Comes

"Comes" ( ), plural "comites" ( ), is the Latin word for "companion", either individually or as a member of a collective denominated a "comitatus", especially the suite of a magnate, being in some instances sufficiently large and/or formal to justify specific denomination, e. g. a "cohors amicorum". "Comes" derives from "com-" ("with") and "ire" ("go").

Ancient Roman religion

"Comes" was a common epithet or title that was added to the name of a hero or god in order to denote relation with another god.

The coinage of Roman Emperor Constantine I declared him "comes" to Sol Invictus ("Unconquered Sun") qua god.

Imperial Roman curial titles and offices styled "Comites"
Historically more significant, "Comes" became a secular title granted to trusted officials of the Imperial Curia ("Court"), present or former, and others as sign of Imperial confidence. It developed into a formal, dignitary title, derived from the "Companions" of Alexander the Great and rather equivalent to the Hellenistic title of "philos basilikos" or the paladin title of a knight of the Holy Roman Empire and a Papal Palatinus. Thus the title was retained when the titulary was appointed, often promoted, to an office away from court, frequently in the field or a provincial administration. Subsequently, it was thought logical to connect the title to specific offices that demanded an incumbent official of high dignity, and even to include it as part of the official title.

As the Imperial Roman Curia increased in number and assimilated all political power, the Roman Emperors instituted a casual practice of appointing faithful servants to offices. This had been done elsewhere, e. g. regarding the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard and the amici principis. As Imperial administration expanded, however, new offices became necessary and decentralization demanded modifications. The result was the institution of the rank of "comes".

The "comites", often translated "counts", though they were neither feudal nor hereditary, became principal officials of the later Roman Empire. They held offices of all kinds from the army to the civil service, while retaining their direct access to the Emperor. Emperor Constantine I finalized them as the governmental echelon of "comites provinciarum" ("Counts of the Provinces"); the comites of the new echelon were assigned alongside the vicarii in the civil dioceses of the latter so that the comites became permanent fixtures of Imperial government. The comites were fully enumerated as early as the beginning of the AD 5th century in the Notitia Dignitatum, but as offices were later added, it is not historically exhaustive.

The following sections describe examples of the kinds of comites.

At court or in the Imperial domains

Several of the major departments of the Imperial Curia ("Court") and household had a principal official who was styled "comes" and assisted by an "officium" ("staff") very similar to that of a Roman governor. They included:
comes dispositonum: A deputy to the very powerful magister officiorum (Master of Offices) responsible for organizing the Imperial calendar and preparing the correspondence for distribution to the proper offices for transcription.
comes domesticorum: A vir illustris who was principal of the domestici, a corps of bodyguards of the Emperor who were stationed in the Imperial Palace. There were two of these comital commanders, the comes domesticorum equitum for the equestrian knights and the comes domesticorum peditum for the foot soldiers.
comes privatae largitionis: The custodian of the privy purse, who answered and was subordinate to the comes rerum privatarum (see next title).
comes rerum privatarum: A powerful Imperial official responsible for the private estates and holdings of the Emperor and his family ("res privata"). He maintained the properties and collected the rents, of which most were deposited in the Aerarium, i. e., the treasury of the public funds of the State, and some in the Fiscus, i. e., the treasury of privy funds of the Emperor that the comes privatae largitionis administered.
comes sacrarum largitionum: A vir illustris who was custodian of the sacrae largitiones ("Sacred Largesses") of the Emperor and manager of the Imperial finances. He controlled all of the mints, each managed by a procurator; was the principal of numerous officials, including more procuratores, rationales, and praepositi, who collected senatorial taxes, custom duties, and some land taxes; was responsible for the yields of the mines; provided budgets for the civil service and armies; supplied all uniforms; and was competent for the minor offices of:
comes auri: The official responsible for gold.
comes sacrae vestis: The master of the wardrobe of the Emperor.
The 3 comites largitionum: The regional financial administrators of Italy, Africa, and Illyricum.
comes commerciorum for Illyricum.
comes metallorum per Illyricum: The official responsible for that region's gold mines.

