White Sea

The White Sea (, Béloye móre; Karelian and , lit. Dvina Sea; , Serako yam) is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea located on the northwest coast of Russia. It is surrounded by Karelia to the west, the Kola Peninsula to the north, and the Kanin Peninsula to the northeast. The whole of the White Sea is under Russian sovereignty and considered to be part of the internal waters of Russia. Administratively, it is divided between Arkhangelsk and Murmansk oblasts and the Republic of Karelia.

The major port of Arkhangelsk is located on the White Sea. For much of Russia's history this was Russia's main centre of international maritime trade, conducted by the Pomors ("seaside settlers") from Kholmogory. In the modern era it became an important Soviet naval and submarine base. The White Sea–Baltic Canal connects the White Sea with the Baltic Sea.

The White Sea is one of the four seas named in English after common colour terms—the others being the Black Sea, the Red Sea, and the Yellow Sea.

Geography

Extent
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the northern limit of the White Sea as "A line joining Svyatoi Nos (Murmansk Coast, 39°47'E) and Cape Kanin".

Topography

There are four main bays or gulfs on the White Sea. These bays connect with the funnel-shaped opening to the Barents Sea via a narrow strait called "Gorlo" (, meaning "throat"). Kandalaksha Gulf lies in the western part of the White Sea; it is the deepest part of the sea, reaching 340 metres (1,115 feet). On the south, Onega Bay receives the Onega River. To the southeast, the Dvina Bay receives the Northern Dvina River at the major port of Arkhangelsk. On the east side of the 'gorlo', opposite to the Kola Peninsula, is Mezen Bay. It receives the Mezen River and the Kuloy River. Other major rivers flowing into the sea are the Vyg, Niva, Umba, Varzuga and Ponoy.

The seabed of the central part and Dvina Bay is covered in silt and sand, whereas the bottom of the northern part, the Kandalaksha Gulf and Onega Bay is a mixture of sand and stones. Ice age deposits often emerge near the sea shores. Northwestern coasts are tall and rocky but the slope is much weaker at the southeastern side.

The White Sea contains a large number of islands, but most of them are small. The main island group is the Solovetsky Islands, located almost in the middle of the sea, near the entrance to Onega Bay. Kiy Island in Onega Bay is significant due to a historic monastery. Velikiy Island, located close to the shore, is the largest island in the Kandalaksha Gulf.

Hydrography and bathymetry
The White Sea is a water-filled depression in the block of a continental shelf known as the Baltic Shield. Its bottom is very uneven and contains the Kandalaksha Hollow in the northwest and the Solovetsky Islands in the south. Also, the Onega Bay has many small underwater elevations. The opening and the gorlo of the sea are rather shallow, with depths about 50 metres or less. In addition, there is an underwater ridge in the northern part of the gorlo, resulting in maximum depths of 40 metres in that part. This hinders water exchange between the White and Barents seas. The exchange is however assisted by the tides, which are semidiurnal (rising twice a day), with the amplitude increasing from 1 metre on the south to 10 metres in Mezen Bay. Currents are rather weak in the open seas with the speed below 1 km/h, but they significantly strengthen in the bays. The tidal waves are much faster than the regular currents and reach the speeds of 9 km/h in Mezen Bay, 3.6 km/h in Onega Bay and 1.3 km/h in the Kandalaksha Gulf.

Rivers bring annually about 215 km3 of fresh water, on average, mostly to the Onega, Mezen and Dvina bays. The Northern Dvina River alone may contribute up to 171 km3 in some years, with the Mezen, Onega, Kem and Vyg rivers adding up to 38.5, 27.0, 12.5 and 11.5 km3, respectively. About 40% of this volume is brought during the snow melting in May, and the inflow is minimal in February–March. This inflow raises and lowers the sea level that promotes the water exchange with the Barents Sea. As a result, annually, about 2,000 km3 and 2,200 km3 flow in and out of the White Sea, respectively. The inflow of fresh water in spring decreases the surface salinity in the top 5–10 metre layer to 23‰ (parts per thousand) in the eastern and 26–27‰ in the western parts of the sea, reaching 10–12‰ in Dvina Bay; it also increases the content of silicon and silicates in water, which is a characteristic feature of the White Sea.

Storms are the strongest in October–November. However, small sea depths reduce the wave height to the average of 1 metre, sometimes reaching 3–5 metres. The sea is quiet in July–August.

Climate

The climate varies between polar and moderate continental with frequent fogs and clouds. Winds are predominantly southwestern in winter with speeds of 4–8 m/s. They bring cold air from the south, establishing the temperature of about −15 °C (February) over most of the sea. The northern part is warmer at about −9 °C, sometimes reaching −6 °C, due to the warm air masses from the Atlantic. Arctic anticyclones, however, change winds to the northeastern ones, bringing much colder weather with temperatures of about −25 °C. Summers are cold, cloudy and relatively humid, with northeastern winds and frequent rains. Average July temperatures are 8–10 °C. Occasional southeastern winds bring warm air from Europe, raising the temperature to 17–19 °C and sometimes even to 30 °C. Annual precipitations increase from 282 mm in the north 529 in the south.

In winter, from October–November to May–June, the sea freezes, with the average January water temperatures of −1.9 °C in the north, between −1.3 and −1.7 °С in the centre, and between −0.5 and −0.7 °С in the bays. These variations are due to the distribution of water salinity across the sea, which increases from 24–26‰ in the centre to 30.5‰ in the gorlo, reaching 34.0–34.5‰ toward the Barents Sea. The freezing period varies from year to year as shown in the satellite image to the right. The ice is not stationary, but 90% of it is floating and is continuously removed to the Barents Sea. Ice thickness is usually about 40 cm but may reach 150 cm in cold winters.

In summer, surface water warms up to 15 °С  in the central part, but remains relatively cold in the north, at 7–8 °С, due to the water exchange between the surface and the cold bottom part which is enhanced by the shallow depths in the northern parts. Deep sea (about 100 m or more) is characterised by stable temperature (−1.4 °С) and salinity (30‰). The depth distribution of water temperature is very inhomogeneous across the sea. For example, at the exit from Dvina Bay, water temperature drops to 0 °C at the depth of only 12–15 m, but the same temperature is reached at 65 m at the exit from the Kandalaksha Gulf.

History

Residents of Novgorod knew of the White Sea from at least the 11th century and rapidly explored its commercial significance for navigation and its coastal forests rich in  fur animals. One of the earliest settlements near the sea shores grew up in the late 14th century at Kholmogory, on the Northern Dvina River. From there, in 1492, a merchant fleet laden with grain and carrying ambassadors of Ivan III of Russia sailed to Denmark, marking the establishment of the first international seaport in Russia.

The first foreign ship to arrive in Kholmogory was the English Edward Bonaventure commanded by Richard Chancellor in 1553. Together with two other ships under the command of Hugh Willoughby, his crew had sought a northern route to the Indies, especially India and China. The expedition, sponsored by King Edward VI of England and a group of about 240 English merchants, had London's authorisation to establish trade connections. The ships of Willoughby were separated and the other two were lost at sea, but Edward Bonaventure managed to pass the White Sea and reach Kholmogory, from where Chancellor was escorted to Moscow to meet the Russian Tsar,  Ivan IV. Returning from Russia in 1554, Chancellor brought back a detailed description of Moscow and the Russian north, which were largely unknown to Europe, as well as a letter from the Tsar expressing desire to establish trade relations with England. In 1555 Queen Mary issued a charter authorising the Muscovy Company to trade with Russia via the White Sea route.

Dutch ships soon followed the English, and the port of Kholmogory became busy with shipments of fur and fish. Local and foreign shops and factories were established in the city at that time. The port was reinforced with a fortress which sustained a siege by the Polish-Lithuanian army in 1613. Increasing traffic overloaded the port, which relied on shallow river-waters and had limited ship-capacity. However, instead of expanding the old port, Ivan IV established a new one down-river in 1584, called New Kholmogory, which from 1596 began to become known as Arkhangelsk.

Between the 15th and early 18th centuries, the White Sea served as the major trade route in and out of Russia. This role decreased later after the foundation of Saint Petersburg (1703), which opened a more direct ice-free connection between Russia and the bulk of Western Europe via the Baltic Sea. From the 1920s, most northern Russian sea shipments diverted from the White Sea to the new port of Murmansk (officially founded in 1916), where the waters did not freeze in winter.

Fauna and economy

The sea hosts more than 700 species of invertebrates, about 60 species of fish, and five species of marine mammals, including friendly beluga, the white whale. Several other dolphin species, such as harbour porpoises, appear less frequently while larger whales such as bowhead, humpback and rorquals, northern bottlenose, orcas have been considered as rare visitors to the waters while actual frequency of occurrences within White Sea basin is not specified.  The fishing industry is relatively small, mostly targeting harp seal, ringed seal, herring, saffron cod, European smelt, Atlantic cod and Atlantic salmon. There is a developing seaweed industry.

The White Sea is an important traffic centre of northwestern Russia, interconnecting various economic regions and providing an outlet to the foreign routes. The White Sea–Baltic Canal links it through Lake Onega to the Baltic Sea and the major city and port of Saint Petersburg. The Baltic Sea, in turn, is connected by the Volga–Baltic Waterway to the Volga River, Black, Caspian, and Azov seas. The major ports on the White Sea are Arkhangelsk, Belomorsk, Onega, Mezen, Kem, Kandalaksha and Umba. Despite being frozen in winter, the sea remains navigable all year around because of deployment of icebreakers.

References

External links

Portrait of the White Sea offered by the Baltic Sea Portal

 'The Canal of Lost Hope' Two Part Documentary

Category:Seas of the Arctic Ocean
Category:Bodies of water of the Barents Sea
Category:Seas of Russia
Category:European seas


Dhagari Pipal

Dhagari Pipal   is a village development committee in Salyan District in the Rapti Zone of western-central Nepal. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census it had a population of 3834 people living in 668 individual households.

References

External links
UN map of the municipalities of Salyan District

Category:Populated places in Salyan District (Nepal)


Jessika Ponchet

Jessika Ponchet (born 26 September 1996) is a French professional tennis player. She has career-high WTA rankings of world no. 169 in singles (attained on 22 July 2019) and world no. 255 in doubles (attained on 13 May 2019).

Career
Ponchet did not play any ITF junior tournaments, plunging straight into the ITF Women's Circuit at the age of 14.

2011-2013
Ponchet played the singles events of four tournaments and the doubles event of one tournament on the 2011 ITF Women's Circuit, starting with a $100,000 tournament held in early July in the French city of Biarritz. She played a total of eleven and eighteen ITF tournaments in 2012 and 2013 respectively.

