Morningside Air Raid Shelter

Morningside Air Raid Shelter is a heritage-listed former air raid shelter at 580 Wynnum Road, Morningside, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by Frank Gibson Costello and built  by Brisbane City Council. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 6 April 2005.

History
The Brisbane City Council built the concrete shelter at Morningside as an air raid shelter in 1942.

In the months after the outbreak of the Pacific War Queensland became a support base for the conduct of the conflict. Australian and American personnel poured into Queensland and urgently required a wide range of new buildings and facilities.

The population of Brisbane swelled dramatically. As it was the major city in Queensland, and the most northerly major population centre in Australia, military planning headquarters were set up in Brisbane, as were a number of important maintenance, communication, and supply facilities. General Douglas MacArthur, Commander in Chief of the Allied Forces, Southwest Pacific, was based in the AMP building at the corner of Queen Street and Edward Street in Brisbane, and General Sir Thomas Blamey, Commander in Chief of the Australian Forces, used the recently constructed University of Queensland buildings at St Lucia. Brisbane was obviously a strategic target for bombing, and rapid action had to be taken to protect the population in the event of air raids.

The demand on materials, services and labour was enormous and military projects took precedence in their allocation. Heavy Anti-Aircraft batteries were built at Victoria Park, Hendra, Pinkenba, Fort Lytton, Hemmant and Balmoral, and coastal artillery batteries were established on Bribie and Moreton Islands. Before the war, Queensland had a small population and no heavy manufacturing industries. To help overcome these problems, some buildings were prefabricated and standard designs for many structures were used. Designs took into account the scarcity of skilled labour and of some materials.

The Brisbane City Council took responsibility for Air Raid Precautions activities, including establishing an Air Raid Warden system, firefighting systems and constructing air raid shelters. Aboveground salt water pipes were laid along city streets to aid in firefighting. On Christmas Eve, 1941, each Australian State's Emergency Committee issued instructions for government, private employers and private households to immediately start building shelters. Slit trenches were built in parks and schoolyards, windows were taped, and brownouts were applied to buildings.

In the Protection of Persons and Property Order No.1, gazetted 23 December 1941, Premier William Forgan Smith, with powers conferred by Regulation 35a, National Security (General) Regulations, ordered the Brisbane City Council to construct 200 public surface shelters in the city area. Work had already started on 15 December, and later another 75 shelters were ordered. However, only 235 air raid shelters were constructed, the building programme being 90% complete by June 1942. In addition, around three kilometres of covered trenches were constructed in public parks, in 13 projects, including  of concrete-pipe covered trench in the Botanic Gardens, and  of the same in Victoria Park. It was believed that one person could be accommodated by each foot of trench. In addition to the public shelters, the Brisbane City Council also constructed shelters for leased wharves and council properties, including at the Stanley Wharf, Circular Quay Wharves 2,3 and 4, Norman Wharf, and Musgrave Wharf. Shelters were built under the Story Bridge, for Kangaroo Point shipbuilding workers, and five shelters were constructed on behalf of the Bureau of Industry at the Howard Smith Wharves.

The Protection of Persons and Property Order No.1 was applied statewide, and outside Brisbane another 24 Local Authorities in Queensland's coastal areas were ordered to produce surface or trench shelters for the public, to be built according to the Air Raid Shelter Code laid down in the Second Schedule of Order No.1. Initially, 20 of the Local Authorities were expected to construct a minimum total of 133 surface shelters, which were supposed to be able to withstand the blast of a 500-pound bomb bursting  away. Four other Local Authorities would only build trenches. However, after plans were amended, 23 Local Authorities outside Brisbane, excluding Thursday Island, ended up possessing a total of 129 public shelters: 123 surface and six underground. This effort had cost . Where Local Authorities were unwilling or unable to build the required number of code-compliant shelters, in some cases because they had already begun erecting other shelters, the Department of Public Works became responsible for the shelters' construction. However, this led to problems when the Department tried to recoup half of the cost from the Local Authorities in question. Townsville, Toowoomba, Gladstone, and Ayr denied any liability for costs, and a Bill had to be passed in December 1942 to force their compliance. The Ayr Shire Council had claimed that the shelters would be death traps during an air raid.

Of the 235 surface shelters built in Brisbane for the public, 21 survive and are still owned by the Brisbane City Council. One of the shelters, on Queens Wharf Road, is a site-specific "special" variation of the standard pillbox design. It is listed in the Queensland Heritage Register as part of the entry for the porphyry retaining wall on William Street. The other 20 public shelters owned by the Brisbane City Council can be divided into three types of pillbox intended for conversion after the war: "park", "bus", and "bus (stone)". They were designed to serve as structures such as bus waiting shelters or shade structures for parks, with some or all of the perimeter blast walls to be removed, leaving the concrete slab roof, floor slab and piers. The reusable pillboxes were designed to hold 70 people, as were the non- reusable standard pillboxes.