Exceptionally, a gubernatorial position was styled "comes". For example, the comes Orientis, actually one of the vicarii, was an official who controlled the large and strategically important Imperial Diocese of the East by supervising the governors of this collection of provinces, but he was in turn supervised by the praefectus praetorio Orientis.

Further, the principal officials of some less important governmental departments who were under the authority of otherwise styled, high ranking, territorial officials could be titled "comes", e. g. under the praefectus urbi of Rome, himself a vir illustris, was a comes formarum, comes riparum et alvei Tiberis et Cloacarum ("Count of the Coast of the Tiber and the Canalisation"), and comes Portus ("Count of the Port").

The title "comes consistorianus" or "comes consistorialis" indicated specially appointed members to the consistorium, the council of the Roman emperor's closest advisors.

comes rei militaris
The comes rei militaris held martial appointments, ranking superior to a dux but inferior to the magister peditum and magister equitum; they were the superiors of a series of military stations, each commanded by a praepositus limitis ("border commander") and/or unit commanders, e. g., tribunes of cohorts, alae (auxiliary equivalents), numeri, and in the Eastern Empire even legions.

The Notitia Dignitatum of the early AD 5th century enumerates 6 such offices, being of the dignity of vir spectabilis, in the Western Empire: comes Italiae, comes Africae, comes Tingitaniae, comes Tractus Argentoratensis, and comes Britanniarum ad Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam; and 2 in the Eastern Empire: comes (limitis) Aegypti and comes Isauriae.
comes Africae: Official responsible for the defense of Roman Africa.
comes tractus Argentoratensis: Official responsible for the defense of part of Gallia.
comes Avernorum: Official responsible for the defense of the other part of Gallia.
comes Britanniarum: Official responsible for the defense of Britannia. This office presumably expired circa AD 410 when the last Roman troops left that province.
comes Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam: Official responsible for the defense of the Saxon shore of Britannia.
comes Hispaniarum: Official responsible for the defense of Hispania.

As the number of comites increased, that dignity was devalued. This caused the introduction of classes of comites, denominated and ranked the first, second, and third "ordines".

comites dominorum nostrorum

The comites dominorum nostrorum (plural of Comes D. N., (literally "Companions of Our Lords [Emperors]") were a mounted Imperial bodyguard during the tetrarchy of Emperor Diocletian in circa AD 300.

Medieval adaptations of comital offices

Gothic Comites
The Goths that ruled Spain and Italy followed the Roman tradition of granting the title of "Comes" to the various principals of the departments of their royal households, including but not limited to the:
Comes Cubiculariorum: Count in charge of the chamberlains (L. cubicularii).
Comes Scanciorum: The Count who commanded the cup bearers.
Comes Stabulorum: The Count who commanded the equerries and stables.
Comes Notariorum: The Count who commanded the chancery, i. e., the writing office.
Comes Thesaurorum: The Count who commanded the officials of the treasury.

Frankish Gaugraf
The Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty retained much of Roman administration, including the office and title of "comes", the original meaning of which they preserved, i. e., a companion of the king and a royal servant of high dignity. Under the early Frankish kings some comites did not have definite functions: they were merely attached to the person of the King and executed his orders. Others filled the highest offices, e. g. the Comes Palatii and Comes Stabuli (from which the contemporary title of "constable" derives).

Yet other comites served as regional officials. For administrative purposes, the Kingdom of the Franks was divided into small districts denominated "pagi" (hence the French "pays" and the German "Gaue"), corresponding generally to the Roman civitas ("city" qua polity). The principal of a pagus was the Comes, corresponding to the German Graf (in full, "Gaugraf"). The King appointed the Comites to serve at his pleasure, and they were originally chosen from all classes, sometimes even from enfranchised serfs.

