers backward compatibility for devices with older Bluetooth versions.
Does wireless and Bluetooth mean the same thing?
Bluetooth and WiFi are both wireless technologies for connecting your devices, but they are quite different. While WiFi is mainly used to connect your devices to the internet, Bluetooth is only used to connect your devices to each other.
It even creates the restore point without any extra effort on your behalf. The downside to this sharing is that your device becomes discoverable, too.
This is where you can view general information about your device. Many if not most if not all Samsung Smart TVs have a hidden menu where you may be able to enable Bluetooth headphones. With the TV off, click Mute TV in rapid succession. If you do it quickly enough, it should open to a double-secret configuration menu, where you have to enable Bluetooth support twice. This might not work as the TV might not recognize the dongle and switch audio to it.
You will need to alter the TV’s audio settings to direct the audio to the TV’s external RCA audio ports, away from the internal TV speakers. If your TV has a headphone socket an option to consider is connecting a BT dongle to the headphone socket and then pair your BT headphones to it . Take note of the sentence which reads "This function may not be supported depending on the model or geographical area." According to your TV’s User Guide, the TV has NO Bluetooth capability which would allow you to connect your earbuds.
allow the Command Prompt to make changes on your device. This means that you might need an administrator account. If Bluetooth is already enabled on your device, you might also try to restart it in order to get it to work properly. This can be done by following the next steps as well. Microsoft Edge comes pre-installed on every Windows 10 device, allowing you to browse the internet immediately.
Does all LG Smart TV have Bluetooth?
Share the apps and content from a mobile device up on the TV screen quickly and easily. LG Smart TV with Magic Mobile offers convenient ways to link compatible smartphones, tablets and more to the television using Bluetooth and Miracast™. Built-in Wi-Fi enables simple wireless video streaming.


Digital Advertising Network
This digital advertising network combines computers, the internet, television broadcast and display screens into a powerful, cost-effective, targeted, high impact advertising medium. Using the Internet from a centralized location, customized real time-sensitive information, video and advertising can be integrated with live television broadcast and delivered to a large network of plasma/LCD screens and televisions at any venue location in the world at any time.
This combination is part of a new, powerful and emerging medium. Its properties are unlike traditional and established media such as print, television or radio. Critical to the success of any implementation is the set of expertise drawn from various disciplines including marketing, advertising, project management, graphic arts, computers, broadcast engineering, internet and network management. For all but a few large businesses, this multi-disciplinary expertise requirement represents an implementation barrier.
The Venue Channel has developed an innovative business model to install at Canadian and International Airport Terminals, Sports Venues, Hotels, Franchise Restaurants and Hospitals. This advertising medium will be affordable to all businesses large or small. The Venue Channel offers its technical expertise, sales management, and graphic design solutions to businesses who wish to adopt this advertising technology medium for targeted communications.
From an advertiser's perspective, this technology offers exciting new opportunities for them to communicate more effectively. Advertisers can now manage this new medium using a business model similar to television. They now have another medium to deliver high impact targeted messages to audiences in real-time that automatically vary with time, season, geography, demographic or other promotional campaigns characteristics.
The Venue Channel's licensed software is used to create, schedule, manage, distribute and play media content on a network of display screens from a single server. The technology provides a reliable method to deliver cost-effective, high impact advertising that is integrated with live Television Network Broadcast.
The content management system includes a secure, personalized web-based Ad Approval System that can be accessed anywhere in the world using the internet. Advertisers and Media Buyers can log on and approve finished ads for distribution and playback. One of the unique features of the Ad Approval System is that Advertisers can view their ads running with full animation within the actual venue display screen environment.


The Internet of Things – it’s everywhere, it’s huge, and it’s kind of a big deal… which is exactly why defining “it” is so difficult. The purpose of this article is to showcase IoT applications, both currently in use and in development. I feel that a better understanding of how IoT connects not only our devices, but our lives, will answer most questions people have about what the Internet of Things actually is.
Many times people unnecessarily complicate the topic of IoT by segmenting applications or use cases into sectors, such as IoT for automotive, energy, healthcare, manufacturing, retail, smart homes and smart cities, agriculture, construction, mining, transportation, and even sports & fitness. I’ve gone against the grain in this post by aggregating applications together into a single list. Why? Because I feel that a macro view of IoT is the most beneficial approach to understanding what opportunities IoT disruptions bring for advantageous capital allocation… as in, “How can I make money from all this stuff?”
Check out the following list of interesting IoT applications!
Aerospace companies have mainly introduced IIoT solutions on the factory floor for tracking tools and parts, with some beginning to expand the number of on-board IoT devices. An airplane that knows when it’s going to encounter maintenance problems before they actually happen would save a significant amount of man-hours and money for airlines. The widespread usage of analytics programs that have the ability to monitor aircraft proactively not only improves turnaround times for airlines but also helps meet customer needs more effectively.
IoT is making self-driving and connected cars a reality. Automotive industry leaders such as BMW, Ford and GM and newer entrants in the auto space like Google, Local Motors and Uber are announcing and deploying innovative technologies to support connected car platforms. These automotive IoT initiatives promise to save lives, reduce pollution and commute hassles and simplify transportation for millions around the globe.
Rail is another area of high upside for the Internet of Things. For example, the latest GE Evolution Series Tier 4 Locomotive is loaded with 250 sensors to measure a staggering 150,000 data points per minute. This data, combined with other incoming data streams from environmental and operating systems, along with analytics, helps anticipate events that might impact several critical areas such as safety, on time performance, equipment uptime and longevity.
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), or drones, have quickly become one of the most talked about products in the tech space, thanks to their many useful applications. In the near future these machines could play a significant part in the IIoT by acting as either a sensor or by providing a connection between sensors and data collection points.
Drones may not yet be seen as a fully fledged connected IIoT device, but they can carry all range of sensors and are autonomous machines capable of gathering massive amounts of valuable data. Construction companies can use drones to undertake daily land surveys and feed this data into software to ensure construction is on schedule and send an alert if anything looks out of place or improperly built. But drones are no mere data collectors, with the devices potentially being able to quickly act on the data they collect and communicate with other drones in the IIoT to work together to overcome problems.
Energy companies can expect to see their operations fundamentally altered when IoT is fully embraced in their sector. Spikes in energy consumption around major TV broadcasts and weather events have long troubled utility firms. But with effective energy demand management through the IIoT, the need for investment in both energy networks and power plants is reduced.
Smart meters are one example of the industry’s move towards IoT technologies, although at the moment they only record usage amounts and timings. Utility firms could potentially provide price information to these meters, which could in turn interact with other IoT devices to use energy at the most efficient time. New oil and gas pipelines are fitted with sensors that detect leaks and alert repair teams, so issues are fixed before they can cause problems and the number of blackouts and brownouts are kept to a minimum. Any improvements the IoT can achieve in energy supply management will become increasingly valuable as utility companies look for the most effective ways to deal with multiple energy sources in a decentralized network (the blockchain).
The industrial internet, also called Industrial Internet of Things, or IIoT, is a special Internet of Things applications. Many market researches such as Gartner and Cisco see the industrial internet as the IoT concept with the highest overall potential.