F.G. Costello, Brisbane City Council City Architect between 1941 and 1952, was responsible for the design of the surface air raid shelters, and his variants of the standard pillbox were designed to provide a post-war utility for at least part of the Council's shelter building programme. In an address delivered to the Constitutional Club in Brisbane on February 1942, Costello noted that if the emergency for their use does not arise ... (unused shelters)... remain in brick and concrete, in many cases having no further value and being a possible source of nuisance. He added that I can assure you that wherever it is possible, without sacrificing the primary requirements of shelter from air attack, I have endeavoured in our Council buildings to so plan the shelters that they will fit into schemes of improvement which we hope will proceed immediately after the war.

Costello's work was characterised by the use of an architectural language inspired by the modern movement in architecture. This movement pursued the rational use of modern materials and principles of functionalist planning and established a visual aesthetic largely inspired by the machine. It was part of an architecture employing the language of vertical and horizontal volumes and planes, floating flat roofs, masses set against voids and monumentality. Though modest in scale and form, the design of the shelters is characteristic of work in this idiom. The reusable shelters were often sited under fig trees, to aid in camouflage.

The first of Costello's reusable designs is the pillbox with double- cantilevered roof slab, or "park" type shelter. In an original list of all the shelters constructed by the Brisbane City Council, these were simply labelled as "cantilever". They had four central piers supporting the roof slab, which allowed for the removal of the four blast walls after the war. There was an entrance at each end of the front wall, where an internal wall extended into the shelter. If the walls were made of brick, the shelter's dimension was  by  by  high, and if concrete was used the dimensions were  by  by  high. The difference was due to the fact that the brick walls finished in line with the top of the roof slab, covering the fascia, whereas the concrete walls finished at the soffit of the roof slab, flush with the fascia. The minimum wall thickness for brick was set at 13.5", and 12" for concrete. The roof slab was intended to have at least four inches of concrete.

Of the 37 reusable shelters listed as being of the park type only 17 survive: one at Hefferan Park in Annerley; two at Albert Park; two at Wickham Park; one in Buranda Playground in Woolloongabba; two in Raymond Park in Kangaroo Point; and one each at Kelvin Grove, Morningside, Nundah, Stones Corner, and Windsor. Four other shelters stand on East Street and Wickham Street in Fortitude Valley. Most are used as simple park shelters, as intended, but the shelter at Nundah has been modified as a toilet block, and the shelter at Kelvin Grove is used as a bus shelter (as distinct from those shelters in the next category, which were specifically designed as "bus" type shelters). About half of the surviving park shelters had concrete blast walls, while half used brick.

The second design was the pillbox with single-cantilevered roof slab, or "bus" type shelter, as it was called in the original Brisbane City Council list. These were designed so that the three brick blast walls could be removed after the war, leaving a concrete back wall and five brick piers at the front. Again, entrances were at each end of the front wall. Of the 19 "bus" types listed only two survive, at Newmarket and Newstead.

The third design was also a "bus" type shelter, but it was built with a stone rear wall, instead of concrete, and six stone piers were later added, instead of five brick piers. The three brick blast walls could be removed as normal. Two of these "colonnade" types were built- referred to in the Brisbane City Council list as "bus (stone)"- and only one survives, at King Edward Park.

Most of the Brisbane structures built for the war were removed at the end of World War Two. The saltwater mains, slit trenches, and sirens disappeared, as did the many standard pillboxes that had stood in the middle of the streets of the Central Business District. 156 standard pillboxes were built, but none of the surviving public shelters in Brisbane City Council ownership are of that design. Of the 21 special shelters, only the one on Queens Wharf Road survives. However, of Costello's 58 reusable public surface shelters, 20 have survived; the removal of their blast walls, as planned, had given them a renewed purpose. The worker's shelters at the Story Bridge Hotel and Howard Smith Wharves also still exist.

The blast walls of the air raid shelter at Morningside were removed according to plan after World War Two, although evidence of the location of the walls is still visible. The shelter roof and piers have been painted and the floor slab has been covered with concrete pebble topping.

Description

The Morningside air raid shelter is a rectangular concrete structure comprising a heavy floor slab, which is now covered by concrete pebbling, and a flat roof supported by concrete piers. There is also a coloured mosaic on the western side of the floor slab. There is evidence on the soffit of the two entrances on the Wynnum Road side. The shelter stands within a vegetated road reserve, west of the Morningside Railway Station, with a canopy of mature fig trees and camphor laurels. The roof of the shelter is painted maroon and the piers are painted cream.