The essential competences of the Comes''' were comprehensive in his pagus: martial, judicial, and executive; and in documents he is often described as the "agens publicus" ("public agent") of the King or "judex publicus/fiscalis" ("royal judge"). He was at once public prosecutor and judge, and was responsible for the execution of the sentences as well. As the delegate of the executive power, he had the right to exercise the "bannis regis" ("royal ban"), which gave him the right to command his military in the name of the King and to act as necessary to preserve the peace. As the King's representative, he exercised the royal right of protection ("mundium regis") of churches, widows, orphans, and the like. He enjoyed a triple "wergeld", but had no definite salary, being remunerated by receipt of specific revenues, which system contained the germs of discord, on account of the confusion of his public and private obligations.

According to philologists, the Anglo-Saxon word "gerefa", denoting "illustrious chief", however, is not connected to the German "Graf", which originally meant "servant"; compare the etymologies of the words "knight" and "valet". It is the more curious that the "gerefa" should end as a subservient reeve while the "graf" became a noble count.

Feudalism
In the feudal tradition, Latin was, especially in law, the official language, and therefore the rendering in Latin was equal in importance to the vernacular title. Thus, "comes" has been used as the Latin equivalent, or part of it, of all titles of comital office, whether containing "count" or some other word etymologically derived from "comes" or "graf". Similarly, it is part of the rendering, not always exclusive, of derived inferior titles containing such words, notably "vicecomes" for "viscount" and "burgicomes" and "burgravio" for "burgrave".

See also
Abbacomes
Aerarium
Agentes in rebus

Comitatenses
Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary)

Congiarium

Donativum
Fiscus
Mund (law)Notitia DignitatumRationalis
A rationibusRealencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft''
Roman finance

References

Category:Ancient Roman titles
Category:Court titles
Category:Military ranks of ancient Rome
Category:Roman Empire
Category:Economy of ancient Rome


Tropidion citrinum

Tropidion citrinum is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Martins in 1968.

References

Category:Tropidion
Category:Beetles described in 1968


Obstacles to troop movement

Obstacles to troop movement represent either natural, human habitat originated, constructed, concealed obstacles, or obstructive impediments to movement of military troops and their vehicles, or to their visibility. By impeding strategic, operational or tactical manoeuvre, the obstacle represents an added barrier between opposing combat forces, and therefore prevent achievement of objectives and goals specified in the operational planning schedule. The constructed obstacles are used as an aid to defending a position or area as part of the general defensive plan of the commander. The obstacles that originate from the human habitat can be converted by troops into constructed obstacles by either performing additional construction, or executing demolitions to obstruct movement over the transport network, to create a choke point, or to deny traversing of an area to the enemy. The natural obstacles can be used defensively by securing a more difficult to breach defensive position by for example securing a flank on terrain that is deemed impossible to traverse, thus denying the enemy an ability to close into combat range of direct fire weapons.

Role of obstacles
Obstacles are used in combat operations to create choke points, deny mobility corridors and avenue of approach to positions, to enhance field of fire for direct fire weapons, or to protect key tactical terrain features to the enemy.

Natural obstacles
Natural obstacles are represented by those terrain features that for which few troops and their vehicles have capability to traverse. They include water obstacles, or areas of poor drainage such as lakes, rivers, swamps and marshes. The former two can be crossed by amphibious vehicles capable of swimming, or vehicles capable of deep wading after preparation, or by constructing a water crossing, and thus creating an easily targeted choke point. Soil and rock can also represent mobility obstacles if the soil is too soft and unable to support the weight of the military vehicles, or the terrain is fractured by cliffs, or large boulders that make organised movement impossible. While soft soil is relative to vehicle ground pressure, there is little that can be done to negotiate very rocky terrain or cliffs except by using specially trained light infantry troops. Vegetation such as jungles or dense forests can also represent obstacles to movement, in some cases even to light infantry troops. Some natural obstacles can be a result of climatic or soil activity such as deep snow that by covering all terrain makes safe traversing difficult and slow, or landslides that may create an obstruction suddenly despite previously clear route reconnaissance report.