Smart cities have real, substantial solutions for complications that arise due to population surges, pollution, poor infrastructure and energy supply shortages. The “Smart city” is a large topic spanning a wide variety of use cases:
- Traffic management and monitoring
- Water distribution and security management
- Waste management
- Urban security
- Environmental monitoring
- Smart surveillance
- Safer and automated transportation
- Smarter energy management systems
- Smart Parking
- Structural health monitoring
- Sound monitoring
- Smartphone detection
- Smart lighting
- Smart roads
- Fire detection
- Air quality control
- Earthquake early detection
- Pollution level monitoring
- Security and emergency control
The concept of tiny sensors the size of a grain of sand, with the ability to detect everything from chemicals to vibrations, was first thought up in the early-1990s, but little progress was made in the following years turning this intriguing idea into a reality. However, interest in this nascent technology has grown recently, with research firm Gartner predicting smart dust will trend in the next five to ten years. Applications of these connected smart dust particles in the IIoT are virtually endless, from oil exploration companies spreading smart dust to monitor rock movements to small sensors all over factory equipment continually looking out for changes and problems.
Smart grids and Smart metering
A future smart grid promises to use information about the behaviors of electricity suppliers and consumers in an automated fashion to improve the efficiency, reliability, and economics of electricity.
Smart healthcare is also called Connected Health, Digital health, Telehealth, and Telemedicine. Oh yeah, people also throw Medtech in there. The concept of a connected health care system and smart medical devices bears enormous potential, not just for companies, but also for the well-being of people in general. Ever heard of Ingestible Sensors? These are pill-sized sensors which measure if patients are taking prescribed medications or not. Upon swallowing, these sensors get activated and start gathering the data. If the patient forgets to take medication or takes incorrect medication, the sensors automatically send a message to a family member’s or caregiver’s smartphone. It’s the beginning of Big Brother…
A smart home is one in which devices have the capability to communicate with each other, as well as with their environment and the Internet. Smart homes enable owners to customize and control their home environments for increased security and efficient energy management. There are already hundreds of IoT technologies available to monitor and build smart homes.
The potential of IoT in the retail sector is enormous. Imagine if your home appliances could notify you when supplies are short and order them all on their own. This proximity-based advertising model of smart retailing is becoming a reality. We already have Internet of Things application examples through smart supply chains. Applications for tracking goods, real-time inventory information exchange among suppliers and retailers, and automated delivery capabilities exist and new growth areas are emerging quickly. Other smart retail use cases include:
- NFC payments
- Intelligent shopping applications
- Smart product management
Smart supply chain
Solutions for tracking goods while they are on the road, or getting suppliers to exchange inventory information have been on the market for years. This isn’t the exciting part of IoT, but interesting use cases include:
- Shipment quality control
- Item GPS
- Storage incompatibility detection
- Fleet tracking
Wearable IoT tech is a very large domain consisting of many devices, broadly covering fitness, health and entertainment arenas. The primary prerequisites for wearable IoT technology are that sensors or devices are highly energy-efficient, ultra-low power, and small-sized.
Thanks for reading!
Lightning Network tipping jar:


Today, with hyper connection, our dependence on the Internet is greater than ever. We depend on him for work, communication, entertainment and much more. But with this addiction comes anxiety— security. How can we be sure that our confidential information remains safe? The answer lies in the use of network scanners, tools that play an important role in protecting your data.
A network protocol analyzer, often called a packet analyzer, is a specialized tool that analyzes and interprets data packets passing through your network. This addition to your network security arsenal allows you to deeply study the smallest details of your network traffic. By examining packet headers and payload, the protocol analyzer can identify not only security threats, but also performance bottlenecks and network inefficiency. It can detect whether any unauthorized or malicious activity is hiding in network traffic, which makes it an invaluable tool for taking proactive security measures. You can always find the right tool in the open access Internet. At the beginning of my work, I used the Wireshark tool. Now I use completely different tools. I will tell you about this in a separate article…
Let’s take a closer look at how these scanners work to protect your information:
- Monitoring and analysis
The network scanner continuously monitors traffic entering and exiting your network. This observation extends to various parameters, such as data volume, source, destination, and types of services used.
- Identification of anomalies
One of the main tasks of the scanner is to detect anomalies. Any deviation from the normal patterns of network behavior is alarming. For example, if there is an unexpected spike in data traffic or if an unauthorized device tries to access your network, that is, the scanner will immediately warn you about it.
- Security protocols and authentication
Network scanners also ensure that proper security protocols are in place. They check whether encryption methods are used to protect your wireless network. In addition, they help in authenticating users and devices trying to connect.
- Wi-Fi analysis app
The Wi-Fi analyzer application is a subset of network scanners focused on wireless networks. They give an idea of the performance and security of your Wi-Fi setup. These tools will help you identify dead zones, as well as optimize the signal strength and detect unauthorized devices trying to connect to your network.
- Website Analyzer and IP address puller for PC
For those who strive for even more complete security, a website analyzer and IP address removal tools will come to the rescue. These tools carefully monitor website traffic and IP addresses (Internet Protocol addresses) that access your network. They can identify suspicious or potentially dangerous websites and devices.
- Troubleshooting the network
Network scanners are not just for security purposes; they also play a role in network troubleshooting. When a problem occurs, these tools help identify the source of the problem, whether it’s a faulty router, an overload, or an unauthorized intrusion.
The right choice of equipment
Choosing the right network scanner or Wi-Fi analyzer is essential for effective protection. Investing in a quality scanner that meets your specific needs, whether you are a home user or running a business network. For example, a wireless router or Wi-Fi extender for Xfinity must be compatible with the scanner of your choice to ensure seamless integration.


The best option for group organization communication over the phone is a conference call. It is the cheapest, most effective, and most straightforward way to get a team together.
This is more important than ever due to the global epidemic. This helps to communicate collaboratively quickly and easily. Service business organizations will improve communication.
Communicating with team members and getting the job done on time is a rapid and efficient method. Below are the best free conference call services currently available in the world. Free conference call limits are not limited.
BEST CONFERENCE CALL SERVICE FREE 2021
6. Google Hangouts
It offers a free plan that can allow you to collaborate with up to 3 clients and colleagues. It has three pricing plans. However, there are also monthly billing plans. The unique feature of this service that it allows you to schedule meetings from any device at any time, from anywhere. It works well with Microsoft Office, email, and instant-messaging tools. No code or PIN is required to connect to the call. The most significant disadvantage here is that, according to reviews, there is a lack of advanced meeting options.
It also offers the best price plan for small to large businesses and freelancers. It also provides a business plan that costs $ 15 per user per month. UberConference conference calls require a rich interface.
It offers free conference call services. It provides you with document sharing, free call recording, analytics. It allows you to select retention music here. The downside here is that it does not support video.
FreeConference.com offers free unlimited conference calls. FreeConference.com is the best service for free conference calls, online meetings, and collaborations. It provides HD audio, video, and screen. The disadvantage is that the free version only allows online sessions for 5 participants.
FreeConferenceCall.com is the best solution for free web conferences. There are two other plans for it. That is business and entrepreneurship. It offers a wide range of audio panels, online meetings, meeting walls, video conferencing, and screen sharing. The downside here is that, according to reviews, it has limited online storage for video or audio call recordings.
This service is free and can only be charged for local, long-distance charges. The downside here is that, according to reviews, the video quality is not so good.
Google Hangouts is completely free. The downside here is that you must have a Google account. This is what most users use. It provides the customer with features for messaging, video chat, and VoIP.
Allows you to use Skype utterly free of charge. Skype offers you two options, monthly subscription plans, and payments. The downside here is that it requires the internet to work.
Talkbox is the primary tool for sending video, voice and messaging messages. You can always use it as a desktop, mobile or web-based tool.
An online telephone system for your business to obtain phone number catalogs from more than 60 countries, and you can use this software to make and receive calls using a web browser or a desktop.
By this, you can organize your team into a group-based role, Support extension dialing; Then you can plug your IP phones into an internet connection and make a call; it provides a virtual receptionist that intelligently routes your call.