Heritage listing
Morningside Air Raid Shelter was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 6 April 2005 having satisfied the following criteria.

The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland's history.

The Morningside air raid is important as a part of the Air Raid Precaution activities that were implemented for the defence of Brisbane during World War Two. Designed to afford protection to the civilian population of Brisbane in the event of air raid attacks or other emergencies, the air raid shelter located at the corner of Wynnum Road and Thynne Road is important in demonstrating the impact of World War Two on the civilian population of Brisbane.

The place demonstrates rare, uncommon or endangered aspects of Queensland's cultural heritage.

Although many air raid shelters were constructed during World War Two in Queensland, comparatively few survive. Also, there are not many types of structures built by the Brisbane City Council during World War Two, for wartime purposes, which survive.

The place is important in demonstrating the principal characteristics of a particular class of cultural places.

The shelter's solid construction, rectangular shape, and its siting near a population concentration, demonstrate the principal characteristics of a World War Two Brisbane public air raid shelter.

The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.

The Morningside air raid shelter, now used as a road reserve shelter, demonstrates the secondary uses that were part of the original design intention. The shelter is a durable example of innovative design and use of concrete technology during World War Two.

The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland's history.

The air raid shelter is important as an example of the wartime work of the City Architect's Office and particularly the work of City Architect F.G. Costello.

References

Attribution

External links

Category:Queensland Heritage Register
Category:Morningside, Queensland
Category:Air raid shelters in Queensland
Category:Articles incorporating text from the Queensland Heritage Register
Category:Frank Gibson Costello buildings


Margaret Schlauch

Margaret Schlauch (September 25, 1898 – July 19, 1986) was a scholar of medieval studies at New York University and later, after she left the United States for political reasons in 1951, at the University of Warsaw, where she headed the departments of English and General Linguistics. Her work covered many topics but included focuses on Chaucer, Anglo-Saxon, and Old Norse literature.

Early life and education
Schlauch was born in Philadelphia; her father was a German-born professor of mathematics. She earned a bachelor's degree from Barnard College in 1918 and Master's and Ph.D. degrees from Columbia University in 1919 and 1927; in 1923–24, she studied at the University of Munich on a fellowship from the American Association of University Women. During her graduate studies she taught English at Theodore Roosevelt High School in New York.

Career
From 1924 to 1950, Schlauch was a faculty member in the English Department at Washington Square College (the then Greenwich Village undergraduate division) of New York University. She became an assistant professor in 1927, associate professor in 1931, and full professor in 1940, the first woman to be appointed a full professor at the university. She spent a summer as a visiting faculty member in German at the University of Chicago and another in English at Johns Hopkins University, and was a Guggenheim fellow in German and Scandinavian literature in 1929–30. During World War II, she assisted in the preparation of a course in Icelandic for the War Department, and at one point taught mathematics.

Early in 1951, in response to a subpoena from the House Un-American Activities Committee, Schlauch left the United States for Poland, writing an explanatory letter to the chair of the English Department at New York University, Oscar Cargill, in which she stated that she had been "so very happy at N.Y.U.!" The university announced her resignation to the New York Times, where it was the subject of a "long, above-the-fold article". The story was picked up by the Associated Press.

She taught at the University of Warsaw from 1951 until retiring in 1965. From 1954 until her retirement, she was head of the Department of English, and in 1954–56, she also headed the Department of General Linguistics. She was founder president of the Polish-Icelandic Cultural Society, which came into being largely at her suggestion on May 13, 1959. She was elected a corresponding member of the Polish Academy of Sciences in 1961 and in 1966 honored with a festschrift to which prominent scholars in medieval studies and linguistics from many countries contributed. She became a citizen of Poland and other than visits to the United States to lecture and as a visiting professor at Vassar College and the University of Connecticut, remained abroad; she spent many summers researching in the British Museum. She was "lionized" in Poland, where her generosity included subscribing to foreign journals that the university library could not afford and donating them, as well as sharing her personal library with students. After her death, a symposium was held in her honor by the Modern Philology Committee of the Polish Academy of Sciences, and in May 2002, a Schlauch Symposium was held at the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań.

Politics
Schlauch was a committed Marxist, although she denied ever having been in the Communist Party when investigated in 1941 by the Rapp-Coudert Committee as part of its examination of Communism in New York educational institutions. An obituary by a former student, Annette Rubinstein, described her as "the dynamic center of an informal Marxist study group" in New York, and she became chair of the Greenwich Village American Labor Party. She also wrote for the Marxist periodical Science & Society, of which she was a founding editor, praising the Soviet Union and applying Marxist principles to "literary, historical, and linguistic study" in a much more doctrinaire manner than in her academic publications. In the 1930s, she was chairman of the Association of University Teachers and of the New York Teachers Anti-War Committee. She was always a feminist and a champion of the rights of the oppressed. In 1935, she wrote a 30-page pamphlet, "Who Are the Aryans?", a "sane and clear" exposition of the wrongness of Nazi racial theory. She joined the Polish United Workers' Party shortly after her arrival, and letters she wrote late in her life express admiration for the general in power under martial law.

