Dogs

or

Robots

Why

do

Children

see

them

as

Robotic

Pets

rather

than

Canine

Machines

In

the

not

too

distant

future

Intelligent

Creatures

-LRB-

robots

smart

devices

smart

vehicles

smart

buildings

etc

-RRB-

will

share

the

everyday

living

environment

of

human

beings

It

is

important

then

to

analyze

the

attitudes

humans

are

to

adopt

for

interaction

with

morphologically

different

devices

based

on

their

appearance

and

behavior

In

particular

these

devices

will

become

multi-modal

interfaces

with

computers

or

networks

of

computers

for

a

large

and

complex

universe

of

applications

Our

results

show

that

children

are

quickly

attached

to

the

word

dog

reflecting

a

conceptualization

that

robots

that

look

like

dogs

-LRB-

in

particular

SONY

Aibo

-RRB-

are

closer

to

living

dogs

than

they

are

to

other

devices

By

contrast

adults

perceive

Aibo

as

having

stronger

similarities

to

machines

than

to

dogs

-LRB-

reflected

by

definitions

of

robot

-RRB-

Illustration

of

the

characteristics

structured

in

the

definition

of

robot

are

insufficient

to

convince

children

Aibo

is

closer

to

a

machine

than

to

a

dog

The

play

R.

U.

R.

-LRB-

Rossum

's

Universal

Robots

-RRB-

written

by

the

Czech

author

Karel

Capek

was

produced

in

London

in

The

term

robot

entered

the

English

language

-LRB-

in

Czech

the

word

robota

means

heavy

labor

-RRB-

The

robot

concept

remained

science

fiction

until

when

Unimation

Inc.

installed

the

world

's

first

industrial

robot

in

the

US

Unimation

Inc.

made

Australia

's

first

robot

installed

in

The

emergence

of

legged

autonomous

robots

and

their

commercial

release

-LRB-

as

in

Honda

's

Asimo

and

Sony

's

Aibo

-RRB-

contribute

to

support

the

hypothesis

that

mobile

robots

will

soon

become

common

in

our

everyday

environments

The

commercial

release

of

the

Personal

Computer

-LRB-

PC

-RRB-

occurred

just

a

generation

ago

yet

now

it

is

a

common

household

item

This

forecast

has

prompted

some

studies

into

the

acceptabil-Copyright

c

Australian

Computer

Society

Inc.

This

paper

appeared

at

Australasian

User

Interface

Conference

-LRB-

-RRB-

Dunedin

Conferences

in

Research

and

Practice

in

Information

Technology

Vol

A.

Cockburn

Ed

Reproduction

for

academic

not-for

profit

purposes

permitted

provided

this

text

is

included

This

work

was

supported

by

a

Griffith

University

Research

Grant

as

part

of

the

project

Robots

to

guide

the

blind

the

application

of

physical

collaborative

autonomous

intelligent

agents

ity

and

attitudes

these

artifacts

generate

among

human

beings

-LRB-

Fong

Nourbakhsh

Dautenhahn

-RRB-

For

example

Kahn

et

al

have

recently

embarked

on

a

series

of

studies

with

children

-LRB-

Kahn

Jr.

Friedman

Freier

Severson

-RRB-

and

adults

-LRB-

Kahn

Jr.

Friedman

Hagman

-RRB-

investigating

matters

such

as

humans

attributing

social

and

ethical

stance

to

robots

like

Sony

's

Aibo

Earlier

Bumby

and

Dautenhahn

-LRB-

Bumby

Dautenhahn

-RRB-

explored

reactions

of

children

as

they

interacted

with

a

robot

Reports

have

recently

appeared

in

the

media

of

cases

where

humans

also

build

emotional

attachments

to

robots

that

do

not

look

like

animals

similar

to

those

they

have

for

home

pets

An

example

is

the

robotic

vacuum

cleaners

in

-LRB-

Kahney

-RRB-

While

some

experts

in

childhood

development

argue

that

the

use

of

robot-dolls

-LRB-

machines

with

realism

-RRB-

in

children

's

environments

cuts

off

open-ended

imaginative

play

there

are

some

studies

showing

that

intelligent

children

will

still

explore

beyond

the

limitations

of

the

machine

Similar

concerns

about

other

technologies

have

been

also

subject

of

debate

For

example

the

concerns

about

children

reducing

their

play

with

other

children

or

increasingly

aggressive

behavior

because

of

computer

games

can

be

attributed

more

to

exposure

to

the

type

of

game

than

to

the

technology

of

computer

games

themselves

-LRB-

Lawry

Upitis

Klawe

Anderson

Inkpen

Ndunda

Hsu

Leroux

Sedighian

-RRB-

Researchers

have

found

that

children

-LRB-

in

particular

boys

-RRB-

will

entertain

and

seek

more

challenging

and

interesting

computer

games

-LRB-

not

necessarily

violent

games

-RRB-

and

that

there

is

no

observable

increase

in

violent

behavior

or

deterioration

in

social

behavior

-LRB-

Lawry

et

al.