All these free web conference call functions perform many of the most valuable functions


Chapter 5. Examining IOS
Network engineers and administrators do more looking around than configuring on an IOS-based router. We are going to cover some of the things that are useful to look at on a new router and some of the things that are useful to look at regularly on a production router. Some of the things we need to know about a router are as follows:
All of these items can be found by using one of the most used commands in the IOS, the show command. The show command is used to look at IOS stuff, and it can be issued in either user mode or privileged mode. The output of each show command used in this chapter is accompanied by a brief description of its contents. From user mode, we can look at just about anything on the router except the configuration files.
The IOS examination in the chapter will, for the most part, be independent of the routed and routing protocols. The examination of protocol dependent details will be covered in the protocol configuration chapters.
The user mode command show version gives us information about the general configuration of the router. Figure 5-1 has the output generated by the show version command on our test 2520 router Dallas.
<<<Figure 5-1 Show Version Output on 2520>>>
You should output similar to this from Section 3.4.2. IOS sends this type of system information out the console port when a router boots. On Line 3, there is the router's IOS version, 11.3(5). On Line 5, we see who compiled the image and when; this may not be of immediate interest to you, but is may be of interest to the Cisco Technical Assistance Center (TAC) if you ever have a very weird problem. Lines 8 and 9 show the bootstrap software version, 11.0(10c), stored in both ROM and boot flash.
Figure 5-1, Lines 11 through 13, tells us the router was booted 4 hours 18 minutes ago because someone issued the privileged mode command reload. At that time, the IOS image named c2500-js-l.113-5 was loaded from system flash.
((Mention the other possible things other than reload (power-on, crash). Show time from last boot.)
Knowing when a router last booted and what initiated the boot is important. If the router had been power cycled, Line 12 would have looked like this.
System restarted by power-on
If the router had crashed (It happens.), Line 12 would have looked something like this.
System restarted by bus error at PC 0x384B3DE, address 0xD0D0D0D
Line 15 shows that the router is a 2520, and it has 8 MB of RAM. The 8 MB is the sum of the valued 6144 KB and 2048 KB. On a 2500-series router, the RAM is divided into system RAM, for IOS system functions and tables, and shared RAM, for Input/Output (I/O) operations.
Figure 5-1, Lines 22 through 27, tell us about the physical configuration of the router. Lines 22 through 25 show what interfaces are in the router. The 32 KB of non-volatile configuration memory mentioned on Line 26 is the amount of NVRAM; so the router has 32 KB of memory to hold its startup configuration. Line 27 says that there is 16 MB of system flash, and we cannot currently write to it. System flash is normally read-only on a 2500-series router that booted from flash because IOS stays in flash while it runs as opposed to getting completely loaded into RAM to run.
The last line of the show version command output (Figure 5-1, Line 31) contains the value of the configuration register. The value is hexadecimal (hex) 2102. The configuration register has many purposes including controlling how the router boots and setting the console port baud rate. Hex 2102 is the default value for a 2500-series router.
The general information displayed by the show version command is consistent from one router model to another; however, the specific information varies. With this one command, we get plenty of good information about the router's hardware and software.
There are many input/output devices on Cisco routers. Some of those that we can control and configure are flash, controllers, interfaces, and terminal lines. This section covers the basic commands to check these devices.
We can check the contents of flash memory with the user mode command show flash. Figure 5-2 shows the output of the show flash command on our test router Dallas.
<<<Figure 5-2 Show Flash Output on 2520>>>
The show flash command displays a directory of the contents of flash memory. On the 2500-series routers, flash is in SIMM form inside the router. On Line 5, we see that there is one file in Dallas' flash; this an IOS image, and it is the same image that Dallas is running. The image is 8,945,732 bytes in length. Since there are 16 MB of RAM, this leaves 7,831,420 bytes available (Line 6).
On the 7x00-series routers (7000, 7200, 7500), flash memory can either be imbedded internally as a SIMM or installed externally as PCMCIA cards. Normally these routers have two slots for PCMCIA flash cards; the slots are numbered 0 and 1. The show flash command works, but to see contents of individual flash devices, we should use the user mode command dir (short for directory). Figure 5-3 shows a sample output of the dir command from a Cisco 7206 router.
<<<Figure 5-3 Dir Output on 7206>>>
According to Figure 5-3, Line 6, this PCMCIA slot has an 8 MB flash card (1,227716 bytes available plus 6,767,676 bytes used). The card contains two files shown on Lines 3 and 4.
The files that on flash are usually IOS images that a can run. We are allowed to put as many files in flash as it can hold. A router will, by default, attempt to boot the first IOS image from flash.
Let us compare the 2520 flash contents from Figure 5-2 with the 7206 flash contents shown in Figure 5-3. The 2520 flash contains one IOS image, and that image is over 8 MB. However, the 7206 flash, which has half the size of the 2520's, has two files, and each is just over 3 MB. The 2520 IOS image would not even fit on the 7206 flash card. The 7206 is supposed to be one of the high-end routers; one would expect just the opposite. How can this be?
The answer lies in the difference between the way that the 2500-series routers run IOS and the way 7x00-series routers run IOS. In Section 5.1, we stated that the 2500-series routers usually run IOS in flash; that is why flash memory was marked as read-only. Since IOS is running in flash, we cannot write to flash, and the IOS image cannot be compressed. On the 7x00-series router, IOS runs in RAM; therefore, the IOS images can be stored in flash in a compressed form. When a 7x00-series router runs an image from flash, the image is uncompressed into RAM before it runs. This is one of the reasons that the 2520 image is much larger than the 7206 images.
The other reason is the IOS feature set of the images. The 2520 image has the enterprise feature set, and the 7206 image has the IP feature set. The enterprise feature set image has most of the possible IOS features included; therefore, it is obviously going to be bigger than an image that has only IP features, compressed or not. How can we tell that just by looking at the image name?
Cisco uses their own naming convention to name IOS files (Reference). The naming convention allows us to look at an image name and determine its router platform, its feature set, its version, where it runs (flash or RAM), and if it is compressed. This naming convention changes occasionally, but here are some recent highlights using the images from Figure 5-2 and Figure 5-3.
The image name is composed of at least two sections separated by periods (.). The first section has three parts separated by hyphens (-). The first part (c2500 and c7200) is the router platform. The second part (js and is) is the feature set. The j represents the enterprise feature set; the i represents the IP feature set, and the s means that additional features have been added to the images. The third part (l and mz) tells us where the image is supposed to run and if it is compressed. The l means that the image is relocatable; that is, it can run in either flash or RAM. The m means that the image runs in RAM, and the z means that the image is zip compressed.
The next section contains the version of the image. On the 2520 this is 113-5, which means IOS version 11.3(5). On the 7206, the second section for the first file is 112-11, which means IOS version 11.2(11). The 7206 has a third section (P) and a fourth section (bin). The P indicates that this image contains platform-specific features for the 7200-series. The bin means that the image is a binary file; of course, all IOS images are binary files.
A controller handles the communication and signaling for router hardware. There are many different types of controllers, and the controllers available on a router depend on the router model and its physical configuration. All interfaces connect to the router through a controller, and on the high-end routers, the communications bus has a controller.
The user mode command show controllers with its arguments can be used to display information about the installed controllers or information about an individual controller. The show controllers command can provide us with the following information for each controller.
We are going to show examples from several different routers just to show some of the different types of controllers. The output for the show controllers command can be rather lengthy; therefore, we going to show just the first few lines of the output for most of the examples.
To see all of the controllers on a router, the show controllers command without any arguments should work. However, if we want information about just one controller in a router, use the guestion mark to get help and find out what arguments are available.
Each interface on a 2500-series router usually has its own controller. Controllers for interfaces are numbered starting with zero. Figure 5-4 shows part of the output for a BRI controller on a 2520.
