Crimes against humanity

Crimes against humanity are certain acts that are purposely committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian or an identifiable part of a civilian population. The first prosecution for crimes against humanity took place at the Nuremberg trials. Crimes against humanity have since been prosecuted by other international courts (for example, the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, and the International Criminal Court) as well as in domestic prosecutions. The law of crimes against humanity has primarily developed through the evolution of customary international law. Crimes against humanity are not codified in an international convention, although there is currently an international effort to establish such a treaty, led by the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative.

Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity can be committed during peace or war. They are not isolated or sporadic events, but are part either of a government policy (although the perpetrators need not identify themselves with this policy) or of a wide practice of atrocities tolerated or condoned by a government or a de facto authority. War crimes, murder, massacres, dehumanization, genocide, ethnic cleansing, deportations, unethical human experimentation, extrajudicial punishments including summary executions, use of weapons of mass destruction, state terrorism or state sponsoring of terrorism, death squads, kidnappings and forced disappearances, use of child soldiers, unjust imprisonment, enslavement, torture, rape, political repression, racial discrimination, religious persecution and other human rights abuses may reach the threshold of crimes against humanity if they are part of a widespread or systematic practice.

History of the term

The term "crimes against humanity" is potentially ambiguous because of the ambiguity of the word "humanity", which can mean humankind (all human beings collectively) or the value of humanness. The history of the term shows that the latter sense is intended.

Abolition of the slave trade
There were several bilateral treaties in 1814 that foreshadowed the multilateral treaty of Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (1815) that used wording expressing condemnation of the slave trade using moral language. For example, the Treaty of Paris (1814) between Britain and France included the wording "principles of natural justice"; and the British and United States plenipotentiaries stated in the Treaty of Ghent (1814) that the slave trade violated the "principles of humanity and justice".

The multilateral Declaration of the Powers, on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, of 8 February 1815 (Which also formed Section XV of the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna of the same year) included in its first sentence the concept of the "principles of humanity and universal morality" as justification for ending a trade that was "odious in its continuance".

First use

The term "crimes against humanity" was used by George Washington Williams in a pamphlet published in 1890 to describe the practices of Leopold II of Belgium's administration of the Congo Free State. In treaty law, the term originated in the Second Hague Convention of 1899 preamble and was expanded in the Fourth Hague Convention of 1907 preamble and their respective regulations, which were concerned with the codification of new rules of international humanitarian law. The preamble of the two Conventions referenced the "laws of humanity" as an expression of underlying inarticulated humanistic values. The term is part of what is known as the Martens Clause.

On May 24, 1915, the Allied Powers, Britain, France, and Russia, jointly issued a statement explicitly charging for the first time ever another government of committing "a crime against humanity". An excerpt from this joint statement reads:

At the conclusion of the war, an international war crimes commission recommended the creation of a tribunal to try "violations of the laws of humanity". However, the US representative objected to references to "law of humanity" as being imprecise and insufficiently developed at that time and the concept was not pursued.

Nonetheless, a UN report in 1948 referred to the usage of the term "crimes against humanity" in regard to the Armenian massacres as a precedent to the Nürnberg and Tokyo Charters. On May 15, 1948, the Economic and Social Council presented a 384-pages report prepared by the United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC), set up in London (October 1943) to collect and collate information on war crimes and war criminals.  The report was in compliance to the request by the UN Secretary-General to make arrangements for "the collection and publication of information concerning human rights arising from trials of war criminals, quislings and traitors, and in particular from the Nürnberg and Tokyo Trials." The report had been prepared by members of the Legal Staff of the Commission. The report is highly topical in regard to the Armenian Genocide, not only because it uses the 1915 events as a historic example, but also as a precedent to the Articles 6 (c) and 5 (c) of the Nuremberg and Tokyo Charters, and thereby as a precursor to the then newly adopted UN Genocide Convention, differentiating between war crimes and crimes against humanity. By refereeing to the information collected during WWI and put forward by the 1919 Commission of Responsibilities, the report entitled "Information Concerning Human Rights Arising from Trials of War Criminals" used the Armenian case as a vivid example of committed crimes by a state against its own citizens. The report also noted that while the Paris Peace Treaties with Germany, Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria, did not include any reference to "laws of humanity", instead basing the charges on violations of "laws and customs of war", The Sèvres Peace Treaty with Turkey did so. In addition to the Articles 226–228, concerning customs of war (corresponding to Articles 228–230 of the Treaty of Versailles), the Sèvres Treaty also contained an additional Article 230, obviously in compliance with the Allied ultimatum of May 24, 1915 in regard to committed "crimes against humanity and civilization".

Nuremberg trials

After the Second World War, the London Charter of the International Military Tribunal set down the laws and procedures by which the Nuremberg trials were to be conducted. The drafters of this document were faced with the problem of how to respond to the Holocaust and the grave crimes committed by the Nazi regime. A traditional understanding of war crimes gave no provision for crimes committed by a power on its own citizens. Therefore, Article 6 of the Charter was drafted to include not only traditional war crimes and crimes against peace, but also crimes against humanity, defined as

Under this definition, crimes against humanity could only be punished insofar as they could be connected somehow to war crimes or crimes against peace. The jurisdictional limitation was explained by the American chief representative to the London Conference, Robert H. Jackson, who pointed out that it "has been a general principle from time immemorial that the internal affairs of another government are not ordinarily our business". Thus, "it is justifiable that we interfere or attempt to bring retribution to individuals or to states only because the concentration camps and the deportations were in pursuance of a common plan or enterprise of making an unjust war". The judgement of the first Nuremberg trial found that "the policy of persecution, repression and murder of civilians" and persecution of Jews within Germany before the outbreak of war in 1939 were not crimes against humanity, because as "revolting and horrible as many of these crimes were, it has not been satisfactorily proved that they were done in execution of, or in connection with," war crimes or crimes against peace. The subsequent Nuremberg trials were conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 which included a revised definition of crimes against humanity with a wider scope.

Tokyo Trial

The International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE), also known as the Tokyo Trial, was convened to try the leaders of the Empire of Japan for three types of crimes: "Class A" (crimes against peace), "Class B" (war crimes), and "Class C" (crimes against humanity), committed during the Second World War.

The legal basis for the trial was established by the Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (CIMTFE) that was proclaimed on 19 January 1946. The tribunal convened on May 3, 1946, and was adjourned on November 12, 1948.

In the Tokyo Trial, Crimes against Humanity (Class C) was not applied for any suspect.  Prosecutions related to the Nanking Massacre were categorised as infringements upon the Laws of War.

A panel of eleven judges presided over the IMTFE, one each from victorious Allied powers (United States, Republic of China, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Provisional Government of the French Republic, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, British India, and the Philippines).

Types of crimes against humanity
The different types of crimes which may constitute crimes against humanity differs between definitions both internationally and on the domestic level. Isolated inhumane acts of a certain nature committed as part of a widespread or systematic attack may instead constitute grave infringements of human rights, or – depending on the circumstances – war crimes, but are not classified as crimes against humanity.

Apartheid

The systematic persecution of one racial group by another, such as occurred during the South African apartheid government, was recognized as a crime against humanity by the United Nations General Assembly in 1976. The Charter of the United Nations (Article 13, 14, 15) makes actions of the General Assembly advisory to the Security Council. In regard to apartheid in particular, the UN General Assembly has not made any findings, nor have apartheid-related trials for crimes against humanity been conducted.

Rape and sexual violence
Neither the Nuremberg or Tokyo Charters contained an explicit provision recognizing sexual and gender-based crimes as war crimes or crimes against humanity, although Control Council Law No. 10 recognized rape as a crime against humanity. The statutes of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda both included rape as a crime against humanity. The ICC is the first international instrument expressly to include various forms of sexual and gender-based crimes including rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilisation, and other forms of sexual violence as both an underlying act of crimes against humanity and war crime committed in international and/or non-international armed conflicts. As an example, the events of Khojaly and Khatyn can be shown that the world strongly condemns. International institutions have asked for a ransom to avoid such incidents. There are hundreds of massacres, thousands of prisoners and wounded in these incidents.

In 2008, the U.N. Security Council adopted resolution 1820, which noted that "rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide".

Legal status of crimes against humanity in international law
Unlike genocide and war crimes, which have been widely recognized and prohibited in international criminal law since the establishment of the Nuremberg principles, there has never been a comprehensive convention on crimes against humanity, even though such crimes are continuously perpetrated worldwide in numerous conflicts and crises. There are eleven international texts defining crimes against humanity, but they all differ slightly as to their definition of that crime and its legal elements.

In 2008, the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative was launched by Professor Leila Nadya Sadat at the Whitney R. Harris World Law Institute to address this gap in international law. The Initiative represents the first concerted effort to address the gap that exists in international criminal law by enumerating a comprehensive international convention on crimes against humanity.

On July 30, 2013, the United Nations International Law Commission voted to include the topic of crimes against humanity in its long-term program of work. In July 2014, the Commission moved this topic to its active programme of work based largely on a report submitted by Sean D. Murphy.  Professor Sean D. Murphy, the United States’ Member on the United Nations’ International Law Commission, has been named the Special Rapporteur for Crimes Against Humanity. Sean D. Murphy attended the 2008 Experts' Meeting held by the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative prior to this appointment.

There is some debate on what the status of crimes against humanity under customary international law is. M. Cherif Bassiouni argues that crimes against humanity are part of jus cogens and as such constitute a non-derogable rule of international law.

United Nations
The United Nations has been primarily responsible for the prosecution of crimes against humanity since it was chartered in 1948.

After Nuremberg, there was no international court with jurisdiction over crimes against humanity for almost 50 years. Work continued on developing the definition of crimes against humanity at the United Nations, however. In 1947, the International Law Commission was charged by the United Nations General Assembly with the formulation of the principles of international law recognized and reinforced in the Nuremberg Charter and judgment, and with drafting a 'code of offenses against the peace and security of mankind'. Completed fifty years later in 1996, the Draft Code defined crimes against humanity as various inhumane acts, i.e., "murder, extermination, torture, enslavement, persecution on political, racial, religious or ethnic grounds, institutionalized discrimination, arbitrary deportation or forcible transfer of population, arbitrary imprisonment, rape, enforced prostitution and other inhuman acts committed in a systematic manner or on a large scale and instigated or directed by a Government or by any organization or group." This definition differs from the one used in Nuremberg, where the criminal acts were to have been committed "before or during the war", thus establishing a nexus between crimes against humanity and armed conflict.

