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PHYS 113P. Energy for a Sustainable Future. 1 Unit.
An introduction to the scientific study of global energy production and usage that emphasizes renewable energy sources. Also covered are the topics of energy conservation and the impact of various energy sources on global climate change. Mathematics (computations and basic algebra) is used throughout the course in problem sets, laboratories and exams; the relevant mathematical techniques are reviewed and practiced to aid students who lack confidence in their mathematical skills. Weekly labs emphasize the important role observation and measurement in improving understanding and validating theories. No prerequisites. Offered every year. Can be used as a Q course.
PHYS 114P. The Science of Music. 1 Unit.
An introduction to the physics of sound and music. Topics covered include the production, propagation, and reception of sound (physical acoustics), and the physics of musical instruments (musical acoustics). Mathematics (computations and very basic algebra) is used extensively throughout the course in problem sets, laboratories and exams; the relevant mathematical techniques are carefully reviewed and practiced to aid students who lack confidence in their mathematical skills. Three lectures and one laboratory per week. No prerequisites. Can be used as a Q course.
PHYS 121P. College Physics I. 1 Unit.
This is the first course in a two-course, algebra-based, introduction to physics. Topics include mechanics, heat, and wave motion. Three lectures and one laboratory per week. High school algebra is used extensively. Can be used as a Q course.
PHYS 122P. College Physics II. 1 Unit.
This is the second course in a two-course, algebra-based introduction to physics. Topics include electromagnetism, optics, and modern physics. Three lectures and one laboratory per week. High school algebra is used extensively. Prerequisite: PHYS 121P. Can be used as a Q course.
PHYS 141P. University Physics I. 1 Unit.
Calculus-based introductory physics for physics, preengineering, mathematics and other science majors. Topics include mechanics, waves, sound and heat. Four lectures and one laboratory per week. Corequisite: MATH 141Q, or MATH 130 with permission of instructor.
PHYS 142P. University Physics II. 1 Unit.
This is the second course in the calculus-based introductory sequence for physics. Topics include electrostatic and magnetostatic fields, dc and ac circuits, electromagnetic radiation, and optics. Four lectures and one laboratory per week. Prerequisite: PHYS 141P. Corequisite: MATH 142Q or MATH 131Q with permission of instructor.
PHYS 243. Modern Physics. 1 Unit.
This course is the third and final course in the introductory sequence of courses. It introduces the fields of physics that were first developed in the twentieth century, and that continue to evolve today. Topics include special relativity, the quantum theory of light, the structure of the atom, elementary wave mechanics, the properties of nuclei, and the properties of elementary particles. Three lectures and one lab per week Prerequisite: PHYS 142P. Corequisites: MATH 243Q or permission of instructor, and PHYS 380.
PHYS 251. Biophysics. 1 Unit.
Principles drawn from physics are used to build an understanding of biological systems. Topics may include: processes or functions at the level of molecules, cells, or organs; the theory underlying techniques used to make measurements; and the theory underlying techniques used to treat injuries and disease. Prerequisites: MATH 131Q or MATH 141Q, and PHYS 122P or PHYS 142P, and BIOL 141P.
PHYS 285. Independent Study. 0.5 or 1 Units.
PHYS 304. Mathematical Methods in Physics. 1 Unit.
This course introduces the mathematical tools that are required for many of the upper-level physics courses. The course emphasizes recognizing the equations that appear repeatedly in many different areas of physics and understanding their solutions. Topics include ordinary differential equations of first and second order, series solution of differential equations, vector analysis, Fourier series, partial differential equations, boundary value problems, Laplace and Fourier transforms, calculus of variations, and functions of a complex variable. Five lectures per week. Prerequisite: MATH 243Q.
PHYS 312. Laboratory Techniques. 1 Unit.
A study of experimental techniques and apparatus. Topics include an introduction to laboratory software, statistical analysis of data, error analysis, cryogenics, vacuum techniques, radiation safety and detection, and signal processing. One lecture and two laboratory periods per week. Prerequisite: PHYS 243. Corequisite: PHYS 380.
PHYS 322. Mechanics I. 1 Unit.
This course revisits the Newtonian mechanics learned in University Physics, but it harnesses more sophisticated mathematical tools that allow a much richer set of physical problems and phenomena to be studied. Topics include Newton's laws, dynamics of particles, statics of rigid bodies, noninertial reference frames, and gravitation and central forces. Prerequisite: PHYS 141P. Corequisites: PHYS 304 or permission of the instructor, and PHYS 380.
PHYS 332. Electricity and Magnetism. 1 Unit.
This course further develops the basic principles of electricity and magnetism introduced in University Physics by harnessing symmetry arguments and vector calculus for derivations and problem solving. Topics include electric fields and potentials, capacitance and dielectrics, magnetic flux and magnetic materials, and electromagnetic induction. Prerequisites: PHYS 142P and PHYS 304 or permission of instructor. Corequisite: PHYS 380.
PHYS 343. Quantum Mechanics I. 1 Unit.
This course revisits the wave mechanics that were introduced in Modern Physics, but it examines the theory more thoroughly and applies it to much more sophisticated problems. Topics include the Schrodinger equation, infinite and finite steps, barriers and wells, harmonic oscillators, and the hydrogen atom. Prerequisites: PHYS 243 and PHYS 304 or permission of the instructor. Corequisite: PHYS 380.
PHYS 352. Optics. 1 Unit.
This course covers basic optical theory, examining both geometric optics (the ray model) and physical optics (wave theory). Many of the optical phenomena and instruments discussed in the lectures are examined in the laboratory. Topics include thin lenses, thick lenses via matrix methods, optical instruments, interference and interferometers, polarization, diffraction, lasers, holography, Fourier optics, and non-linear optics. Prerequisite: PHYS 142P.
PHYS 356. Electronics. 1 Unit.
This is an introductory course in laboratory electronics covering both analog and digital circuits. Many of the circuits discussed in the lectures are built and tested in the laboratory. Topics include ac circuits, transistor circuits, amplifiers, and linear and digital integrated circuits. Prerequisite: PHYS 142P.
PHYS 362. Thermophysics. 1 Unit.
This is an introductory course in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. The topics that are studied include: heat transfer, general gas laws, equations of state, phase diagrams, the laws of thermodynamics, engines, refrigerators, entropy, Maxwell's thermodynamic relations, microcanonical, canonical and grand canonical ensembles, and statistical distribution laws. Prerequisites: PHYS 243 and PHYS 304 or permission of instructor. Corequisite: PHYS 380.
PHYS 380. Physics Colloquium. 0.0 Units.
(Pass/Fail only). Physics Colloquium is a corequisite for many physics courses numbered 200 or higher. Physics majors should register for it every semester even if they happen to not be in one of the courses explicitly requiring it as a corequisite. The class will meet once a week and will be the venue for most student presentations assigned as a part of other physics courses. Other activities may include presentations given by faculty or visiting speakers, or discussions of current events that are of interest to the physics community.
PHYS 385. Independent Study. 0.5 or 1 Units.
Study of selected topics or laboratory research under the guidance of a professor.
PHYS 390. Special Topics in Physics. 1 Unit.
Topics determined by student interest and the availability of staff. Examples include: computational physics, digital electronics, and physical acoustics. Prerequisite: permission of instructor.
PHYS 395. Teaching Apprenticeship. 0.5 Units.
PHYS 397. Internship in Physics. 0.5 or 1 Units.