<<<Figure 5-4 Show Controllers BRI Output on 2520>>>
On Line 2, we see that this information is for the first BRI controller, unit 0. A BRI has three channels: two B channels and one D channel. The D channel is used for signaling between the router and the ISDN switch. The message "Layer 1 is ACTIVATED" on Line 4 means that the router's BRI port is connected to an ISDN switch. If the connection to the switch were down, Layer 1 would be "DEACTIVATED", and it would be "PENDING ACTIVATION" if the connection to the switch were pending.
<<<Figure 5-5 Show Controllers Ethernet Output on 2520>>>
Figure 5-5 shows part of the output for an Ethernet controller. Line 2 shows that this is the first Ethernet controller, unit 0, and it has a LANCE chip set. Line 4 shows the MAC address for the interface on the controller.
<<<Figure 5-6 Show Controllers Serial 0 Output on 2520>>>
Figure 5-6 shows part of the output for a serial controller. In Line 1, we have put a specific unit number, 0. When a unit number is referenced in the show controllers command, there must be a space between it and the controller type. According to Line 3, the type of cable attached to the serial interface on this controller is a V.35 DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) cable. This cable has a V.35 connector on the end not connected to the router. The V.35 connector is meant to be plugged in to a CSU/DSU, which provides the DCE (Data Circuit-terminating Equipment) side of the connection. On Cisco routers, the electrical interface (EIA/TIA-232 DTE, V.35 DCE, etc.) of a serial interface is determined by the type of cable attached to the port.
<<<Figure 5-7 Show Controllers Cbus Output on 7505>>>
Figure 5-7 shows the output for a cbus controller on a 7505 router. Line 11 shows that there is a Versatile Interface Processor 2 (VIP2) in slot 3. This 7505 is running IOS version 12.0(1.0.2)S (Line 13). The VIP2 has four Ethernet interfaces as shown on Lines 15, 19, 23, and 27; the MAC address of each interface is shown. VIP interfaces have unit designators with three numbers separated by forward slashes: slot, port adapter, and port.
Most of the information found with the show controllers command is not very useful for day-to-day monitoring of IOS. The information may, however, come in handy for in-depth troubleshooting.
We frequently need to check an interface's status or an interface's statistics like errors and traffic counters. Generally, the first thing we check on an interface is its status. An interface's status consists of two components:
The first component is the physical layer status; it indicates whether the interface has passed diagnostics and is receiving appropriate signaling. On a serial interface, appropriate signaling could be Carrier Detect (CD) signal or a clocking signal from a WAN. Appropriate signaling on an Ethernet interface could be link signaling from a hub or switch.
The second component, referred to as line protocol, is the data link status; it indicates whether the interface is receiving keepalives (if they are enabled). A keepalive is a small, layer-2 message that is transmitted by a network device to let directly-connected network devices know of its presence.
Keepalives are transmitted out every interface every 10 seconds by default; the time between keepalives is configurable for each interface. On WAN interfaces, the keepalives are meant to be received by a neighboring router or switch, depending on the WAN type; an IOS-based router marks its WAN interface line protocol as up if it is receiving keepalives. On LAN interfaces, the router sends keepalives to itself; an IOS-based router marks its LAN interface line protocol as up if it is receiving its own LAN keepalives.
Figure 5-8 shows the common combinations of the two interface status components along with a possible reason that an interface can have the status.
<<<Figure 5-8 Interface Status Possibilities>>>
An operational interface is commonly referred to as "up/up" or "up and up"; this is a shortcut way of saying or writing the two components of an interface's status. If line protocol (data link status) is up and the interface doesn't receive a keepalive for three keepalive intervals, line protocol will change state to down.
The general way of checking status and statistics is to use a form of the user mode command show interfaces. Issuing the show interfaces command without any arguments will show information for every interface in a router. This produces more than a terminal screen of information for every interface in a router; this could be a lot of terminal output to wade through to see the very last interface in the router, especially if the router has 30 interfaces. If we know the interface that we want to check, we can put the interface name as an argument to the show interfaces command. Figure 5-9 shows output for an Ethernet interface, and Figure 5-10 shows output for a serial interface.
<<<Figure 5-9 Show Interfaces Ethernet Output>>>
The show interface output, in Figure 5-9, provides plenty of interesting information about a single interface; we will mention the major items. We can tell that this Ethernet interface is probably on a 7x00-series router because its unit designator has two numbers, slot 4 and port 0. On Line 2 we see the status is up/up. The status is always the first thing shown. Line 3 provides the MAC address. The first one is currently being used; the one in parentheses is the BIA (burned-in-address). The IOS allows one way of documenting an IOS configuration on the router, and that is putting a description on an interface; this interface's description is shown on Line 4. We are given one layer-3 address, the primary IP address on Line 5.
Figure 5-9, Line 6, shows the Ethernet interface's MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) in bytes, BW (bandwidth) in kbps, DLY (delay) in microseconds, rely (reliability) as a fraction of 255, and load (line utilization) as a fraction of 255. MTU is the maximum size of a packet that can transmitted or received on the interface; 1500 is the default for Ethernet. Some processes require a fixed value for the bandwidth of a network; those processes use the bandwidth parameter; its value has no effect on the speed of an interface. Some process also require a fixed value for network delay (how long does it take a signal to get from one side of a network to the other); those processes use the delay parameter; its value also has no effect on the speed of an interface. Reliability is the router's judgment call based on interface errors for how stable the interface. The value 255 indicates 100 percent reliability. Load is the router's measured utilization of the interface; the load of 26 shown on Line 6 represents about 10 percent.
On Line 7 of Figure 5-9, we see that the encapsulation is ARPA (from Advanced Research Projects Agency). This is also referred to as Ethernet_II; it defines the format of the Ethernet frame header. Line 7 also tells us that keepalives are enabled, and they are being transmitted every 10 seconds. Conversely, IOS expects to receive keepalives every 10 seconds on this interface.
According to Line 10 of Figure 5-9, the interface counters were cleared six days and 18 hours (6d18) ago. The interface counters are those shown in Lines 14 through 20 for input packets, bytes, and errors and output packets, bytes, and errors. We can use these and the five-minute input and output rates from Lines 12 and 13 to help determine what our interface is doing. The five-minute rates are just averages from the last five minutes of interface activity. Based on the statistics, we can tell that the number of packets being received and transmitted on this interface are about the same; however, the amount of data being transmitted is over four times the amount being received (see bytes in Lines 14 and 18). Either transmitting big packets or detecting many collisions could cause this discrepancy. Line 19 shows that Ethernet4/0 has had over 25 million collisions; this seems like an unusually large number of collisions. However, we must compare the collisions with the number of packets that have been transmitted (see packets output in Line 18). About 200 million packets have been transmitted; that makes the collision rate about 12 percent. These are very rough field calculations, but some network experts may consider that to be excessive.
Figure 5-10 shows similar information for a serial interface. Notice that a serial interface has no MAC address. Line 5 shows the bandwidth to be 1544 kbps (1.544 Mbps); 1544 kbps is the bandwidth of a T1, and it is the default for a fast serial interface. Remember that this bandwidth parameter has no effect on the speed of the interface. On Line 6, the encapsulation is shown as HDLC (High-level Data Link Control). HDLC is the default encapsulation for all IOS-based router serial interfaces. Cisco's implementation of the HDLC standard is proprietary (just like everybody else's). HDLC keepalives are being sent every 10 seconds, and IOS expects to receive an HDLC keepalive from the router on the other end of the WAN every 10 seconds.
The counters have never been cleared according to Line 8 of Figure 5-10. So how do we find out how old they are? Since the counters have never been cleared, they have been counting up since the router booted; therefore, if we find out how long the router has been running, we will know how old the counters are. The show version command covered in Section 5.1 provides router uptime. The counters are almost worthless unless we know how old they are so we can put them in perspective.