A report on the 2008–09 Gaza War by Richard Goldstone accused Palestinian and Israeli forces of possibly committing a crime against humanity. In 2011, Goldstone said that he no longer believed that Israeli forces had targeted civilians or committed a crime against humanity.

On 21 March 2013, at its 22nd session, the United Nations Human Rights Council established the Commission of Inquiry on human rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK). The Commission is mandated to investigate the systematic, widespread and grave violations of human rights in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, with a view to ensuring full accountability, in particular for violations which may amount to crimes against humanity. The Commission dealt with matters relating to crimes against humanity on the basis of definitions set out by customary international criminal law and in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. The 2014 Report by the commission found "the body of testimony and other information it received establishes that crimes against humanity have been committed in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, pursuant to policies established at the highest level of the State... These crimes against humanity entail extermination, murder, enslavement, torture, imprisonment, rape, forced abortions and other sexual violence, persecution on political, religious, racial and gender grounds, the forcible transfer of populations, the enforced disappearance of persons and the inhumane act of knowingly causing prolonged starvation. The commission further finds that crimes against humanity are ongoing in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea because the policies, institutions and patterns of impunity that lie at their heart remain in place." Additionally, the commission found that crimes against humanity have been committed against starving populations, particularly during the 1990s, and are being committed against persons from other countries who were systematically abducted or denied repatriation, in order to gain labour and other skills for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.

Security Council
UN Security Council Resolution 1674, adopted by the United Nations Security Council on 28 April 2006, "reaffirms the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity". The resolution commits the Council to action to protect civilians in armed conflict.

In 2008 the U.N. Security Council adopted resolution 1820, which noted that "rape and other forms of sexual violence can constitute war crimes, crimes against humanity or a constitutive act with respect to genocide".

According to the United Nations Security Council resolution 1970 (2011) concerning Libya, any direct or indirect trade of arms to the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, in the form of supply, transfer, or sale should be prevented by the member nations. The arms embargo restricts the supply of arms, weapons, military vehicles, spare parts, technical assistance, finances, along with the provision of armed mercenaries, with origins of a country other than the one providing.

However, the United Nations claimed in its November 2019 report that the United Arab Emirates, Jordan and Turkey are violating the arms embargo imposed on Libya under the 1970 resolution. An airstrike on the migrant detention center in Tripoli in July 2019, believed to have been carried out by the United Arab Emirates, can be amounted as a war crime, as stated by the United Nations. The airstrike was deadlier than the 2011 militarized uprising that overthrew the regime of Muammar Gaddafi.

International courts and criminal tribunals
After the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials of 1945–1946, the next international tribunal with jurisdiction over crimes against humanity was not established for another five decades. In response to atrocities committed in the 1990s, multiple ad hoc tribunals were established with jurisdiction over crimes against humanity. The statutes of the International Criminal Court, the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugolavia and for Rwanda each contain different definitions of crimes against humanity.

International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia

In 1993, the UN Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), with jurisdiction to investigate and prosecute three international crimes which had taken place in the former Yugoslavia: genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Article 5 of the ICTY Statute states that

This definition of crimes against humanity revived the original ‘Nuremberg’ nexus with armed conflict, connecting crimes against humanity to both international and non-international armed conflict. It also expanded the list of criminal acts used in Nuremberg to include imprisonment, torture and rape. Cherif Bassiouni has argued that this definition was necessary as the conflict in the former Yugoslavia was considered to be a conflict of both an international and non-international nature. Therefore, this adjusted definition of crimes against humanity was necessary to afford the tribunal jurisdiction over this crime.

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

The UN Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in 1994 following the Rwandan genocide. Under the ICTR Statute, the link between crimes against humanity and an armed conflict of any kind was dropped. Rather, the requirement was added that the inhumane acts must be part of a "systematic or widespread attack against any civilian population on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds." Unlike the conflict in the former Yugoslavia, the conflict in Rwanda was deemed to be non-international, so crimes against humanity would likely not have been applicable if the nexus to armed conflict had been maintained.

Special Court for Sierra Leone

Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC)

International Criminal Court

In 2002, the International Criminal Court (ICC) was established in The Hague (Netherlands) and the Rome Statute provides for the ICC to have jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. The definition of what is a "crime against humanity" for ICC proceedings has significantly broadened from its original legal definition or that used by the UN. Essentially, the Rome Statute employs the same definition of crimes against humanity that the ICTR Statute does, minus the requirement that the attack was carried out ‘on national, political, ethnic, racial or religious grounds’. In addition, the Rome Statute definition offers the most expansive list of specific criminal acts that may constitute crimes against humanity to date.

Article 7 of the treaty stated that:

The Rome Statute Explanatory Memorandum states that crimes against humanity

To fall under the Rome Statute, a crime against humanity which is defined in Article 7.1 must be "part of a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population". Article 7.2.a states "For the purpose of paragraph 1: "Attack directed against any civilian population means a course of conduct involving the multiple commission of acts referred to in paragraph 1 against any civilian population, pursuant to or in furtherance of a State or organizational policy to commit such attack." This means that an individual crime on its own, or even a number of such crimes, would not fall under the Rome Statute unless they were the result of a State policy or an organizational policy. This was confirmed by Luis Moreno Ocampo in an open letter publishing his conclusions about allegations of crimes committed during the invasion of Iraq in March 2003 which might fall under the ICC. In a section entitled "Allegations concerning Genocide and Crimes against Humanity" he states that "the available information provided no reasonable indicator of the required elements for a crime against humanity," i.e. 'a widespread or systematic attack directed against any civilian population'".

The ICC can only prosecute crimes against humanity in situations under which it has jurisdiction. The ICC only has jurisdiction over crimes contained in its statute – genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity – which have been committed on the territory of a State party to the Rome Statute, when a non-party State refers a situation within its country to the court or when the United Nation Security Council refers a case to the ICC. In 2005 the UN referred to the ICC the situation in Darfur. This referral resulted in an indictment of Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir for genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes in 2008. When the ICC President reported to the UN regarding its progress handling these crimes against humanity case, Judge Phillipe Kirsch said "The Court does not have the power to arrest these persons. That is the responsibility of States and other actors. Without arrests, there can be no trials.

Council of Europe
The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe on 30 April 2002 issued a recommendation to the member states, on the protection of women against violence. In the section "Additional measures concerning violence in conflict and post-conflict situations", states in paragraph 69 that member states should: "penalize rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization or any other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity as an intolerable violation of human rights, as crimes against humanity and, when committed in the context of an armed conflict, as war crimes;"

In the Explanatory Memorandum on this recommendation when considering paragraph 69:

The Holodomor has been recognized as a crime against humanity by the European Parliament.

20th century

Sources say the 20th century can be considered the bloodiest period in global history. Millions of civilian infants, children, adults, and elderly people died in warfare. One civilian perished for every combatant killed. Efforts of the International Committee of the Red Cross, humanitarian laws, and rules of warfare were not able to stop these crimes against humanity. These terminologies were invented since previous vocabulary was not enough to describe these offenses. War criminals did not fear prosecution, apprehension, or imprisonment before World War II. Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill favored the outright execution of war criminals. The United States was more lenient and called for a just trial. The British Government was convinced to institute the Nuremberg Trial which left several legacies. These are worldwide jurisdiction for severe war crimes are, creation of international war crime tribunals, judicial procedures that documented history of colossal crimes effectively, and success of UN courts in holding impartial trials.

The UN pointed out the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) specifically Article 7 (Crimes against Humanity), which defines large-scale acts of violence against a locality's civilian populace. These acts consist of murder; annihilation; enslavement; bondage; forced removal of the population; imprisonment or deprivation of physical liberty that violates international laws; maltreatment; forced prostitution and rape; discrimination and tyranny against certain groups; apartheid (racial discrimination and segregation); and, other inhumane acts. A publication from Trial International mentioned that crimes against humanity have been collated starting in 1990. These were the 1993 Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Yugoslavia, 1994 Statute of the International Tribunal for Rwanda, and 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. The latter contains the latest and most extensive list of detailed crimes against civilians.

See also

 Available legal remedies
 Charter of the United Nations
 Crimes against humanity under communist regimes
 Crimes Against Humanity Initiative
 Historical revisionism (negationism)
 Honor killing
 Human rights
 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
 Mass Atrocity crimes
 Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action
 War crimes

References

Further reading

 Christopher R. Browning, "The Two Different Ways of Looking at Nazi Murder" (review of Philippe Sands, East West Street:  On the Origins of "Genocide" and "Crimes Against Humanity", Knopf, 425 pp., $32.50; and Christian Gerlach, The Extermination of the European Jews, Cambridge University Press, 508 pp., $29.99 [paper]), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIII, no. 18 (November 24, 2016), pp. 56–58.  Discusses Hersch Lauterpacht's legal concept of "crimes against humanity", contrasted with Rafael Lemkin's legal concept of "genocide".  All genocides are crimes against humanity, but not all crimes against humanity are genocides; genocides require a higher standard of proof, as they entail intent to destroy a particular group.

(fr) Jean Albert (dir.), L'avenir de la justice pénale internationale, Institut Presage, Bruylant, 2018, 383 p. ()

External links

 Crimes of War project
 Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project
 What is a Crime Against Humanity? – an online video
 Genocide & Crimes Against Humanity – a learning resource, highlighting the cases of Myanmar, Bosnia, the DRC, and Darfur
 Crimes Against Humanity – Bibliographies on the topics of the International Law Commission & International Law Seminar  (UNOG Library)

Category:Human rights abuses
Category:International criminal law
Category:Torture
Category:War crimes
Category:Words coined in the 1890s


Wappocomo (Romney, West Virginia)

Wappocomo is a late 18th-century Georgian mansion and farm overlooking the South Branch Potomac River north of Romney, Hampshire County, West Virginia, USA. It is located along Cumberland Road (West Virginia Route 28) and the South Branch Valley Railroad.

The original section of the mansion at Wappocomo was built in 1774 by Nicholas Casey (1745–1833), using bricks that had been used as ballast to stabilize ships loading tobacco in the James River. The Wappocomo property had been a part of the South Branch Survey of Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron's Northern Neck Proprietary. The Parsons family, prominent in Virginia and West Virginia politics in the 18th and 19th centuries, acquired Wappocomo and continue to maintain ownership of the property into the 21st century.