2014-2015
Ponchet played a total of 17 ITF tournaments in 2014. She suffered a major setback when torn knee ligaments forced her to miss tournaments in the first eight months of 2015. She played the singles events of seven tournaments and the doubles event of one tournament on the 2015 ITF Women's Circuit.

2016
Ponchet played a total of 22 ITF tournaments in 2016.

2017
Ponchet made her Grand Slam and WTA Tour singles debut at the French Open after receiving a singles qualifying wild card; in the qualifying event, she defeated Dalma Gálfi (the 2015 ITF World Champion in the girls' combined category) in the first round before losing to the No. 4 seed Richèl Hogenkamp in the second round.

Ponchet made her WTA 125K series debut at the Open de Limoges, entering only its singles event. She received a wild card for the  main draw, where she defeated her compatriot Chloé Paquet in the first round and lost to the No. 7 seed Kaia Kanepi in the second round.

Ponchet finished 2017 with a final win-loss record of 42–24 for singles matches played.

2018
Ponchet made her Grand Slam and WTA Tour singles main-draw debut at the Australian Open after receiving a wild card for the main draw, where she lost in the first round to the No. 3 seed Garbiñe Muguruza. Prior to the Australian Open, Ponchet had in her entire career played in the singles main-draw event of just one tournament that was at a higher level than the ITF Women's Circuit (the 2017 Open de Limoges) and had never even faced a player ranked in the top 100 of WTA singles rankings.

Ponchet made French Open singles main-draw debut after receiving a wild card for the main draw, where she lost in the first round to the unseeded Lucie Šafářová in straight sets.

2019
At the Australian Open, Ponchet reached the singles main draw where she lost in the first round to her 19th-seeded countrywoman Caroline Garcia, after winning all her three qualifying matches without dropping a set.

On 9 April, in her first-round match of the $25,000 ITF tournament in Sunderland, Ponchet was leading Tara Moore 6–0, 5–0 and had a match point to achieve a double bagel, but Moore staged a comeback to win 0–6, 7–6, 6–3.

WTA 125K series finals

Doubles: 1 (1 runner-up)

ITF Circuit finals

Singles: 9 (5 titles, 3 runner–ups, 1 pending)

Doubles: 12 (7 titles, 5 runner–ups)

Grand Slam singles performance timeline

References

External links

Category:1996 births
Category:Living people
Category:French female tennis players


Codford railway station

Codford railway station was an intermediate station on the Salisbury branch line of the Great Western Railway built along the Wylye valley to connect  and  to serve the surrounding villages, and situated along the lane from Codford St Peter to Boyton.

History
Opened on 30 June 1856, this station lost its passenger service on 19 September 1955 and its goods yard was closed on 10 June 1963.  The signal box remained in use until June 1982.  The original single platform was built on the north side of the line next to a level crossing.  A passing loop was installed here in 1897 which necessitated the construction of a second platform to serve trains towards Westbury. The line was doubled from Heytesbury in 1899 and on to Wylye in 1900.

When an army camp was built at Codford in 1914 a  branch line was built connecting it to the station. The branch was taken over at the end of the First World War by the Great Western Railway but closed in 1922.

Services
The station was served by stopping trains on the  to  line.  Trains still run between Warminster and Salisbury, but no longer stop at anywhere in between.

References

Category:Railway stations opened in 1856
Category:Rail transport in Wiltshire
Category:Railway stations closed in 1955
Category:Disused railway stations in Wiltshire
Category:Former Great Western Railway stations


Kim Jerray-Silver

Kimberley "Kim" Jerray-Silver (born 10 June 1977) is a former English international footballer. She was a full–time professional player with Fulham, whom she joined from Arsenal.

Football career

Club
Jerray-Silver won the 1995–96 FA Women's Premier League Cup with Wembley Ladies. In the final against Doncaster Belles, she came on as a second-half substitute. The game finished 2–2 before Wembley won on penalties.

International
In May 1996 Jerray-Silver won a solitary England cap in a 3–0 Euro qualifying win over Portugal at Griffin Park.

Personal life
Jerray-Silver became a firefighter and was among the first on the scene at Edgware Road during the 7 July 2005 London bombings.

References

External links

Category:1977 births
Category:Living people
Category:English women's footballers
Category:England women's international footballers
Category:FA Women's National League players
Category:Arsenal W.F.C. players
Category:Fulham L.F.C. players
Category:Barnet F.C. Ladies players
Category:Women's association football midfielders
Category:London Fire Brigade officers


New Orleans Film Festival

The New Orleans Film Festival is an annual film festival organized by the nonprofit organization New Orleans Film Society, a film society founded in 1989. The festival has been held since the society's inception. The festival takes place in mid-October. The festival, nicknamed "Cannes on the Mississippi", features national and international feature films and short films. The festival had one off-year when New Orleans suffered the effects of Hurricane Katrina in 2005.

Now in its 29th year, the New Orleans Film Festival, October 17-25, 2018, has grown into an internationally respected annual event that attracts 20K – 25K people, 400+ filmmakers, and 240 films. It is one of the few film festivals that is Oscar-qualifying in all three Academy-accredited categories: Narrative Short, Documentary Short, and Animated Short—and it’s been recognized by MovieMaker Magazine as one of the “Top 50 Film Festivals Worth the Entry Fee” every year since 2012 (one of only two festivals to receive that recognition for six straight years).

Listed as “Top 25 Coolest Film Festivals in the World” by MovieMaker Magazine in 2016 and 2017.

Attending filmmakers and cinema fans enjoy a unique camaraderie in a city that has an international reputation for knowing how to have a good time.

Premiumbeat.com named the New Orleans Film Festival as one of "Fifteen Fests You Should Enter" in 2012.

Diversity and Discovery

Paste Magazine praised the festival for offering “a platform to voices that still fight to be heard.” We honor three vital commitments to filmmakers and to audiences hungry for fresh work with perspectives less often represented on the silver screen:

 90% of the 230+ films in the festival will come from submissions, ensuring New Orleans Film Festival is a place of discovery where all voices have an opportunity to be heard
 50% or more of the films will be helmed by women and gender non-conforming filmmakers
 45% or more will be helmed by filmmakers of color

Emerging Voices Program
The Emerging Voices Mentorship program, an initiative of the New Orleans Film Society, was created in 2014 and founded on the principle that to create a more diverse storytelling landscape, filmmakers of color in Louisiana need greater access to gatekeepers.

Applicants include filmmakers with narrative or documentary projects (shorts, features or web-based), experimental films and music videos in the development/pre-production stage. Once selected, during the annual New Orleans Film Festival, selected filmmakers are paired with a Film Industry leader who acts as a mentor through one-on-one meetings. Mentees also participate in short intensive meetings with other industry professionals during the NOFF Industry Exchange to pitch their projects and build further connections.

The program works to empower the local community as well as to promote the unique perspectives and cultures created in Louisiana to the rest of the country, and the world.

Screenplay Competition

In an effort to expand its offerings and services to support diverse makers, the New Orleans Film Festival has launched its first Screenplay Competition to coincide with the 2018 New Orleans Film Festival. The competition is open to short, episodic and feature length screenplays. Winners of each category as well as one screenwriter from Louisiana (from any category) receives a cash prize. The winner and top three finalists in all categories receive an All-Access Pass to attend the New Orleans Film Festival. The writers are invited to all panels, roundtables, receptions, networking events, and screenings over the course of the nine-day event.

References

External links
New Orleans Film Society
MovieMaker magazine - "25 Film Festivals Worth the Entry Fee: 2012"
New Orleans Film Society Collection at Loyola University New Orleans

Category:Festivals in New Orleans
Category:Film festivals in Louisiana
Category:Media in New Orleans
Category:Tourist attractions in New Orleans
Category:Film festivals established in 1989


Niumatou Site

The Niumatou Site () is an archaeological site dating from  the mid Neolithic period in Qingshui District, Taichung, Taiwan. It is the oldest archaeological site in central Taiwan. The site has been designated as a historical relic by then Taichung County Government.

History
Civilizations around the area started around 4,000 years ago when prehistoric people lived within the area during the Neolithic age. They knew how to use stone tools and potteries. Because of the large numbers of stone hoes were unearthed, archaeologists think that those prehistoric people probably relied largely on farming for food. However, they also went hunting for more variety to their menu.

Transportation
The site is accessible within walking distance north east of Qingshui Station of Taiwan Railways.

See also
 Prehistory of Taiwan
 Beinan Cultural Park

References

Category:Archaeological sites in Taiwan
Category:Buildings and structures in Taichung


Farmoor Reservoir

Farmoor Reservoir is a reservoir at Farmoor, Oxfordshire, England, about 5 miles (8 km) outside the city of Oxford.  It is close to the left bank of the River Thames.  Like most of the reservoirs in the Thames Valley, it was not formed by damming a valley.  In this case the banks were raised above the local ground level using material excavated from within the bowl of the reservoir.

The reservoir is split into Stage 1 (completed 1967, 4,544 million litres) and Stage 2 (completed 1976, 9,298 million litres).  Among other locations, Farmoor supplies the large town of Swindon, some 25 miles (40 km) to the southwest. The reservoir is filled from the River Thames.

The reservoir is used for sports: fishing (especially fly-fishing for rainbow and brown trout), dinghy sailing and windsurfing.  Oxford Sailing Club and the Oxford Sail Training Trust are based there. The latter offers sailing, windsurfing and powerboat courses. There is also access for bird watching and walking.

Birds of Farmoor Reservoir

References

External links
Farmoor Trout Fishery Website, Oxfordshire, UK
Oxford Sailing Club
Oxford Sail Training

Category:1967 establishments in England
Category:Reservoirs in Oxfordshire
Category:Sports venues in Oxfordshire
RFarmoor
Category:Thames Water reservoirs


Santoprene

Thermoplastic vulcanizates (TPV) are part of the thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) family of polymers, but are closest in elastomeric properties to EPDM thermoset rubber, combining the characteristics of vulcanized rubber with the processing properties of thermoplastics.  TPV is a dynamically vulcanized alloy consisting mostly of fully cured EPDM rubber particles encapsulated in a polypropylene (PP) matrix. There are almost 100 grades in the S portfolio which are used globally in the automotive, household appliance, electrical, construction and healthcare markets. The name "Santoprene" was trademarked in 1977  by Monsanto and the trademark is now owned by ExxonMobil. Similar material is available from Elastron  and others .