<<<Figure 5-10 Show Interfaces Serial Output>>>
All of these statistics and pages of information are great, but we just want to find out the status of each of the router's interfaces. One of my personal favorite IOS commands is the user mode command show ip interface brief. This command will give the status of all the interfaces on a single page, unless you have more than 20 interface. Figure 5-11 has a sample.
<<<Figure 5-11 Show IP Interface Brief Output>>>
This output was done on our test router Dallas. It shows that Ethernet0 and Serial1 are both up/up, and all the other interfaces are administratively down. Ethernet0 and Serial1 are the two interfaces we configured on Dallas in Chapter 3.
Terminal lines are router devices that allow us to gain access to the IOS command line interface. There are four types of terminal lines:
The console port is a line device, and a router has only one. In Chapter 3, we attached a terminal to the console port to perform the initial configuration. The console port provides an EIA/TIA-232 DCE interface and is used for configuration when physical access to the router is available. We could also attach a modem to the console port and dial in to it; however, the console port provides no flow control signaling or modem control signaling. On older routers, the maximum speed of the console port is 9600 baud; Cisco's new series of routers allow speeds of up to 115 kbps.
Asynchronous serial ports are usually used for dial-up access using PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) or SLIP (Serial Line IP). Not all routers have asynchronous serial ports.
The auxiliary port is a line device, and a router has only one (if it has one at all). The auxiliary port provides an EIA/TIA-232 DTE interface and is normally used for dial-up access through a modem since it provides modem control signaling. Older routers have a maximum speed of 38400 baud.
Virtual ports are logical terminal lines used for telnet access to the router. They are commonly referred to as VTY's. All IOS-based routers have five VTY's. More can be created if we need the capability of having more than five simultaneous telnet sessions to the router.
The easiest way to check the status of terminal line devices is to issue the user mode command show line. Figure 5-12 shows a sample output.
<<<Figure 5-12 Show Line Output>>>
In Figure 5-12, Line 2, the first two columns are labeled "Tty" and Typ". The "Tty" column is for the line number; line numbers, just like interface numbers, start at zero (0). The "Typ" column is for the line type. Only three types are shown in this display. If there were any asynchronous serial lines, they would be shown between the console line (CTY on Line 3) and the auxiliary line (AUX on Line 4). This would affect the line numbering.
There are two types of line numbering schemes: absolute and relative. The numbering scheme shown in Figure 5-12 is the absolute one. All of the lines are shown, and the first one is line 0. Each type of line also has a number. For example, the five default VTY's are numbered 0 through 4. The numbers 0 through 4 are relative numbers for the VTY's even though their absolute numbers on the router shown are 2 through 6. If we were to add another VTY, its relative number would be 5, and its absolute number would be 7. Lines can be referenced either by their absolute number (line 2 for example) or by their relative number if the line type is included in the reference (line VTY 0 for example).
The order that IOS puts the lines for determination of absolute line numbers is as follows:
Other important information displayed in Figure 5-12 is whether an inbound access classes ("AccI" column) or an outbound access classes ("AccO" column) are applied to the lines. An access class is a security mechanism used for limiting access to a line. The "Uses" column shows the number of times a network connection has been established to the line. The "Noise" column shows the number of framing errors received on the a line; a framing error, such as a missing stop bit, should occur only on console, asynchronous serial, and auxiliary lines.
Figure 5-12 shows two lines that are in use. In-use lines are designated with an asterisk (*) as the first character of the line display. Lines 3 and 5 (VTY 1 and VTY 3) have a connection established to them. Figure 5-13 shows information about line 5.
<<<Figure 5-13 Show Line Output for Individual Line>>>
To get detailed information for a specific line, we just put the absolute line number as an argument to the show line command as shown in Figure 5-13. On Line 6 of Figure 5-13, we see the terminal length is 24 lines, and the terminal width is 80 characters. These were described in Section 4.3.6. On Line 12 of the figure, the Escape character is shown as "^^x"; this means <Ctrl-Shift-6><x> is the special sequence of characters the user of this connection can type to suspend it. Line 14 shows that the EXEC timeout is 10 minutes; after 10 minutes of inactivity on this line, IOS will kill the connection.
In Figure 5-13, Line 19, we see that this terminal line has the default command history settings (see Section 18.104.22.168). Line 21 states that the preferred transport is telnet. In Section 4.3, we learned that the IOS, by default, assumes that a single word typed on the command line is the name of a host to which to telnet if the word is not a command. Configuring the preferred transport on a terminal line controls this behavior.
We have seen which terminal lines are in use. Suppose we now want to see who is connected to them. We can use the user mode command show users to do just that. See Figure 5-14 for an example.
<<<Figure 5-14 Show Users Output>>>
The show users command displays the current terminal line connections and their originating location, if applicable. For VTY connections, the originating location will be the IP address or name of the host from which the telnet session was established. On Line 3 of Figure 5-14, we see that the connection to VTY 1 originated from the host with the address 172.16.11.2; that address belongs to FortWorth, one of our test routers. On Line 4, we see that the connection to VTY 3 came from the host euless.tx.witcon.com. The asterisk in the first column of Line 4 indicates that this connection is the current session where the show users command was typed; that is our session.
To see specific information for our current terminal session, we can issue the user mode command show terminal. The output will be similar to that shown in Figure 5-13.
This section will cover a few commands we can use to check the operational status of IOS on a router. IOS has many features and resources, and they should be checked on a regular basis.
Use the user mode command show processes cpu to find out how busy the CPU is and what IOS processes are running.
<<<Figure 5-15 Show Processes CPU Partial Output>>>
Line 2 of Figure 5-14 shows CPU utilization averages over the last five seconds, one minute, and five minutes. On the five-second utilization, there are two numbers separated by forward slashes. The first number is the average utilization, and the second number is the percent of CPU time spent processing interrupts, for example, processing packets.
Starting on Line 4 of Figure 5-14, we are shown all of the processes currently running. The display shows the Process ID (PID), name, and statistics for each process. The "Runtime" for a process is the CPU time it has used in milliseconds (ms). The number of times the processes has been invoked is shown in the "Invoked" column, and the "uSecs" columns shows the average amount of CPU time, in microseconds (usec), each invocation has used. If we multiply the number of invocations by the amount of time for each invocation, the result should be the total amount of CPU time used.
If you believe CPU utilization is too high, check the list of processes to determine which one is using the most CPU time. Much of the output is not shown here; there can be hundreds of processes running on a router.
Memory, RAM, is one of those resources that is extremely valuable to IOS. Monitoring memory utilization can be done with the user mode commands show processes memory and show memory. Figure 5-16 shows part of the output from the show process memory command.
<<<Figure 5-16 Show Processes Memory Partial Output>>>
In Figure 5-16, Line 2, we see a couple of things very important to the health of our router - how much RAM is being used and how much RAM is free. IOS does not put many constraints on how much RAM a process can use; therefore, it is up to us to keep track of it. After all, we do not want messages like the one below showing up when we attempt something from the console.
%% Low on memory; try again later
The output in Figure 5-16 shows the processes and their memory statistics. The amount of RAM currently being used by a process is shown in the "Holding" column. If the free memory is constantly going down for no apparent reason, check to see which process is holding more and more memory. That process may have what is called a memory leak; memory leaks will eventually cause the IOS to run out of RAM and die. We can normally repair memory leaks by upgrading IOS on a router.
To get detailed statistics on memory utilization, use the show memory command to show the characteristics for all of the IOS memory blocks. Part of the output from the show memory command is in Figure 5-17.