Wappocomo was involved in two slavery-related disputes that caused friction between the governments of Pennsylvania and Virginia. In 1788, Nicholas Casey purchased a freed slave by the name of John, who had been kidnapped in Pennsylvania and returned into slavery in Virginia. Pennsylvania Governor Thomas Mifflin demanded that the Governor of Virginia punish the three Virginia residents responsible for the abduction and re-enslavement of a freedman, however, Virginia's governor cited the absence of such a clause in the United States Constitution. In August 1855, a fugitive slave named Jacob Green escaped from Wappocomo with several other slaves to Pennsylvania. Col. Isaac Parsons (1814–62) and his nephews went north to pursue the escapees, resulting in the arrest of his nephew, James "Zip" Parsons III (1831–93). Parsons' trial caused a further dispute between the states of Virginia and Pennsylvania over the latter's refusal to execute the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.

The mansion at Wappocomo is unique among the historic residences along the South Branch Potomac River, in that its formal façade faces toward the road and the western flanks of South Branch Mountain rather than toward the river. The original 1774 portion of the mansion is a square two-story Georgian-style structure, an architectural style prevalent in Virginia at the time of Wappocomo's construction. The bricks used to build the 1774 structure were manufactured in England, and used as ballast to stabilize ships loading tobacco in the James River. The interior of the 1774 structure contains a grand stairway in the center hall and all the original handmade woodworking. A stone addition to the mansion with two stories of deep verandas was completed in 1861. The principal passenger depot for the Potomac Eagle Scenic Railroad, Wappocomo Station, is located at the farm.

History

Background and construction

The land upon which Wappocomo is located was originally part of the Northern Neck Proprietary, a land grant that the exiled Charles II awarded to seven of his supporters in 1649 during the English Interregnum. Following the Restoration in 1660, Charles II finally ascended to the English throne. Charles II renewed the Northern Neck Proprietary grant in 1662, revised it in 1669, and again renewed the original grant favoring original grantee Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper and Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington in 1672. In 1681, Bennet sold his share to Lord Colepeper, and Lord Colepeper received a new charter for the entire land grant from James II in 1688. Following the deaths of Lord Colepeper, his wife Margaret, and his daughter Katherine, the Northern Neck Proprietary passed to Katherine's son Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron in 1719.

Lord Fairfax selected a portion of the proprietary for his manor. This tract, known as the South Branch Survey of the Northern Neck Proprietary, extended from the north end of the Trough to the junction of the North and South Branches of the Potomac River. In 1748, Fairfax commissioned James Genn to survey the South Branch Potomac River lowlands for sale and lease, with lots ranging in size from .

Prominent Hampshire County pioneer Peter Casey (1715–87) received the Wappocomo parcel, known as Lot Number 21 of the South Branch Survey, from Lord Fairfax. Peter Casey's son, Nicholas (1745–1833), married Grace Foreman (1762–1796), the daughter of another Hampshire County pioneer and colonial military officer William Foreman. Nicholas Casey inherited Lot Number 21 from his father, and in 1774, Nicholas built the present mansion at Wappocomo.

The bricks used in the construction of Casey's mansion were manufactured in England, and used as ballast to stabilize ships loading tobacco in the James River. These bricks were then transported overland through the Blue Ridge Mountains and Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians in bullock carts. During this time, the mansion was named Wappocomo, which was derived from the Native American toponym "Wappatomaka" for the South Branch Potomac River.

In 1788, while residing at his Wappocomo residence, Casey purchased a freed slave named John, who had been residing in Washington County, Pennsylvania. Virginia residents Francis McGuire, Baldwin Parsons, and Absalom Wells seized John and transported him to Virginia, where they sold him back into slavery to Casey. Such an act was illegal in Pennsylvania, and the Pennsylvania Abolition Society petitioned Pennsylvania Governor Thomas Mifflin to demand punishment of the three men by the Governor of Virginia. Virginia's governor refused, citing the absence of a provision in the United States Constitution calling for such an action. Governor Mifflin petitioned the United States Congress, and a bill was introduced that provided against such an occurrence.

On December 4, 1789, Casey was appointed by an act of the Virginia General Assembly as a trustee of Romney. Casey served as a trustee alongside Isaac Parsons and Andrew Wodrow. Casey and his fellow trustees were given authority by the Virginia General Assembly to settle disputes regarding the town's land lots and to "open and clear" the town's "streets and lanes" in accordance with the original survey and plan for Romney.

Parsons family acquisition
Nicholas Casey's daughter, Mary Catherine Casey (1773–1846), married James Gregg Parsons (1773–1847) of Hampshire County in 1795. Parsons was the eldest son of Isaac Parsons (1752–1796) and his wife Mary Ellender Gregg. The Parsons were a prominent family whose ancestors arrived at the Thirteen Colonies from England in 1635, and relocated to Hampshire County around 1740. Isaac Parsons represented Hampshire County as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates from 1789 until his death on August 25, 1796. By 1778, Parsons owned  of Lot Number 16 and all of Lot Number 17, which was adjacent to the Wappocomo property.

James Gregg Parsons and his wife Catherine inherited Wappocomo from her father, and they raised their 12 children there. Following his wife's death, Parsons acquired sole ownership in Wappocomo plantation. After his death on January 25, 1847, his will, dated November 7, 1846, and probated February 22, 1847, devised Lot Number 21 including Wappocomo (referred to in the will as the Casey Tract) to his son Colonel Isaac Parsons (1814–62). On May 18, 1836, Col. Parsons married Susan Blue (1817–89), the daughter of Uriah Blue Jr. and his wife M. Elizabeth Donaldson Blue. Col. Parsons served as a member of the Virginia House of Delegates representing Hampshire County from 1854 to 1857. James "Big Jim" Parsons, Jr. (1798–1858) inherited the Collins Tract (Lot Number 20), which later became Valley View, and his son David C. Parsons (1803–1860) inherited Lot Number 13. James Gregg Parsons' sons also inherited the nearby "Jake Sugar Rum Tract, the McGuire Tract, and five town lots in Romney."

Jacob Green affair

In August 1855, Jacob Green, a slave owned by Col. Parsons, escaped from Wappocomo farm with four other slaves from neighboring plantations. In October of that year, he returned to Col. Parsons' plantation in Romney, and persuaded four or five slaves from neighboring farms owned by Parsons family relatives to escape with him to Pennsylvania.

A party of eight to ten men, including Col. Parsons and two of his nephews, James "Zip" Parsons III (1831–93) and a Mr. Stump, went north in pursuit of the escapees. In the course of the pursuit, they captured two of Stump's escaped slaves, who were sent back to Hampshire County.  With information obtained from the two recaptured slaves, Col. Parsons went to Johnstown, James Parsons III to Hollidaysburg, and Stump to Altoona, where they hoped to intercept Green as he headed west on the Allegheny Portage Railroad and Main Line Canal toward Pittsburgh. James Parsons III intercepted Green at Hollidaysburg, but local abolitionists thwarted his attempt to capture Green, and Parsons was arrested and arraigned for kidnapping.

Upon learning of the arrest of his nephew, Col. Parsons sought the assistance of Charles James Faulkner, a prominent Martinsburg lawyer and United States House Representative from Virginia's 8th congressional district, and of James Murray Mason, a United States Senator from Virginia. Faulkner and Mason both offered their legal services for James Parsons III's defense. The Virginia General Assembly pledged its support to Parsons and to Virginia's slaveowners in defending their constitutional rights and to protect them from prosecution. Virginia Governor Henry A. Wise appointed John Randolph Tucker to attend Parsons' trial as a "special commissioner" of Virginia. The dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania escalated, and on January 31, 1856, an article published in the New York Herald read "Threatened Civil War between Virginia and Pennsylvania."

Col. Parsons, Faulkner, and Tucker traveled to Hollidaysburg for James Parsons III's trial. Faulkner provided for Parsons' legal defense, leading to his acquittal as having acted legally under the provisions of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.

In September 1856, Faulkner billed Col. Parsons $150 for his legal services.  Parsons disputed the charge.  In a series of articles in the Virginia Argus and Hampshire Advertiser, he declared that Faulkner had originally offered his services at no cost; that he had been lauded publicly for his generosity in doing so without ever denying that he had been working pro bono; and that he was practicing "duplicity and deception" in trying to win a reputation in his district through "specious acts of munificence".

Faulkner later served as United States Minister to France; following the American Civil War, he again served as a member of the United States House of Representatives, from West Virginia's 2nd congressional district. James Parsons III and his brother William Miller Parsons (born 1835) were later proprietors of the Virginia Argus.

Social events

Following its construction by Col. Parsons in 1861, the ballroom in the upper story of Wappocomo's stone addition served as the scene of many events and parties. According to tradition, as many as 100 couples have danced on the ballroom's wooden floor since its construction in 1861. It was the custom of the Parsons family to allow guests who were visiting the mansion for the first time to write their names and the date of their visit on the mortar between the addition's stone blocks; many of these signatures are still legible.

American Civil War
During the American Civil War, Col. Parsons received permission from the Confederate States government to raise an independent company of mounted infantry to provide defense along the border. He set about enrolling volunteers and, within a short period of time, enlisted approximately 30 men. Following its organization, the company became known as the Huckleberry Rangers of the Confederate States Army's 13th Virginia Volunteer Infantry Regiment. Parsons traveled to Richmond with a supply of cattle, and returned to his company's camp on the North River in Hampshire County around November 15, 1861. Throughout 1861, Col. Parsons "gratuitously" provided Confederate soldiers with food at his table and horses from his stables at his Wappocomo plantation.

Parsons was anxious to learn about the condition of his family and property at Wappocomo; he also needed an additional change of clothing and a blanket. Accompanied by Lieutenant Blue and Adam Parrish, he traveled west along the Northwestern Turnpike to around Pleasant Dale, then followed a series of roads and paths until nighttime, when they reached Sugar Hollow two miles north of Romney. Parsons stayed behind in the hollow, while Blue and Parrish started out for Wappocomo to retrieve a set of Parsons' clothes. Knowing that the Union Army kept a 24-hour guard at the main house, Blue circled around to the rear of the mansion and knocked on the window of his uncle, Garrett W. Blue, who was residing with the Parsons family. Garrett Blue warned his nephew about the Union Army soldiers possibly stationed on the home's front porch, and he subsequently fetched Parsons' daughter, Kate, who provided Lt. Blue with a parcel for her father.