Overview

TPV was created following several years of research and development to find a new material for injection molded tires.  While this search for a new tire material was unsuccessful, it led to the development of  TPV, which combines the characteristics of a vulcanized rubber with the processing properties of thermoplastics.  The first sales of developmental products were in 1977, the year it was registered by Monsanto, and it was fully commercialized in 1981.

Part of the TPE family of polymers, TPV is the closest in elastomeric properties to EPDM thermoset rubber. TPVs offer a combination of elastomeric properties, like compression and tension set, coupled with aging performance and chemical resistance.

Early successes
Santoprene TPV enjoyed early application successes in the automotive sector, including rack and pinion boots, due to its flex life, fluid resistance and sealability. In the appliance sector, a dishwasher sump boot made with Santoprene TPV provided good sealing and resistance to heat and fluids. Due to its sealing properties, Santoprene TPV was also successful in the domestic and high-rise construction sectors in applications such as window seals, caster wheels, tubing and small hose parts, electrical connectors and coatings for wire and cables. It was also used in the medical industry as a gasket on syringe plungers.

Chemistry

Santoprene TPV is a dynamically vulcanized alloy consisting mostly of fully cured EPDM rubber particles encapsulated in a polypropylene (PP) matrix.

These photographs, made using an atomic force microscope (on the left) and a scanning electron microscope (on the right), show a multitude of very small particles, typically no bigger than a couple of microns in diameter. These particles are fully vulcanized rubber (typically EPDM rubber for most Santoprene TPV grades) in a thermoplastic phase (most often PP in the case of Santoprene TPV grades). Fully cross-linked or vulcanized means 98% or above and because the morphology is “locked-in,” it provides stable physical properties.

Properties

Designed for specific engineered applications, Santoprene TPV grades range from a hardness of 35 Shore A up to 50 Shore D.

Santoprene TPV grades offer the following:
 sealing performance: long-term aging durability combined with dimensional stability and physical properties over the life of the part
 aesthetics: aspect harmonization between parts and comfort touch interior skins
 processing: processability on standard thermoplastics processing equipment
 design flexibility: suitability for coextrusion (coprocessing: molding, extrusion, blow molding) with other polymers for multipart system designs
 weight reduction: through lower density, part design optimization, and material replacement
 recycling: fully recyclable within the manufacturing process

Applications

Santoprene TPV grades are designed for a broad range of specific engineered applications.

Automotive components
Santoprene TPV is used in weatherseals, underhood and under-car applications, and interior components. In weatherseals, TPV is used as a lightweight alternative to thermoset rubber materials in semi-dynamic and static parts, while in underhood and under-car applications it is well-suited for air ducts, tubing, molded seals, grommets, suspension bellows, cable jacketing, plugs, bumpers and many other parts. This is due to its sealing performance and resistance to extreme temperatures, chemical exposure and harsh environments.

Building and construction products
In commercial glazing seals, Santoprene TPV is used for curtain wall, storefront, architectural window, and skylight weatherseal applications. It is also commonly used in residential glazing seals due to its low air and water infiltration ratings for the life of window and door systems.

For road and rail construction projects, Santoprene TPV is used for bridge and parking decks, water stops, rail pads and other applications.

In plumbing, Santoprene TPV is used to create long-term seals, gaskets and grommets that are resistant to flex fatigue, harsh temperatures and chemicals. It can be used in a variety of sealing applications including pipe seals, bridge expansion joints and curtain walls, parts for potable water and pipe seals for sewer and drainage.

Household appliance parts
Santoprene TPV is used in washing machines, dryers, dishwashers, refrigerators, small appliances and floorcare. Its properties enable it to be used in a range of parts including pump seals, hoses, couplings, vibration dampeners, drum rollers, knobs and controls.

Electrical components
Santoprene TPV is used in wiring connectors to make watertight seals with electrical and thermal resistance; insulation for high voltage applications; and, flexibility even at low temperatures to −60 °C.

It is used in industrial wire and cable connectors and low-voltage industrial cable applications that include insulation and jacketing, in addition to consumer wire and cable uses.

For electrical components, Santoprene TPV offers watertight seals, enabling connectors to be insert-molded to cable jacketing, producing a single integral part.

Processing
Santoprene TPV can be processed using conventional thermoplastic processes such as injection molding, blow molding and extrusion. Manufacturing a part using Santoprene TPV, in contrast to a rubber, is less complex. Santoprene TPV is ready to use and does not need to be compounded with different ingredients such as reinforcing fillers (carbon black, mineral fillers), stabilizers, plasticizing oils, and curing systems

Compared to processing rubber, thermoplastic processing of Santoprene TPV can deliver shorter cycle times, a higher part output per hour, and the reuse of scrap produced during processing. This can result in part cost reduction, less tooling/machinery, lower scrap costs, and optimization of material logistic costs compared to rubber.

After a short drying period, TPV pellets are automatically transferred to the molding machine or extrusion line. Cycle times can be much faster, because the parts do not have to cure in the mold, which is typically two to three minutes for rubber. The TPV part only has to cool, typically about 30 seconds, and then it can be removed from the mold or cooled in water.

Processing options
Injection molding: Santoprene TPV grades can be processed using conventional thermoplastics injection-molding equipment at reduced cycle times compared to thermoset rubber. TPV flexibility allows for greater freedom of mold design where undercuts are employed.

Insert molding: Insert molding consists of placing a preformed substrate into the mold and injecting TPV around or over it. If the insert and the TPV are compatible materials, a melt bond occurs at the interface between the two materials. The strength of this bond is affected by several factors, including interface temperature, cleanliness of the insert and the melt temperature of the TPV.

Two-shot injection molding: TPV can be combined with polymers through several types of multi-shot injection molding processes. By combining multiple materials, a wide variety of parts applications, such as a hard/soft combination, can be achieved. The process produces both a finished part and a substrate during each cycle. Two-shot molding is more efficient than insert molding because no handling of the substrate is required.

Blow molding: Santoprene TPV can be blow molded in single layer, multi-layer, exchange blow, sequential 3D, suction blow, flashless extrusion blow, injection blow and press-blow molding processes.

Extrusion: Santoprene TPV is easy to extrude into single and complex profiles. These materials can also be coextruded to yield a part with both rigid and soft components.

Thermoforming: The thermoforming properties of Santoprene TPV are similar to acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and exhibit good melt strength, which provides uniform and predictable sag characteristics during heating. When producing sheet for thermoformed parts, key attributes of Santoprene TPV are maintained, including colorability, impact resistance, weatherability, chemical resistance, non-skid, matte surface in appearance and feel.

Recycling

Santoprene TPV can contribute to a reduction in overall waste in the manufacturing process as scrap produced during processing can be recycled. Material that has been recycled – even from old parts – exhibits properties almost as good as virgin material as an article in “Design News” magazine reported on May 5, 2003.

According to the article:
 The results of tests on protective boots for automotive rack and pinion gears showed that older TPV has slightly lower physical and mechanical properties than new material. Yet some of the key indicators of the material's ability to hold up in this dynamic application did not change significantly. For example, the new and old TPVs had nearly the same properties after air and oil aging. Compression set also remained virtually identical.
 The results of tests that measured the color shift (Delta E) between the exterior and interior surface of old and new automotive secondary roof profiles showed that the TPV material experienced insignificant color changes. Other tests, which looked at whether the surfaces of the profiles bore the marks of radiation-induced degradation, showed the material surface appears homogeneous.
 In tests that compared old and new automotive glass run channel profiles, there was no significant difference in the tensile stress strain properties—a key indicator of sealing performance.

References

External links
 Santoprene Chemical Resistance at vp-scientific.com
 ExxonMobile Santoprene thermoplastic vulcanization (TPV)

Category:Polymers


Tillegra Dam proposal

Tillegra Dam was a proposed dam on the Williams River to be located  northwest of Dungog, in the Hunter Region of New South Wales, Australia. It was first proposed in the 1970s but a formal proposal was not announced until 2006. Community opposition and changing needs saw the end of the proposal in November 2010. Hunter Water Corporation divested itself of its Tillegra landholding in 2015, permanently ending the proposal.

Overview
The Tillegra Dam was first proposed by the Hunter Water Corporation in the 1970s, but was deferred indefinitely in the 1980s due to the success of user pays pricing. On 13 November 2006, the NSW Government announced proposals for a A$300 million dam at Tillegra to supply water to the Lower Hunter Region and Central Coast. The justification for the dam was based primarily on climate change and population growth in the Hunter Region.

Opposition
The No Tillegra Dam Group was formed to prevent the building of the dam. Opponents claimed the dam proposal was grossly excessive for need, will drown valuable agricultural land and greater water efficiency, demand management and recycling would eliminate the need for the dam.

Cancellation
On 28 November 2010 then NSW Premier, Kristina Keneally, announced the cancellation of the dam after the Planning Minister refused to approve it. The refusal was based on both the potential for environmental damage and the lack of proper consideration of alternative water security measures. The state government had already spent $100 million on the project.

Statistics
 Height of dam wall:
 Length of dam wall:
 Surface area:
 Length of lake:
 Total capacity: 450 gigalitres
 Average flow of Williams River: 94 gigalitres per annum.
 Estimated Cost: 477 million (as of April 2010)

References

Category:Cancelled dams
Category:Dam controversies
Category:Hunter Region
Category:Unbuilt buildings and structures in Australia
Category:Cancelled projects in Australia


Chonta mountain range

The Chonta mountain range (possibly from Aymara chunta prolonged, lengthened, Quechua chunta a kind of palm,) lies in the Huancavelica Region in the Andes of Peru. It extends between 12°37' and 13°07'S and  75°00' and 75°30'W for about 50 km. It is located in the Castrovirreyna Province and in the Huancavelica Province.