<<<Figure 5-17 Show Memory Partial Output>>>
The output shown in Figure 5-17 has three sections: memory utilization, processor memory, and I/O memory. The information in the processor memory and I/O memory sections may be a little more than we really need for normal IOS monitoring. With that in mind, here is a word of warning. The complete output of the show memory command can be lengthy; the output that was used for Figure 5-17 was over 2400 lines before it was cut down. If we set our terminal length to zero (0) to avoid having to deal with the More prompt, we will be waiting a very long time for the output to be displayed on our terminal screen.
The memory utilization section of the Figure 5-17 output is Lines 2 through 4. Memory has been divided into processor (system) memory and I/O (shared) memory. See the show version explanation in Section 5.1 (Figure 5-1, Line 15). The total amount of processor memory is about 5.7 million bytes, and the total amount of I/O memory is about 2 million bytes. The number of bytes used and free for each type of memory is shown also. The sum of free processor memory and free I/O memory is about 6.25 million bytes (see Figure 5-16, Line 2). The "Head" column shows the hex address of the beginning of each memory type. The head of processor memory matches the address of the first memory block shown in the processor memory section (Line 9). The head of I/O memory matches the address of the first memory block shown in the I/O memory section (Line 18).
The processor memory and I/O memory sections of the output in Figure 5-17 shows the beginning address, the size in bytes, and the owning process for each block of memory. Again, this is probably more than the average person needs to know.
IOS uses many types of buffers. The most common buffers that we need to keep an eye on are the network packet buffers. There are six types of network packet buffers, each with a different size; some routers have only five types of packet buffers. IOS keeps a pool for each type of buffer. Monitoring these pools is useful during troubleshooting of lost or dropped packets. We can use the user mode command show buffers to check the buffer pools. Figure 5-18 shows a sample output.
<<<Figure 5-18 Show Buffers Output>>>
Each public packet buffer can hold a network packet that is being processed by IOS. When a packet is received, a buffer from the appropriate pool is allocated and the packet is placed into the buffer. The appropriate pool is selected based on the packet's size. The packets are placed into the smallest buffer in which they will fit. The sizes of buffers are described as Small, Middle, Big, VeryBig, Large, and Huge. Suppose, for example, that a 450-byte packet were received. IOS would allocate a Middle buffer (600 bytes) because a Small buffer (104 bytes) does not have enough space to hold the packet. On the display's first line for each buffer pool are the size of the buffers in the pool, the number of buffers currently in the pool, and the number of permanent buffers in the pool. Permanent buffers are allocated at boot time and are never removed from the pool.
We will examine the Middle buffers in Figure 5-18 to describe the fields of each pool's description. The number in the free list is the number of buffers that are currently not being used, in other words, the number of buffers that do not contain a packet for processing. On Line 11, we see that the pool contains 90 Middle buffers, and on Line 12, we see that 81 of those are available; therefore, we can calculate that 9 Middle buffers are allocated. Also on Line 12, the minimum and maximum number of free Middle buffers allowed is given. The minimum is shown as 10; therefore, if the Middle buffer free list goes below 10, IOS will create more Middle buffers. The maximum is 200; this means that IOS is allowed to have up to 200 Middle buffers if they are needed for a burst of Middle-buffer sized packets.
On Line 13 of Figure 5-18, we see counters for the number of buffer hits, the number of buffer misses, the number of buffer trims, and the number of buffers created. A buffer hit is a successful attempt to allocate a buffer when a packet needs to be placed in one. A buffer miss is an unsuccessful attempt to allocate a buffer; this is the result of not having enough buffers in the free list. A buffer miss usually results in a new buffer being created unless the maximum number of buffers allowed has been reached. The number of trims is the number of buffers destroyed because they are no longer being used. The number of buffers created is the times a buffer was created as a result of a buffer miss. Line 14 shows the number of failures; this is the number times a buffer allocation failed as a result of not having have a free buffer and not creating another buffer to accommodate the request. The "no memory" counter shows the number of failures resulting from not having enough memory.
The user mode command show stacks shows information that only a programmer could love; however, if a router crashes, the show stacks command provides information that is valuable for finding out what caused the crash. Figure 5-19 shows a sample output after a crash.
<<<Figure 5-19 Show Stacks Output After a Crash>>>
Lines 23 through 35 have information that can be used to trace the cause of the crash. The Cisco TAC will most likely ask for the output of the show stacks command if you call them after a router crashes and reboots.
Routing and bridging tables are stored in RAM. IOS maintains a routing table for each routed network protocol that has been configured on a router. Without a routing table for a network protocol, IOS cannot route packets for that protocol. If bridging has been configured on a router, IOS maintains a bridging table; without a bridging table, IOS cannot bridge frames. We can examine these tables with the user mode commands show route and show bridge.
The show route command requires a protocol keyword before the word "route". The protocol keyword tells IOS which routing table it should display. The general form of the command looks like this:
Where protocol is the name of a routed protocol such as ip, ipx, appletalk, or decnet. For example, to examine the IP routing table, the complete command is show ip route; Figure 5-20 shows the result.
<<<Figure 5-20 Show IP Route Output>>>
A routing table shows all of the routes, or networks, that IOS has learned. The routing table display starts with a legend that explains the abbreviations that appear in the first column of each route in the table. This routing table from our router Dallas shows two directly-connected routes and one RIP-learned route. The RIP-learned route is the Ethernet LAN on FortWorth (see Figure 3-4). We can get a summary of the IP routing table with the show ip route summary command. Figure 5-21 shows a sample output.
<<<Figure 5-21 Show IP Route Summary Output>>>
Figure 5-21 shows counters for the sources of routes in the IP routing table along with the amount of memory that the routing table is using.
The routing and bridging tables will be described in more detail in the protocol configuration chapters.
Logging allows IOS to inform us when a system event has taken place by sending a message to defined logging locations. By default, all logged messages are sent to the console port. There is also a buffer in RAM where the most recent messages are stored; however, this buffer is small, and it will wrap when it fills up. When the buffer wraps, old messages are purged to make room for new messages.
There are eight levels of logging numbered from 0 through 7. The lower the level number the more serious the condition being reported in the message. The eight levels are normally configured by their names. Figure 5-22 shows the logging level numbers and their names.
<<<Figure 5-22 Logging Levels>>>
The level descriptions in Figure 5-22 are straight out of the IOS context-sensitive help facility. Logged messages for levels 0 through 6 always start with a percent sign (%) and contain a facility code, the severity level number, a mnemonic code, and the message itself. The facility code identifies the part of the router (process or device) to which the message refers. The severity level number is a level number from 0 to 7 that indicates the severity of the situation being reported by the message. The mnemonic code identifies an individual error message for the facility. The message itself is just a text string that describes what happened or what is happening. If we want, we can have IOS add a timestamp to the message. The timestamp can be either the relative time since the router booted or the absolute time from the router's clock.
The user mode command show logging shows the types of logging that can be configured, and it displays the logged messages that have been buffered. Figure 5-23 shows logging information from Dallas soon after it booted.
<<<Figure 5-23 Show Logging Output>>>
There are several locations to which messages can be logged. Some of these are as follows:
Syslog logging (Figure 5-23, Line 2) sends message to an IP host running a syslog server; typically this is a UNIX host running syslogd. Messages are logged to the syslog server only if the severity level of the message is less than or equal to the configured trap level (informational on Line5) and if the IP address of the host has been defined in the IOS configuration.
Console logging (Figure 5-23, Line 3) sends messages to the console. By default all messages for all severity levels are logged to the console. If console logging is enabled the show logging command shows the highest level of messages that are to be sent to the console. Line 3 shows this to be debugging, the default.