-RRB-

Recent

studies

have

focused

on

the

attitudes

gen-erated

by

Sony

's

Aibo

on

humans

we

propose

here

to

explore

the

differences

between

Dog

-LRB-

as

in

living

animal

-RRB-

and

Robot

-LRB-

as

in

lifeless

machine

assembled

from

parts

-RRB-

in

the

concepts

and

language

formations

in

children

Naturally

the

smaller

the

difference

the

more

it

is

likely

that

humans

will

attribute

animal

characteristics

-LRB-

as

high

up

as

rights

-RRB-

to

a

robot

The

question

is

what

makes

a

small

or

a

large

difference

If

the

difference

is

very

small

perhaps

humans

will

interact

with

autonomous

robots

as

they

do

with

animals

We

suggest

that

in

today

's

children

's

world

the

issue

is

not

confusion

between

reality

and

fantasy

-LRB-

Aylett

-RRB-

To

a

child

Sony

's

Aibo

is

not

a

fantasy

but

reality

Identification

of

what

makes

children

perceive

a

robot

as

a

dog

-LRB-

an

animal

-RRB-

or

as

a

robot

is

important

especially

if

one

wants

to

design

robots

stressing

the

difference

or

diluting

it

Our

research

reveals

that

the

look

and

feel

of

Sony

's

Aibo

and

its

body

shape

go

a

long

way

into

its

acceptability

as

a

dog

Its

ful

behavior

tail

wagging

legged

walk

recovery

from

falls

sitting

and

hand

shaking

are

absorbed

into

the

child

's

mind

Later

illustration

of

its

robotic

features

are

repeatedly

insufficient

to

fully

convince

the

children

that

this

is

an

artifact

-LRB-

and

not

a

being

with

feelings

-RRB-

Unless

Aibo

does

something

unacceptable

for

a

dog

-LRB-

like

speak

with

a

human

voice

-RRB-

it

remains

essentially

a

dog

Our

findings

that

human

speech

in

Aibo

reduces

its

dog-ness

and

increases

its

robot-ness

may

be

attributed

to

the

uncanny

valley

-LRB-

Scheeff

Pinto

Rahardja

Snibbe

Tow

-RRB-

Although

we

are

not

measuring

emotional

response

we

have

observed

dissatisfaction

with

Aibo

as

a

dog

since

clearly

it

is

only

humans

that

talk

-LRB-

although

children

accept

talking

toys

and

talking

animals

in

fantasy

or

animated

movies

-RRB-

The

rest

of

this

paper

is

organized

as

follows

Section

will

describe

our

research

methods

Section

will

elaborate

on

the

findings

Section

will

present

conclusions

and

final

remarks

Our

aim

is

to

explore

and

contrast

the

properties

currently

accepted

in

the

definition

of

mobile

autonomous

robot

The

International

Federation

of

Robotics

-LRB-

IFR

-RRB-

and

the

Australian

Robot

Association

follow

the

ISO

standard

vocabulary

-LRB-

ISO

-RRB-

to

describe

manipulating

industrial

robots

operated

in

a

manufacturing

environ-ment

A

robot

has

three

essential

characteristics

It

possesses

some

form

of

mobility

-LRB-

formally

a

robot

must

possess

at

least

three

programmable

axes

of

motion

-RRB-

It

can

be

programmed

to

accomplish

a

large

variety

of

tasks

After

being

programmed

it

operates

automati-cally

Mobile

robots

can

move

away

from

a

fixed

location

and

come

in

two

varieties

tethered

and

autonomous

a

tethered

robot

may

have

its

power

supply

or

its

control

unit

overboard

possibly

relying

on

a

desktop

computer

and

a

wall

outlet

and

a

long

cord

Autonomous

mobile

robots

bring

everything

along

-LRB-

control

unit

body

actuators

sensors

and

power

supply

-RRB-

The

control

unit

is

typically

a

computer

and

software

Our

research

attempts

to

find

out

if

children

do

indeed

notice

these

properties

or

fixate

more

on

the

form

and

behavior

of

the

artifact

This

research

was

performed

by

a

series

of

demonstrations

of

Aibo

and

other

robots

toys

and

models

in

particular

using

Lego

Mindstorms

constructions

-LRB-

Knudsen

-RRB-

remote

control

toy

cars

and

autonomous

battery

toys

The

demonstrations

were

conducted

with

preschool

children

as

well

as

those

from

the

first

years

of

primary

school

across

schools

two

childcare

centers

and

a

museum

in

the

urban

area

of

Brisbane

Australia

Table

summarizes

the

presentations

and

the

age

groups

of

children

Whenever

consent

was

given

a

video/or

audio

of

the

session

was

recorded

Alternatively

a

secretary

took

notes

of

the

statement

made

by

children

Sessions

lasted

between

minutes

and

approximately

one

hour

The

sessions

consisted

of

five

stages

Establishing

the

language

In

the

first

minutes

of

the

session

children

are

asked

to

describe

what

they

see

The

goal

of

this

stage

is

to

obtain

a

vocabulary

from

the

children

to

discuss

the

artifacts

that

will

be

presented

later

A

trademark

of

the

LEGO

group

Demonstration

of

Aibo

In

the

next

to

minutes

a

demonstration

of

Aibo

is

performed

with

one

black

model

without

a

memory

stick

so

the

default

simple

dog-like

behaviors

are

in

place

Demonstration

of

the

concept

of

robot

This

stage

illustrates

the

main

features

that

are

common

in

accepted

definitions

of

a

robot

It

also

ensures

that

the

children

observe

that

Sony

's

Aibo

shares

these

properties

with

robots

Investigate

animal

attributes

on

Aibo

This

stage

questions

the

children

for

the

existence

of

animal

properties

on

Sony

's

Aibo

and

the

justification

for

their

belief

Challenge

Aibo

's

animal

attributes

with

the

other

artifacts

used

in

the

session

Children

are

asked

to

confirm

or

justify

that

Aibo

is

a