Mountains
Some of the highest mountains in the range are listed below:

 Tanranu,
 T'uruyuq,
 Palumu,
 Wamanrasu,
 Sitaq,
 Hatun Pata,
 Huch'uy Anqas,
 Antarasu,
 Qarwarasu,
 Puka Punta,
 Wallu Q'asa,
 Pinqullu,
 Sukullu,
 Kunturay (Condoray),
 Pata Pata,
 Qarwa Q'asa,
 Anqasqucha,
 Chuntarahu (Chontaraju),
 Ch'aqra Punta,
 Ichhu Rutuna,
 Kachi Mach'ay Urqu,
 Kunkayuq,
 K'allapayuq,
 Puka Rumi,
 Qarwa K'anti,
 Qusqu,
 Q'iru Pinqullu,
 Wachu Intiyuq,
 Wamanripayuq,
 Wari,
 Wayra Q'asa,
 Winchu Q'asa,
 Yana Urqu (Cast.),
 Yana Urqu (Huanc.),
 Yarq'asqa,
 Yawar Q'asa,
 Awqa Urqu,
 Yana Pampa,
 Aqchi,
 Atuq Marka,
 Kuntur Wamani,
 Kuntur Wamani (Castr.),
 Pinqullu,
 Phiruru Urqu,
 Puka Q'asa (Cast.-Huan.),
 Puka Q'asa (Huan.),
 Qalla Qalla,
 Q'ara Wayuna,
 Taruja Marka,
 Waqutuyuq,
 Yuraq Mach'ay,
 Wayta Urqu,
 Qarwa Urqu,
 Tuku Wasi,
 Ukhu P'ukru,
 Pichqa Pukyu,

References

Category:Mountain ranges of Peru
Category:Mountain ranges of Huancavelica Region


Chiautla de Tapia

Chiautla de Tapia is a city and municipality in La Mixteca region of Puebla in south-eastern Mexico. The municipality of Chiautla has a surface area of 685.05 km² which makes it the largest municipality in the state of Puebla. The BUAP has a Regional Section there.

Notable figures
 Gilberto Bosques Saldívar

References

External links
 Chiautla de Tapia - Community site

Category:Municipalities of Puebla
Category:Populated places in Puebla


Juana de la Cruz Vázquez Gutiérrez

Juana de la Cruz Vázquez y Gutiérrez, T.O.R., (3 May 1481 – 3 May 1534), was a Spanish abbess of the Franciscan Third Order Regular. Known to be a mystic, she was authorized to preach publicly, an extraordinary permission for a woman. Living at the start of Spanish mysticism's golden era, she is counted among Teresa of Ávila's literary mothers. In 2015 she was declared Venerable by the Catholic Church.

Early life

Born Juana Vázquez y Gutiérrez, she was the daughter of Juan Vázquez and Catalina Gutiérrez, who were prosperous farmers in the town of Azaña, now called Numancia de la Sagra, on 3 May 1481. In 1488 her mother died and Vázquez decided to join the Beaterio (convent) of Santa María de la Cruz de La Sagra, a community of Franciscan tertiaries founded in 1464 when she grew up, in order to fulfill a promise her mother had made while pregnant with her.

In 1496 Vázquez went to live with an aunt and uncle in Illescas. Her beauty and virtue were such that she caught the eye of a noble knight, Francisco de Laorte. Juana's father betrothed her to him. Pressured by her family to marry, she dressed like a man and ran away from home. She was received by the sisters at Beaterio de Santa María de la Cruz. Pursued by her family, she convinced her father to give her permission to stay in the convent. The following year she made her religious profession, taking the name Juana de la Cruz. She lived as a Franciscan sister for 38 years, during which time she helped to spread the praying of the rosary and devotion to the Guardian Angels.

Franciscan life

Vázquez lost the ability to speak for six months in 1506. Her biographers claim it was a time of purification that developed her gift of preaching, which she began to do in 1508 with the permission of Church authorities. She grew in popularity due to her preaching, which was such that the Franciscan preacher Fray Francisco de Torres claimed that she ...taught, moved and delighted (the listener) more than any of the most eloquent orators; (she preached) in a humble and plain style as is the custom of the Holy Spirit." In addition to Emperor Charles V, among those who would go to her sermons were such leading figures of Spanish society as Cardinal Cisneros, Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, the military hero of the Reconquest, and Don Juan of Austria.

In 1509, Vázquez obtained the raising of the status of the convent to that a monastery, of which she was then elected the first abbess. The next year, Cisneros granted her the favor of having the Church of San Andrés, a parish church adjacent to the monastery, made a benefice of the community. The priest who had been pastor was reduced to being a vicar. Although a common arrangement elsewhere in Europe, this was considered a scandal in Spain. Because several priests complained about this, Vázquez asked for and received approval for this arrangement from Pope Julius II.

As abbess, Vázquez mentored and spiritually directed many nobles, clerics, religious and lay people. She also expanded the life of the nuns of the monastery to be dedicated to the education of young women. She and her sisters were able to extend the community with new foundations in Illescas, Fuensalida (1533) and San Martin de Valdeiglesias (1545).

When Cisneros died in 1517, Vázquez became the victim of the secular clergy who tried to have the benefice removed from her authority. Because of this, she asked for and received papal confirmation of the benefice. Her troubles, however, continued when a certain nun, Sister Eufrasia, her community's sub-vicaress who desired to take over as abbess, defamed Vázquez to the other nuns. These false accusations reached the ears of the Franciscan Minister Provincial who deposed her as abbess. She obeyed and exhorted the sisters to accept his decision.

Sister Eufrasia did not last long as abbess. She fell gravely ill and admitted her sin of envy and of defaming Vázquez, who, in 1523, was renamed the abbess of the community. In 1524, an illness left her paralyzed, but she continued preaching. Slowly, she who had called herself “God’s trumpet” became “God’s guitar.”

Vázquez died on 3 May 1534 at the age of 53. Although she has not been canonized, popular piety refers to her as Santa Juana.

Influence
Seventy-two of Vázquez' sermons were collected in 1509 in the manuscript called The Conhorte, which includes visions of heavenly life. Her sermons influenced Poor Clares including Jerónima de la Asunción (foundress of the first Catholic monastery in the Philippines), Luisa de la Ascensión de Carrión (mystical poet) and Maria de Jesús de Ágreda (the Blue Nun of the Jumanos). The power of her sermons led Friar Francisco de Torres to become her great admirer and supporter. He eventually added glosses to her sermons.

Process of canonization

Soon after her death, Vázquez was proclaimed a saint by the popular acclaim of the townspeople who called her la Santa Juana. Her remains were visited by kings, cardinals and the nobility.

In 1615-1617, the Archbishop of Toledo proclaimed Vázquez to be holy and allowed the development of a public cult in her honor, which spread quickly throughout Spain and Latin America. Any formal recognition by the Catholic Church of this acclamation, however, was blocked by a decree of Pope Urban VIII that, to recognize the sanctity of a person, they had to be dead for at least one hundred years. In 1619 the cause for her beatification was officially approved and her process of canonization begun. On 4 May 1630 she was declared venerable, and the tribunal reported favorably on her virtue and miracles. The process was halted, though, due to the loss of the documents promoting her cause. It is argued, however, that one factor contributing to this was the discomfort felt by Church authorities with the intensely homoerotic imagery she used to express her understanding of how the soul interacts with God and the role of the Virgin Mary in salvation.

The process for her beatification was restarted three times in 1664-1679 and 1702-1731 and again in 1980. On 18 March 2015, Pope Francis authorized the Congregation for the Causes of the Saints to release a decree declaring that she had exhibited heroic virtue during her life.

Mystical experience

Vázquez' mystical life began at a very early age and was nurtured by traditional Christian practice. She had her first mystical experience at age four.  She fell off a horse and was laying on the ground as if dead when the Virgin Mary and her Guardian Angel appeared to Juana and healed her. She gave herself to the popular devotion of the Cross, the rosary, the Virgin Mary and Guardian Angels. She eventually developed a sacramental devotion to Penance and the Eucharist.

During her adolescence, Vázquez practiced mortification of the flesh, fasting and prayer vigils.

At age fifteen, guided by her Guardian Angel, Vázquez dressed as a man and ran away from home to join a Franciscan convent where she was welcomed by an image of the Virgin Mary that spoke to her as she waited to speak with the superior.

At age 25 Vázquez became mute for six months from the feast of St. Scholastica to the feast of St. Clare. During this time she began to experience moments of ecstasy and rapture that led her to become a preacher. According to her biographer Sor María Evangelista, Sor Juana told her that “when the Lord made her mute, he first spoke to her in spirit and told her: ‘Keep my secret and do not speak, because I will speak instead’. With this, His Majesty made her understand that he himself, because of her humility, with love that he has of souls, wanted to speak to them and reveal secrets and great wonders (to them)…” (Vita y fin… c. VI, 1-3).

Vázquez' silent ecstasies lasted from 1506-1508, after which she began to have auditory ecstasies and visions. During an ecstasy in 1507, she experienced her betrothal to Jesus with the Virgin Mary acting as Matron of honor (madrina) and giving her Son the ring for his bride. During another ecstasy in 1508 she received the stigmata which stayed with her from Good Friday to the Solemnity of the Ascension.

Vázquez' ecstasies and visions became the source of not only her preaching but her working of miracles and cures with the sign of the cross. Besides preaching and miracles, she also spoke in tongues, specifically Basque and Arabic.

Works about her

Sister María Evangelista, a companion of Vázquez, began to transcribe her sermons in 1509 at the command of Cardinal Cisneros. At the same time she began to write her life story in a book that would eventually be called Comienza la Vida y Fin de la bienaventurada virgen Sancta Juana de la Cruz. The 137 page manuscript of this 16th century text is kept in the Real Biblioteca Escorial (Sign K-III-13). She collected 72 of Sor Juana's sermons into a manuscript called El Libro del Conhorte (Mss.454) which can be translated as "The Exhortation" or "The Consolation". It too is kept in the Real Biblioteca Escorial (Sign J-II-18).

Franciscan preacher and scholar Francisco de Torres added glosa (sidenotes) to El Conhorte from 1567-1568. His glosa are interesting in his apologetic defense of Vázquez' authority and teaching. He uses her sermons as a polemical tool against the social abuses of his day and how he reveals the story of his own life in the glosa.

According to Innocente Gárcia Andrés Francisco's glosa highlight several things about Sor Juana.

 She was a simple, ignorant (idiota) woman who was "most wise", "educated by God" and "ingenious and most spiritual author" (17,6; 24,9; 12,3, etc.).
 She was an orthodox and most catholic prophet. As a prophet she proclaimed conformity to the Gospel and preached against heretical movements and persons. Fray Francisco called her "a most wise sink hammer against heretics" (8.2).
 She was an efficient, simple and heartfelt preacher. He especially saw her as a Franciscan preacher who conforms to the teachings of St. Francis and spiritual Franciscans (28,3).
 She was a "vernacular" theologian, "the simple and ignorant daughter of the simple and ignorant Francis"(14,14). He especially valued her message of love as the experience and knowledge of God that implies love of neighbor.
 She was a teacher of life and doctrine. Francisco declared her to be his teacher and he marvels at how the Holy Spirit speaks to the reader through her (24,7).