Lt. Blue and Parrish returned to Sugar Hollow where Parsons was awaiting them, and Parsons set about locating pine from which to make torches to light their way out of the hollow. Parsons carried with him a small hatchet, and began splitting pine in the darkness to fashion a torch. He accidentally struck himself in the knee with his hatchet, and Blue applied a handkerchief to his wound to stop its bleeding. The three men traveled through the dark and rain to the nearby home of Frank Carter, where they ate and dried their clothes by the fire. The following morning, they mounted their horses and traveled to Rev. Harris' home, where Parsons and Blue parted with Parrish. Parsons and Blue continued east over Town Hill and reached George Thompson's residence on the Little Cacapon River, which had risen due to the previous night's rainfall. They remained with Thompson for two days until the river subsided, then traveled to Blue's Gap, where they set up camp. There, Lt. Blue received orders from Col. Angus William McDonald to carry out an expedition for General Stonewall Jackson to ascertain the number of Union Army infantry, cavalry, and artillery present in and around Romney; he was accompanied on this expedition by Col. Parsons' son, Isaac Parsons, Jr., and by W. V. Parsons.

Post-war ownership

Col. Parsons died on April 24, 1862, while the American Civil War was still in progress. On April 26, 1862, acting Quartermaster Lt. F. H. Morse of the Union Army completed his death certificate, in which he noted Parsons' "very fine house near Romney." Following his death, the plantation was inherited by Col. Parsons' wife, Susan Blue Parsons, for the purpose of raising and educating their children.

In 1884, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's South Branch line, connecting Green Spring and Romney, was completed.  The line bisected the Wappocomo property and traversed the mansion's front lawn.

Susan Blue Parsons died on October 2, 1889. On December 20, 1890, Col. Parsons' son, Garrett Williams Parsons (1852–1935), acquired Wappocomo for $16,885.72, which he paid to Col. Parsons's other heirs for their shares in the property.  On November 12, 1878, he married Mary Avery Covell (1852–1914), the daughter of West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind principal John Collins Covell (1823–87). After the death of Garrett Williams Parsons on September 29, 1935, Wappocomo was inherited by his son Charles Heber Parsons (1886–1952), who resided on the farm with his wife Gertrude L. Parsons (1895–1968) and engaged in farming on the property. He subsequently bequeathed the mansion and farm to his only child, Charles Heber Parsons, Jr. (1932–2002) and his wife Kathryn Anne Cole Parsons (1935–2004).

In 1972, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's South Branch line, located on the Wappocomo property, became part of the Chessie System. In 1978, ownership of the line was transferred to the West Virginia State Rail Authority, after which the old Baltimore and Ohio Railroad South Branch line became known as the South Branch Valley Railroad.

In 1991, the Potomac Eagle Scenic Railroad began operating on the South Branch Valley Railroad in 1991, running between Wappocomo Station and Petersburg via The Trough.  Its principal depot is Wappocomo Station, located on the Wappocomo farm; the station consists of a ticket office housed in a red 1940 Baltimore and Ohio Railroad caboose, numbered C2507; the caboose is owned by the Chesapeake and Ohio Historical Society and leased by the Potomac Eagle Scenic Railroad.

Part of Wappocomo's original land tract, located near the city limits of Romney, was sold for residential building lots and for the Fruit Growers Storage facility, a refrigerated storage plant for fruit stands along the South Branch Valley Railroad near the mansion. The Fruit Growers Storage facility also provided refrigerated storage for fruit that was to be shipped as freight on the South Branch Valley Railroad.

Charles Heber Parsons, Jr.'s son, Charles "Chuck" Heber Parsons III (1955–2012), inherited the farm at Wappocomo and carefully restored and maintained the property. Parsons was a prominent member of the Romney community and served as Assistant Chief of the Romney Volunteer Fire Department. He also served in the United States Air Force and worked as an engineer for Dyno Nobel, a manufacturer of explosives. Parsons was an avid bowler, and competed in local, state, and national bowling tournaments. In October 2013, the first annual Chuck Parsons Memorial Bowling Tournament was held in his honor, with the proceeds benefitting the Hampshire County Parks and Recreation Department summer youth programs. Following Parsons' passing in 2012, Wappocomo was inherited by his children, Charles "Chip" Heber Parsons IV and Jillyn Marie Parsons.

Architecture

Exterior
The original 1774 portion of the mansion is a square two-story Georgian-style structure with a basement and attic, an architectural style prevalent in Virginia at the time of Wappocomo's construction. This part of the mansion is built of large weighted ballast bricks, with walls that measure  in depth, allowing for deep inset windows. It also features two inside chimneys on either side, which once stood higher above its steep roof. The mansion's formal entrance is covered by a small portico supported with wooden columns and engaged columns at the wall.

Other historic homes located along the South Branch Potomac River face the river; the mansion at Wappocomo is unique in that its formal façade faces toward Cumberland Road (West Virginia Route 28) and the western flanks of South Branch Mountain. This may be due in part to the house's distance from the river, approximately . The house's second-floor rear windows offer a scenic view of the South Branch Potomac River.

Interior
The home's wooden sill plates and joists were sawed by hand and the "rot nails" used for their construction were manufactured in the blacksmith shop on the Wappocomo plantation. The residence at Wappocomo also features unusually high fireplace mantelpieces, wide grooved window moldings and casings with base panels, solid paneled doors, and interior woodworking throughout, all of which were handmade. Every room of the main structure originally contained a corner fireplace.

Both of the mansion's two floors consist of four large rooms with high ceilings, and each of these rooms is exactly the same size and shape. A grand stairway is located at the end of the mansion's central hall, extending from the first floor to the attic. The stairway's handrail is crafted of walnut, and it is connected to the stairway's shallow steps by a balustrade consisting of three small balusters per step.

The basement rooms at Wappocomo are located almost entirely aboveground. The house's foundation is constructed of large stone blocks, into which was crafted a large open fireplace that once exhibited a swinging iron chimney crane. The space around this large open fireplace within the mansion's basement formerly served as a kitchen, where most of the cooking and food preparation took place. Entry into the home's basement is accessible through a wide and heavy exterior door.

Stone addition

In 1861, a stone addition to the original 1774 Georgian structure was built. The large stone blocks used for the construction of the addition were quarried from the plantation's Mill Creek Mountain, a ridge located across the South Branch Potomac River to the west of the mansion. The stone blocks were hewed by sawyers, then transported across the river to the mansion, and lifted upon the addition's scaffolding with wheelbarrows. A Mr. Ferrybe supervised and managed the stone addition's construction.

The 1861 stone addition's two floors consisted of two large rooms on each floor, with  ceilings. The two upstairs rooms were transformed into a large ballroom, while the two downstairs rooms were used as a dining room and kitchen.

The stone addition exhibits two stories of deep verandas extending across its eastern front façade. These verandas were once supported by tall columns rising from the addition's ground-level porch, to the roof of the second-story porch. An exterior stairway once connected the lower porch to the upper porch.

Geography

Wappocomo farm is located within the relatively flat floodplain of the South Branch Potomac River valley, to the north of Romney. The farm's property adjoins the Valley View farm and Romney corporate limits to the southwest, the South Branch Potomac River to the west and north, and the South Branch Valley Railroad line and Cumberland Road (West Virginia Route 28) to the east. Mill Creek Mountain, a narrow anticlinal mountain ridge, rises to the west of the opposite riverbank of the South Branch Potomac River, and the western foothills of South Branch Mountain rise to the east. Mill Creek and South Branch Mountains contain Appalachian-Blue Ridge forests of hardwoods and pine. Hanging Rocks, cliffs of stratified Oriskany sandstone and limestone layers, are located within a gap where the South Branch Potomac River cuts through Mill Creek Mountain approximately  north of Wappocomo farm. The unincorporated area at Hanging Rocks is known similarly as Wapocomo (or Wappocomo).

Big Run, a tributary stream of the South Branch Potomac River, flows north bisecting the Wappocomo property, bordered by dense foliage. Shortly before it enters Wappocomo farm, Big Run flows alongside ledges of gray shale known to contain Chonetes and Camarotoechia fossils. A smaller unnamed stream flows through the front lawn of the house at Wappocomo before curving northwest toward its confluence with Big Run. Corn is the primary crop produced in Wappocomo's agricultural fields along the South Branch Potomac River, which consist of rich alluvial soils.

Washington Place

On November 7, 1874, Col. Parsons' widow, Susan Blue Parsons, conveyed  of Wappocomo's land to freedman William Washington, his wife Ann, and their children. Washington had previously worked on Washington Bottom Farm, from which he took the surname of his owner, George William Washington. This deed enabled the Washington family to reside on that land lot as long as any of the individuals specified in the deed lived there. On September 17, 1892, Garrett Williams Parsons and his wife, Mary Avery Covell Parsons, conveyed to Washington an additional  of land. The old log house built by Washington on this former Wappocomo land lot is presently known as Washington Place, and it is thought to be one of the first residences built by freed slaves in Hampshire County.

See also
 List of historic sites in Hampshire County, West Virginia
 List of plantations in West Virginia

References

Bibliography

External links

Category:1774 establishments in Virginia
Category:African-American history of West Virginia
Category:American Civil War sites
Category:Buildings and structures in Romney, West Virginia
Category:Colonial architecture in West Virginia
Category:Farms in West Virginia
Category:Georgian architecture in West Virginia
Category:Hampshire County, West Virginia, in the American Civil War
Category:History of slavery in West Virginia
Category:Houses completed in 1774
Category:Houses completed in 1861
Category:Houses in Hampshire County, West Virginia
Category:Parsons family of West Virginia
Category:Plantations in West Virginia
Category:Plantation houses in West Virginia
Category:South Branch Valley Railroad
Category:Stone houses in West Virginia
Category:Vernacular architecture in West Virginia
Category:Farms on the National Register of Historic Places in West Virginia


EPUB

EPUB is an e-book file format that uses the ".epub" file extension. The term is short for electronic publication and is sometimes styled ePub. EPUB is supported by many e-readers, and compatible software is available for most smartphones, tablets, and computers. EPUB is a technical standard published by the International Digital Publishing Forum (IDPF). It became an official standard of the IDPF in September 2007, superseding the older Open eBook standard.