robot

Attempts

are

made

to

convince

them

of

the

artificial

nature

of

Aibo

by

showing

the

same

property

in

an

artifact

accepted

as

lifeless

and

to

compel

them

to

decide

on

one

side

of

the

Dog

vs

Robot

debate

-LRB-

or

generate

a

new

term

to

describe

it

-RRB-

The

initial

phase

starts

with

the

projection

of

a

video

from

legged

league

-LRB-

Veloso

Uther

Fujita

Asada

Kitano

-RRB-

-LRB-

the

video

is

the

match

between

the

University

of

Newcastle

and

Team

Sweden

-RRB-

Presentations

at

the

Powerhouse

Museum

in

Brisbane

consisted

of

a

live

match

with

dogs

programmed

as

the

Mi-PAL

Team

Griffith

participation

in

After

two

minutes

the

children

are

asked

to

describe

what

they

see

in

the

video

In

the

video

human

manipulators

are

visible

which

contributes

to

the

realization

that

these

are

real

things

and

not

an

animation

film

Children

are

requested

to

indicate

what

the

dogs

are

doing

-LRB-

if

they

suggested

this

word

but

if

they

suggest

puppies

then

puppies

is

used

-RRB-

That

is

we

use

the

same

words

the

children

themselves

have

introduced

to

describe

what

they

see

Children

are

then

asked

to

justify

why

it

is

a

game

of

soccer/rugby

-LRB-

or

whatever

word

was

the

most

common

or

immediate

reply

-RRB-

The

phase

finishes

by

bringing

an

Aibo

that

is

switched

off

placing

it

on

the

ground

turning

it

on

and

waiting

Since

Aibo

requires

some

seconds

to

boot

we

observe

children

's

reactions

and

comments

This

phase

is

obviously

different

for

blind

children

It

is

replaced

by

allowing

children

to

explore

the

robot

with

their

hands

Blind

children

still

find

and

recognize

legs

paws

ears

head

and

tail

because

of

shape

texture

malleability

and

movement

We

then

proceed

to

phase

two

where

we

illustrate

the

default

behavior

of

the

Aibo

which

includes

the

following

interactions

A

couple

of

fast

strokes

on

its

back

starts

it

on

a

walk

while

it

makes

the

sounds

of

a

marching

tune

Hard

strokes

on

its

head

produce

sounds

and

a

red

light

on

its

head

LEDs

Soft

strokes

on

its

head

produce

sounds

and

a

green

light

on

its

LEDs

Scratching

under

its

chin

produces

another

set

of

sounds

and

lights

Placing

it

on

the

floor

on

its

side

produces

some

sounds

and

then

Aibo

performs

a

routine

to

stand

back

on

its

four

legs

After

getting

up

Aibo

shakes

wagging

his

tail

and

making

other

sounds

Presenting

a

pink

ball

produces

sounds

and

the

LED

on

its

tail

to

go

pink

School

Level

Children

's

age

Group

size

Boronia

Childcare

Center

pre-school

Carole

Park

State

School

pre-school

Holland

Park

State

School

year

primary

Holland

Park

State

School

year

primary

Camp

Hill

State

School

year

primary

Camp

Hill

State

School

year

primary

Camp

Hill

State

School

year

primary

Carole

Park

State

School

year

primary

Carole

Park

State

School

year

primary

Carole

Park

State

School

year

primary

Carole

Park

State

School

year

primary

Carole

Park

State

School

year

primary

Powerhouse

Museum

pre-school

Narbethong

State

Special

School

pre-school

-LRB-

blind

-RRB-

Table

Presentations

conducted

and

age

groups

Figure

A

walking

toy

with

visible

battery

motor

and

gears

A

flexible

tail

resembles

a

dog

tail

Other

behaviors

that

Aibo

produces

are

not

directly

triggered

by

the

manipulator

These

include

Aibo

sitting

down

Aibo

lying

on

his

stomach

and

waving

all

fours

as

a

synchronized

dance

Aibo

waiving

one

leg

Aibo

moving

his

head

from

side

to

side

and

flapping

his

ears

Children

are

then

invited

to

interact

with

Aibo

directly

In

particular

to

show

the

pink

ball

to

produce

the

green

lights

or

invite

him

to

walk

They

are

also

invited

to

explain

what

Aibo

is

doing

in

their

own

words

There

are

a

series

of

questions

that

the

presenter

goes

through

as

the

illustration

of

behaviors

is

performed

These

questions

are

as

follows

What

is

Aibo

doing

now

Is

he

happy

or

is

he

sad

Does

he

like

to

be

touched

like

this

Do

you

think

he

can

get

up

by

himself

At

the

completion

of

this

phase

Aibo

is

turned

off

and

focus

is

transferred

to

other

examples

of

robotics

Because

the

commonly

accepted

definitions

of

mobile

robots

includes

that

they

have

their

own

control

unit

phase

three

consists

of

the

following

A

presentation

of

a

toy

with

a

tail

-LRB-

made

of

a

spring

-RRB-

that

has

a

visible

battery

motor

and

gears

-LRB-

Figure

-RRB-

It

is

illustrated

that

this

toy

needs

a

battery

to

operate

it

and

that

it

has

an

on-off-reverse

button

Children

are

asked

to

carry

out

the

task

of

setting

it

off

or

stopping

it

by

taking

the

battery

out

This

illustrates

that

mobile

autonomous

robots

require

power

and

carry

their

source

of

power

Figure

A

model

of

a

humanoid

robot

Figure

Remote

control

car

to

contrast

with

the

notion

of

autonomous

control

A

presentation

of

a

model

of

a

humanoid

robot

-LRB-

Figure

-RRB-

Although

it

looks

like

a

robot

it

can

be

seen

that

it

has

no

motors

no

batteries

and

essentially

does

nothing

A

presentation

of

a

remote

control

car

-LRB-

radio

con-trolled

-RRB-

-LRB-

Figure

-RRB-

This

car

is

also

shown

to

have

batteries

on

board

but

all

behavior

is

de-rived