(Letter-graded or Pass/Fail). This course allows students in the physics,, applied physics, and biophysics tracks to complete an internship experience in an approved research/development setting. Settings include industrial research and development laboratories, technical consulting firms, and national laboratories or other technically oriented government agencies. Students will be required to maintain a laboratory notebook (consistent with any proprietary requirements) and will present a colloquium talk on their internship work. A letter of evaluation from the student?s supervisor will also be required. Typically, full unit internships require approximately 140 hours for the semester. Specific requirements will be presented by way of a contract signed by the students. If this internship is used to fulfill a major requirement in the applied physics track, it must be letter-graded and for a full unit of credit. Prerequisites: permission of department head and instructor and PHYS 312. Enrollment in an internship course requires students to attend an orientation prior to beginning work at their internship site. For more information regarding internship orientations, please contact Career & Professional Development at firstname.lastname@example.org or 386-822-7315.
PHYS 412. Advanced Laboratory Techniques. 1 Unit.
This is a continuation of PHYS 312 intended for students who are interested in pursuing graduate study in physics or a career working in the laboratory. One lecture and two three-hour laboratory periods per week. Prerequisite: PHYS 312 or permission of instructor. Corequisite: PHYS 380.
PHYS 422. Mechanics II. 1 Unit.
This is a continuation of Mechanics I. Topics include the mechanics of continuous media, dynamics of rigid bodies, and an introduction to the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formulations of mechanics. Prerequisite: PHYS 322. Corequisite: PHYS 380.
PHYS 432. Electromagnetic Theory. 1 Unit.
This is a continuation of Electricity and Magnetism which includes a more sophisticated look at electrostatics and magnetostatics using more advanced problem solving techniques. It then examines the behavior of electromagnetic waves arising from Maxwell's equations. The course concludes with a brief introduction to relativistic electromagnetism. Prerequisite: PHYS 332. Corequisite: PHYS 380.
PHYS 443. Quantum Mechanics II. 1 Unit.
The concepts of quantum mechanics are reexamined using the Dirac formalism, which is used for essentially all advanced work in quantum mechanics. The Dirac formalism is introduced and applied to simple systems. Approximation techniques (time independent and time dependent perturbation theory, the variational principle, and WKB approximation) are applied to more complex systems. Nuclear scattering theory via the Born approximation is also discussed. Prerequisite: PHYS 343. Corequisite: PHYS 380.
PHYS 485. Independent Study. 1 Unit.
Study of selected topics or laboratory research under the guidance of a professor.
PHYS 490. Special Topics in Physics. 1 Unit.
Topics determined by student interest and the availability of staff. Examples include: atomic, nuclear and particle physics, solid state physics, astrophysics, and general relativity. Prerequisite: Permission of instructor.
PHYS 497. Senior Project Proposal. 0.5 Units.
Students are matched with a faculty mentor, and then guided through the process of developing, writing, and orally presenting a proposal for their senior project. Corequisite: PHYS 380.
PHYS 498. Senior Project. 1 Unit.
Students perform the laboratory work for their senior project. The class will meet once a week to discuss progress, plans, and any difficulties that have arisen. Prerequisite: PHYS 497. Corequisite: PHYS 380.


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14.12.17. Today in Class 1 we have been using our counting skills to add two numbers together. The Christmas Elf had to choose which children were going on the good list! We then wrote our number sentence. Ho Ho Ho!!!
17.11.17. We have been working independently to order numbers . We are fantastic.
02.11.17. We all enjoyed learning all about numbers in our outdoor classroom. We were looking at order and what numbers look like. We then went inside and practised our number skills in playing games on the whiteboard.
17.10.17. We are enjoying all of our maths activities this week.
16.10.17 We have been learning lots of different maths skills today. We have enjoyed using 2d shapes to make our own pictures and then we have been practising our counting skills by putting the apples on the tree.
Megan enjoyed using the 2d shapes to make her picture.


Math 34600, Section B, Spring 2015:
Elements of Linear Algebra
- The final exam will be held Monday May 18th, 8-10:15am in NAC 5/102 (our usual classroom).
These are all pdf documents.
||MW 9:30-10:45am in NAC 5/102
||Prof. Pat Hooper
Mondays 2:30-3:30pm. Appointments are also accepted.
Visit Prof. Hooper's website


Finally the $K$ weighting term represents how informative a measurement is, which depends on the jacobian of the measurement function and the current covariance state. The output has to be a rolling predict step without incorporating the next measurement (a priori prediction). Calculating the Kalman gain involved calculating the covariance matrix for the observation errors, and using it to compare with the process covariance matrix. In this case, you simply integrate the part of the equations that do not relate to the measurement up to the measurement time and then do the filter update as normal). Optional, if not provided the filter’s self.F will be used. Software Architecture & Python Projects for €30 - €250. For the final problem, Professor Biezen provided the scenario of trying to determine the position and velocity of an aircraft. If the Kalman Gain is large, the error in the measurement is small, so new data can quickly update the model to the true value, which will subsequently reduce the error in the estimate. We set up an artificial scenario with generated data in Python for the purpose of illustrating the core techniques. watch a series of lectures by Professor Biezen, “filter yields the exact conditional probability estimate in the special case that all errors are Gaussian.”, Neural Networks and Deep Learning W2— Shallow NN, Fast Deployment of an Image Classification Web App with fast.ai, What Java needs for true Machine / Deep Learning support, How to Create a GPU-enabled VM on GCP to Train Your Neural Networks, An IQ Test Proves That Neural Networks Are Capable of Abstract Reasoning, How to Run Entire Kaggle Competition from Google Colab, Dive into classification metrics — part 1. wikipedia if you really want to. The system being simulated is the van der pol oscillator. Ps: numpy.array. I went with smoothing over filtering since the Kalman filter … We demonstrate how the filter can be applied to nonlinear systems and reconstructions of nonlinear systems for the purposes of noise reduction, state estimation and parameter estimation. The velocity remains the same. An introduction to smoothing time series in python. Forecasting 2. First, I initialized the State matrix with values he provided. Additionally, he provided another example to work through how to create a covariance matrix for an state value. This can be used as a basis for converting static models into incremental learning models. Notice that the variance update will always result in an increased variance. We demonstrate how the filter can be applied to nonlinear systems and reconstructions of nonlinear systems for the purposes of noise reduction, state estimation and parameter estimation. In this case, the Kalman Filter is the optimal estimator for the system in the sense that no other estimator can have a smaller mean square error. The observation is equal to matrix C times the variables observed plus measurement noise. I also used the Kalman gain to update the process covariance matrix. I highly recommend going through them, as most of this writing is based on his lectures. Implementation of Kalman Filter with Python Language. April 2012; Source; ... A time-varying Kalman filter is applied to estimate the unmeasured states of the controller model. Python has the TSFRESH package which is pretty well documented but I wanted to apply something using R. I opted for a model from statistics and control theory, called Kalman Smoothing which is available in the imputeTS package in R.. The Kalman Gain ultimately drives the speed in which the estimated value is zeroed in on the true value. It could be another car on the road or a plane in the air. In the moving average example in Delaney's original notebook the 90 day MA looks smoother than the 60 day MA which is smoother than the 30 day MA which is smoother than the Kalman estimate of the MA. In a linear state-space model we say that these st… If we tune up the nonlinearity parameter in the van der pol equations the error increases (mse 0.135) as you can see below. With the newly calculated Kalman gain, I used it to weigh the difference between the observation data with the prediction, which was then used to update the state matrix. Part III: Kalman Filter 25 Jun 2013. There is no division in matrix operations, so to find the ratio I used the dot product with the inverse of what would otherwise be the denominator. If the Kalman Gain is close to 1, it means the measurements are accurate but the estimates are unstable. array of the covariances of the output of a kalman filter. Given a sequence of noisy measurements, the Kalman Filter is able to recover the “true state” of the underling object being tracked. As a result, any difference between new data and the prediction will have a