The Book Industry Study Group endorses EPUB 3 as the format of choice for packaging content and has stated that the global book publishing industry should rally around a single standard. The EPUB format is implemented as an archive file consisting of HTML files carrying the content, along with images and other supporting files. EPUB is the most widely supported vendor-independent XML-based (as opposed to PDF) e-book format; that is, it is supported by almost all hardware readers, except for Kindle.

History
A successor to the Open eBook Publication Structure, EPUB 2.0 was approved in October 2007, with a maintenance update (2.0.1) approved in September 2010.

The EPUB 3.0 specification became effective in October 2011, superseded by a minor maintenance update (3.0.1) in June 2014. New major features include support for precise layout or specialized formatting (Fixed Layout Documents), such as for comic books, and MathML support. The current version of EPUB is 3.1, effective January 5, 2017. The (text of) format specification underwent reorganization and clean-up; format supports remotely-hosted resources and new font formats (WOFF 2.0 and SFNT) and uses more pure HTML and CSS.

In May 2016 IDPF Members approved World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) merger,  "to fully align the publishing industry and core Web technology".

Version 2.0.1
EPUB 2.0 was approved in October 2007, with a maintenance update (2.0.1) intended to clarify and correct errata in the specifications being approved in September 2010. EPUB version 2.0.1 consists of three specifications:
 Open Publication Structure (OPS) 2.0.1, contains the formatting of its content.
 Open Packaging Format (OPF) 2.0.1, describes the structure of the .epub file in XML.
 Open Container Format (OCF) 2.0.1, collects all files as a ZIP archive.

EPUB internally uses XHTML or DTBook (an XML standard provided by the DAISY Consortium) to represent the text and structure of the content document, and a subset of CSS to provide layout and formatting. XML is used to create the document manifest, table of contents, and EPUB metadata. Finally, the files are bundled in a zip file as a packaging format.

Open Publication Structure 2.0.1
An EPUB file uses XHTML 1.1 (or DTBook) to construct the content of a book as of version 2.0.1. This is different from previous versions (OEBPS 1.2 and earlier), which used a subset of XHTML. There are, however, a few restrictions on certain elements. The mimetype for XHTML documents in EPUB is application/xhtml+xml.

Styling and layout are performed using a subset of CSS 2.0, referred to as OPS Style Sheets. This specialized syntax requires that reading systems support for only a portion of CSS properties and adds a few custom properties. Custom properties include oeb-page-head, oeb-page-foot, and oeb-column-number. Font-embedding can be accomplished using the @font-face property, as well as including the font file in the OPF's manifest (see below). The mimetype for CSS documents in EPUB is text/css.

EPUB also requires that PNG, JPEG, GIF, and SVG images be supported using the mimetypes image/png, image/jpeg, image/gif, image/svg+xml. Other media types are allowed, but creators must include alternative renditions using supported types. For a table of all required mimetypes, see Section 1.3.7 of the specification.

Unicode is required, and content producers must use either UTF-8 or UTF-16 encoding. This is to support international and multilingual books. However, reading systems are not required to provide the fonts necessary to display every unicode character, though they are required to display at least a placeholder for characters that cannot be displayed fully.

An example skeleton of an XHTML file for EPUB looks like this:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" ?>
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.1//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/DTD/xhtml11.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en">
  <head>
    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="application/xhtml+xml; charset=utf-8" />
    <title>Pride and Prejudice</title>
    <link rel="stylesheet" href="css/main.css" type="text/css" />
  </head>
  <body>
    ...
  </body>
</html>

Open Packaging Format 2.0.1
The OPF specification's purpose is to "...[define] the mechanism by which the various components of an OPS publication are tied together and provides additional structure and semantics to the electronic publication." This is accomplished by two XML files with the extensions .opf and .ncx.

.opf file

The OPF file, traditionally named content.opf, houses the EPUB book's metadata, file manifest, and linear reading order. This file has a root element package and four child elements: metadata, manifest, spine,  and guide. Furthermore, the package node must have the unique-identifier attribute. The .opf file's mimetype is application/oebps-package+xml.

The metadata element contains all the metadata information for a particular EPUB file. Three metadata tags are required (though many more are available): title, language, and identifier. title contains the title of the book, language contains the language of the book's contents in RFC 3066 format or its successors, such as the newer RFC 4646 and identifier contains a unique identifier for the book, such as its ISBN or a URL. The identifier's id attribute should equal the unique-identifier attribute from the package element.

The manifest element lists all the files contained in the package. Each file is represented by an item element, and has the attributes id, href, media-type. All XHTML (content documents), stylesheets, images or other media, embedded fonts, and the NCX file should be listed here. Only the .opf file itself, the container.xml, and the mimetype files should not be included. Note that in the example below, an arbitrary media-type is given to the included font file, even though no mimetype exists for fonts.

The spine element lists all the XHTML content documents in their linear reading order. Also, any content document that can be reached through linking or the table of contents must be listed as well. The toc attribute of spine must contain the id of the NCX file listed in the manifest. Each itemref element's idref is set to the id of its respective content document.

The guide element is an optional element for the purpose of identifying fundamental structural components of the book. Each reference element has the attributes type, title, href. Files referenced in href must be listed in the manifest, and are allowed to have an element identifier (e.g. #figures in the example).

An example OPF file:
<?xml version="1.0"?>
<package version="2.0" xmlns="http://www.idpf.org/2007/opf" unique-identifier="BookId">

  <metadata xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:opf="http://www.idpf.org/2007/opf">
    <dc:title>Pride and Prejudice</dc:title>
    <dc:language>en</dc:language>
    <dc:identifier id="BookId" opf:scheme="ISBN">123456789X</dc:identifier>
    <dc:creator opf:file-as="Austen, Jane" opf:role="aut">Jane Austen</dc:creator>
  </metadata>

  <manifest>
    <item id="chapter1" href="chapter1.xhtml" media-type="application/xhtml+xml"/>
    <item id="appendix" href="appendix.xhtml" media-type="application/xhtml+xml"/>
    <item id="stylesheet" href="style.css" media-type="text/css"/>
    <item id="ch1-pic" href="ch1-pic.png" media-type="image/png"/>
    <item id="myfont" href="css/myfont.otf" media-type="application/x-font-opentype"/>
    <item id="ncx" href="toc.ncx" media-type="application/x-dtbncx+xml"/>
  </manifest>

  <spine toc="ncx">
    <itemref idref="chapter1" />
    <itemref idref="appendix" />
  </spine>

  <guide>
    <reference type="loi" title="List Of Illustrations" href="appendix.xhtml#figures" />
  </guide>

</package>

.ncx file

The NCX file (Navigation Control file for XML), traditionally named toc.ncx, contains the hierarchical table of contents for the EPUB file. The specification for NCX was developed for Digital Talking Book (DTB), is maintained by the DAISY Consortium, and is not a part of the EPUB specification. The NCX file has a mimetype of application/x-dtbncx+xml.

Of note here is that the values for the docTitle, docAuthor, and meta name="dtb:uid" elements should match their analogs in the OPF file. Also, the meta name="dtb:depth" element is set equal to the depth of the navMap element. navPoint elements can be nested to create a hierarchical table of contents. navLabel's content is the text that appears in the table of contents generated by reading systems that use the .ncx. navPoint's content element points to a content document listed in the manifest and can also include an element identifier (e.g. #section1).

A description of certain exceptions to the NCX specification as used in EPUB is in Section 2.4.1 of the specification. The complete specification for NCX can be found in Section 8 of the Specifications for the Digital Talking Book.

An example .ncx file:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE ncx PUBLIC "-//NISO//DTD ncx 2005-1//EN"
"http://www.daisy.org/z3986/2005/ncx-2005-1.dtd">

<ncx version="2005-1" xml:lang="en" xmlns="http://www.daisy.org/z3986/2005/ncx/">

  <head>
<!-- The following four metadata items are required for all NCX documents,
including those that conform to the relaxed constraints of OPS 2.0 -->

    <meta name="dtb:uid" content="123456789X"/> <!-- same as in .opf -->
    <meta name="dtb:depth" content="1"/> <!-- 1 or higher -->
    <meta name="dtb:totalPageCount" content="0"/> <!-- must be 0 -->
    <meta name="dtb:maxPageNumber" content="0"/> <!-- must be 0 -->
  </head>

  <docTitle>
    <text>Pride and Prejudice</text>
  </docTitle>

  <docAuthor>
    <text>Austen, Jane</text>
  </docAuthor>

  <navMap>
    <navPoint class="chapter" id="chapter1" playOrder="1">
      <navLabel><text>Chapter 1</text></navLabel>
      <content src="chapter1.xhtml"/>
    </navPoint>
  </navMap>

</ncx>

Open Container Format 2.0.1
An EPUB file is a group of files that conform to the OPS/OPF standards and are wrapped in a ZIP file. The OCF specifies how to organize these files in the ZIP, and defines two additional files that must be included.

The mimetype file must be a text document in ASCII that contains the string application/epub+zip. It must also be uncompressed, unencrypted, and the first file in the ZIP archive. This file provides a more reliable way for applications to identify the mimetype of the file than just the .epub extension.

Also, there must be a folder named META-INF, which contains the required file container.xml. This XML file points to the file defining the contents of the book. This is the OPF file, though additional alternative rootfile elements are allowed.

Apart from mimetype and META-INF/container.xml, the other files (OPF, NCX, XHTML, CSS and images files) are traditionally put in a directory named OEBPS.

An example file structure:
--ZIP Container--
mimetype
META-INF/
  container.xml
OEBPS/
  content.opf
  chapter1.xhtml
  ch1-pic.png
  css/
    style.css
    myfont.otf

An example container.xml, given the above file structure:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" ?>
<container version="1.0" xmlns="urn:oasis:names:tc:opendocument:xmlns:container">
  <rootfiles>
    <rootfile full-path="OEBPS/content.opf" media-type="application/oebps-package+xml"/>
  </rootfiles>
</container>

Version 3.0.1
The EPUB 3.0 Recommended Specification was approved on 11 October 2011.  On June 26, 2014 EPUB 3.0.1 was approved as a minor maintenance update to EPUB 3.0.  EPUB 3.0 supersedes the previous release 2.0.1.