from

the

actions

on

the

two-lever

remote

control

The

first

lever

produces

forward

or

reverse

motion

on

the

back

wheels

and

the

second

lever

produces

left/right

turns

on

the

front

wheels

This

illustrates

the

notion

of

control

-LRB-

remote

and

human

-RRB-

A

Lego

Mindstorm

construction

extremely

similar

to

Hank

the

Bumper

Tank

-LRB-

Knudsen

-RRB-

-LRB-

Figure

-RRB-

This

robot

is

shown

to

have

a

behavior

that

allows

it

to

move

around

and

steer

away

from

obstacles

it

bumps

into

-LRB-

the

program

is

very

similar

to

the

one

suggested

in

-LRB-

Knudsen

Chapter

-RRB-

-RRB-

As

part

of

the

interactive

nature

of

the

presentation

the

children

are

asked

to

act

Figure

A

Mindstorm

construction

with

touch

and

light

sensor

Figure

A

Mindstorm

construction

with

touch

and

light

sensor

that

acts

on

its

environment

with

a

mechanical

arm

and

plays

sounds

as

obstacles

for

adapted

Hank

The

presenter

points

out

the

sensors

behind

the

robots

bumper

and

illustrates

that

disconnecting

these

sensors

makes

it

unaware

of

obstacles

We

also

added

to

Hank

a

program

that

used

a

light

sensor

to

monitor

the

color

of

the

ground

beneath

it

This

program

was

similar

to

the

obstacle

avoidance

previously

mentioned

but

rather

than

avoid

objects

it

would

move

away

from

dark

areas

We

presented

this

behavior

as

being

afraid

of

the

dark

By

switching

between

these

modes

we

illustrate

that

the

behavior

of

the

robot

changes

with

the

chosen

program

Using

Lego

's

ROBO-Lab

-LRB-

a

graphical

programming

application

-RRB-

to

build

a

very

simple

program

that

makes

Hank

spin

in

a

circle

for

four

seconds

we

show

the

children

its

programmable

nature

The

children

are

taken

through

the

process

of

building

the

program

transferring

it

onto

Hank

via

an

infrared

interface

and

finally

running

it

When

the

program

is

running

the

children

are

encouraged

to

count

along

thus

verifying

that

the

program

is

indeed

the

one

just

built

This

is

repeated

for

at

least

two

other

timings

-LRB-

around

to

seconds

-RRB-

A

Lego

construction

extremely

similar

to

Minerva

-LRB-

Knudsen

Chapter

-RRB-

was

presented

next

-LRB-

Figure

-RRB-

The

components

were

shown

to

be

the

same

as

Hank

's

and

the

Lego

RCX

is

labeled

as

the

computer

control

A

program

similar

to

the

one

suggested

-LRB-

Knudsen

-RRB-

produces

the

behavior

illustrated

to

the

children

Minerva

moves

around

a

white

floor

until

it

finds

a

black

object

uses

a

robotic

arm

to

pick

it

up

then

turns

around

and

brings

it

to

another

position

close

to

where

it

started

It

then

releases

the

object

and

plays

a

tune

The

presenter

en-sured

that

the

children

observed

that

Minerva

perceives

its

environment

and

can

act

to

change

it

-LRB-

thus

the

notion

of

actuator

is

illustrated

-RRB-

A

series

of

pictures

-LRB-

or

videos

-RRB-

of

autonomous

robots

were

shown

to

the

children

These

images

demonstrate

that

robots

come

in

all

sorts

of

shapes

and

sizes

Among

these

are

pictures

of

more

Aibos

Honda

ASIMO

the

Sony

humanoid

SDX

MINERVA

-LRB-

Thrun

Bennewitz

Burgard

Cremers

Dellaert

Fox

Hahnel

Rosenberg

Roy

Schulte

Schulz

-RRB-

and

Kismet

-LRB-

Brooks

-RRB-

It

was

pointed

out

that

robots

can

produce

smiles

walk

and

be

as

small

as

a

cockroach

Pictures

of

experimental

robots

were

shown

to

display

the

wires

gears

and

components

inside

their

packaging

Aibo

was

then

brought

back

as

the

presenter

repeated

the

main

concepts

namely

Aibo

requires

power

and

carries

a

battery

Aibo

is

turned

on

and

off

Also

it

is

shown

that

Aibo

's

behaviors

are

interrupted

and

stopped

if

the

battery

is

removed

Aibo

has

motors

The

gears

on

Aibo

's

joints

and

wires

near

its

neck

are

pointed

out

to

the

children

Aibo

has

sensors

The

strokes

on

head

and

sensitivity

to

the

pink

ball

are

illustrated

once

more

Using

another

pink

object

-LRB-

perhaps

a

piece

of

clothing

or

the

memory

stick

of

Aibo

-RRB-

we

show

that

the

behavior

is

triggered

by

the

color

being

noticed

by

a

sensor

and

not

Aibo

understanding

the

concept

of

a

ball

Aibo

has

actuators

and

a

control

program

We

install

a

memory

stick

and

re-start

Aibo

With

the

new

program

it

kicks

a

ball

as

in

the

RoboCup

video

We

illustrate

Aibo

's

behavior

changes

with

different

memory

sticks

Once

this

is

completed

the

next

phase

commences

by

the

presenter

asking

one

of

the

following

questions

Does

Aibo

have

feelings

Where

does

Aibo

get

energy

from

Will

Aibo

have

babies

Responses

of

several

children

were

collected

We

expected

that

this

question

would

have

distinct

answers

depending

on

whether

we

were

referring

to

a

robot

or

a

living

dog

We

then

passed

to

the

final

stage

Each

time

a

child

made

a

response

that

seemed

to

indicate

animal

essence

or

animal

agency

in

the

Aibo

we

chal-lenged

the

response

For

example

if

a

child

indicated

that

Aibo

had

feelings

we

next

asked

what

the

child

thinks

happens

to

the

feelings

when

Aibo

is

turned

off

We

found

children

would

continue

to

support

their

point

of

view

Following

the

previous

example

many

children

followed

the

path

that

Aibo

was

just

asleep

when

turned

off

The