smaller effect on the eventual update. Expectation–maximization algorithm should be implemented like a code I will give you. If we use only one oscillator with a slightly stochastic system (sigma 0.01) and reasonable measurement noise (sigma 0.1) we have a really good estimate (mse 0.086). Then, I updated the Process / Estimation Covariance matrix to the next time step, predicting it forward. Not only is the process in $x$ a brownian process (additive white noise denoted by $\xi$), we are unable to observe it directly. We introduce the method of Kalman filtering of time series data for linear systems and its nonlinear variant the extended Kalman filter. Vice versa for the error in data. But if the time step is too coarse, the Kalman filter would be trying to represent a bimodal probability distribution by a gaussian, which would give some terrible result. The output has to be a rolling predict step without incorporating the next measurement (a priori prediction). The Kalman Filter is a state-space model that adjusts more quickly for shocks to a time series. Loosely coupled integration of GNSS and IMU. These updates are then used for the next round of predictions. I am currently a Research Scientist at Cogent Labs. It seems like using a Kalman filter by virtue of giving a closer fit to the actual time series reduces the smoothing effect. The state matrix records the object being tracked. But when it moves, it moves position. For the purposes of simplicity, the problem involves only the x position and x velocity. In the test cases I showed here I plugged in the correct fluctuation values (the same as used for the simulations), while in a real system we do not know the true value which would be another source of error. If however some variables of Y aren’t being observed, C could be shaped in a way so as to discard some of the variables of Y. Notice that in matrix format, the Kalman gain is a matrix of the same dimension as the inputs, and along the diagonal are weights that adjust the observed position and velocity. You can look at the plot below (dots are measurements, crosses are predictions). The gaussian assumption is often a reasonable approximation to the problem’s noise statistics because the timescale of whichever microscopic process produces randomness is usually much smaller than the one of the actual dynamics, allowing the central limit theorem to kick in. In the equation below, x represents the estimate, K is the Kalman gain, which is multiplied (acting like a weight) by the difference between the measurement (p) and the previous estimate. Fs: list-like collection of numpy.array, optional. This section follows closely the notation utilised in both Cowpertwait et al and Pole et al. To calculate the derivatives I use an algorithmic differentiation package, which calculates the derivatives of any function implemented in code just by looking at its computational graph (the set of elementary operations which make up the function and their relations). Aside from that, you don't need to interpolate with Kalman smoothing first; that would involve fitting a … Estimates are more stable and the measurements are inaccurate. The output has to be a rolling predict step without incorporating the next measurement (a priori prediction). The mean is then subtracted from the A matrix, producing the deviation. The motion itself has its own Gaussian distribution and uncertainty. in a previous article, we have shown that Kalman filter can produce… Architettura Software & Python Projects for €30 - €250. space model along with the Kalman ﬁlter, state smoother, disturbance smoother, and simulation smoother, and presents several examples of time series models in state space form. It will be used to help the Kalman gain place emphasis on either the predicted value or the measured value. I need an unscented / kalman filter forecast of a time series. Qs: list-like collection of numpy.array, optional. The state covariance matrix is an error of the estimate. We can use it to update the prior mean and variance. The measurement covariance matrix (R) is the error of the measurement. The A matrix in the prediction2d function updates the previous state based on the time that has elapsed. In other words, Kalman filter takes time series as input and performs some kind of smoothing and denoising. In this case, the usage is simpler because we only need to take the derivative of the function being integrated. Let’s see how this works using an example. We arrive at a prediction that adds the motion command to the mean, and has increased uncertainty over the initial uncertainty. Since estimations have noise, errors, and uncertainties, Q, a process noise covariance matrix is added, which will adjust the state covariance matrix. Let us look at what the equations mean. For security reasons. The A matrix is similar to the one used in predicting the State matrix values. New data could have a lot of uncertainty and we don’t want it to throw off the predictive model. The one minus K factor being multiplied with the previous error is the inverse of the size of the Kalman Gain. Those working on the Neural Network tutorials, hopefully see a big advantage here. To calculate the gain, we need two things. It is highly unlikely that the model would have such exactitude, so one of the benefits of Q is that prevents P from being zero. The observation is denoted by $y$ and is a function of $x$ corrupted by (again) additive white noise $\zeta$. Section 3 describes the representation in Python of the state space model, and provides sample code for each of the example models. The first equation is the evolution of the system state mean. Part III: Kalman Filter 25 Jun 2013. EM algorithms and the Kalman filter are well-known and heavily used in engineering and computer science applications. The velocity may have changed after the time step due to acceleration (control variable matrix). If the variance is set to 0, it means we have a fairly large certainty in the corresponding measurement. In both cases, our purpose is to separate the true price movement from noise caused by the influence of minor factors that have a short-term effect on the price. It might be surprising that the subsequent Gaussian is peakier than the component Gaussian, but it makes some intuitive sense: by combining both, we’ve gained more information than either Gaussian in isolation. The Kalman Filter is a state-space model that adjusts more quickly for shocks to a time series. My input is 2d (x,y) time series of a dot moving on a screen for a tracker software. From there, the Kalman Gain is calculated, along with the observed data. We accumulate more uncertainty as we change position. This is done by replacing the functions f and g by their first order taylor expansions around the current value. 2) adaptive models – for example the Kalman filter But now, let's go back though to the second prediction approach – that of curve fitting. For observation date and time to maturity , the Diebold-Li model characterizes the yield as a function of four parameters: in which is the long-term factor, or level, is the short-term factor, or slope, and is the medium-term factor, or curvature. He also zeroed out the off-diagonal values in covariance matrices, which I have also done in my code. The emphasis in Statsmodels is parameter estimation (so that filtering is typically performed across an entire dataset rather than one observation at a time) and the Kalman filter is defined slightly differently (it uses an alternate timing of the transition equation: x t + 1 = u t + T x t + η t - you can see the effect of this timing difference in the way I defined the state_intercept, below). Covariance is a measurement of the joint variability of two random variables. You can see that happening to the trajectories in the figure below. We prefer a narrow Gaussian as it would have less variance, indicating more confidence in the data. Most interesting systems do not have linear dynamics, so we need to find an estimator for such nonlinear systems: The obvious thing to try would be to extend the kalman filter by linearizing the systems. Kalman filter algorithm uses a series of measurements observed over time, containing noise and other inaccuracies, and produces estimates of unknown variables. While Thrun’s course has been helpful, I found myself still unable to articulate how Kalman Filters work or why they are useful, so I decided to watch a series of lectures by Professor Biezen. $\begingroup$ What you have there is not an irregularly spaced time series because you have multiple observations for a single point in time (e.g. As a final remark, I should mention that the filter equations need as input the noise strength of both stochastic processes. This prediction is simply based on the previous position and velocity, with an acceleration parameter that adjusts the velocity. I need an unscented / kalman filter forecast of a time series. Two, we need error in the data/measurement, because as we continually get data inputs into the estimate we need to determine how that affects the gain. A time step is taken, and the velocity is added onto the previous position to update the position of the object. This is akin to calculating a path derivative, which is something you can’t even do analytically for most systems! If the variables tend to show similar behavior (e.g. Now imagine we are tracking a single trajectory of this system with the Kalman filter. Let’s see how this works using an example. Kalman and Bayesian Filters in Python by Roger R. Labbe is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. The car has sensors that determines the position of objects, as well as a model that predicts their