EPUB 3 consists of a set of four specifications:
 EPUB Publications 3.0, which defines publication-level semantics and overarching conformance requirements for EPUB Publications
 EPUB Content Documents 3.0, which defines profiles of XHTML, SVG and CSS for use in the context of EPUB Publications
 EPUB Open Container Format (OCF) 3.0, which defines a file format and processing model for encapsulating a set of related resources into a single-file (ZIP) EPUB Container.
 EPUB Media Overlays 3.0, which defines a format and a processing model for synchronization of text and audio

The EPUB 3.0 format was intended to address the following criticisms:
 While good for text-centric books, EPUB was rather unsuitable for publications that require precise layout or specialized formatting, such as comic books.
 A major issue hindering the use of EPUB for most technical publications was the lack of support for equations formatted as MathML. They were included as bitmap or SVG images, precluding proper handling by screen readers and interaction with computer algebra systems. Support for MathML is included in the EPUB 3.0 specification.
 Other criticisms of EPUB were the specification's lack of detail on linking within or between EPUB books, and its lack of a specification for annotation. Such linking is hindered by the use of a ZIP file as the container for EPUB. Furthermore, it was unclear if it would be better to link by using EPUB's internal structural markup (the OPF specification mentioned above) or directly to files through the ZIP's file structure. The lack of a standardized way to annotate EPUB books led to difficulty in sharing and transferring annotations and therefore limited the use scenarios of EPUB, particularly in educational settings, because it cannot provide a level of interactivity comparable to the web.

On June 26, 2014, the IDPF published EPUB 3.0.1 as a final Recommended Specification.

In November 2014, EPUB 3.0 was published by the International Standards Organization as ISO/IEC TS 30135 (parts 1-7).

Features
The format and many readers support the following:
 Reflowable document: optimize text for a particular display
 Fixed-layout content: pre-paginated content can be useful for certain kinds of highly designed content, such as illustrated books intended only for larger screens, such as tablets.
 Like an HTML web site, the format supports inline raster and vector images, metadata, and CSS styling.
 Page  bookmarking
 Passage highlighting and notes
 A library that stores books and can be searched
 Re-sizable fonts, and changeable text and background colors
 Support for a subset of MathML
 Digital rights management—can contain digital rights management (DRM) as an optional layer

Digital rights management
An EPUB file can optionally contain DRM as an additional layer, but it is not required by the specifications. In addition, the specification does not name any particular DRM system to use, so publishers can choose a DRM scheme to their liking. However, future versions of EPUB (specifically OCF) may specify a format for DRM.

The EPUB specification does not enforce or suggest a particular DRM scheme. This could affect the level of support for various DRM systems on devices and the portability of purchased e-books.  Consequently, such DRM incompatibility may segment the EPUB format along the lines of DRM systems, undermining the advantages of a single standard format and confusing the consumer.

DRMed EPUB files must contain a file called rights.xml within the META-INF directory at the root level of the ZIP container.

Adoption

EPUB is widely used on software readers such as Google Play Books on Android and Apple Books on iOS and macOS, but not by Amazon Kindle e-readers. iBooks also supports the proprietary iBook format, which is based on the EPUB format but depends upon code from the iBooks app to function.

Data interchange EPUB is a popular format for ebook creation because it can be an open format and is based on HTML, as opposed to Amazon's proprietary format for Kindle readers. Popular EPUB producers of public domain and open licensed content, include Project Gutenberg, PubMed Central, SciELO and others.

Implementation
An EPUB file is an archive that contains, in effect, a website.  It includes HTML files, images, CSS style sheets, and other assets. It also contains metadata. EPUB 3 is the latest version. By using HTML5, publications can contain video, audio, and interactivity, just like websites in web browsers.

Container
An ePub publication is delivered as a single file. This file is an unencrypted zipped archive containing a set of interrelated resources.

An OCF (Open Container Format) Abstract Container defines a file system model for the contents of the container. The file system model uses a single common root directory for all contents in the container. All (non-remote) resources for publications are in the directory tree headed by the container's root directory, though EPUB mandates no specific file system structure for this. The file system model includes a mandatory directory named META-INF that is a direct child of the container's root directory. META-INF stores container.xml.

The first file in the archive must be the mimetype file. It must be unencrypted and uncompressed so that non-ZIP utilities can read the mimetype. The mimetype file must be an ASCII file that contains the string "application/epub+zip". This file provides a more reliable way for applications to identify the mimetype of the file than just the .epub extension.

An example file structure:

--ZIP Container--
mimetype
META-INF/
  container.xml
OEBPS/
  content.opf
  chapter1.xhtml
  ch1-pic.png
  css/
    style.css
    myfont.otf
  toc.ncx

There must be a META-INF directory containing container.xml. This file points to the file defining the contents of the book, the OPF file, though additional alternative rootfile elements are allowed. Apart from mimetype and META-INF/container.xml, the other files (OPF, NCX, XHTML, CSS and images files) are traditionally put in a directory named OEBPS. An example container.xml:
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8" ?>
<container version="1.0" xmlns="urn:oasis:names:tc:opendocument:xmlns:container">
  <rootfiles>
    <rootfile full-path="OEBPS/content.opf" media-type="application/oebps-package+xml"/>
  </rootfiles>
</container>

Publication
The ePUB container must contain:
 At least one content document.
 One navigation document.
 One package document listing all publication resources. This file should use the file extension .opf. It contains metadata, a manifest, fallback chains, bindings, and a spine. This is an ordered sequence of ID references defining the default reading order.
The ePUB container may contain:
 style sheets.
 PLS Documents.
 media overlay documents.

Contents
Content documents include: HTML 5 content, navigation documents, SVG documents, scripted content documents, and fixed layout documents.
Contents also include CSS and PLS documents. Navigation documents supersedes the NCX grammar used in EPUB 2.

Media overlays
Books with synchronized audio narration are created in EPUB 3 by using media overlay documents to describe the timing for the pre-recorded audio narration and how it relates to the EPUB Content Document markup.  The file format for Media Overlays is defined as a subset of SMIL.

Software
Many editors exist including calibre and Sigil, both of which are open source. Another open source tool, called epubcheck, can be used for validating and detecting errors in the structural markup (OCF, OPF, OPS), image, and XHTML files.

Readers exist for all major hardware platforms with the exception of Amazon Kindle, such as Adobe Digital Editions and calibre on desktop platforms, Google Play Books and Aldiko on Android and iOS, and Apple Books on macOS and iOS.

Reading software
The following software can read and display EPUB files:

See also the Wikipedia category for articles about EPUB readers.

Editing software

Notes

References

External links
 ISO/IEC TS 30135-1:2014 - EPUB3 — Part 1: EPUB3 Overview
 EPUB Validator (beta)
 https://github.com/idpf/epubcheck

Category:Computer file formats
Category:Document-centric XML-based standards
Category:E-books
Category:Electronic paper technology
Category:EPUB readers
Category:Open formats
Category:World Wide Web Consortium


Christopher Martin

Christopher Martin may refer to:

Music
Christopher Martin (entertainer) (born 1962), American rapper, known as Play, from the duo Kid 'n Play
Christopher Martin (singer) (born 1987), reggae singer/songwriter from Jamaica
Christopher Martin (trumpeter), American trumpet player
DJ Premier (Christopher Martin, born 1966), American DJ and record producer

Others
Christopher Martin (bobsleigh) (born 1945), Canadian Olympic bobsledder
Christopher Martin (cricketer) (born 1972), English cricketer
Christopher Martin (Mayflower passenger) (c. 1582–1620/21), English pilgrim on The Mayflower
Christopher C. Martin, American architect
Christopher H. Martin (born 1969), American abstract artist

See also
Christopher Martin-Jenkins (1945–2013), cricket journalist
Christopher Martin Peña (born 1986), Mexican American boxer
Chris Martin (disambiguation)
Christy Martin (disambiguation)
Christian Martin (disambiguation)
Christina Martin (born 1980), comedian
Christopher Martins Pereira (born 1997), Luxembourgian footballer


Pentecost III

Pentecost III is an EP by the British doom metal band Anathema. It was recorded in 1994 but, due to a merging between labels Peaceville Records and Music For Nations, was not released until 1995. By this time, Darren White had been ousted from the band, whose remaining members were already working on their next album, The Silent Enigma.  Pentecost III was re-issued as on one CD with The Crestfallen in 2001.

Track listing
All lyrics written by White, all music written by Anathema.

Notes
The album's liner notes state that "Pentecost III is dedicated to Tony Doyle, to Lin Mari Lowles, and to all the people who shared the grief of the terrible tragedy that befell us all this year 1994".  Tony and Lin were two old friends of Anathema. Tony died from heart complications in his early twenties and on the way to the funeral, Lin died in a traffic accident.
 The track "Memento Mori" contains the hidden track "Horses/666". On the Pentecost III/Crestfallen EP re-issue this hidden track is moved to the end of "They Die", the last track on the disc.
 Album artwork: painting by Frederic Leighton "Perseus and Andromeda", 1891.

Credits
 Daniel Cavanagh — guitar
 Vincent Cavanagh — guitar
 John Douglas — drums
 Duncan Patterson — bass guitar
 Darren White — vocals

References

Category:Anathema (band) albums
Category:1993 EPs


Double Door (film)

Double Door is a 1934 American pre-Code drama film directed by Charles Vidor and written by Jack Cunningham and Gladys Lehman. It is based on the 1933 Broadway play of the same name by Elizabeth A. McFadden.

The film stars Evelyn Venable, Mary Morris, Anne Revere and Kent Taylor. Morris and Revere reprised their Broadway roles. Though Morris had a long stage career, this is her only film performance.

The film was released on May 4, 1934, by Paramount Pictures.

Plot
A domineering woman, Victoria Van Brett, tries to destroy her brother (Rip)'s marriage to young Anne Darrow.

Cast
Evelyn Venable as Anne Darrow
Mary Morris as Victoria Van Brett
Anne Revere as Caroline Van Brett
Kent Taylor as Rip Van Brett
Guy Standing as Mortimer Neff
Colin Tapley as Dr. John Lucas
Virginia Howell as Avery
Halliwell Hobbes as Mr. Chase
Frank Dawson as Telson
Helen Shipman as Louise
Leonard Carey as William

Reception
The New York Times review was favorable: "The film version of Miss McFadden's play is a careful and intelligent copy of the original." Morris was praised for her "highly effective performance", while "Evelyn Venable, as the young wife, and Anne Revere, as the sister (the part she played on the stage), are admirable foils for the cruel old witch. They are reinforced effectively by Kent Taylor, Sir Guy Standing and Colin Tapley."