The first official chronicler of the Franciscans in Spain, Fray Antonio Daça, wrote the earliest printed Life of Santa Juana de la Cruz in 1610. It was reprinted some 30 times in Madrid, Saragossa, Valladoilid, Treviri, Pavía, lérida, Paris, Florence, Modena, Leon, Naples, and Monaco. Its final reprint was in Venice in 1646. Fray Antonio is also known for having published Cuarta parte de las crónicas de la orden de San Francisco (The Fourth part of the Chronicles of the Order of St. Francis); and Historia de las llagas de San Francisco (Story of the Stigmats of St. Francis).

Other early works on the life of Vázquez include

 Fray Juan Carillo, Vida y milagros de la Venerable virgen Sor Juana de la Cruz, Saragossa 1623, Mexico 1684.
 Fray Pedro Navarro, Favores del Rey del cielo, hechos a su esposa la santa Juana de la Cruz, Madrid 1622, 1699.
 Fray Juan g. de San Diego Villalón, Epitome de la vida de Sor Juana de la Cruz, Saragossa 1663.

Vázquez remained forgotten in the literary world from 1663 to 1986 when the journal Nueva Revista de Filogia Hispana (vol.33) published an article about her entitled "La M. Juana de la Cruz y la cuestión de la autoridad religiosa femenina" (483-490).

Contemporary bibliography

Juana de la Cruz. El Conhorte: Sermones de una mujer. La Santa Juana (1481-1534). Edited by  García de Andrés. 2 vols. Madrid: Fundación Universitaria Española, 1999.

Juana de la Cruz. Mother Juana de la Cruz, 1481–1534: Visionary Sermons. Translated by Ronald E. Surtz and Nora Weinerth. Edited by Jessica A. Boon and Ronald E. Surtz. Toronto, Tempe, AZ: Iter Academic Press, Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2016.

 María Victoria Triviño, OSC., "La Santa Juana grande y legitima Maestra Franciscana", in Las Clarisas en España y Portugal. Congreso Internacional de Santa Clara, Salamanca 1993.
 Ángela Muñoz, "Sor Juana de la Cruz. Imágenes de divinidad para las mujeres" in Acciones e intenciones de mujeres, en la vida religiosa de los siglos XV y XVI, Madrid 1995, 179-191.
 Innocente G. de Andrés, El Conhorte. Sermones de una muijer. La Santa Juana (1481-1534) I y II, Madrid, F.U.E. 1999.
 María Isabel Barbeito, "Y contó maravillas", in Giornate di Studio, Cubas de la Sagra, Maggio 1999, 67-79.
 María Victoria Triviño, OSC.,"Fiestas del cielo, juegos y danzas en la predicación de Juana de la Cruz", in Giornate di Studio, Cubas de la Sagra, Maggio 1999, 89-109.
 María Victoria Triviño, OSC., "Santa María Sacerdote Grande. Sermón 5: De la Purificación de Nuestra Señora" in Giornate di Studio, Cubas de la Sagra, Maggio 1999, 39-69.
 María Victoria Triviño, OSC., Mujer, predicatora y párroco. La santa Juana (1481-1534), Madrid, BAC (Biografias) 1999,
 María Victoria Triviño, OSC., "El arte al servicio de la predicación, La Santa Juana (1481-1534) Franciscana de la TOR" in La clausura feminina en España: Atti del Simposio I, El Escorial, Instituto Escurialense de Investigaciones Históricas y 2004,
 Jesús Gomez Lopez. "Juana de la Cruz (1481-1534). La Santa Juana. Vida, obra, santidad y causa" in La clausura feminina en España: Atti del Simposio I, El Escorial, Instituto Escurialense de Investigaciones Históricas y 2004, 1223-1250.
 María del mar Graña Cid, "la feminidad de Jesucristo y sus implicaciones eclesiales en la predicación mistica de Juana de la Cruz (Sobre la Prereforma y la Querella de las Mujeres in Castilla)" in Estudios Eclesiásticos, 84 (2009) 477-513.
 Triviño, "Sor Juana de la Cruz. La Santa Juana (1481-1534)", in Misitici Francescani: Secolo XVI IV edited by Gianluigi Pasquale, Milano, Editrici Francescane 2010, 2223-2233.
 Jessica A. Boon, "Mother Juana de la Cruz: Marian Visions and Female Preaching", in
A New Companion to Hispanic Mysticism edited by Hilaire Kallendorf and Colin Thompson Boston, Brill 2010, 127-148.

See also
 Juana de la Cruz Vazquez

References

Category:1481 births
Category:1534 deaths
Category:15th-century Christian mystics
Category:16th-century Christian mystics
Category:People from the Province of Toledo
Category:Spanish Roman Catholic religious sisters and nuns
Category:Third Order Regular Franciscans
Category:Madrilenian people
Category:Franciscan mystics
Category:Stigmatics
Category:Venerated Catholics by Pope Francis
Category:Angelic visionaries
Category:Marian visionaries
Category:15th-century venerated Christians
Category:16th-century venerated Christians


Electoral district of Young

Young was an electoral district for the Legislative Assembly in the Australian state of New South Wales in the Young area. It elected two members between 1880 and 1894 and one member from 1894 to 1904, when it was replaced by Burrangong. Young was recreated in 1927 and abolished in 1981.

Members for Young

Young


Sediment

Sediment is a naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of wind, water, or ice or by the force of gravity acting on the particles. For example, sand and silt can be carried in suspension in river water and on reaching the sea bed deposited by sedimentation. If buried, they may eventually become sandstone and siltstone (sedimentary rocks) through lithification.

Sediments are most often transported by water (fluvial processes), but also wind (aeolian processes) and glaciers. Beach sands and river channel deposits are examples of fluvial transport and deposition, though sediment also often settles out of slow-moving or standing water in lakes and oceans. Desert sand dunes and loess are examples of aeolian transport and deposition.  Glacial moraine deposits and till are ice-transported sediments.

Classification

Sediment can be classified based on its grain size or composition.

Grain size

Sediment size is measured on a log base 2 scale, called the "Phi" scale, which classifies particles by size from "colloid" to "boulder".

Composition
Composition of sediment can be measured in terms of:
 parent rock lithology
 mineral composition
 chemical make-up.

This leads to an ambiguity in which clay can be used as both a size-range and a composition (see clay minerals).

Sediment transport

Sediment is transported based on the strength of the flow that carries it and its own size, volume, density, and shape. Stronger flows will increase the lift and drag on the particle, causing it to rise, while larger or denser particles will be more likely to fall through the flow.

Fluvial processes: rivers, streams, and overland flow

Particle motion
Rivers and streams carry sediment in their flows. This sediment can be in a variety of locations within the flow, depending on the balance between the upwards velocity on the particle (drag and lift forces), and the settling velocity of the particle. These relationships are shown in the following table for the Rouse number, which is a ratio of sediment fall velocity to upwards velocity.

where
  is the fall velocity
  is the von Kármán constant
  is the shear velocity

If the upwards velocity is approximately equal to the settling velocity, sediment will be transported downstream entirely as suspended load. If the upwards velocity is much less than the settling velocity, but still high enough for the sediment to move (see Initiation of motion), it will move along the bed as bed load by rolling, sliding, and saltating (jumping up into the flow, being transported a short distance then settling again). If the upwards velocity is higher than the settling velocity, the sediment will be transported high in the flow as wash load.

As there are generally a range of different particle sizes in the flow, it is common for material of different sizes to move through all areas of the flow for given stream conditions.

Fluvial bedforms

Sediment motion can create self-organized structures such as ripples, dunes, or antidunes on the river or stream bed. These bedforms are often preserved in sedimentary rocks and can be used to estimate the direction and magnitude of the flow that deposited the sediment.

Surface runoff
Overland flow can erode soil particles and transport them downslope. The erosion associated with overland flow may occur through different methods depending on meteorological and flow conditions.
 If the initial impact of rain droplets dislodges soil, the phenomenon is called rainsplash erosion.
 If overland flow is directly responsible for sediment entrainment but does not form gullies, it is called "sheet erosion".
 If the flow and the substrate permit channelization, gullies may form; this is termed "gully erosion".

Key fluvial depositional environments
The major fluvial (river and stream) environments for deposition of sediments include:
 Deltas (arguably an intermediate environment between fluvial and marine)
 Point bars
 Alluvial fans
 Braided rivers
 Oxbow lakes
 Levees
 Waterfalls

Aeolian processes: wind

Wind results in the transportation of fine sediment and the formation of sand dune fields and soils from airborne dust.

Glacial processes

Glaciers carry a wide range of sediment sizes, and deposit it in moraines.

Mass balance

The overall balance between sediment in transport and sediment being deposited on the bed is given by the Exner equation. This expression states that the rate of increase in bed elevation due to deposition is proportional to the amount of sediment that falls out of the flow. This equation is important in that changes in the power of the flow change the ability of the flow to carry sediment, and this is reflected in the patterns of erosion and deposition observed throughout a stream. This can be localized, and simply due to small obstacles; examples are scour holes behind boulders, where flow accelerates, and deposition on the inside of meander bends. Erosion and deposition can also be regional; erosion can occur due to dam removal and base level fall. Deposition can occur due to dam emplacement that causes the river to pool and deposit its entire load, or due to base level rise.

Shores and shallow seas
Seas, oceans, and lakes accumulate sediment over time. The sediment can consist of terrigenous material, which originates on land, but may be deposited in either terrestrial, marine, or lacustrine (lake) environments, or of sediments (often biological) originating in the body of water. Terrigenous material is often supplied by nearby rivers and streams or reworked marine sediment (e.g. sand). In the mid-ocean, the exoskeletons of dead organisms are primarily responsible for sediment accumulation.

Deposited sediments are the source of sedimentary rocks, which can contain fossils of the inhabitants of the body of water that were, upon death, covered by accumulating sediment. Lake bed sediments that have not solidified into rock can be used to determine past climatic conditions.

Key marine depositional environments

The major areas for deposition of sediments in the marine environment include:
 Littoral sands (e.g. beach sands, runoff river sands, coastal bars and spits, largely clastic with little faunal content)
 The continental shelf (silty clays, increasing marine faunal content).
 The shelf margin (low terrigenous supply, mostly calcareous faunal skeletons)
 The shelf slope (much more fine-grained silts and clays)
 Beds of estuaries with the resultant deposits called "bay mud".

One other depositional environment which is a mixture of fluvial and marine is the turbidite system, which is a major source of sediment to the deep sedimentary and abyssal basins as well as the deep oceanic trenches.

Any depression in a marine environment where sediments accumulate over time is known as a sediment trap.

The null point theory explains how sediment deposition undergoes a hydrodynamic sorting process within the marine environment leading to a seaward fining of sediment grain size.