challenge

continued

as

the

presenter

requested

children

to

explain

what

sort

of

feelings

Aibo

has

or

if

the

feelings

fade

when

the

battery

runs

out

Also

the

presenter

checked

if

the

other

artifacts

shown

before

have

feelings

and

asked

the

children

to

explain

why

the

others

do

or

do

not

have

those

or

other

feelings

The

sequence

of

challenges

for

the

questions

above

were

as

follows

Does

Aibo

have

feelings

What

happens

to

Aibo

's

feelings

when

he

is

turned

off

Figure

The

demonstrator

with

a

class

of

grade

children

and

of

the

objects

Aibo

Hank

and

the

walking

toy

What

happens

to

his

feelings

when

the

battery

runs

out

What

happens

to

his

feelings

if

we

re-move/change/replace

the

memory

stick

and

Aibo

s

personality

changes

What

happens

to

his

feelings

if

Aibo

is

broken

Will

the

feelings

come

back

if

we

glue

him

What

feelings

do

you

know

Aibo

has

How

do

you

know

he

is

happy/sad

Is

it

possible

to

pretend

to

be

happy

but

not

be

happy

Do

you

think

Aibo

is

happy

or

just

pretending

Where

does

Aibo

get

his

energy

from

Where

do

you

get

your

energy

from

Where

do

the

other

artifacts

get

their

energy

from

Does

Aibo

work

without

a

battery

Do

the

others

work

without

a

battery

What

do

you

think

Aibo

eats/drinks

Do

you

think

he

needs

to

visit

the

toilet

Will

Aibo

have

babies

Is

Aibo

a

baby

dog

How

do

you

know

How

will

Aibo

look

after

-LRB-

care

for

-RRB-

the

babies

Does

Aibo

need

to

charge/replace

the

battery

of

the

babies

These

paths

of

questioning

were

not

all

developed

ahead

of

the

first

presentation

They

evolved

from

one

presentation

to

the

next

Their

length

reflects

the

resistance

of

the

children

to

change

their

opinion

even

if

all

other

artifacts

have

opposite

responses

to

these

questions

That

is

for

each

question

before

we

progressed

to

the

next

we

confirmed

that

the

children

sustained

the

notion

that

a

difference

remains

between

Aibo

and

the

other

artifacts

For

example

in

the

last

question

sequence

children

would

start

by

confirming

that

of

the

other

artifacts

can

have

babies

while

Aibo

can

When

progressing

to

Is

Aibo

a

baby

and

contrasting

this

with

Is

Hank

a

baby

most

children

realized

that

Aibo

is

really

like

Hank

and

can

not

have

babies

After

an

analysis

of

the

transcript

of

our

videos

and

notes

we

summarize

the

following

findings

It

is

remarkable

that

when

we

queried

the

children

for

their

first

impressions

of

the

video

we

obtained

the

following

results

To

the

question

What

do

you

see

all

sessions

had

children

responding

that

they

saw

dogs

This

is

surprising

for

two

main

reasons

firstly

the

video

shows

the

robots

playing

soccer

a

behavior

not

commonly

attributed

to

dogs

And

secondly

the

children

would

have

anticipated

seeing

robots

through

prior

conversations

with

parents

and

teachers

This

may

explain

why

a

few

children

claimed

that

the

adults

in

the

video

where

robots

As

the

age

of

the

pupils

involved

in

the

study

in-creased

we

noticed

that

the

tendency

to

regard

the

robots

as

dogs

decreased

The

more

mature

respondents

were

more

likely

to

label

the

robots

as

robots

or

robotic

dogs

One

pupil

also

gave

the

more

generic

answer

of

animals

and

another

thought

that

they

were

cats

Interestingly

on

a

few

occasions

children

referred

to

the

humans

in

the

video

as

the

robots

We

believe

this

is

due

to

their

anticipation

to

see

robots

and

perhaps

the

media

culture

of

humanoid

robots

To

the

question

What

are

they

doing

most

children

identified

the

activity

as

a

game

of

soccer

This

is

surprising

since

the

RoboCup

has

barriers

around

the

pitch

that

make

the

game

more

similar

to

ice-hockey

and

although

the

robots

are

legged

they

do

not

kick

the

ball

with

one

leg

All

robots

in

this

video

kick

the

ball

with

two

legs

simultaneously

or

head-butt

the

ball

The

ball

is

also

bright

orange

clearly

not

a

soccer

ball

Another

point

is

that

although

played

in

Australia

it

is

not

the

most

commonly

played

sport

Other

suggestions

included

they

're

fighting

playing

hockey

and

one

child

thought

he

was

watching

a

game

of

tennis

Justifications

for

why

is

it

a

game

of

soc-cer/football

included

a

rounded

ball

on

the

ground

goals

two

teams

referees

and

goalies

When

initially

presenting

the

Aibo

to

the

children

rather

than

give

it

the

label

it

we

found

that

they

would

usually

use

him

or

her

Once

again

this

was

more

pronounced

with

younger

subjects

As

the

presenter

went

on

to

explain

the

attributes

of

the

Aibo

and

show

its

operation

the

children

while

probing

with

questions

would

begin

to

lose

the

gender

label

The

children

generally

were

of

the

opinion

that

the

Aibo

did

have

emotions

with

a

couple

of

them

claiming

that

this

was

so

because

it

had

a

mind

This

opinion

was

seemingly

an

accepted

one

with

many

children

declaring

at

certain

stages

of

the

proceedings

that

it

was

either

happy

or

sad

Upon

the

exhibition

of

other

robots

and

robot-like

artifacts

the

general

consensus

was

that

the

Aibo

did

in

fact

meet

the

criteria

for

being

a

robot

However

the

most

common

term

used

to

describe

it

was