Habitat obstacles
While human habitat had, since early construction of roads, sought to create ways of negotiating terrain faster, the human activity on the landscape can create obstacles in its own right. Artificial lakes and ponds, canals, and areas of agricultural cultivation, particularly those that are water-intensive such as rice-paddy fields create obstacles often more difficult then the natural equivalents. Mining activity creates quarries, and the building of roads, rail roads and dams also involve construction of cuts and fills. Seeded tree-line windbreaks, hedgerows, stone walls and plantation forests also disrupt mobility, particularly of vehicles. Lastly the urban areas in themselves represent obstacles by offering elevated firing positions and canyon-like choke points by forcing the opponent to advance through the streets.

Constructed obstacles

Constructed obstacles are those prepared by military engineering troops, often combat engineers, by either using materials to construct impediments to foot and vehicle-borne troops, or by using demolition methods, or excavation such as an abatis, to create obstacles from natural materials and terrain in specific location in accordance with the overall plan of operations. Sometimes such obstacles can be created intentionally or unintentionally through effects of artillery fire cratering. Buildings demolished due to combat or aerial bombing become very effective obstacles as rubble represents difficult to negotiate and irregular piles of building materials.

Concealed obstacles
Concealed obstacles are used with the intention of not only preventing movement of enemy troops, but also causing casualties during attempted movement. Although one of the oldest forms of obstacle use, this became far deadlier with the invention of the mine warfare, and more so with air-delivered scattered submunition minelets that can create an instant minefield.

Obstructive obstacles
Obstructive obstacles are used primarily to deny terrain visibility to the enemy, thus creating uncertainty in targeting friendly troops. Although ancient in use as tar smoke pots, modern smoke screens are temporary and are used as a tactical measure during manoeuvring, often when a unit is performing a position change.

Obstacle negotiation
Ground troops prefer to deal with physical obstacles by circumventing them as rapidly as possible, thus avoiding becoming stationary targets to the enemy direct and indirect fire weapons, and aircraft. Where this is not possible, in modern warfare the most expedient measures taken against constructed or urban obstacles are to either use armoured vehicles, preferably tanks, to remove the obstacle, or to demolish them by firing High Explosive munitions at them. Where combat engineers are present, they can perform this using their specialist skills and tools or vehicles. In the case of natural obstacles, specialist engineering equipment is usually required to negotiate the obstacle, commonly bridging or pontoons. The solution to obstacle bridging had at the strategic level created new forms of warfare and employment of troops in the amphibious operations, and later the airborne operations. At the operational level the use of helicopters in airmobile operations offers a vertical option to negotiating obstacles, often of considerable extent such as mountain passes or extensive areas of impossible vegetation.

Citations and notes

References
 Liddell Hart, Basil Henry, The Tanks: The history of the Royal Tank Regiment and its predecessors, Heavy Branch, Machine-Gun Corps, Tank Corps, and Royal Tank Corps, 1914-1945, Cassell, London, 1959

Category:Land warfare
Category:Military engineering


Park Chul-sung

Park Chul-sung (born 21 November 1955) is a South Korean sport shooter who competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics, in the 1988 Summer Olympics and in the 1996 Summer Olympics.

References

Category:1955 births
Category:Living people
Category:South Korean male sport shooters
Category:Trap and double trap shooters
Category:Olympic shooters of South Korea
Category:Shooters at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Category:Shooters at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Category:Shooters at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Category:Medalists at the 1986 Asian Games
Category:Medalists at the 1994 Asian Games
Category:Shooters at the 1986 Asian Games
Category:Shooters at the 1994 Asian Games
Category:Asian Games medalists in shooting
Category:Asian Games silver medalists for South Korea
Category:Asian Games bronze medalists for South Korea


Bror Cederström

Gustaf Albrecht Bror Cederström (21 September 1780 – 25 December 1877) was a Swedish baron and lieutenant general and Minister of War.