References

External links

Category:1934 films
Category:1930s drama films
Category:American films
Category:American drama films
Category:English-language films
Category:American films based on plays
Category:Films directed by Charles Vidor
Category:Films set in New York City
Category:Paramount Pictures films
Category:Films made before the MPAA Production Code
Category:American black-and-white films


List of Emirati records in athletics

The following are the national records in athletics in the United Arab Emirates maintained by UAE Athletics Federation.

Outdoor

Key to tables:

ht = hand timing

+ = en route to a longer distance

NWI = no wind measurement

# = not ratified by federation or/and IAAF

Men

Women

Indoor

Men

Women

References

External links
 UAE Athletics Federation web site

Emirati
Athletics
Records


Career Education Colleges and Universities

Career Education Colleges and Universities is a Washington, D.C. based trade organization that represented about 1,500 for-profit colleges as of January 2011. From 2010  to  July 2016, it was known as the Association of Private Sector Colleges and Universities, also known by the acronym APSCU; before that, it was called the Career College Association, but changed its name in 2010. As of July 2015, most large for-profit college chains had left the group in the previous year.

The organization engages in extensive lobbying, and has vocally opposed the Obama administration's attempts to regulate for-profit colleges. Its president, Steve Gunderson, a former Republican congressman, has said that the laws proposed by Obama are "evidence of an ideological declaration of war against the private sector’s involvement in the delivery of postsecondary education." In 2012, the Association brought a lawsuit against a United States Department of Education initiative aimed at improving the quality of degrees issued by for-profit colleges, which ended with Judge Rudolph Contreras striking down the regulations, which he called "arbitrary and capricious". In 2014, the Association brought a second lawsuit challenging similar regulations ().

References

Category:Lobbying organizations based in Washington, D.C.
Category:Trade associations based in the United States


Longstone GAC

Longstone GAC is a Gaelic Athletic Association gaelic football club in County Down, Northern Ireland. In recent times Longstone claimed the runner-up spot in the Senior Football League (2006 ACFL Division 1), which is the top-flight division in the county. Under the management of Frank Dawson, the team has shown great signs of improvement, changing from a team struggling against relegation to title-chasers.
In 2007 the club reached the final of the County Championship, only to be beaten by Mayobridge.

History

Beginning
Although there was a Longstone team for a few years in the 1930s, the present Club was started in 1945. A collection was held at a dance and sufficient money was raised to purchase a football and hire a field from July to October. This field was on the Oldtown Lane and was owned by Joe McKibben.

After a number of practice matches among themselves and with the neighbouring 'Clinchers' from Brackney it was decided to hold a meeting and form a committee. No records were kept of this meeting but it is thought that the first Longstone committee consisted of:

CHAIRMAN: Master Joe Doran
SECRETARY: W. J. Fitzpatrick (the Poet)
TREASURER: Eddie Burden
MEMBERS: Charlie Quinn, Hugh Vincent Burden, Hugh Smith, Tom Trainor, Paddy Marks, Dan Quinn

This committee registered a team in the Frontier Junior League called Longstone Emmetts. The team wore red jerseys. Their first fixture was at home to Newry and the result was a draw. This game was played at Dennis' field on Matthews' Lane between Stewart's Road and the Valley Road in October 1945.
Some of the 'Stone players on that day were: J. P. Phillips, Eddie Burden, Frank Carragher, Pa Quinn, Hugh Rodgers, Tom Trainor, Henry Pat McCartan, Owen Martin, T. G. Burden, Sean Doran, Felix McAlinden, Eddie Smith, James Fitzpatrick, Edward Cunningham, Seamus McVeigh, Charlie Rodgers, James Bernard Rodgers.

In 1947, Longstone were playing in the newly formed Intermediate League. Under the captaincy of Henry Pat McCartan, the team won this league at the first attempt. The captain and players were presented with the Fitzsimmons Cup and medals, by Rev. G. McCaul, C.C., at a ceili in Longstone Hall. The music was supplied by Longstone Ceili Band.

The 1950s
From winning the Intermediate League, Longstone advanced to the Senior League and in 1951, they finished as Runners-up to Newry.

In 1952, Longstone won a 7-a-side competition at Ballymartin and a Senior challenge match at Davitt's pitch in Belfast.

In 1953, the 'Stone won the 7-a-side competition at Dromara sports.

It was in the early '50s that Mal McEvoy joined the team at midfield.

In 1953, the club was honoured to have Major Vivion De Valera as their guest at the annual Aeríodheacht and sports. This event took place in Kevin's field on the Valley Road. Thousands attended to hear the oration and to watch a selection of Irish dancing, singing and football.

The major footballing achievement of the '50s for Longstone was reaching the Senior Championship final in 1955. This game was played against Ballymartin at St. Patrick's Park, Newcastle and was refereed by Pat Rooney of Castlewellan. Ballymartin won the game with the score 4–8 to 0–5.

In 1958, Longstone's new park (the present pitch) was formally opened by Mr. Seamus McFerran, the former President of the G.A.A. The field cost £1,000 and most of the work needed to convert it from its old moor state was done by voluntary labour. The main events on the day were:
Senior Challenge, DOWN v. ARMAGH. This was refereed by Barney Carr and ended with a win for Armagh. In a Senior 7-a-side competition in which 6 teams took part. Longstone defeated Glasdrumman in the final.

Despite the enthusiasm attached to the pitch opening, Longstone could not survive in the senior league and were relegated in the late '50s.

The 1960s
Having been relegated for the first time, Longstone was now playing in the Junior leagues. Despite this, the Cassidy Cup in the Kilkeel tournament was won for three years in succession.

At this time the Club had changed its colours to blue and white.

The club had little success on the playing field until the latter part of the decade.

In 1967, a Longstone team defeated Kilcoo in the final of the Ballymartin tournament to win the Home Produce Cup.

In 1968, Longstone won the Junior League by beating Warrenpoint in the final.

The 1970s
At a committee meeting on 3 January 1974, a motion, that the club colours be changed from blue and white to the original red and white, was carried.

During the '70s the team was having an uneventful time on the field but slowly facilities at Longstone were set to improve.

In September 1976, the committee first talked about re-seeding and draining the pitch; building a new hall, dressing rooms and showers and the purchase of a minibus.

In November 1976, floodlights were erected on the left-hand side of the pitch, allowing training to continue on winter evenings.

In 1977, the club purchased its first minibus and the senior team gained promotion to Division 2 and senior football after a 20-year absence.

Also in 1977, the President of the G.A.A., Con Murphy from Cork, visited Longstone as part of his tour of Down clubs.

In 1977, Longstone saw the rise of a new star, namely Ambrose, when he represented Longstone on the winning Down Minor All-Ireland team.

In 1978, Hugh Trainor represented the club when he captained Down in the All-Ireland U-21 Final at Croke Park, another proud moment for Longstone.

In June 1978, floodlights were erected on the right-hand side of the field. This enabled the team to have practice matches on dark evenings.

1979 saw the old hall get a face-lift. A new wall was built and the interior modernised.

The highlight of 1979 was the senior team reaching the Junior Championship Final against Attical, with Attical winning 2–7 to 1–6.

The 1980s
In 1982, the senior team regained promotion to Division 1.

1983 saw major redevelopments of the football pitch. It was reseeded and drained. New dug outs were built as was a wall round the field.

In 1984, the hall was destroyed by fire. Almost immediately a massive fund raising effort began in order to replace the building.

In November 1985, the new hall was officially opened by Longstone's oldest member, 91-year-old Amby Rogers.

In 1986, Longstone had a great Senior Championship campaign culminating in a Final appearance with Burren as opponents. Having been Champions in '83, '84, and '85, Burren's experience was too much for Longstone, with the final score being Burren 0–13, Longstone 0–7. This Burren team then went on to lift the All-Ireland title later that year. The Longstone panel was: Bernard Rooney, Emmett Haughian, Conrad Haughian, John Curran, John Poland, Michael Poland, Francis Lavery, Hugh Trainor, Hugh L. Rogers, Paul Trainor, Ambrose Rogers (Capt.), Raphael Haughian, Geoffrey McDowell, Damien Poland, Paul Burden, Raymond Annett, Noel Haughian, Wilfred Rogers, Martin Burden, Liam Burden, Joe Blair, Michael Curran. The team were managed by Paul Lambe.

In 1987, Ambrose Rogers went Stateside with the All-Stars. In the same year Raphael and Noel Haughian won All-Ireland Minor Championship medals when the Down team defeated Cork in the final. One week later, Reserve team was in the Championship Final making it the club's second final within twelve months. They were, however, narrowly, beaten by Shamrocks.
Longstone's Panel: Martin Smith, Adrian Haughian, Wilfred Rogers, Brendan McDowell, Michael Haughian, Thomas McCartan (Sr.), Thomas McCartan (Jr.), Joe Blair, Peter Trainor (Capt.), Paul Rogers, Martin Fitzpatrick, Charlie Cunningham, Brian Trainor, Liam Burden, Joey Annett, Martin Burden, John Pat Trainor, Paul Trimble, Eugene Cunningham, Terry Trainor, Michael Curran. The team were managed by Thomas McCartan.

The 1990s
In the early '90s, Longstone faced the prospect of relegation to Division 2. They needed a point against League Champions Burren in the final match of the season to stay up. In a nerve-wrecking game, the 'Stone showed their spirit and clawed and scraped for every ball, while a bit of luck was needed in the 3rd minute of injury time as a Burren free sailed wide and the 'Stone had won the right to a play-off for their Division 1 status. Then followed two vital play-off matches, against Clonduff and Carryduff, both of which Longstone won.