that

of

robotic

dog

where

dog

is

the

noun

This

emphasis

on

the

dog

nature

of

the

robot

suggests

that

the

subjects

were

still

willing

to

consider

it

animal-like

The

youngest

group

however

needed

the

most

convincing

They

insisted

that

the

Aibo

was

a

dog

even

after

repeated

demonstrations

of

its

robotic

nature

with

the

presenter

even

stating

in

no

uncertain

terms

that

it

was

a

robot

They

did

come

around

eventually

with

one

child

using

the

robotic

dog

description

and

his

peers

following

suit

We

briefly

describe

some

reaction

to

the

other

objects

Although

initially

enthusiastic

children

were

quickly

disappointed

by

the

model

of

the

humanoid

mainly

its

inaction

made

it

uninteresting

One

child

said

it

's

just

a

toy

not

a

robot

The

walking

toy

caused

some

laughs

because

it

bumps

into

things

but

children

realized

rapidly

that

it

did

not

offer

any

interesting

interaction

beside

turning

it

on

and

off

-LRB-

potentially

reversing

the

direction

-RRB-

The

remote

control

car

was

appealing

and

children

wanted

to

play

with

it

even

after

the

presentation

It

was

clear

to

them

they

were

controlling

it

Hank

did

cause

surprise

and

children

wanted

to

continue

playing

with

it

or

asked

about

how

to

program

it

Children

wanted

to

interact

with

it

and

explored

different

obstacles

for

its

obstacle-backing

behavior

On

two

occasions

we

witnessed

children

convinced

that

Hank

also

had

feelings

because

it

was

afraid

of

the

dark

The

mechanical-arm

robot

caused

amazement

We

believe

this

greater

surprise

was

because

children

familiar

with

Lego

do

not

expect

the

action

of

a

mechanical

arm

lifting

an

object

We

also

performed

a

variation

in

our

initial

approach

to

confirm

some

of

these

findings

We

approached

a

different

grade

class

-LRB-

year-olds

-RRB-

that

had

been

already

working

with

Mindstorm

robots

and

had

done

some

research

assignments

on

the

Internet

and

in

the

library

on

topics

such

as

What

is

a

robot

We

did

a

presentation

in

which

the

objects

were

not

necessarily

the

focus

but

the

properties

of

a

robot

were

the

focus

We

also

demonstrated

different

applications

of

robotics

like

using

Miranda

to

assist

a

blind

person

to

read

a

WEB

page

The

method

for

collecting

the

children

's

attitudes

was

a

questionnaire

of

questions

asking

children

to

choose

between

two

positions

and

to

give

their

reasons

for

such

decisions

We

invited

them

to

reflect

on

their

responses

so

they

were

asked

to

answer

the

questions

over

a

day

at

school

and

at

home

The

results

of

answered

questionnaires

confirmed

that

a

dog-looking

robot

rapidly

acquires

animalistic

properties

and

values

in

the

minds

of

children

In

particular

of

the

children

confirmed

that

Miranda

should

be

called

a

robotic

dog

rather

than

a

dog-looking

robot

Note

that

the

preferred

noun

is

dog

over

robot

The

reasons

provided

in

the

questionnaire

are

illustrative

of

their

thinking

It

has

more

dog

features

than

robot

features

Miranda

has

characteristics

a

dog

has

Kinda

looks

like

a

real

dog

It

is

an

automatic

dog

and

Just

does

n't

look

like

a

dog

she

has

a

dog

personality

And

on

the

question

Does

Miranda

have

feelings

again

responded

positively

Some

of

the

reasons

were

She

just

is

n't

a

robot

She

's

almost

a

real

dog

She

can

be

happy

unhappy

If

you

hit

her

hard

she

would

make

a

noise

but

she

felt

it

Note

that

in

this

presentation

we

actually

changed

programs

several

times

radically

changing

the

behaviors

and

personality

of

Miranda

Also

real

dogs

do

not

talk

but

our

programs

had

a

female

voice

for

instructions

to

kick

a

ball

and

a

male

voice

reading

Web

pages

Only

one

child

classified

Miranda

as

a

robot

because

dogs

do

not

sing

The

blurring

of

the

concept

of

robotic

pet

or

canine

machine

is

of

interest

to

us

because

of

the

direct

applications

of

autonomous

mobile

robots

in

helping

people

In

particular

we

foresee

that

people

with

disabilities

the

elderly

and

other

groups

in

need

of

assistance

are

the

first

humans

that

will

benefit

from

autonomous

mobile

robots

Naturally

the

attitudes

acceptability

and

adequate

expectations

are

to

match

an

effective

human-computer

interaction

If

the

person

expects

smarter

behavior

of

the

robot

-LRB-

things

like

gesture/voice

recognition

-RRB-

and

the

technology

does

not

deliver

then

rather

than

assisting

we

will

frustrate

the

person

It

is

also

important

that

anyone

who

encounters

a

person

assisted

by

a

robot

approaches

with

attitudes

and

gestures

that

allow

the

robotic

assistant

to

facilitate

the

approach

The

main

motivation

behind

this

research

is

a

related

project

on

using

Aibo

to

assist

blind

people

While

it

may

seem

straightforward

that

a

robotic

assistant

for

the

vision

impaired

person

should

be

shaped

as

a

dog

this

is

not

so

Even

with

guide

dogs

other

humans

find

it

difficult

to

approach

and

assist

a

blind

person

Humans

expect

a

strong

bond

and

loyalty

of

the

animal

to

its

owner

fearing

that

dogs

may

misinterpret

help

as

interfering

with

the

bond

causing

then

to

react

violently

Our

findings

agree

with

those

of

others

-LRB-

Kahn

Jr.

et

al.