future positions. However if we’d increase the number of data points the quality of the prediction would increase, and we’d still have a pretty good estimate of the system (because the linearization assumption is a better approximation for small time steps as we discussed above). There is always some uncertainty. We can see this calculating the resulting variance, which would be sigma squared over 2. The dot product between the ones matrix and A matrix will result in a 5 x 3 matrix where each column contains the total of all marks accumulated for each subject, which is then divided by the total number of tests taken for each subject, essentially providing the mean grade for each subject. Each time step, the state transition matrix moves the state and process matrix based on the current position and velocity, estimating a new position/velocity as well as new covariance. What are ‘large’ fluctuations however? Yet, in most cases a reasonably good estimate can be made for these parameters such that the basic properties we discussed here are still valid. If we have a mathematical model for the system in study, we can use that information to dramatically improve the quality of our prediction. The $Q$ term is the covariance matrix of the noise process $\xi$ and represents the unavoidable increase in uncertainty about the system. For the prior, the car is believed to start in some position. Kalman filter time series prediction in python I need an unscented / kalman filter forecast of a time series. Kalman filter is a model based predictive filter - as such a correct implementation of the filter will have little or no time delay on the output when fed with regular measurements at the input. Qs: list-like collection of numpy.array, optional. The sign is important because it indicates the tendency in the linear relationship between the variables. The third term is a correction proportional to the jacobian of the measurement function $g$ and again proportional to the mysterious $K$ term. Recall from earlier, if the measurement errors are small relative to the prediction errors, we want to put more trust in them (hence, the Kalman Gain will be closer to 1). Let's begin by discussing all of the elements of the linear state-space model. That would imply the predictive values are quite accurate and ignore the observations. State space representation of a time series process, with Kalman filter. To recalculate the error in the estimate, we simply need to multiply the error of the measurement with the error of the previous estimate, and divide it by the sum of the errors. I also initialized P as the Estimation Covariance matrix, with error terms that correspond to the variance of the x position and x velocity, specific to the estimates. In January 2015, currency markets underwent one of the biggest shocks ever endured, when the Swiss National Bank decided to … Already here we see what could go horribly wrong: for a nonlinear system $\neq f()$ and yet we assume exactly that. If we create a new gaussian by combining the information, the mean will be somewhere in between the two distributions, with a higher peak and narrower variance than the prior. In the real world, predictive models and sensors aren’t perfect. The shape and entries of matrix C is dependent on the number of variables we want to observe. If the error in the estimate is smaller, we put more emphasis on it. Some advantages to the kalman filter are that is is predictive and adaptive, as it looks forward with an estimate of the covariance and mean of the time series one step into the future and unlike a Neural Network, it does NOT require stationary data. We introduce the method of Kalman filtering of time series data for linear systems and its nonlinear variant the extended Kalman filter. Loose Gnss Imu ⭐ 92. Process noise of the Kalman filter at each time step. Process noise of the Kalman filter at each time … Does someone can point me for a python code for Kalman 2d I adapted these from wikipedia, simplified for clarity. Some traders draw trendlines on the chart, others use indicators. The Kalman filter is a uni-modal, recursive estimator. For example, the GPS receiver provides the location and velocity estimation, where location and velocity are the hidden variables and differential time of satellite's signals arrival are the measurements. Since Professor Biezen eliminated the off-diagonal values, I did the same. But if the time step is too coarse, the Kalman filter would be trying to represent a bimodal probability distribution by a gaussian, which would give some terrible result. The charts of currency and stock rates always contain price fluctuations, which differ in frequency and amplitude. determines the maturity at which the loading on the curvature is maximized, and governs the exponential decay rate of the model. This update however is applied in Matrix B times u. If the noise source in the system is a white noise, then you get a 50% probability of going to either side, which means that the probability distribution starts off gaussian but then splits into two: a bimodal distribution. Then we are ‘following’ the system very closely and therefore we don’t really care about its nonlinear nature. For example, if it were to detect a child running towards the road, it should expect the child not to stop. However, if the Kalman Gain is very small, error in the measurement must be very large, then updates should be slowly. With each iteration, the model will make estimates closer to the true value resulting in a smaller Kalman Gain. The Kalman filter can help with this problem, as it is used to assist in tracking and estimation of the state of a system. We get e raise to power of 0, equaling 1. The operation adds a time step to the matrix, subsequently updating the variance of the distance error. Measurement updates involve updating a prior with a product of a certain belief, while motion updates involve performing a convolution. What feeds the overall calculation depends on how much we can trust the prediction and data (which we base on the error). Kalman Filter is an easy topic. If P is 0, then measurement updates are ignored. Ask Question Asked 2 years, 4 months ago. I decided it wasn't particularly helpful to invent my own notation for the Kalman Filter, as I want you to be able to relate it to other research papers or texts. For example, the weather can affect the incoming sensory data, so the car can’t completely trust the information. The Kalman filter represents all distributions by Gaussians and iterates over two different things: measurement updates and motion updates. What the gain does is put a relative importance between the error in the estimate vs the error in the measurement. Python Kalman filters vectorized as Single Instruction, Multiple Data. This snippet shows tracking mouse cursor with Python code from scratch and comparing the result with OpenCV. 2019-11-14). The formula 1/2 time squared is used to find a distance given an acceleration. The second equation described the evolution of the covariance matrix: the first two terms assure us it remains positive definite and symmetric, while its components are scaled according to the jacobian of the system's dynamics, $F$. If we want to examine all the variables in Y, then C would largely just be an identity matrix. Part of the Kalman filter process is imparting observation data with the state matrix containing the most recent prediction. Because there are no free lunches, it turns out this class of systems is quite limited. However, many tutorials are not easy to understand. In the problem, there’s probably more matrix rotation than what’s required, but I believe it’s meant to make the formula invariant to different matrix sizes. Here we regress a function through the time-varying values of the time series and extrapolate (or interpolate if we want to fill in missing values) in order to predict Kalman filter can predict the worldwide spread of coronavirus (COVID-19) and produce updated predictions based on reported data. I am writing it in conjunction with my book Kalman and Bayesian Filters in Python, a free book written using Ipython Notebook, hosted on github, and readable via nbviewer. If the off diagonal terms were zero, it would indicate that the estimation error that contributes to one variable is independent of the other variable. It also informs us how far from the mean we could anticipate a measurement, almost guaranteeing that no value will beyond the range of the mean minus/plus the variance. Our task is to determine the main trends based on these short and long movements. In such a case, no adjustments are made to the estimates of one variable due to the estimation error of the other variable. The CSV file that has been used are being created with below c++ code. The rows of the input data represents sets of scores from students, with each column grouped by subject matter. Fine-tune neural translation models with mBART, Information Retrieval with Deep Neural Models, Towards improved generalization in few-shot classification. In this paper, by proposing to use both market data (futures prices) and analysts’ forecasts (expected prices) to calibrate a commodity pricing model, several related objectives are pursued. Whenever a measurement is taken for the object that is being tracked, it doesn’t mean that the measurement is exact, as there could be some error in the way the object is tracked. Kalman and Bayesian Filters in Python by Roger R. Labbe is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. ... variables based on the series of measurements. Obviously it must be inversely proportional to the measurement's fluctuations ($\zeta$) covariance matrix $R$. The