Biography
Cederström was born at Fornsigtuna, Sweden and was the only child of lieutenant general and later president of the Council of War (Krigskollegium), baron Bror Cederström (1754-1816) and his first wife Catharina Maria Voltemat. The father remarried in 1800 to the author Christina Mörner.

From 1816 to 1822, he headed the Cederströmian Hussar Regiment (Cederströmska husarregementet, previously named the Mörnerian Hussar Regiment, Mörnerska husarregementet, after the previous commander, Hampus Mörner, and later renamed the Crown Prince's Hussar Regiment, when Crown Prince Oscar became its commander) in Scania. During this time, he purchased the Säbyholm's lands outside Landskrona, where he actively worked to find new agricultural methods and established the first Swedish company for manufacturing beet sugar (though he had to sell these lands off and retire to Landskrona when he unexpectedly went bankrupt in 1848). In parallel with his business life he continued a military career, becoming supreme commander of Scania in 1819, then minister for war in 1840. He was awarded the Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword, the Order of the Seraphim and the Grand Cross of the Norwegian Order of St. Olav.

He married countess Christina Hilda Wachtmeister af Johannishus (died 1871) in 1815. They had two sons and two daughters.

Cederström was the stepson of Christina Charlotta Cederström.

References

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Category:1877 deaths
Category:People from Upplands-Bro Municipality
Category:Swedish Ministers for Defence
Category:Swedish generals
Category:19th-century Swedish military personnel
Category:Recipients of the Order of the Sword
Category:Swedish military personnel of the Napoleonic Wars
Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of War Sciences
Category:19th-century Swedish politicians


Khilla Ghanpur

Khilla Ghanpur is a historic place equidistant, 25 km, from Mahabubnagar and Wanaparthy towns of Telangana state, India. It is 111 kilometers away from Hyderabad city.

History
Khilla Ghanpur or Ghanpur, Wanaparthy district was ruled by Recherla Padmanayaka, Malyala and Gona dynasties in 13th century. Recherla Padmanayaka, Gona and Malyala dynasty kings were the Feudatores of Kakatiya Kings. Khilla Ghanpur has a fort and a lake (known as Ganapa Samudram) built during Kakatiya dynasty rule. The lake, Ganapa Samudram, was constructed by the King Malyala Gunda Dandadeeshudu (also known as Malyala Gundanna) during Rudrama Devi’s rule. Malyala Gunda Dandadeeshudu married Gona Budda Reddy’s daughter.

Gona kings and Malyala kings were loyal to Kakatiya kings. Gona Budda Reddy had three sons and one daughter. Gona Ganapa Reddy (also known as Gona Ganna Reddy), Gona Kacha Reddy, Gona Vitalanatha and Kuppambika. Kacha Reddy and Vitalanatha Reddy were poets, who penned to complete the Ranganatha Ramayanam started by their father, Gona Budda Reddy. Ranganatha Ramayanam was the first Telugu Ramayanam written in Telugu literature by Gona Budda Reddy. This is written in Dwipada Chandassu). Gona Budda Reddy’s daughter married Malyala Gunda Dandadeeshudu.

After Gona Budda Reddy’s death, his brother Gona Lakuma Reddy took over the kingdom. Gona Lakuma Reddy was not loyal to Kakatiya kings. After observing that his uncle Lakuma Reddy not being loyal to Kakatiya kings, Gona Ganna Reddy, took over the kingdom of Vardhamaanapuram and helped Kakatiya kings in many wars. After Gona Ganna Reddy rule, his brother-in-law Malyala Gundanna became the king of Vardhamanapuram. Malyala Gundanna constructed several lakes with the help of his brother-in-law Gona Ganna Reddy at the time of Rudrama Devi's rule.