Monitor logging (Figure 5-23, Line 4) sends message to a monitor terminal. There are no monitor terminals until we create them. Monitor terminals can be used to view the console message output on a VTY terminal line. We can make give a terminal the monitor functionality by issuing the privileged mode command terminal monitor. When a terminal is a monitor, it has the capability of receiving logging output for message with a severity up to the defined level. The defined monitor logging level on Line 4 is debugging; therefore, all logged messages will be sent to a monitor terminal.
Buffer logging (Figure 5-23, Line 6) sends messages to the buffer in RAM as long as the severity level of the messages are less than or equal to the defined level (debugging on Line 6).
SNMP logging sends messages to an SNMP management station for processing by a network management application.
On Line 8 of Figure 5-23, we see that the log buffer is 4 kB. In Line 10 through 33, the router's interfaces changed states until they all ended up as administratively down. The severity level for the LINK facility messages is 3, errors; the LINK facility is used for physical layer status of interfaces. The severity level of the LINEPROTO facility messages is a 5, notification; this is not as severe as the LINK facility message since LINEPROTO indicates a data link problem rather than a physical problem. At Line 35 is the message about the system restarting; the severity level for the RESTART message is 5, notification. Lines 49 and 50 have AppleTalk messages with severity level 6, informational. Before AppleTalk becomes operational on an interface, it must locate neighboring AppleTalk devices and verify the cable-range and zone(s) for the network to which the interface is attached.
Every Cisco router has a system clock, and some routers like the high-end, 7x00-series routers have a battery-powered, system calendar. If the router does not have a calendar, the clock is set to midnight (00:00) on March 1, 1993 each time the router boots; otherwise the clock is set from the calendar time when the router boots.
On a running router, several ways are available for setting the system clock. For example, the clock can be set manually by using the privileged mode clock command or automatically by using Network Time Protocol (NTP).
To check the system clock, issue the user mode command show clock. Figure 5-24 and Figure 5-25 are two samples of the show clock command.
<<<Figure 5-24 Show Clock Output Non-Authoritative>>>
The hours, minutes, seconds, and milliseconds are shown from the system clock. There is also the time zone, month, day, and year. Since Dallas is a 2520 router, it has no battery-powered calendar; therefore, its system clock was set to midnight of March 1, 1993, when it booted. According to the time on Line 2 of Figure 5-24, Dallas has been running for 26 minutes and 9 seconds. The time zone is shown at UTC; this stands for Coordinated Universal Time and is the default time zone. UTC is sometimes referred to as Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) or Zulu time in other texts. Any other time zone must be manually configured. The asterisk (*) in Line 2 means that the time is not authoritative; IOS doesn't believe that the time is accurate.
If IOS is configured to get its time from a timing source such as an NTP server, the clock will be shown as authoritative once the router's system clock has synchronized with the time learned through NTP.
<<<Figure 5-25 Show Clock Output Authoritative>>>
Figure 5-25, Line 2 shows the time with no extra character (such as an asterisk) in front of it. This indicates that the time is believed to be accurate (authoritative). An authoritative clock can be used to synchronize clocks on other host systems. The time zone is CST (Central Standard Time); this was set in the configuration file.
The easiest way to see what routed protocols have been configured on a router is to issue the user mode command show protocols. The show protocols command tells us all the routed protocols that IOS has been configured to run and all the interfaces' status and primary routed protocol information. Figure 5-26 shows an output of the show protocols command from Dallas.
<<<Figure 5-26 Show Protocols Output>>>
The output has two main sections, global values and interface values. The global values section shows the routed protocols. This is global because the protocols are turned on in global configuration mode. Dallas is running IP, AppleTalk, and IPX (Figure 5-26, Lines 3, 4, and 5, respectively). The interface values section begins on Line 6. The status of all interfaces is given; interfaces Ethernet0 and Serial1 are up/up; all other are administratively down. For those interfaces that have been configured with routed protocol parameters, the output includes the primary parameters. As example, let us examine the Ethernet0 parameters given. Line 10 has the primary IP address and prefix length (network mask); Line 11 has the AppleTalk address and primary zone; Line 12 has the IPX address.
Using the show protocols command is a way to get all of the different protocol addresses for a router's interfaces. These come in handy for network documentation and troubleshooting.
To get specific information about a routed protocol on an interface, we can use the show interface command that includes a protocol keyword. The command looks like this:
Where protocol is the name of a routed protocol such as ip, ipx, appletalk, or decnet. For example, to get specific AppleTalk information about all interfaces, the complete command is show appletalk interface. Examples of these commands will be given in the protocol configuration chapters.
High-end routers like those in the 7x00-series have environmental controllers that monitor things like temperatures and voltage levels in a router; if the temperature gets too high or too low or if voltage levels get too far from normal, the router will be shut down. The user mode commands show environment and show environment all display information about the environmental conditions on a router that has an environmental controller. Figure 5-27 has output from both commands issued on a 7505 router.
<<<Figure 5-27 Show Environment [All] Output>>>
The show environment command gives a status of environmental conditions. Line 2 of Figure 5-27 tells us that all measured values are normal. If we add the all keyword to the command, we get environmental condition details. Line 14 shows the temperatures taken at the router's RSP4. Air being pulled into the chassis is 78 degrees Fahrenheit (F), and air being blown out is 113 degrees F. Lines 18 through 22 shows actual voltage levels of the router's test points.
All of the show commands we have used so far can be issued in user mode; however, sometimes the easiest way to see how a router is configured it to just look at its configuration files. Since the configuration files contains sensitive information like passwords and SNMP community names, we must be in privileged mode to view them.
The two configuration files are the running configuration and the startup configuration. The running configuration is the current, active configuration of IOS, and it is kept in RAM. The startup configuration is the backup configuration, and it is stored in NVRAM so that IOS can read it into RAM during a boot. We can look at the contents of both files; under normal, stable production conditions the files should be identical.
IOS always has a running configuration, even when all interfaces are disabled (shutdown); however, a startup configuration does not always exist. For example, a new router does not have a startup configuration. If a startup configuration is not present in NVRAM, the router will ask to enter the System Configuration Dialog.
The command to view the running configuration is show running-config. This is a privileged mode command. Figure 5-28 contains the output of the show running-config command on Dallas.
<<<Figure 5-28 Show Running-Config Output on Dallas>>>
On Line 2, there is the message "Building configuration." To display the running configuration, IOS must examine all of its settings and put them into an easily readable, text format. Depending on a router's processor speed, this configuration file build could take from one second to five seconds. After the build, the file itself is displayed. IOS separates the sections of the file with exclamation points (!) to make the file easier to read.
Line 9 shows the command that set the router's host name to Dallas. This host name appears in the command prompt in Line 1. Notice also that the prompt ends with a number sign (#) signifying privileged mode.
Line 10 has the enable secret password. The enable secret password is used to get into privileged mode. The value we assigned to it during the initial configuration is itsasecret; however, that is not what the configuration file shows. Not exactly, anyway. The enable secret password is displayed in its encrypted form in an IOS configuration file. Most network managers and administrators make a practice of keeping copies of their routers' running configurations on their PC's, on a TFTP server, or even on hardcopy. Notice the other passwords on Lines 12 and 61; they are easily read in their unencrypted form, which is the default way they are displayed. Without the enable secret password being encrypted, anyone with access to the disk drive files or paper files of the configurations would know all of the passwords. This is not considered to be very secure.
The next major section of the configuration in Figure 5-28 is where the routed protocols get turned on. The command telling IOS to route AppleTalk packets is on Line 14, and the command telling IOS to route IPX packets is on Line 15. We saw in Figure 5-26 that Dallas is also routing IP packets; however the configuration file does not show a command telling IOS to route IP packets. Most of the time, a running configuration file will not contain commands for default settings. The routing of IP packets is turned on by default in IOS; therefore, the command telling IOS to route IP packets (ip routing) is not shown.