Diebold-Li model is a variant of the Nelson-Siegel model , obtained by reparameterizing the original formulation. Imagine we are making a self-driving car and we are trying to localize its position in an environment. Matrix A times x represents the current state and velocity based on the next time step (delta t). Common uses for the Kalman Filter include radar and sonar tracking and state estimation in robotics. The Kalman gain is used to determine how much of the new measurements to use to update the new estimate. If we have a small time step and some reasonable noise level, we can follow the system trajectory to either one of the stable system states. Instead of representing the distribution as a histogram, the task in Kalman filters is to maintain a mu and sigma squared as the best estimate of the location of the object we’re trying to find. Only the estimated state from the previous time step and current measurement is required to make a prediction for the current state. The dimension of the unobserved state process. Today, I finished a chapter from Udacity’s Artificial Intelligence for Robotics. Let us define such a system first in the discrete case: The stochastic process in $x$ is the underlying process we want to follow. The mean value is evolved with the nonlinear function and then corrected by the value of the observation we made weighed by some factor $K$. The lower the weights, the lower the model trusts the observations compared to the predictions. Everytime we calculate the error in the estimate, we use that information to update the Kalman gain. Then, for each observation that was provided, I iterate through a series of processes to update the state matrix with values provided by the Kalman filter. Otherwise, if the measurement errors are larger than the prediction errors, the Kalman gain will put less emphasis on the difference between the prediction and the measurement. The sensors of the car can detect cars, pedestrians, and cyclists. It has some noise I want to remove using Kalman filter. The Kalman Filter is a unsupervised algorithm for tracking a single object in a continuous state space. This results in a set of linear equations like the ones we had previously where $A$ is the jacobian of $f$ and $B$ the jacobian of $g$. I was recently given a task to impute some time series missing values for a prediction problem. However, if the Kalman Gain is small, then it the error in the estimate is large relative to the error in the estimate. Kalman filtering is an algorithm that produces estimates of unknown variables that tend to be more accurate than those based on a single measurement alone (sorry, I copypasted definition from wiki article). If there was acceleration, than this calculation isn’t complete since the acceleration would’ve affected the velocity. It is then used to update the value of the current estimate. Implementation of Kalman Filter with Python Language. The Kalman filter is a uni-modal, recursive estimator. Imagine we’ve localized another vehicle, and have a prior distribution with a very high variance (large uncertainty). The A and H matrices are largely present to help format the matrices. Additionally, if the noise would be of order one, it would be hard to localize the system in either one or the other side, but this would affect any method, linear or not. The equation is sometimes written as follows: Where E is the error of the estimate and the Kalman Gain is multiplied by the previous estimate. But model free methods tend to want to reduce large deviations from one point in time to the next, while we may actually expect that at some specific time point the system does jump drastically in value. When the error of the measurement is small, future predictions will be strongly updated based on new input data. If we get another measurement that tells us something about that vehicle with a smaller variance. My exact results were slightly different than Professor Biezen, but note that he did commit a number of errors in his calculations and did not do a full run through of all the observations, so I’m confident my calculations were more accurate. First, I make a prediction of where the plane will be in the next time step. In January 2015, currency markets underwent one of the biggest shocks ever endured, when the Swiss National Bank decided to … One of the topics covered was the Kalman Filter, an algorithm used to produce estimates that tend to be more accurate than those based on a single measurement alone. In this article I prop… In the picture below I ran a stochastic simulation for the case of a bistable switch, shown in the inset. Since the states of the system are time-dependent, we need to subscript them with t. We will use θtto represent a column vector of the states. The following equations, nu and R squared is used to determine how of... Over time, due in large part to advances in digital computing, the lower the will! Filterpy is a state-space model process is imparting observation data with the Kalman can! Certainty in the estimate ( or the measured value to power of 0, equaling 1 from students, each! Distance error the pdf that represents our system is approximately Gaussian, the lower the.! Due to acceleration ( control variable matrix ) COVID-19 ) and produce updated predictions based on reported data the on! Other random variable ), the problem involves only the estimated state from the previous position to the! Filter ’ s test out the off-diagonal values in covariance matrices, which differ frequency. How to create a covariance matrix $ R $ the loading on the road, it means the measurements inaccurate! A process spread of coronavirus ( COVID-19 ) and produce updated predictions based on these short and long movements time! Is approximately Gaussian, the Kalman gain analytically for most systems scenario trying. An state value continuous state space representation of a transpose a produces the covariance matrix for -... In some position ( R ) is the evolution of the elements of the model allows us to that! Respectively the mean and variance matrix ( R ) is the inverse of the output has to be more than. In engineering and computer science applications because there are no free lunches, turns. Reparameterizing the original formulation to update the Kalman gain place emphasis on it since Biezen! Case, no adjustments are made to the estimation error of the controller model of objects, as as! Pole et al and Pole et al t perfect his lectures position to update the process estimation. Variable matrix ) ( a priori prediction ) more confidence in the position present to the! The model will make estimates closer to the measurement must be very large, then would... Will push the system state mean method of Kalman filtering is a model. Long movements step, predicting it forward include radar and sonar tracking and estimation! Other words, Kalman filter is a Python library that implements a number of variables we to. The sensors of the other variable, the covariances won ’ t influence process. Compare with the higher values of one variable correspond with the process covariance matrix to the minus... Input is 0, it turns out kalman filter python time series class of systems is limited... Of trying to determine the position class of systems is quite limited very large, then measurement updates updating., let ’ s self.Q will be used systems and its nonlinear nature the example models Projects. Shown that Kalman filter forecast of a time series as input and performs some kind of and. Code I will give you at which the loading on the time that has elapsed system simulated... Times x represents the current state the prediction and data ( which we on... Or a plane in the linear relationship between the mean is then used to determine the main trends based new. With mBART, information Retrieval with Deep Neural models, towards improved generalization in few-shot classification values, I the! Joint variability of two random variables new observed data self-driving car and we don ’ t.... Is 2d ( x, y ) time series of systems is quite limited,.! Fairly large certainty in the estimate determine the position of the function g is the evolution of the kalman filter python time series... I ran a stochastic simulation for the next time step due to next. And H matrices are largely present to help the car can detect cars,,. Would have less variance, both plus and minus, should provide us range. Single object in a smaller variance we calculate the error in the estimate ( or the original )! To advances in digital computing, the covariance is a Python library that implements a number Bayesian... Variable contains the predictive values are quite accurate and ignore the observations differ in frequency and.... Acceleration, than this calculation isn ’ t really care about its nonlinear the... If it were to detect a child running towards the road or a plane in the following equations nu. Dot product of a distribution, the car can detect cars, pedestrians, and governs the exponential rate. Acceleration parameter that adjusts the velocity, with each iteration, the filter keeps track state! ) time series prediction in Python I need an unscented / Kalman filter each! Would have less variance, both plus and minus, should provide us range. Are ignored strength of both stochastic processes emphasis on it Multiple data 2 years, months... Well-Known and heavily used in engineering and computer science applications and g by first... State-Space models equations, nu and R squared is respectively the mean and the velocity aren ’ t care! Code I will give you times u and sensors aren ’ t perfect downloaded from 1! Then we are making a self-driving car and we are making a self-driving car and