Buddapuram (present-day Bhoothpur) and Vardhamana Puram (Nandi Vaddeman, near Bijinapalle) are the centers for Malyala Kings. These kings helped to Kakatiyas in many wars during the period of Ganapathi Deva, Rudrama Devi and Prataparudra. After Malyala Gundanna's death, His wife, Malyala Kuppambika constructed a temple known as Buddeshwaralayam at Bhoothpur.

Fort
Ghanpur has a hill fort and was built by joining two mountains by Gona Ganapa Reddy and Recherla Padma Nayakulu(Singama Nayakudu I) in 13th century. This fort had witnessed many wars between Bahamanis, Vijayanagara Kings, Bijapur Kings and Qutb Shahi Kings, etc. The cannons which still exist have been kept on the top most side of the fort. We can also see  palace and ministers houses ruins.

The name of Ganapuram Khilla came into existence from the name of Kakatiya Ruler Sri Ganapathi Deva. The village was Naginenipally before it is named after Kakatiya Ruler Ganapathideva by Gona Ganna Reddy. People believe that there are two secret tunnels inside of the fort. One is connected with the village at the bottom of the mountain and the other one is connected to the Panagal fort. After Buddapuram war, Kakatiya's last king Pratapa Rudra married to Gona Ganna Reddy's daughter in this Fort.

The fort has beautiful rockscapes and greenery with two ponds which were used as drinking water supply for the fort army. There are many adventure activities that can be done here including rappelling, rock climbing, caving, etc.

Named after Kakatiya King Ganapathi Deva
Khilla Ghanpur also known as Ghanpur, Ganapuram, was named after Kakatiya king Ganapathi Deva. Since this Ghanpur has a Khilla (Khilla means fort in Urdu and Hindi language). The name "Khilla Ghanpur" became much more popular. There are several towns in Kakatiya kingdom with its name as Ghanpur. These names can be found more in Warangal, Mahabubnagar and Nalgonda districts.

There were several places in Kakatiya Kingdom which were named after the Kakaitya king Ganapathi Deva (with the name Ganapuram, which eventually turned as Ghanpur, Ghanapur,Ghanapuram and so on).

Tourism, Fort and Lakes
The fort is spread on rocky and hilly area of 4 Sq kilometers and there are fort buildings spread across the top most part of the hill.

The fort was well built with cannons on the upper side of the fort. There are several remains of the walls and building blocks inside the fort. There are several temples inside the fort like Veerabhadra Temple, Narasimha Temple and Chowdeswari Temple. There are several caves on the hilltop and provide good opportunity for exploration.

There are two ponds inside the fort with fresh water and they are good for swimming. There are several hills around the fort and they provide good opportunity for trekking as well. Ghanpur Lake is a large lake situated close to the Ghanpur village and the view of the lake from the fort is picturesque.

Temples
1. Anjanagiri Venkateshwara Swamy Temple.

Notable people
 Gona Ganna Reddy            - King 13th Century
 Kuppambika - Poetess 13th Century

Grama Panchayat
Ghanpur Grampanchayat has 14 wards and has a population of 7740+ as per Census - 2011.

References

Category:Forts in Telangana
Category:Archaeological sites in Telangana
Category:Populated places established in the 13th century


María Jesús Alvarado Rivera

María Jesús Alvarado Rivera (27 May 18786 May 1971) was a Peruvian rebel feminist, educator, journalist, writer and social activist. She was noted by the National Council of Women of Peru in 1969 as the "first modern champion of women's rights in Peru".

Early life
Alvarado Rivera was born in Chincha Alta on 27 May 1878. Her parents were Cayetano Arciniega Alvarado, owner and administrator of the estate Chacrabajo, and Jesus Rivera Martinez; they were both natives of Chincha Province. She was the tenth of thirteen children. Due to the War of the Pacific, her family was forced to sell their property and settle in Lima. As was customary for that time her education went only until the primary school. However, during that short time, she learned to read and write well. Her subsequent studies were self-taught. She then attended a private high school run by Elvira García y García (leader of feminist movement in Peru), after which she became a teacher. Disturbed by the antiquated educational system, she studied sociology on her own and was instrumental in introducing advanced methods of "vocational education, euthanasia, the health and the matrimonial care of school children and the control of sexually transmitted diseases." She also believed in women’s role as a mother.