Environmental issues

Erosion and agricultural sediment delivery to rivers
One cause of high sediment loads is slash and burn and shifting cultivation of tropical forests. When the ground surface is stripped of vegetation and then seared of all living organisms, the upper soils are vulnerable to both wind and water erosion. In a number of regions of the earth, entire sectors of a country have become erodible. For example, on the Madagascar high central plateau, which constitutes approximately ten percent of that country's land area, most of the land area is devegetated, and gullies have eroded into the underlying soil in furrows typically in excess of 50 meters deep and one kilometer wide. This siltation results in discoloration of rivers to a dark red brown color and leads to fish kills.

Erosion is also an issue in areas of modern farming, where the removal of native vegetation for the cultivation and harvesting of a single type of crop has left the soil unsupported. Many of these regions are near rivers and drainages. Loss of soil due to erosion removes useful farmland, adds to sediment loads, and can help transport anthropogenic fertilizers into the river system, which leads to eutrophication.

The Sediment Delivery Ratio (SDR) is fraction of gross erosion (interill, rill, gully and stream erosion) that is expected to be delivered to the outlet of the river. The sediment transfer and deposition can be modelled with sediment distribution models such as WaTEM/SEDEM. In Europe, according to WaTEM/SEDEM model estimates the Sediment Delivery Ratio is about 15%.

Coastal Development and Sedimentation near Coral Reefs

Watershed development near coral reefs is a primary cause of sediment-related coral stress. The stripping of natural vegetation in the watershed for development exposes soil to increased wind and rainfall, and as a result, can cause exposed sediment to become more susceptible to erosion and delivery to the marine environment during rainfall events. Sediment can negatively affect corals in many ways, such as by physically smothering them, abrading their surfaces, causing corals to expend energy during sediment removal, and causing algal blooms that can ultimately lead to less space on the seafloor where juvenile corals (polyps) can settle.

When sediments are introduced into the coastal regions of the ocean, the proportion of land, marine and organic-derived sediment that characterizes the seafloor near sources of sediment output is altered.    In addition, because the source of sediment (i.e. land, ocean, or organically) is often correlated with how coarse or fine sediment grain sizes that characterize an area are on average, grain size distribution of sediment will shift according to relative input of land (typically fine), marine (typically coarse), and organically-derived (variable with age) sediment.  These alterations in marine sediment characterize the amount of sediment that is suspended in the water column at any given time and sediment-related coral stress.

See also

References

Category:Sediments
Category:Sedimentology
Category:Environmental soil science
Category:Petrology


Abraham-Joseph Bénard

Fleury [Abraham Joseph Bénard] (October 26, 1750 – March 3, 1822), French actor of the Comédie-Française, was one of the greatest comedians of his time. He was born at Chartres, and began his stage apprenticeship at Nancy, where his father was at the head of a company of actors attached to the court of Stanisław Leszczyński. After four years in the provinces, he came to Paris in 1778, and almost immediately was made sociétaire at the Comédie Française, although the public was slow to recognize him as the greatest comedian of the day.

During the French Revolution, in 1793 Fleury, like the rest of his fellow-players, was arrested in consequence of the presentation of Laya's controversial L' Ami des lots (“The Friend of Laws”), and, when liberated, appeared at various theaters until, in 1799, he rejoined the rehabilitated Comédie Française. After forty years of service he retired in 1818. He was notoriously illiterate, and it is probable that the interesting Mémoire de Fleury owes more to its author, Lafitte, than to the subject whose "notes and papers" it is said to contain.

References

See also
 Troupe of the Comédie-Française in 1790

Category:Births in Chartres
Category:1750 births
Category:1822 deaths
Category:French male stage actors
Category:18th-century French male actors
Category:Sociétaires of the Comédie-Française


1968 CONMEBOL Pre-Olympic Tournament

The 1968 CONMEBOL Pre-Olympic Tournament took place during March and April 1968. It was the 3rd CONMEBOL Pre-Olympic Tournament.

Argentina and Bolivia did not participate. Brazil and Colombia qualified for the 1968 Summer Olympics.

Group stage

Group 1

Group 2

Final group

Hosted in Brazil and Colombia.

References

Category:CONMEBOL Pre-Olympic Tournament
Category:1968 in association football
Category:1968 in South America


Pepin I of Aquitaine

Pepin I or Pepin I of Aquitaine (French: Pépin; 797 – 13 December 838) was King of Aquitaine and Duke of Maine.

Pepin was the second son of Emperor Louis the Pious and his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye. When his father assigned to each of his sons a kingdom (within the Empire) in August 817, he received Aquitaine, which had been Louis's own subkingdom during his father Charlemagne's reign. Ermoldus Nigellus was his court poet and accompanied him on a campaign into Brittany in 824.

Pepin rebelled in 830 at the insistence of his brother Lothair's advisor Wala.  He took an army of Gascons with him and marched all the way to Paris, with the support of the Neustrians.  His father marched back from a campaign in Brittany all the way to Compiègne, where Pepin surrounded his forces and captured him.  The rebellion, however, broke up.

In 832, Pepin rebelled again and his brother Louis the German soon followed. Louis the Pious was in Aquitaine to subdue any revolt, but was drawn off by the Bavarian insurrection of the younger Louis. Pepin took Limoges and other Imperial territories.  The next year, Lothair joined the rebellion and, with the assistance of Ebbo, archbishop of Reims, the rebel sons deposed their father in 833.  Lothair's later behaviour alienated Pepin, and the latter was at his father's side when Louis the Pious was reinstated on 1 March 834. Pepin was restored to his former status.

Pepin died scarcely four years later and was buried in the Church of St. Radegonde in Poitiers.

In 822, Pepin had married Ingeltrude, daughter of Theodobert, count of Madrie, with whom he had two sons: Pepin (823-after 864), and Charles (825-830 - 4 June 863), who became Archbishop of Mainz.

Both were minors when Pepin died, so Louis the Pious awarded Aquitaine to his own youngest son, Pepin's half-brother Charles the Bald. The Aquitainians, however, elected Pepin's son as Pepin II. His brother Charles also briefly claimed the kingdom. Both died childless. Pepin also had two daughters, one of whom married Gerard, Count of Auvergne.

Notes

Sources
Collins, Roger. "Pippin I and the Kingdom of Aquitaine." Charlemagne's Heir: New Perspectives on the Reign of Louis the Pious, edd. P. Godman and Roger Collins. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.  Reprinted in Law, Culture and Regionalism in Early Medieval Spain. Variorum, 1992. .

Category:Rulers of the Carolingian Empire
Category:Dukes of Maine
Category:Frankish warriors
Category:797 births
Category:838 deaths
Category:9th-century monarchs in Europe
Category:Burials in Nouvelle-Aquitaine
Category:Rebellious princes


2009 Svenska Supercupen

Svenska Supercupen 2009, Swedish Super Cup 2009, was a Swedish football match, played 21 March 2009 between Allsvenskan champions Kalmar FF and Svenska Cupen winners IFK Göteborg. The match was played at Fredriksskans in Kalmar.

Daniel Mendes scored a late goal in the 89th minute, winning the match for Kalmar FF.

This was the 3rd edition of Svenska Supercupen, the first was in 2007 when IF Elfsborg beat Helsingborgs IF 1-0.

Match facts

Supercupen
2009 Svenska Supercupen
Category:Kalmar FF matches
Category:IFK Göteborg matches


.32 ACP

.32 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol, also known as the .32 Automatic) is a centerfire pistol cartridge. It is a semi-rimmed, straight-walled cartridge developed by firearms designer John Browning, initially for use in the FN M1900 semi-automatic pistol. It was introduced in 1899 by Fabrique Nationale, and is also known as the 7.65×17mmSR Browning or 7.65 mm Browning Short.

History
John Browning engineered a number of modern semi-automatic pistol mechanisms and cartridges.  As his first pistol cartridge, the .32 ACP needed a straight wall for reliable blowback operation as well as a small rim for reliable feeding from a box magazine.  The cartridge headspaces on the rim.  The cartridge was a success and was adopted by dozens of countries and countless governmental agencies.

When the .32 ACP cartridge was introduced, it was immediately popular and was available in several blowback automatic pistols of the day, including the Colt Model 1903 Pocket Hammerless, the Savage Model 1907 automatic pistol, the Ruby pistol and the Browning Model 1910 automatic pistol. The popularity of the .32 ACP in the early half of the 20th century cannot be overstated—especially in Europe. Firearms expert Geoffrey Boothroyd of the UK informed author Ian Fleming, his countryman, that James Bond's side arm should be a Walther PPK chambered in .32 ACP. A significant factor in recommending this round was its near universal availability throughout the world in the 1950s.

The .32 ACP has been chambered in more handguns than any other cartridge. Between 1899 and 1909, Fabrique Nationale produced 500,000 guns chambered for .32 ACP.

Adolf Hitler was believed to have committed suicide with his personal .32 ACP Walther PPK, by aiming it at his right temple and pulling the trigger while simultaneously biting down on a cyanide capsule.

Heckler & Koch produced the HK 4, their first handgun, in 1967. Twelve-thousand HK 4 pistols were produced in .32 ACP for the German police and other government agencies.

A handful of long guns have been chambered in .32 ACP, including the Tirmax and Dreyse carbines as well as the AR-15-style Armi Jager AP-74.

Design
The .32 ACP was intended for blowback semi-automatic pistols which lacked a breech locking mechanism. It was John Pedersen with the Remington Model 51 that delivered a true locked breech for the .32 ACP cartridge. The relatively low power and light bullet of the cartridge allowed Browning to incorporate a practical blowback mechanism in a small Pocket Size Pistol. It is still used today primarily in compact, inexpensive pistols, unless the pistol is used for ISSF competition where the cost then escalates. Cartridges in .32 ACP are also sometimes used in caliber conversion sleeves, also known as supplemental chambers, for providing an alternative pistol caliber carbine function in .30-caliber hunting and service rifles.

Some comparison of the ".32 Automatic" as defined by SAAMI and the "7.65 Browning" as defined by CIP may be useful.  Although some of the cartridge measurements differ by as much as 0.16mm, the names are considered to be synonymous.  However, the maximum average pressure - as measured by a transducer on the test barrel - is  according to SAAMI, while CIP allows up to .  This may explain why the cartridges from European manufacturers tend to chronograph at higher muzzle velocities compared to those from American manufacturers.

Performance

The .32 ACP is compact and light. While some believe it has marginal stopping power, it has been used effectively by military and police worldwide for the past century. Although .32 ACP handguns were traditionally made of steel, they have been produced in lightweight polymers since the 1990s. Their light weight, very low recoil and very good accuracy relative to larger caliber pistols make them suitable for concealed carry use. Some popular pistols chambered in .32 ACP are the Walther PP and the Walther PPK as well as the FEG PA-63, which is a clone of the Walther PP.