1991 saw the return of silverware to the Longstone Club. Under the management of Thomas McCartan (Snr.) and Finbar Cotter, the Longstone Reserves overcame the strong challenge of their Ballyholland counterparts to win the Father Davies Shield. The captain of the victors, Michael Haughian, lifted the shield in Petit Park, Rostrevor, in front of a huge Longstone following. The victory, although narrow, was deserved and it was the typical poaching style of the forwards which sealed it for Longstone, with a spectacular goal late in the second half.
Longstone Panel: Martin Burden, Michael Haughian (Capt.), Niall Rogers, Wilfred Rogers, Joseph Blair, Thomas McCartan (Jnr.), Adrian Haughian, Denis Cotter, Brendan McDowell, John Poland, Michael Curran, Emmett Haughian (Jr.), Christopher Burden, Eamon Kelly, Brendan Trainor, John Trainor, Terry Trainor, Kieran Rooney, Peter Trainor (Snr.), Aquinas Haughian, Eugene Cunningham, Paul Trimble.

Ambrose Rogers did the Longstone Club proud in 1991 when he realised his lifelong ambition and won his All-Ireland Senior Football Championship Medal.

In June '93, the 'Stone won the Feis an Dúin Senior Sevens at St. Patrick's Park, Newcastle, and represented Down in the All-Ireland Kilmacud Crokes Sevens.

On 26 September 1993, at Páirc Esler, Longstone defeated Carryduff 2–6 to 0–9 to win the Reserve Football Championship. On this day we broke the jinx of losing finals to record a historic win. There were jubilant scenes as the cup was presented to the twenty-year-old captain, Denis Cotter, and paraded in front of the supporters. It was a historic day for the club and that night a victory dinner and celebration were held in Longstone Hall.
Longstone Panel: Wilfred Rogers, Michael Haughian, Niall Rogers, Barry Kelly, Thomas McCartan, Shane Rogers, Denis Cotter (Capt.), Michael Curran, Brendan McDowell, Garry Rogers, Aquinas Haughian, Kieran Rooney, Hugh Trainor, John Trainor, Peter Trainor, Eugene Cunningham, Mark O'Reilly, Paddy Mallon, Joey Annett, Paul Trimble, Conleth Sloan, Liam Rooney, Martin Burden, Mark Murphy.

In 1995, the club held its Féile 50 and was held over a two-week festival at the Longstone Hall and pitch. There was a lot that happened, with the annual sports, and an exhibition that was open for viewing throughout the fortnight. This was officially opened by Jack Boothman, the then President of the G.A.A., who also unveiled a commemorative plaque as well. There was also a quiz, hosted by UTV's Frank Mitchell. The tournament was a big success, being sponsored by Bank of Ireland. The eventual winners were An Ríocht.

Over the next couple of years, the 'Stone were plying their trade in Division 2 but in 1998 they annexed the ACFL Division 2 title at Ballymartin where they defeated an Annaclone side who overcame Longstone in the two league games between the sides that year. Longstone ran out winners.

The same year, an amalgamation of Longstone and Ballymartin reached the U-16 Championship final at Rostrevor but came up against a strong Mayobridge team, who contained a couple of players that would go on to greater things with club and county.

In 1999, the club had its blackest day when big Ambrose was suddenly taken from us. His loss was huge and it took the club and community a long time to get over what happened. A true gentleman who lived for Longstone, he would never be forgotten by anyone who knew him. In the same year, the club also lost two of its founder members, Tom Trainor and T. G. Burden.

Mark Doran did the club and community proud when he gained an All-Ireland Minor winners medal in an exceptional team. He lined out in the championship at right half back and left corner back, playing an absolute stormer in the replayed Ulster final versus Donegal and the All-Ireland semi-final against Dublin at Navan.

The same year the 'Stone were relegated to Division 2 after a brief stay in Division 1, losing out in the play-offs.

2000–present
At the turn of the millennium, Longstone were to begin in Division 2, after a previous loss in the play-offs. However, this decade was the start of unheralded success for the club. There was not much to boast about on the senior stage, as we had become a mid-table second division side, but the U-15 squad won the Ulster Óg Sport at St. Oliver Plunkett Park, Crossmaglen, after claiming the Down title at Downpatrick by defeating heavy favourites An Ríocht in that final. At Crossmaglen, in a controversial straight knock out tournament, they quite easily defeated Derrygonnelly of Fermanagh in the first round, won an extraordinary game against Glenties of Donegal in the semi, then beat Killeshil of Tyrone in the Final.

The hall underwent major redevelopments, and the addition of 2 more changing rooms and a sports hall were made. The top tier of the hall was modernised, and the Sports hall was aptly named after the all-time great, Ambrose Rogers.

2001 saw the return of Longstone to a major championship final after 9 years, under the guidance of P. J. Magee, when the Senior team won through to the Intermediate decider against a strong Warrenpoint side. But it was not to be as Warrenpoint walked out of Páirc Esler with the W. J. Farrell Cup. P. J. Magee said after the final, "You have to learn how to lose a final before you win one". How true he proved to be!

The team were back in the Intermediate Final in 2002, and once again went in as underdogs against Saval. The Saval side had just wrapped up the league title and were looking to add the Championship for a double, but the pain of the previous season's defeat spurred the 'Stone on and we ran out easy winners on a scoreline of 1–13 to 1–7. When the final whistle sounded at St. Patrick's Park, Newcastle, there was a sea of red and white all over the pitch.
That season also seen Longstone gain promotion with Saval, and the 'Stone made sure that Division 1 status has not been lost and have stayed there for many years after.
This was not all a good year for the 'Stone, as an All-County Bosco side showed their class and beat the 'Stone at Páirc Esler, Newry in the Minor Championship.
The U-21 team suffered defeat in the County Championship to Kilcoo, after winning the South Down competition.

In 2003, Longstone won the Castlewellan Sevens tournament for the first time in the club's history. The 'Stone had a strong team under the captaincy of Michael Higgins. Barry Doran picked up the Player of the Tournament on the same day.
The U-21 team avenged last season's defeat to win the County Championship against Bryansford on a scoreline of 0–13 to 0–10.
The minors won the SD League, beating An Ríocht in the final.
The U-16 team lost in the final of the SD League to Mayobridge.
The redevelopments of the pitch made it a pitch to be proud of when new perimeter walls, ballstops, goalposts and a new electrical scoreboard were installed. The pitch was also lengthened by a few metres, showing the club's giant leap into the future.

2004 showed that the club's newly found success wasn't a one-off, as the Sevens team got to the final of the Castlewellan Sevens, only to be beaten by St. Gall's of Antrim. This earned an invitation to the Kilmacud Sevens, but the team failed to make it out of the group.
The Reserve team were shocked by a decision in Tullylish, which allowed the 'Stone to advance to the ACPRL Division 1.
The U-21 team suffered defeated in the SD Final, and the Minors suffered defeat in the SD League Final.

In 2005, the Senior team avoided the relegation play-offs a week after their fixture schedule finished, as a result elsewhere kept the 'Stone in the top flight for another season.
The Sevens team won the Castlewellan Sevens for the second time in three years, and got to the semi-finals in the Kilmacud Sevens.
The U-12 team made the final of the 'B' Championship, which shows some great prospects for the future.
The redevelopments of the pitch resumed, with the fencing around the field being replaced and the dug outs being replaced, yet another sign of the club's continuing ambitions for the future.

2006 saw one of the club's most successful seasons in senior football. In the ACFL Div 1, Longstone reached the final, only to be cruelly denied the title in the closing minutes after conceding a late goal. This showed a great improvement from the previous year, as the club were locked in a relegation battle previously.
The Sevens team continued their success through from the previous season by winning the Castlewellan Sevens tournament yet again, and went one better at Kilmacud by reaching the final, only to be denied by a penalty shoot-out.
The minor team were also beaten in the final minutes by a late goal in the final of the MFC B competition.
The U-16 team picked up more silverware for the club, winning an Invitational Sevens tournament in Belfast.

2007 yielded more finals for the club. The seniors reached the SFC final for the first time in 21 years, only to be defeated in a replay by holders Mayobridge, with the sky blues needing a late goal to lift the title.
The Sevens team went one step further in Dublin this year, beating St Galls in the final of the Kilmacud Crokes All-Ireland 7s competition.
The U-16 football team lost in the final of the league to a strong Attical/Glasdrumman team.
The Camogie team lost in the Division 4 league championship final, while the U-16 Camogie team lost in the league final to Ballycran, after a replay.
The club continued to run their annual underage tournaments, with U-14, U-12 and U-10 competing in Longstone Park, while on another day, the U-8s enjoyed a day of indoor football due to heavy rainfall on the day of the tournament.
This year, the pitch saw more redevelopments, with the sides of the pitch receiving a facelift, with concreted standing areas added.

Honours

Down Intermediate Football Championship
1: 2002

Down ACFL Division 2
1: 1998

Castlewellan All-Ireland 7s
3: 2003, 2005, 2006

Kilmacud Crokes All-Ireland 7s
1: 2007

Down Senior Feis 7s
1: 1993

Down Reserve Football Championship
1: 1993

Down U-21 Football Championship
2: 2002 2003

South Down U-16 league
1: 2008

Players
 Mark Poland Current Down Footballer
 Ambrose Rodgers (Junior) Current Down Football Caption
 Mark Doran Current Down Footballer
 Ambrose Rodgers (Senior) Fomor Down Footballer
 Conor Poland Current Down Footballer
  Finn McElroy  Current Down U-20 Footballer

See also
Down Senior Club Football Championship
List of Gaelic Athletic Association clubs
An Riocht
Bredagh GAC
Castlewellan GAC
Clonduff GAC
Kilcoo GAC
John Mitchel GFC
Newry Bosco GFC
Warrenpoint GAA

External links
 Longstone Club website
Official Down County website

Category:Gaelic football clubs in County Down
Category:Gaelic Athletic Association clubs in County Down


Hangetsu

Hangetsu (半月) (Japanese: "Half Moon") is an advanced kata practiced in Shotokan karate.  It originates from the Naha-te school. The first part is executed slowly with strong breathing, stressing the development of the hara, or energy field. This sequence shares a strong similarity with Seisan. The second part of the kata is more dynamic in its execution, with an explosion of punches as well as graceful mae geri (front kicks). Due to the shared principles of expansion and contraction, Gichin Funakoshi substituted Hangetsu for Sanchin in the Shotokan curriculum.  Mastery of this kata rests on mastery of hangetsu-dachi (half-moon stance) which is characterized by its semi-circular step movement of the back leg to the center, and then forward. The kata consists of 41 movements. The older Okinawan version of this kata is known as Seisan.

References

Category:Shotokan
Category:Karate kata