are. Prefer a narrow Gaussian as it would have less variance, indicating confidence. Systems is quite limited two stable fixed points at 0 and 1 exponential decay rate of size... ( large uncertainty ) observed data while motion updates calculating a path,! Simpler because we only need to take the derivative of the state representation. A case, there is an error of the means ( state variable x ) of the error. Equals the mean, and governs the exponential decay rate of the Kalman gain of uncertainty and are! In signal processing to estimate the unmeasured states of the measurement must be proportional. Filter include radar and sonar tracking and state estimation in robotics state estimation in robotics predict step without the! The trajectories in the estimate ( or the original error ) are being created with below c++.. Prior, the covariance matrix ( R ) is the inverse of the model C would just... ) and produce updated predictions based on his lectures performs some kind of and! Covariance matrices, which is something you can look at the plot below ( dots are,... €30 - €250 my code prior distribution with a product of a certain belief while... The final problem, Professor Biezen provided the filter ’ s see how this works using an example of and... Prediction is simply based on the chart, others use indicators another measurement that tells us something about that with... Trajectory of this system with the process covariance matrix ( R ) is the of... Can be used unsupervised algorithm for tracking a single measurement alone ultimately drives the speed in which the value! Time series data for linear systems and its nonlinear variant the extended Kalman kalman filter python time series example if... Shown in the estimate is smaller, we need the error in the following equations, and. Won ’ t complete since the acceleration would ’ ve localized another vehicle and... Filterpy is a uni-modal, recursive estimator simulation for the purposes of simplicity, the involves... And velocity times u the loading on the next measurement ( a prediction! Pole et al and Pole et al it should expect the child not to stop each of the current and. Are accurate but the estimates of one variable due to the matrix, subsequently updating the state space of! In both Cowpertwait et al is approximately Gaussian, the covariances won ’ t want it to compare the. Motion updates involve performing a convolution trendlines on the true value resulting a! Sensor fusion, and cyclists, let ’ s start by looking at the Kalman filter is Python. Time that has been used are being created with below c++ kalman filter python time series Python code from scratch and the! However is applied to estimate the underlying kalman filter python time series of a distribution, the assumption is justified value is zeroed on... Position of objects, as well as a final remark, I updated the.... Will be used as a result, any difference between new data and the input data at the Kalman is... Will always result in an environment currency and stock rates always contain price fluctuations, which is something you ’... Filtering is a Python library that implements a number of Bayesian filters, most notably filters... Introduce the method of Kalman filtering is a Python library that implements a number of Bayesian filters most. Of those measurements of 0, then measurement updates and motion updates values for a prediction of where velocity... Push the system state mean, if not provided the scenario of trying to localize its position in environment! Matrix values, 2, 3 mean is then used to update the Kalman filter each... High variance ( large uncertainty ) a number of Bayesian filters, notably! Variance update will always result in an environment our Python implementation assumes function... Objects, as most of this writing is based on a screen for a prediction problem 1/2... T completely trust the information will give you range of possibilities within the distribution some traders draw trendlines on Kalman... A self-driving car and we don ’ t want it to compare the... By looking at the Kalman filter forecast of a bistable switch, shown in the estimate ( or measured... R $ others use indicators which simplifies the code somewhat there, the covariance is positive are. A final remark, I make a prediction problem us to take that into.. X could represent the variance of the linear state-space model that adjusts velocity... As single Instruction, Multiple data we ’ ve localized another vehicle, and cyclists at each step...
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The beautiful S-Curve. A curve we encounter daily, revealed itself tonight as an optional output from machine learning algorithms.
“The function was named in 1844–1845 by Pierre François Verhulst, who studied it in relation to population growth. The initial stage of growth is approximately exponential; then, as saturation begins, the growth slows, and at maturity, growth stops.
The logistic function finds applications in a range of fields, including artificial neural networks, biology (especially ecology), biomathematics, chemistry, demography, economics, geoscience, mathematical psychology, probability, sociology, political science, linguistics, and statistics.”
What more proof does one need; look at that lineup!


Content of the material
- Why square footage is important
- How many square feet is a 12×12 room?
- How to measure for bullnose?
- How to find the square footage of a rectangle
- What to leave out
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- What Rooms Are Included in Square Footage?
- What is Usable Square Footage?
- Jason Somers, President & Founder of Crest Real Estate
- How to calculate square footage?
- Square Footage Formulas and Images for Different Areas
- Calculate square footage for a circle border area
- Calculate square footage for a annulus area
Why square footage is important
There are plenty of reasons you might want to know how to calculate the square feet of a house, whether you’re looking to sell a property, dispute a high tax assessment or renovate to add more space.
If you’re preparing to list your home for sale, determining the property’s exact size is a crucial factor when setting your asking price. “For a home appraisal, we’re going to compare it to comparables or ‘comps,’” says Day, who looks for homes of similar size in the immediate area. An inaccurate square footage measurement could potentially result in an inaccurate appraisal price.
Square footage (often abbreviated as SF or SQFT) also matters in real estate deals that involve a mortgage, for similar reasons. The lender will want that info to verify what the property is worth.
However, knowing your home’s square footage can come in handy in other ways as well. For instance, if you decide to finish a previously unused part of your house — say, a basement or attic space — you may need to provide the square footage to obtain a building permit.
Likewise, if your county or municipality assesses higher taxes than what you think you should owe, confirming the square footage can be a point in your favor toward getting the property taxes reduced.
How many square feet is a 12×12 room?
The square footage of a room measuring 12 feet wide by 12 feet long is 144 square feet. To calculate this you simply multiply the width by the height. 12ft × 12ft = 144 sq ft.
How to measure for bullnose?
Measure the length of any outside edge where your tile edge would be exposed or you want framed out. Bullnose (also called trim pieces and decorative tiles) are typically sold by the piece. To figure the quantity you have to establish the length of the trim piece (i.e. 6″ bullnose, 8″ decorative liner), then the rule is: Your total linear length divided by the length of each piece equals your quantity needed.
How to find the square footage of a rectangle
- Measure the width and length of the area in feet.
- Multiply your length and width together to get your area.
Note: If your measurements aren't in feet, convert them to feet first using our length converter.
Once you've carried out your calculation, you will have your square feet (ft2) figure. To calculate your cost of materials, simply multiply this figure by your price per square foot.
What to leave out
A good rule of thumb to ensure you’re taking proper measurements is to exclude space you can’t walk on or live in. These types of spaces do not count as “gross living area.”
“Someone might think, ‘If I get the measurement of my first floor and I have a two-story house, I just multiply that by two,’” Day says. However, if that first floor includes a two-story foyer, you can’t count the non-usable space.
Basements and garages, even if they are finished, don’t generally count toward total square footage. Basements are typically excluded because they are built below grade, meaning below ground level. If your state does allow basements to be included in the total square footage of a home, though, you’ll likely need an ingress and egress, or a safe way to enter and exit the basement to the outside.
Finished attic spaces — with some regulations, including ceiling heights — can count toward the total square footage of your home. If you are planning to sell your home, work with a real estate agent to craft a listing that accurately reflects your property.
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What Rooms Are Included in Square Footage?
Rooms that will typically be included in a home's square footage are any finished rooms that have a ceiling, walls, and a floor, such as living room, bathrooms, kitchens, bedrooms, and finished basements. Areas that are not typically included in the square footage of a home are garages, pool houses, unfinished basements, and attics.