It offers more velocity and energy than the .32 S&W, which was a popular round for pocket defensive revolvers at the time of the .32 ACP's development. Although of lighter bullet weight, the .32 ACP also compares favorably to the .32 S&W Long in performance. Some European 73 grain .32 ACP loads provide similar performance to the .32 H&R Magnum 77 grain lead flat point and 90 grain lead semiwadcutter.

Even though the .32 ACP is capable of killing small game, most handguns chambered for this round utilize fixed sights and are designed for use against human-sized targets at fairly close range, which greatly limits their utility as hunting handguns.

The .32 ACP is one of the most common calibers used in veterinary "humane killers", such as the Greener Humane Killer. Given that a .22 LR can penetrate bone, the higher power .32 ACP can easily penetrate an animal skull with a muzzle-contact shot. As a result, the round is suited this purpose, even for fully grown horses and bulls.

In Europe, where the round is commonly known as the 7.65 mm Browning, and features different rimsizing from the American .32 ACPs, the .32 ACP has always been more widely accepted than it has in America, having a long history of use by civilians and police/security forces, along with limited issue by the military forces. During the second half of the 20th century, several European countries developed firearms for police chambered in 9×18mm Makarov while chambering the same pistol for civilians in .32 ACP and .380 ACP. Examples include the Vz. 82/CZ-83 from Czechoslovakia, FEG PA-63/AP 765 from Hungary, SIG Sauer P230 from Switzerland, and P-83 Wanad from Poland.

Today the cartridge has an increased popularity in the United States due to modern compact concealed carry pistols chambered for it, such as the Kel-Tec P-32, Beretta Tomcat, Seecamp LWS 32 and North American Arms Guardian .32. This increase in popularity has led many ammunition manufacturers to develop new loads for the cartridge to increase performance.

However, these subcompact guns typically have barrel lengths around 2.5". The traditional steel guns chambered for .32 ACP have barrel lengths around 3.5". Different barrel lengths can have a significant effect on bullet performance with longer barrels providing higher muzzle velocity and energy. For example, a Cor-Bon 60 grain .32 ACP JHP has 130 foot pounds of energy when fired out of a 2.5" barrel and 165 foot pounds of energy when fired out of a 3.5" barrel. The shorter barrel length can also reduce the range of a bullet.

Synonyms

 32 Auto (typical designation in America)
 32 Rimless Smokeless (Used on early pistols chambered for it)
 7.65 mm Browning (typical designation in Europe)
 32 Browning Auto
 7.65×17mm
 7.65×17mm Browning SR (SR = Semi-Rimmed)
 7.65 Walther

Prominent firearms chambered in .32 ACP

 Astra A-60
 Bayard 1908
 Beretta 1915
 Beretta M1935
 Beretta Model 70
 Beretta Model 81 and 82
 Beretta Model 90
 Beretta 3032 Tomcat
 Bersa 84 (Lusber)
 Bersa Thunder 32
 Colt Model 1903 Pocket Hammerless
 CZ-27 (Vz. 27)
 CZ-50
 CZ-70
 CZ-83
 CZ Škorpion Vz. 61 Machine pistol
 Dreyse M1907
 Erma KGP-68A "Baby Luger"
 FÉG 37M Pistol
 FÉG AP 765 Pistol
 FÉG Frommer Stop
 FN M1900
 FN Model 1910 and 1910/22
 Hamada Type pistol
 Heckler & Koch HK 4 P11
 Heckler & Koch HK P7K3
 Kel-Tec P-32
 Llama Bufalo/Danton/Llama I/Llama X-A
 MAB Model D
 Mauser HSc
 Mauser Model 1914
 Mauser Model 1934
 Ortgies Semi-Automatic Pistol
 Radom P-83 Wanad
 Remington 51
 Romanian Pistol Carpați Md. 1974
 Ruby
 Sauer 38H
 Savage Model 1907
 Seecamp LWS 32
 SIG Sauer P230
 Star Izarra
 Star Model 1914/1919
 Star SIS
 Steyr-Pieper Model 1908/34
 Taurus Millennium PT132
 Taurus TCP 732
 Walther PP
 Walther PPK
 Webley & Scott M1905-M1908
 Welrod
 Zastava M70

See also
 .32 NAA
 List of handgun cartridges
 Table of handgun and rifle cartridges
 7 mm caliber for other cartridges of similar diameter (7.0 - 7.99 mm diameter)

Notes

References

External links
 Is The .32 Mission Feasible?
 Ballistics 101 .32 ACP Ballistics Chart
 Ballistics By The Inch .32 ACP Results
 Brass Fetcher .32 ACP Gelatin Tests
 Golden Loki .32 ACP Gelatin Tests (Archived)
 Mouse Gun Addict Ammo Tests

32 ACP
Category:.32 ACP firearms
Category:Colt cartridges


The Work (band)

The Work were an English post-punk rock group, founded in 1980 by multi-instrumentalist/composer Tim Hodgkinson and guitarist/composer Bill Gilonis, with bass guitarist Mick Hobbs and drummer Rick Wilson. The band toured Europe in 1981 and 1982, and recorded their first album, Slow Crimes in 1982. After a tour of Japan later that year and releasing Live in Japan, the band split up. In 1989, the Work reformed to record Rubber Cage and performed throughout Europe between 1989 and 1994, releasing another album, See in 1992. A live album, The 4th World, recorded in Germany in 1994, was released in 2010.

History
Ex-Henry Cow co-founder Tim Hodgkinson began recording with Bill Gilonis in 1979. They experimented with tape collages which led to the creation of an independent record label, Woof Records and a band. Enlisting the services of Mick Hobbs and Rick Wilson they formed the Work, a post-punk rock group.

In 1981, the Work made their first recording, an EP "I Hate America", released on the Woof label. They then embarked on a tour of Europe, performing in the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Germany, France, Italy and Yugoslavia. Extracts from these live performances were later released on a cassette tape album, The Worst of Everywhere (1983). In 1982, the band played at a Rock in Opposition Festival in Bonn with vocalist Catherine Jauniaux, after which they recorded their first album Slow Crimes on the Woof label with Jauniaux as guest musician. Slow Crimes took punk rock to new heights by introducing elements of avant-rock.

The band's next commitment was a tour of Japan in June 1982, but before the tour began, Wilson left to study chenda temple drumming in Kerala, South India, and Hobbs followed soon after over disagreements about the band's musical direction. Committed to the tour, Hodgkinson and Gilonis asked ex-Henry Cow drummer Chris Cutler and bassist Jim "Amos" Welton to join them in Japan. With this altered line-up, the group played three concerts in Tokyo and one in Osaka. The Osaka concert was recorded with a cassette recorder halfway down the hall, which was later cleaned up and released by Recommended Records Japan on an LP Live in Japan. At the end of the tour, the group split up.

In 1989, the Work reformed with its original members and recorded an industrial/noise album Rubber Cage, after which they returned to touring Europe, performing in France, Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Switzerland and Italy over the next two years. In 1992, they made their last album, See, which they played live on their ongoing European tour. In 1993, the band played at the St. Petersburg Open Music Festival in Russia. The Work's last performances were in 1994 in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Slovenia and the Czech Republic, where they had begun drawing on Hopi Indian mythology for their sets.

The 4th World, a live album recorded in Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany in 1994, was released by Ad Hoc Records in 2010. The original mono recordings were reprocessed into stereo by Udi Koomran.

Personnel
Tim Hodgkinson – saxophones, bass clarinet, keyboards, lap steel guitar, lead vocals
Bill Gilonis – guitar, euphonium, sampling, vocals
Mick Hobbs – guitar, bass guitar, drums, ukulele, recorder, midi-horn, vocals
Rick Wilson – drums, bass guitar, vocals

Discography

Albums
Slow Crimes (1982, LP, Woof Records, UK)
Live in Japan (1982, LP, Recommended Records, Japan)
The Worst of Everywhere (1983, CT, Woof Records, UK)
Rubber Cage (1989, LP, Woof Records, UK)
See (1992, CD, Woof Records, UK)
The 4th World (2010, CD, Ad Hoc Records, US)

Extended plays
"I Hate America" / "Fingers & Toes" / "Duty" (1981, EP, Woof Records, UK)

Singles
"I Hate America" (1982, 7", Eastern Works, UK)
"Slowly Crimes" (1982, 7", Eastern Works, UK)

Compilations
The Work (2018, LP, Jelodanti Records, France)

Appears On
Various artists: Miniatures: A Sequence of Fifty-One Tiny Masterpieces (1980, LP, Pipe, UK) – includes one track, "With Wings Pressed Back" by the Work
Various artists: Recommended Records Sampler (1982, 2xLP, Recommended Records, UK) – includes one track, "Houdini" by the Work
The Lowest Note, The Work, Gilonis / Hodgkinson: WOOF 7 Inches (2004, CD, Ad Hoc Records, US) – includes six tracks by the Work

References

External links
.
Tim Hodgkinson / The Work. Chris Cutler homepage.
Tim Hodgkinson. The Canterbury Website.
Woof Records discography. SquidCo.

Category:English rock music groups
Category:English experimental musical groups
Category:English post-punk music groups
Category:British industrial music groups
Category:Musical groups established in 1980
Category:1980 establishments in England


Narendra (Karnataka)

Narendra  is a village in the southern state of Karnataka, India. It is located in the Dharwad taluk of Dharwad district in Karnataka.

Temples: Temple dedicated to Nandi (Ox) worshipped by the villagers, located on a small hillock to the North West of Narendra Village. This temple is crowded in August, (especially in Shravana Masa). Devotes visit this temple frequently.

Shankara Linga Temple:  An ancient Shiva Temple on the banks of Hire Kere, (Lake) Narendra.

Lake: There is a one lake (Hire Kere) which provides water for local farmers.

Soil and Main Crops: Mainly Red soil, good for agriculture and growing vegetables and flowers, most of the population depend on agriculture and this village is mainly known as a farmer’s village.

Main crops in this village are Groundnuts, Jawar, Paddy, Cotton and other Vegetables and flowers.

Nearby villages include Mummigatti(3.4 km), Dharwad(7 km), Honnapur(7.3 km), Belur(7.4 km), Marewad(8 km). Near By towns are Dharwad(3.8 km), Hubli(23.6 km), Kalghatgi(36.5 km), Kundgol(40 km).