-RRB-

in

that

there

is

a

progression

of

attributes

that

humans

ascribe

to

robots

like

Aibo

This

progression

starts

from

Essence

and

advances

to

Agency

Social

Standing

and

Moral

Standing

Our

findings

are

that

Aibo

fulfills

biological

animistic

underpinnings

-LRB-

children

refer

to

its

tail

legs

ears

and

behaviors

in

the

same

way

as

for

living

dogs

-RRB-

It

also

fulfills

Agency

properties

-LRB-

children

attribute

intentions

feelings

emotional

states

wishes

desires

goals

-RRB-

We

left

aside

social

standing

in

our

methodology

but

strongly

suspect

that

children

attribute

an

emotional

connection

and

companionship

to

Aibo

We

observed

a

clear

preference

among

children

for

Do

you

want

to

pat

the

dog/puppy

over

Do

you

want

to

touch

the

robot

Many

children

made

unsolicited

comments

about

how

similar

it

was

playing

with

Aibo

to

playing

with

their

dog

at

home

Similarly

we

refrained

from

exploring

children

's

attribution

of

moral

standing

to

Aibo

-LRB-

for

example

should

Aibo

be

punished

for

doing

something

wrong

-RRB-

Nevertheless

we

received

unsolicited

suggestions

that

leaving

Aibo

alone

or

not

playing

with

him

would

make

him

sad

and

that

batteries

should

always

be

charged

which

may

mean

more

responsibility

than

for

a

living

dog

These

types

of

comments

do

attribute

some

rights

to

Aibo

and

a

sense

that

it

also

deserves

some

respect

Our

observations

indicate

that

Essence

and

Agency

are

maintained

in

the

child

's

beliefs

even

in

the

presence

and

practical

illustration

of

other

machines

for

which

they

will

not

typically

attach

such

biological

or

animistic

properties

nor

psychological

characteristics

-LRB-

although

Bob

the

Builder

's

cars

and

machines

talk

-RRB-

In

fact

we

witnessed

arguments

and

debates

among

the

children

which

turned

the

balance

the

other

way

around

some

managing

to

convince

others

that

Hank

had

feelings

like

being

afraid

of

the

dark

because

afraid

is

a

feeling

Also

we

found

observations

that

concur

with

the

writing

of

anthropologist

S.

Turkle

-LRB-

Turkle

-RRB-

In

particular

although

we

did

not

intend

to

observe

adults

we

witnessed

parents

and

teachers

attempting

to

convince

the

children

that

Aibo

was

a

machine

and

not

a

dog

Some

child-carers

seem

to

interpret

our

experiment

as

a

lecture

on

the

living

versus

the

non-living

We

believe

this

reflected

some

of

Turkle

's

conclusions

about

the

thinking

about

alive-ness

with

older

people

interpreting

machines

and

computers

through

mechanistic/physical

interpretations

while

the

newer

generation

interprets

beings

in

computer

games

and

robots

as

sort

of

alive

Our

best

example

of

this

was

witnessing

a

parent

selecting

a

particular

physical

argument

to

convince

her

old

of

the

clear

difference

why

Aibo

is

not

a

dog

This

also

pointed

out

a

difference

between

Aibo

and

dogs

that

we

had

not

observed

but

that

the

adult

believed

made

the

difference

We

attempt

to

illustrate

it

with

Figure

Aibo

has

one

less

joint

in

the

back

leg

than

a

dog

-LRB-

the

dog

as

shown

in

Figure

-LRB-

a

-RRB-

has

hip

-LRB-

-RRB-

knee

-LRB-

-RRB-

ankle

-LRB-

-RRB-

and

toes

-LRB-

-RRB-

-RRB-

This

is

one

degree

of

freedom

less

and

also

the

toes

bend

back

in

the

dog

while

they

do

not

on

Aibo

Note

that

if

we

were

to

choose

a

physical

argument

it

is

perhaps

more

obvious

that

Aibo

does

not

have

two

eyes

or

does

not

have

a

wet

nose

The

point

is

that

a

basic

minimum

of

physical

structure

is

enough

to

engage

children

in

a

psychological/conceptual

interpretation

that

then

is

hard

to

remove

on

the

basis

of

physical

evidence

We

believe

our

results

indicate

that

children

are

-LRB-

a

-RRB-

-LRB-

b

-RRB-

Figure

A

dog

-LRB-

a

-RRB-

has

one

more

degree

of

freedom

per

leg

than

Aibo

-LRB-

b

-RRB-

and

has

more

movement

in

the

toes

than

Aibo

quickly

attached

to

the

notion

that

robotic

dogs

are

closer

to

living

dogs

Although

we

would

not

go

as

far

as

S.

Turkle

to

suggest

that

living

has

a

new

meaning

for

this

generation

of

children

we

suggest

that

they

will

see

them

as

robotic

pets

more

than

canine

machines

We

expect

therefore

that

in

the

future

humans

will

adopt

more

of

them

as

an

interface

for

human-computer

interaction

Prof.

B.