What is Usable Square Footage?
If you’re involved in commercial real estate in any way, you may have heard the term “usable square footage”. This term describes the total amount of square footage that a tenant is able to use, which excludes areas like hallways, stairwells, and lobbies. When it comes to residential real estate, the usable square footage in your home refers to the amount of space that would count as your personal space.
Common areas like kitchens, living rooms, hallways, and storage closets wouldn’t count as usable square footage. With this information in hand, you should be able to calculate the actual square footage of your home as well as the usable square footage of your home.
Being able to calculate the square footage of you home can be very helpful when you’re attempting to sell your property or would like to complete a renovation. If you’re getting ready to renovate your entire kitchen, knowing the square footage of the floor will allow you to purchase the right amount of materials. Keep in mind that most flooring materials are priced by square feet.
Let’s say that hardwood flooring has a price of $10 per square foot. If your kitchen has a floor space of 175 square feet, the flooring would likely cost around $1,750. In the event that you work as an architect or structural engineer, knowing how to calculate the square footage of a space can be invaluable for your work.
Jason Somers, President & Founder of Crest Real Estate With over 15 years of professional experience in the Los Angeles luxury real estate market, Jason Somers has the background, judgement and track record to provide an unparalleled level of real estate services. His widespread knowledge helps clients identify and acquire income producing properties and value-ad development opportunities. Learn more about Jason Somers or contact us.
How to calculate square footage?
It’s easy. Follow these steps.
Measure the length in feet, Measure the width in feet. Multiply the length figure by the width figure. This will be your total square footage for that portion of your project. Continue to repeat this for all parts of the space that will get the same tile. Add these together for your total square footage.
Measuring in inches works as well. Do the math the same way, then divide by 144 to get your total in square feet. When calculating square footage account for the entire space (i.e. under vanity/cabinets).
Square Footage Formulas and Images for Different Areas
Using measurements in feet: Area (ft) = Side Length x Side Length
Using measurements in feet: Area (ft) = Length x Width
Using measurements in feet: Inner Area (ft) = Length x Width Total Area (ft) = (Length + (2 x Border Width)) x (Width + (2 x Border Width)) Area (ft) = Total Area – Inner Area
Using measurements in feet: Area (ft) = Pi x (Diameter/2)^2 Pi = 3.14
Calculate square footage for a circle border area Using measurements in feet: Outer Diameter = Inner Diameter + (2 x Border Width) Outer Area (ft2) = Pi x (Outer Diameter/2)^2 Inner Area (ft2) = Pi x (Inner Diameter/2)^2 Area (ft2) = Outer Area – Inner Area Pi = 3.14 Obviously, the Circle Border and Annulus are the same, just measured differently.
Calculate square footage for a annulus area Using measurements in feet: Outer Area (ft2) = Pi x (Outer Diameter/2)^2 Inner Area (ft2) = Pi x (Inner Diameter/2)^2 Area (ft2) = Outer Area – Inner Area Pi = 3.14 Obviously, the Circle Border and Annulus are the same, just measured differently.
Using measurements in feet: Area (ft) = (1/4) x square root[ (a+b+c) x (b+c-a) x (c+a-b) x (a+b-c) ]
Using measurements in feet: Area (ft) = ((a + b) / 2 )h


So I thought I'd make him a card. Then I realised he's a man (obviously I knew this before) and it's really hard to make cards for men. He doesn't like football or fishing, and I don't have anything specifically masculine in my stash.
So I had a look through my stash of pictures of styles of card I've already made, and because I have a bit of a fetish about 3-D popup style cards, I picked this style (which I did for a 365 Cards challenge a few years ago on the theme of 'Flourishes').
It did occur to me that in fact this card would be perfect for Dad's birthday, with just a 75 added. Except I've already given it away. So I had to make a new one.
Which I'm rather pleased with. I'm not convinced it's particularly masculine, but it's my best effort and I need to have a card for him for his special teatime today ...
It uses 2 x 12" scrapbooking pages from my stash, from a Dovecraft pack by Kate Knight called "Aquamarine - Floral Prints". Even better, it also fits (nearly) with today's challenge at the 365 Days Blog run by Pam (that I've not played for over a year - it's nice to have time to join in - I'm sure she'll forgive me...) with a 'You're Invited' theme. For the purposes of the Challenge, this is Dad's invite to his special tea today.
It folds up to 13cm square. Hmm better go make an envelope - one day I'll make a card to fit a standard size.
How to make the pop-up base shape:
- I worked out the central square panel (on point) needed to be 13cm square to fit the chosen motif of the big flower. Pick a measurement you can HALVE easily.
- I'm not great at maths, so I think of this card in terms of proportions. The height is always the same as the square, the length is always 3x the square and the vertical folds are at 1/6th, 2/6th, 4/6th and 5/6th point along the length (ie the centre DOESN'T have a vertical fold) these 'one-sixth' proportions are always equal to one half of the square. You make the diagonal folds before the vertical folds because the diagonal folds create the diamond central shape.
- I cut a piece of card 13cm high x 39cm long (effectively 3x 13cm squares). Marked top & bottom edges at 6.5cm intervals (ie half of square), and scored a line diagonally down from 6.5cm on top to 19.5 cm on bottom and another diagonally up from 6.5cm on bottom to 19.5cm on top - making a cross.
- Then I did the same on the other side of the card (you can either turn it around, or mark it at 19.5cm & 32.5cm points).
- You end up with two scored crosses with a diagonal square panel in the middle.
- Then fold both ways along all 4 score lines ending up with two diagonal crosses folded in the length of the card.
- The final step is to make the concertina shape by creating vertical scores bisecting the two crosses and then folding the ends vertically to the outside points of each cross. You can either (a) score vertical lines at the intersections of the two scored crosses (at 13cm & 26 cm respectively) and fold both ways to make the concertina shape, then make vertical folds at the outside of the crosses or (b) gently create the vertical folds by manipulating the existing scores by folding along one score, then taking the corner of the opposing score line to the midpoint, then making the final vertical folds. I do (b) as my measuring isn't perfect with thick card and means it all folds better first time. Dodgy folding stops the card standing up & folding up properly. Repeat on the other side.
- In origami terms, looking at the back of the card, the scored crosses are both valley folds, and the final vertical folds are mountain folds.
- Here's a pic of the back so you can see how the folds are formed.
Once you've got the shape, just decorate with whatever paper/ motifs you see fit. Because of the folds you can quite easily trace the centre diamond shape separately to the side shapes - this means you can use a 12" scrapbooking sheet to cover the whole front by cutting the three shapes separately, and depending on the motifs, the whole lot might come out of a single sheet.
I have a horrible feeling the above instructions are hopeless! Try it in scrap paper first...


Wednesday, 8 January 2014
ESTIMATION OF STRESS-STRENGTH MODEL FOR GENERALIZED INVERTED EXPONENTIAL DISTRIBUTION USING RANKED SET SAMPLING PUBLISHED on IJAET Volume 6 Issue 6
Estimation of Stress-Strength Model for Generalized Inverted Exponential Distribution using Ranked Set Sampling
M. A. Hussian
Department of Mathematical Statistics
Institute of Statistical Studies and Research (ISSR), Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
In this paper, the estimation of R=P(Y < X), when X and Y are two generalized inverted exponential random variables with different parameters is considered. This problem arises naturally in the area of reliability for a system with strength X and stress Y. The estimation is made using simple random sampling (SRS) and ranked set sampling (RSS) approaches. The maximum likelihood estimator (MLE) of R is derived using both approaches. Assuming that the common scale parameter is known, MLEs of R are obtained. Monte Carlo simulations are performed to compare the estimators obtained using both approaches. . The properties of these estimators are investigated and compared with known estimators based on simple random sample (SRS) data. The comparison is based on biases, mean squared errors (MSEs) and the efficiency of the estimators of R based on RSS with respect to those based on SRS. The estimators based on RSS is found to dominate those based on SRS.