As another example of this, look at the configuration sections for interface Ethernet0 (beginning on Line 18) and Serial0 (beginning on Line 26). The shutdown command on Line 28 is used to turn off an interface and put it into administratively down state. The opposite of shutdown is no shutdown. (Remember Section 4.3.5. Just say no.) There is not a no shutdown command under the Ethernet0 configuration section. The reason is that, by default, an interface is turned on, and the default setting is not in the configuration file.
According to Lines 48 and 49, Dallas is running the IP RIP routing protocol on its interfaces that have addresses in the 172.16.0.0 network; that is all of them.
The startup configuration is a text file stored in NVRAM. When a router boots, IOS looks in NVRAM for the file and then loads the file into RAM where its commands are entered into the running configuration. Issue the privileged mode command show startup-config to view the startup configuration file. If we bypass the System Configuration Dialog on a new router, NVRAM will remain empty. Figure 5-29 shows that output of the show startup-config command when NVRAM is empty.
<<<Figure 5-29 Show Startup-Config Output With NVRAM Empty on Dallas>>>
Figure 5-28 shows the running configuration; however, Figure 5-29 shows that we have no startup configuration. The command to create a startup configuration from the running configuration is as follows:
Dallas#copy running-config startup-config
The privileged mode command copy running-config startup-config will create the running configuration text file and then put that file into NVRAM. Figure 5-30 shows part of the output from the show startup-config now that there is a startup configuration.
<<<Figure 5-30 Show Startup-Config Partial Output on Dallas>>>
Since the startup configuration is already in text format and ready for display, there is no delay associated with preparing for output. Instead, the first message we get refers to the size of the startup configuration file and the size of NVRAM. According Line 2 of Figure 5-30, the size of Dallas' startup configuration file is 833 bytes, and Dallas has 32762 total bytes of NVRAM (see also Figure 5-1, Line 26, for amount of Dallas' NVRAM).
The show command in all of its different forms is the most used command in IOS. We have barely scratched the surface of the information available using show. More detailed, protocol-specific information will be covered in the configuration chapters.
One more general show command that you find may useful for fast information gathering is the privileged mode command show tech-support. The show tech-support command will run multiple, pre-configured show commands one after the other. For example, it will issue the show version, show running-config, show controllers, show interfaces, and a few other commands in quick succession. The command will also temporarily set you terminal length to zero (0) thus disabling the More prompt and causing the information to scroll very fast. The output of the show tech-support command is meant to be captured to a log file by your terminal emulation software and then sent to the Cisco TAC. The resulting file provides them (and us) with an overview of a router's configuration and status.


Cochlear Implant History (AB)
Cochlear implant history
Two-hundred years ago, a scientist by the name of Alessandro Volta inserted metal rods attached to an active circuit into his ears. He described the sensation as similar to the sound of boiling water. This was the first documented attempt to provide electrical stimulation directly to the auditory system.
Although additional attempts continued throughout the next 50 years, by the mid 1800's the thought of using electrical stimulation as a therapeutic method was rejected. It wasn't until the 1930's that the effects of electrical stimulation on hearing were studied again. Two independent research teams, one from the United States and one from the Soviet Union, found that hearing sensations were achieved by individuals who were deaf when they received electrical stimulation to the middle ear. Neither of these investigations, however, resulted in a practical application for a hearing implant primarily because the technical difficulties encountered at the time could not be overcome.
By the late 1950's, scientists in France reported the first successful electrical stimulation of hearing nerves by inserting an electrode in a deaf subject's inner ear. The patient perceived the rhythm of speech and reported that the stimulation provided assistance in lipreading. This was the beginning of the development of modern-day cochlear implants.
Throughout the 1960's tremendous energy was devoted to studying and developing cochlear implants, and by 1970 the first wide-spread clinical application was underway. These early generation cochlear implants were single-channel devices that sent coded information to only one electrode site in the inner ear. These devices provided patients with speech and sound awareness and enhanced lipreading ability, but generally did not provide auditory-only speech recognition.
The introduction of multichannel devices in the 1980's represented a major advance in cochlear implant technology. Multichannel devices stimulate hearing nerve fibers at multiple locations along the length of the cochlea and where all electrodes are stimulated at once, or sequentially, where electrodes are stimulated one at a time.
Stimulating nerve fibers at multiple locations is important because each nerve fiber in the inner ear is "tuned" to a different pitch depending on its location. Hearing nerves are organized so that high frequencies are picked up at the base of the cochlea while low frequencies are picked up at the center or apex. This arrangement is referred to as the "tonotopic" organization of the ear. With the introduction of multichannel systems, the ability to understand speech without lipreading was achieved.
Source: Advanced Bionics


Model driven communication protocol engineering and simulation based performance analysis using UML 2.0
Includes bibliographical references.
The automated functional and performance analysis of communication systems specified with some Formal Description Technique has long been the goal of telecommunication engineers. In the past SDL and Petri nets have been the most popular FDT's for the purpose. With the growth in popularity of UML the most obvious question to ask is whether one can translate one or more UML diagrams describing a system to a performance model. Until the advent of UML 2.0, that has been an impossible task since the semantics were not clear. Even though the UML semantics are still not clear for the purpose, with UML 2.0 now released and using ITU recommendation Z.109, we describe in this dissertation a methodology and tool called proSPEX (protocol Software Performance Engineering using XMI), for the design and performance analysis of communication protocols specified with UML.


5G networks are the next generation of mobile network connectivity, offering faster speeds and more reliable connections on smart phone and other devices than before. The networks are expected to supercharge Internet of Things technology, providing the infrastructure needed to carry huge amounts of data that allows for a smarter and more connected world.
Langkawi,the main testbed for 5G Demonstration Projects (5GDP)
The 5G demonstration projects (5GDP) being conducted by six telecommunications companies on the island here have begun to show very good results with 37 use cases provided in two months, according to the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC) Chairman Al-Ishsal Ishak.
He said the 5G use cases on the duty-free island were involved in the digital healthcare, education, entertainment, smart city, smart transport, agriculture, and tourism sectors.
The 5G network technology revolution does not just provide higher data transfer speeds on smart phones but also play as a crucial role in several industries.
“The 5GDP in Langkawi will be implemented within a six-month period from October this year until March next year to demonstrate, test and study if the network is beneficial and what needed to be done to provide new applications or system which will enable the industries to attain further development,” he told reporters here.
Al-Ishsal said it was indeed impressive that in just two months of implementation, there had already been 37 cases of implementation.
Al-Ishsal visited the island last weekend to check on various 5GDP projects in the Langkawi International Airport and the Maxis eKelas programme at the Kampung Padang Wahid Internet Centre.
He also witnessed Celcom’s 5G Security Solution and Smart City Security showcases. These 5G use-cases are explored in collaboration with various local authority agencies from different industries, with the aim of enhancing daily operations via 5G technology. Besides that, he also experienced several digital healthcare demonstrations such as distance diagnosis, medical tourism, and distance consultation conducted jointly by Digi and U Mobile with the Sultanah Maliha Hospital.
Al-Ishsal said looking at the collaboration and commitment of the project partners, Kedah state government and local authorities, he was confident that the implementation of 5GDP in Langkawi would be a success.
The choice of Langkawi as the pioneer project for 5GDP was apt as a controlled environment was needed and the island had the requirements such as agriculture, tourism, education, entertainment and healthcare sectors, he said.


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One of the most powerful handheld devices ever invented, the Universal Tablet is designed to meet any and every need a field agent could possibly have.
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