Career
With the help of her brother, Lorenzo Antonino, who was Professor of Geology at the National University of San Marcos, she got a job as a columnist for the newspaper El Comercio. She also found work at El Diario (1908), and years later, for La Prensa. She made her first presentation on feminist issues at the International Women’s Congress in 1910. The following year, she lectured on feminism at the Geographical Society of Lima, explaining the basics of feminism as part of a current global social change that raised the need to provide equal civil and political rights to women." It was at this conference that Alvarado Rivera sparked public interest in the idea of women's suffrage, though with mixed responses. The Daughters of Palma, Angelica, and Augusta claimed "Finally the woman has appeared who will liberate us from the oppressive subordination in which we live," after hearing her lecture. Others thought her ideas were too radical and would cause anarchy and deterioration of family values as women abandoned their traditional roles.

Alvarado Rivera played a crucial role in establishing, in 1914, the Evolucion Femenina in Lima. She also mooted proposals to enact civil codes and to induct women in government jobs. Her sustained campaign for nine years in this direction resulted in the Chamber of Representatives allowing women to become members of the public welfare societies (1915), which eventually was enacted as law (1922). Evolucion Femenina also drew criticism from the community. Only a small number of women agreed to put their names on membership roles, and La Cronica of Lima printed a photo in late 1924 of a talk given by Alvarado River in which many attendees had removed their hats to cover their faces from the photographer.

In 1923, after a visit to Peru by Carrie Chapman Catt, the president of the International Suffrage Alliance, Alvarado Rivera established the National Council for Women. This organization was beset with serious problems arising between the radicals and the Catholics. Unfortunately, the National Council for Women began to experience conflicts early on, there was a divide concerning whether they should advocate for more than just women's suffrage. When she proposed that the council consider reforming civil code to grant women, particularly married women, equal rights before the law, there was strong resistance and skepticism from newspapers and affiliates of the council. Despite this, as part of the movement on women's rights, she established a "Labor and Moral School Workshop" to educate prostitutes and return them back to the mainstream of society.

Because of her strong support towards empowering women with voting rights and full equality at Pan-American Women’s Conference held in Lima, she was jailed and subsequently exiled. The opposition was spearheaded by the Catholic Women’s League, which was seconded by the then President of Peru, Augusto B. Leguía. She spent three months in Santo Tomas Women's Prison during Christmas-time 1924 and then spent 12 years in exile in Argentina. In Argentina, she taught school and directed dramas which she had authored on subjects of social and moral issues in society.

After returning from exile, she devoted her time to radio, theater, and cinema, with the primary purpose of getting voting rights for women in Peru. She also wrote a play, "The Perricholi", that was aired by Radio Nacional del Perú. She established the Academy of Dramatic Arts, "Ollanta", with her own money which found acceptance by the Ministry of Education as it helped to create the Directorate of Cultural and Art in Peru. In 1938, she mooted the introduction of the "Code of Rights" for women, in 1940, she wrote on the topic of "Eugenics and Child" in Semana de la Salud. In 1945, the government approved her proposal to establish the national theater. She also became the Councillor of the Municipality of Lima.

The feminist movement launched by Alvarado Rivera took a long time to take shape, and it was only in 1955 that women got the right to vote in Peru. She died on May 6, 1971, at 92 years of age, a much-disappointed woman as her efforts in the feminist movement did not get her acclaim during her lifetime.

References

Category:1878 births
Category:1971 deaths
Category:People from Ica Region
Category:Peruvian activists
Category:Peruvian feminists
Category:Peruvian journalists
Category:Peruvian women writers
Category:Peruvian women's rights activists
Category:Peruvian educators