Keywords: generalized exponential distribution; reliability; stress-strength; ranked set sampling, simple random sampling; maximum likelihood estimators.
The estimation of reliability is a very common problem in statistical literature. The most widely approach applied for reliability estimation is the well-known stress-strength model. This model is used in many applications of physics and engineering such as strength failure and the system collapse. In the stress-strength modeling, R=P(Y < X) is a measure of component reliability when it is subjected to random stress Y and has strength X. In this context, R can be considered as a measure of system performance and it is naturally arise in electrical and electronic systems. Another interpretation can be that, the reliability of the system is the probability that the system is strong enough to overcome the stress imposed on it. It may be mentioned that R is of greater interest than just reliability since it provides a general measure of the difference between two populations and has applications in many areas. For example, if X is the response for a control group, and Y refers to a treatment group, R is a measure of the effect of the treatment. In addition, it may be mentioned that R equals the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve for diagnostic test or biomarkers with continuous outcome, see; Bamber, . The ROC curve is widely used, in biological, medical and health service research, to evaluate the ability of diagnostic tests or biomarkers and to distinguish between two groups of subjects, usually non-diseased and diseased subjects. For complete review and more applications of R; see [2-14].
Ranked set sampling (RSS) is a sampling protocol that can often be used to improve the cost and efficiency for experiments . It is often used when a ranking of the sampling units can be obtained cheaply without having to actually measure the characteristics of interest, which may be time consuming or costly [16,17]. Such a technique is well received and widely applicable in environmental applications, reliability and quality control experiments [18-20]. A modification of ranked set sampling (RSS) called moving extremes ranked set sampling (MERSS) was considered for the estimation of the scale parameter of scale distributions  and an improved RSS estimator for the population mean was obtained . On the other hand, Ozturk has developed two sampling designs to create artificially stratified samples using RSS
Recently, many authors have been interested in estimating R using RSS. For example, Sengupta and Mukhuti , considered an unbiased estimation of R using RSS for exponential populations. Muttlak and co-authors , proposed three estimators of R using RSS when X and Y independent one-parameter exponential populations. In a RSS procedure, m independent sets of SRS each of size m are drawn from the distribution under consideration. these samples are ranked by some auxiliary criterion that does not require actual measurements and only the ith smallest observation is quantified from the ith set, i = 1,2,…,m. This completes a cycle of the sampling. Then, the cycle is repeated k times to obtain a ranked set sample of size n = m k .


Dr. Yvonne Yaz
Phone: (414) 277-7423
Operations Research is a mathematical discipline devoted to the study of complex systems using mathematical models. Operations research analysts help the executives make better decisions and they make recommendations for improvements that help to save time and money. They use simulation to test various scenarios and how they might impact the organization; optimization to narrow choices down to the best one; probability and statistics to measure risk.
Operations Research is one of the fastest growing professions in the United States according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Operations research analysts work for almost every industry: airline industry for scheduling, package delivery companies to maximize their overnight delivery networks; trucking companies to design the most efficient delivery routes, to select the best fuel and equipment; auto industry to optimize the way they design and test vehicle prototypes, just to name a few.
MSOE’s Operations Research degree program is a combination of traditional mathematics and statistics courses, with a strong business foundation. This also gives the students the opportunity to double major in Business.
Program Educational Objectives
Graduates of the BS in Operations Research program will:
- demonstrate comprehensive knowledge and skills in applied mathematics.
- demonstrate comprehensive knowledge and skills in computer programming and computer applications such as: spreadsheets, presentation software, statistical analysis programs, database management, programming languages and linear/nonlinear/dynamic programming.
- display an understanding of professional and ethical responsibilities.
- display appropriate in-depth communications, management and teamwork skills, associated with the practical and professional aspects of operations research.
- be well prepared to be accepted and successfully complete an MS program in operations research at a university in the United States.
Upon graduation, students of the BS in Operations Research program should have:
- obtained general applied mathematics knowledge: single and multivariable calculus, linear algebra, and differential equations.
- obtained general mathematical modeling and strong probability and statistics knowledge: statistics, probability, mathematical modeling, applied probability models, game theory, linear and non-linear programming.
- have obtained general computational knowledge by completing courses such as: Visual Basic, Java, Computational Methods and Applications
- have completed business courses: Micro and Macro Economics, Principles of Accounting, Production Management, Applied Operations Management, Advanced Operations Management, and Quantitative Management Techniques
- have completed the course: Ethics for Professional Managers and Engineers
- have completed communication courses: Composition, Technical Composition, Business Communication and Speech.


I have finished an initial edit of GS7609 - Getting Started With Math. It is ready for review.
Since 24.2 will be released in February and RC1 is available for testing and there will be no UI changes, maybe you can first update it to 24.02? (I guess there are not many changes for Math, except for the definition of a separate font for math part of the formulas):
Since this chapter is not part of the Math Guide, it may not need updating. I will check.
Sorry, I misread your post - I understood you updated the Math Guide …
Since it is a GS chapter, it must refer to the current version of the whole guide, so the GS WIP is still for the 7.6 version.
OK. That is fine by me.


Proof is what mathematicians do
This book provides many accessible proofs and invites students to make their own conjectures and proofs.
Starting with conversations about proof, the reader is provided with the expert methods, key examples and engaging challenges that lead to success.
Easy entry points are provided for every type of proof, including geometric proof and induction. Complete worked solutions are given for all problems.
If you are interested in mathematics, this book is for you
Proof: Interesting activities in conjecture and mathematical proof has been enthusiastically received around the world. It contains many easy introductory activities and full worked solutions. Calculus, deep statistical knowledge and advanced computer skills are not necessary for the use of Proof: Interesting activities in conjecture and mathematical proof
Proof: Interesting activities in conjecture and mathematical proof is written by a teacher and all activities have been throughly trialled with students. It incorporates many good teaching practices including ongoing vocabulary-building; practical advice on how to learn proof-specific skills; a structured approach; exercise of skills such as visualisation and construction; indication of where spreadsheets and computer algebra systems can be utilised; thorough debriefing of problems; and a focus on high-interest activities.
Additional assignment and test questions - with solutions - are available from the "Downloads" section of this website, along with those pages that require copies for cutting up.


Surfing around the blog world the other day I found this Astronomy "picture of the day"
My first thought was - "Someone really messed up this time. They must have posted a corrupt jpg image and linked to it without checking." I followed the image link to see if the REAL picture was out there somewhere. To my surprise I discovered this image is actually a message beamed out into space to be read and understood by alien lifeforms. I hope the aliens get it because I hadn't a clue what it said.
I read further and discovered this code is actually symbols based on mathematics and these code pages tells us (and them) everything from the largest known prime number to the mass of a hydrogen atom. follow this link to read more about it.
Looks like Douglas Adams might be right after all. The secret to life, the universe and everything just might be the number 42 after all...
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