Taluk Name : Dharwad
District : Dharwad
State : Karnataka
Pin Code : 580005
Post Office Name : Dharwad U A S

Demographics
As of 2001 India census, Narendra had a population of 5930 with 3042 males and 2888 females.

See also
 Dharwad
 Districts of Karnataka

References

External links
 http://Dharwad.nic.in/

Category:Villages in Dharwad district


Kechungka

Kechungka is a town in Haa District in southwestern Bhutan.

References

External links
Satellite map at Maplandia.com

Category:Populated places in Bhutan


Tachinoestrus

Tachinoestrus is a genus of flies in the family Tachinidae.

Species
 Tachinoestrus semenovi Portschinsky, 1887

References

Category:Tachinidae
Category:Diptera of Asia


List of bishops of Hamburg

This list of bishops, seniors, and superintendents of Hamburg records the spiritual heads of the Lutheran church in Hamburg. Originally the Lutheran church in Hamburg formed a state church established by Johannes Bugenhagen's church order on 15 May 1529, after most of Hamburg's burghers had adopted Lutheranism before. As state church it was governed in administrative matters by the Senate of Hamburg (city government) and the , according to the law named the Long Recess of 1529. At first the church order provided for superintendents as spiritual leaders. Since 1593 the spiritual leadership was wielded by a collegial body, the Spiritual Ministerium, with a senior elected by its members, the ministers (pastors) of the parishes. Separation of Church and State started in 1860, with the last privileges of state patronage waived in 1919. The new church order of 1923 enfranchised the synodals to elect one of the five Hauptpastoren (i.e. principal or head pastors) at the quintet of  (principal or head churches) as senior.

After the putsch in the synod of 1933 by conservative Lutherans the new hierarchical office of bishop was created, establishing episcopalism and doing away with synodal and presbyterial polity and neglecting the traditional function of senior and spiritual ministerium. In 1934 through a second putsch by German Christians, backed by secular Nazi authorities, one of their acolytes assumed the episcopate. After the British occupiers prompted the bishop's resignation in late 1945, the presbyterial and synodal constitution of 1923 was restored, however, retaining the title bishop, but stripped of any episcopal supremacy, and reestablishing the office of senior, then functioning as the bishop's deputy. Conservative Lutherans prevailed again reelecting their first bishop of 1933. In 1977 the Hamburg Church seized its independent existence and merged with three neighbouring church bodies, in 2012 another merger with two more church bodies followed. Spiritual leaders for the Hamburg region retained the title of bishop, however, the traditional Hamburg seniorate was ended in 1976.

History

"In Hamburg as in other cities, the parishes … had been not only church districts but also municipal political districts since the Middle Ages. They … formed four incorporated bodies (Petri, Nikolai, Katharinen, Jacobi) in which the “allodial” (property-owning) burghers and the heads of guilds - thus only a fraction of the male population - were entitled to vote. The Reformation brought with it a significant curtailment of the senate's governmental power." "At about the same time, three deacons from each parish (twelve altogether), acting as “chief elders”, took on the task of centralizing, administering, and uniformly distributing relief to the poor." Later the parishioners of St. Michael's Church in the New Town, established as parish independent of St. Nicholas in 1647, were granted the same rights than the burghers in one of the four parishes in the Old Town, and the same number or representatives. Together with the four above-mentioned churches St. Michael's forms until today the quintet of Hamburg's head churches. "Beginning in 1685, there were thus fifteen chief elders: sixty deacons instead of forty-eight and 180 assembly members altogether, rather than 144. These structures existed into the nineteenth century, with each college recruiting new members from the next larger." Since Lutheran parishes and the collegial bodies staffed with their parishioners formed the constitutional bodies of Hamburg there was no easy way to open politics for non-Lutherans.

The superintendents were initially appointed by the senate. In 1593 the superintendency was given up and the pastors of the five urban congregations formed the spiritual ministerium (Geistliches Ministerium), collegially wielding spiritual leadership of the state church and electing from its midst one of the head pastors the senior as primus inter pares only.

In 1806 Hamburg turned into an independent sovereign city-state, annexed to France 1811-1814, and reconstituted thereafter. Reforms started with granting citizenship to non-Lutherans, and the full emancipation of Calvinists, Catholics and Jews until 1849. Adherents to these faithes could then enter officialdom and parliament. In 1860 the new Constitution of Hamburg provided for a start in separating state and church. Rather than the senate directly governing and administering Lutheran church matters, separate bodies were developed. The chief elders lost their role as constitutional body within Hamburg's administration, but continued as a body of Lutheran charity. The administration of the Lutheran state church was altered in order to become a body separate from the government. Only the Lutheran members within the senate formed a college in charge of confirming the acts passed by the synodals as well as the elections of various officeholders within the Church, such as the senior of Hamburg, pastors, synodals and even laymen in presbyteries. The Lutheran church established self-rule and in 1871 reconstituted as a regional Protestant church body called .

The spiritual leadership remained with the spiritual ministerium with its senior. In March 1919 the Lutheran senators waived the senate's supreme governance (; like the royal supreme governance of the Church of England), the privilege to confirm elected seniors and taken synodal decisions. The Lutheran Church in the Hamburg State accounted for this change and adopted a democratised constitution in 1923. The synod was now the highest legislator of the church, electing the church council (Kirchenrat), the executive, including the senior as its ex officio member. The senior again was still to be elected from the five head pastors, but not by the members of the spiritual ministerium, but by the synod. The spiritual ministerium, comprising all the Lutheran clergy, with many more than the five head churches and parishes being established in the 19th century, was redefined as a mere advisory and reviewing body.

With the introduction of the general and equal suffrage also for women and people with no or only low incomes in Hamburg in 1919 also the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Hamburgian State established equal suffrage in presbyterial and synodal elections by an emergency ordinance in 1919 and its revised constitution in 1923.

After Hindenburg's suspension of central Weimar Constitutional civil liberties, followed by the Nazi takeover on the Reich's level and with its Empowerment Act de facto doing away with state autonomy the last democratic senate was deposed, and the Hamburg parliament restaffed disregarding Hamburg's state election outcome but mirroring the rather Nazi-preferential allocation of seats realised on the Reich's level. This atmosphere of hunting democratic witches encouraged antirepublican Nazi-submissive synodals affiliated with the so-called German Christians and conservative antiliberal synodals of the so-called , led by Bernhard Heinrich Forck, to form a new majority in Hamburg's synod imposing a putsch within the church's bodies. The incumbent Senior Karl Horn was forced into resignation and an extraordinary synod convened. On 29 May 1933 this synod established the new function of a state bishop (Landesbischof) with hierarchic supremacy over all the clergy following the Nazi Führerprinzip, thus doing away with collegiality in church bodies, and empowered the new state bishop  to rule discretionarily without the synod, abolishing the previously practised synodal and presbyterial polity in Hamburg's church. This putsch turned Hamburg's church into a streamlined church body subjected to a state bishop obedient to the new Nazi regime and open for any experiment as to domesticating Protestantism for the Nazi purpose.

So when Hitler's government imposed an unconstitutional premature reelection of all presbyters (elders) and the synod for 23 July 1933 – also in the other regional Protestant church bodies in Germany – the so-called German Christians and the Kirchenpartei  (a merger including the Young-Reformatory Movement, dominated by the latter's proponents) presented the Lutheran Hamburg electorate united lists of candidates for the synod and all presbyteries, each staffed with 51% German Christians and 49% proponents of Gospel and Church. So in Hamburg the election of synod and presbyteries turned into a sheer farce. So these united lists attracted the traditionally fragmented rightist faction within the Lutheran electorate, but granted the so-called German Christians a share in the seats far exceeding their proportion among Lutheran parishioners. Nazi government-funded propaganda mobilised previously inactive church members adhering to Nazism to vote for the united lists, causing a very high turnout of voters unheard of in earlier church elections. So the candidates of the united lists gained the majority in the synod and in most presbyteries.

Opposition developed, called the Confessing Church, and its adherents considered the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Hamburgian State to be a so-called destroyed church for having no unadulterated bodies and leadership anymore and thus not deserving the compliance of the opposing parishioners and clergy. Leading members of the confessing church in Hamburg, such as Forck and , had earlier themselves participated in the putsch streamlining their church. The German Christians radicalised during the 1930s so that Schöffel, himself a putschist, was forced to resign again in early March 1934. On 5 March  succeeded.

With the defeat of Germany and its Nazi government the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Hamburgian State returned to its pre-1933 constitution, only reluctantly cleansing its staff and bodies from few of the most extreme proponents of the German Christians. However, its spiritual leaders continued to be titled bishop. With effect of 1 January 1977 the Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Hamburgian State merged with three neighbouring Lutheran churches in the new North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church, which - consisting of three spiritual ambits () – upheld the function of bishop of Hamburg until 2008. Since the episcopal ambits have been redrawn, with Hamburg being part of the new ambit called Hamburg and Lübeck including also parts of southeastern Holstein and Lübeck, but seated in Hamburg. This ambit structure continued also after the North Elbian Church merged with two neighbouring churches in the new Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany (abbr.: Northern Church)

Titles of the spiritual leaders of the Lutheran church in Hamburg
Titles and ambits of the incumbents altered. The respective incumbents of the spiritual leadership held the following titles and ambits :
 Superintendent of Hamburg in its respective political borders from 1532–1593
 Spiritual Ministerium, collegially with its senior as primus inter pares, for Hamburg in its respective political borders 1593–1933
 State Bishop (Landesbischof) of Hamburg in its political borders of 1936, from 1933 to 1976
 Bishop of the Hamburg Ambit, comprising the city-state in its political borders of 1937 and some congregations in its eastern vicinity, within the North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church from 1977 to 2008
 Bishop of the Hamburg and Lübeck Ambit, comprising the city-state and some congregations in its western and northern vicinity and all the congregations in southeastern Holstein including Lübeck, within the North Elbian Evangelical Lutheran Church from 2008 to 2012
 Bishop of the Hamburg and Lübeck Ambit, as mentioned above, within the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Northern Germany since 27 May 2012

Spiritual leaders of the Lutheran church in Hamburg

Superintendents of Hamburg (1532–1593)

Seniors collegially with the Head Pastors (1593–1933)

State Bishops of Hamburg  (1933–1976)

Bishops of Hamburg (1977–2008)

Bishops of Hamburg and Lübeck (as of 2008)

Notes

 List
Hamburg Bishop
Hamburg
Bishops
Bishops of Hamburg
Bishops
*

de:Evangelisch-Lutherische Kirche im Hamburgischen Staate#Superintendenten, Senioren und Landesbischöfe von Hamburg