Shneiderman

is

probably

the

world

's

leading

authority

in

Human-Computer

Interaction

He

has

repeatedly

been

outspoken

about

reducing

ma-chine

intelligence

and

software

agents

for

building

computers

that

are

more

effective

tools

-LRB-

Beardsley

-RRB-

At

first

our

research

seems

to

contradict

some

of

his

ideas

but

interaction

with

a

robot

is

interaction

with

a

computer

and

we

agree

that

it

allows

for

direct

manipulation

even

more

realistic

and

perhaps

more

meaningful

than

on

the

computer

screen

Also

it

is

now

clear

that

domestic

robots

will

soon

be

around

us

and

computers

will

not

be

restricted

to

output

devices

like

monitors

nor

will

computers

be

confined

to

fixed

locations

Third

we

argue

that

studies

such

as

ours

advance

the

possibilities

of

having

a

controllable

consistent

and

predictable

interaction

with

a

robot

Thus

we

share

the

vision

of

interaction

facilitated

by

proper

design

Finally

our

aim

is

interaction

with

people

who

are

blind

In

such

case

visualization

-LRB-

the

coloring

of

pixels

in

a

monitor

-RRB-

for

insight

can

not

be

used

Shneiderman

also

agrees

on

this

point

We

argue

that

properly

designed

robots

will

offer

a

multi-modal

interface

where

insight

is

com-municated

by

embodiment

and

movement

as

well

as

sound

Other

papers

in

the

literature

confirm

that

people

may

develop

strong

attachments

and

even

affectionate

relationships

with

artificial

information

systems

Those

studies

involve

human

adults

on

one

side

and

rather

simple

emulations

of

human

intelligence

in

the

other

In

such

cases

the

interface

has

been

rather

simple

-LRB-

or

at

least

not

multi-modal

-RRB-

like

through

a

phone

conversation

It

is

interesting

that

this

may

have

both

positive

and

negative

outcomes

For

example

as

reported

in

the

case

of

a

Health

Behavior

Ad-visor

System

-LRB-

Kaplan

Farzanfar

Friedman

-RRB-

some

patients

felt

motivated

to

follow

a

healthier

life

style

while

others

found

it

inflicted

a

sense

of

guilt

that

did

not

motivate

healthier

habits

We

believe

that

understanding

people

's

expectations

for

robots

is

important

since

these

expectations

will

define

the

context

for

the

interactions

that

may

result

in

effective

use

of

robotic

technology

An

example

is

the

potential

attribution

of

moral

standing

to

robots

This

could

eventually

regard

the

robot

-LRB-

and

not

its

manufacturer

-RRB-

as

responsible

for

its

actions

Certainly

this

would

have

many

implications

for

our

society

The

authors

wish

to

thank

the

anonymous

referees

for

the

constructive

feedback

provided

in

their

reviews

This

work

was

supported

by

a

Griffith

University

Research

Grant

as

part

of

the

project

Robots

to

guide

the

blind

the

application

of

physical

collaborative

autonomous

intelligent

agents

Aylett

B.

-LRB-

-RRB-

ROBOTS

Bringing

intelligent

machines

to

life

ABC

Books

Sydney

NSW

Australia

Beardsley

T.

-LRB-

-RRB-

Humans

unite

Scientific

American

March

Profile

Column

Brooks

R.

-LRB-

-RRB-

Humanoid

robots

Communications

of

the

ACM

-LRB-

-RRB-

Bumby

K.

Dautenhahn

K.

-LRB-

-RRB-

Investigating

children

's

attitudes

towards

robots

A

case

study

in

Proceedings

of

the

Third

Cognitive

Technology

Conference

CT

M.I.N.D.

Lab

Michigan

State

University

East

Lansing

MI.

pp.

Fong

T.

Nourbakhsh

I.

Dautenhahn

K.

-LRB-

-RRB-

A

survey

of

socially

interactive

robots

Robotics

and

Autonomous

Systems

Kahn

Jr.

P.

Friedman

B.

Hagman

J.

-LRB-

-RRB-

I

care

about

him

as

a

pal

Conceptions

of

robotic

pets

in

online

Aibo

discussion

forum

in

Proceedings

of

CHI

Interactive

Poster

Fun

changing

the

world

changing

ourselves

pp.

Kahn

Jr.

P.

J.

Friedman

B.

Freier

N.

Severson

R.

-LRB-

-RRB-

Coding

manual

for

children

's

interactions

with

Aibo

the

robotic

dog

the

preschool

study

Technical

Report

UW

CSE

Department

of

Computer

Science

and

Engineering

University

of

Washington

Seattle

US

Kahney

L.

-LRB-

-RRB-

The

new

pet

craze

Robovacs

Wired

Magazine

June

visited

Septenber

Kaplan

B.

Farzanfar

R.

Friedman

R.

-LRB-

-RRB-

Ethnographic

interviews

to

elicit

patients

reactions

to

an

intelligent

interactive

telephone

health

behavior

advisor

system

in

M.

N.M.

Lorenzi

Bethesda

ed.

Proceedings

AMIA

Symposiu

American

Medical

Informatics

Association

Knudsen

J.

-LRB-

-RRB-

The

Unofficial

Guide

to

LEGO

MINDSTORM

Robots

O'Reilly

Sebastopol

CA.

Lawry

J.

Upitis

R.

Klawe

M.

Anderson

A.

Inkpen

K.

Ndunda

M.

Hsu

D.

Leroux

S.

Sedighian

K.

-LRB-

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Exploring

common

conceptions

about

boys

and

electronic

games

Journal

of

Computer

in

Math

and

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Scheeff

M.

Pinto

J.

Rahardja

K.

Snibbe

S.

Tow

R.

-LRB-

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Experiences

with

Sparky

A

social

robot

in

Proceedings

of

the

Workshop

on

Interactive

Robot

Entertainment

Thrun

S.

Bennewitz

M.

Burgard

W.

Cremers

A.

Dellaert

F.

Fox

D.

Hahnel

D.

Rosenberg

C.

Roy

N.

Schulte

J.

Schulz

D.

-LRB-

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A

tour-guide

robot

that

learns

in

KI

Kunstliche

Intelligenz

pp.

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S.

-LRB-

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we

thinking

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Kitano

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O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B I O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 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O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O B O O O O O O O O O O

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zoo-morphological autonomous mobile robots