Private life and death
Schlauch's sister Helen was married to Leopold Infeld, a Polish-born physicist who was a naturalized Canadian citizen but had defected to Poland in 1949 on suspicion of spying; it has been suggested that joining them influenced her decision to leave the U.S., but she appears to have been lonely and isolated in Poland at first; according to Rubinstein's obituary, she received no invitations from colleagues for five years, although she eventually became as popular as she had been at New York University.

She never married. After what appears to have been a stroke in 1974, she became increasingly housebound and in need of helpers. She died in Warsaw on July 19, 1986; her books and her papers have been handed over to the University of Warsaw.

Honors
 1958 Officer's Cross of the Polish Order of Polonia Restituta
 1961 Corresponding member, Polish Academy of Sciences
 1968 Icelandic Order of the Falcon
 1984 or 1985 Medal of the 40th Anniversary of People's Poland

Publications
Schlauch published prolifically (15 books, approximately 100 articles and 40 reviews) and on a wide range of topics. The book based on her doctoral dissertation on the analogs of Chaucer's "Man of Law's Tale", Chaucer's Constance and Accused Queens, has been reprinted and is still frequently cited. It has been called her "most substantial feminist work". The following year she published Medieval Literature, A Book of Translations, which Francis P. Magoun, Jr. found "well executed" with much "genuine artistry", although he objected on thematic and stylistic grounds to the choice of Icelandic items and wanted more informative introductions. She is widely known for The Gift of Language (originally published in 1942 as The Gift of Tongues), a layperson's introduction to linguistics; a reviewer wrote: "It is rarely that one comes across an academic treatise so lively, so easy to read, and so full of meat and meaning". During her Guggenheim year, she studied the relationships between the Icelandic sagas, in particular the legendary sagas, and Classical and other medieval literature, which became a major focus of her later work. In 1934 she published Romance in Iceland, and a number of her articles are on saga parallels. Her work on the sagas received wide approval, and another important contribution by her was on the literary and social context of medieval English works, above all in English Medieval Literature and Its Social Foundations, but she also published general surveys and translations and wrote on "James Joyce, Sherwood Anderson, Emily Dickinson, Hollywood slang, folklore topics, the antecedents of the English novel, and the history of the English language." Antecedents of the English Novel, 1400–1600; from Chaucer to Deloney was published in 1963.

Selected list
 Chaucer's Constance and Accused Queens. New York: New York University, 1927. Repr. New York: AMS, 1973.
 Medieval Narrative: A Book of Translations. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1928. Repr. New York: Gordian, 1969.
 Romance in Iceland. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University / New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation, 1934. Repr. New York: Russell & Russell, 1973.
 The Gift of Tongues. New York: Viking-Modern Age, 1942 / London: Allen & Unwin, 1943. 2nd ed. The Gift of Language. New York: Dover, 1955.
 English Medieval Literature and Its Social Foundations. Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe / London, Oxford University, 1956. Repr. New York: Cooper Square, 1971. . 3rd ed. Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1976.
 Antecedents of the English Novel, 1400–1600; from Chaucer to Deloney. Warsaw: PWN-Polish Scientific Publishers / Oxford/London: Oxford University, 1963. Repr. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood, 1979. .

References

Further reading
 Annette T. Rubinstein. "Margaret Schlauch: 1898–1986". Science & Society 50.4 (Winter 1986/87) 387–89. (Online at JSTOR)
 Jacek Fisiak. "Margaret Schlauch (1898–1986)". Science & Society 68.2 (Summer 2004) 216–18. (Online at JSTOR)
 Sheila Delaney. "Medieval Marxists: A Tradition". Medieval Feminist Forum 30.1 (2000) 9-15 (Online pdf at University of Iowa). Also rev., Science & Society 68.2 (Summer 2004) 206–15 (Online at JSTOR)
 Yale Richmond. "Margaret Schlauch and American Studies in Poland During the Cold War". The Polish Review 44.1 (1999) 53–57. (Online at JSTOR)

Category:American medievalists
Category:Women medievalists
Category:Polish medievalists
Category:Anglo-Saxon studies scholars
Category:Old Norse studies scholars
Category:Recipients of the Order of the Falcon
Category:Recipients of the Order of Polonia Restituta (1944–89)
Category:Educators from Philadelphia
Category:1898 births
Category:1986 deaths
Category:American Marxists
Category:Polish Marxists
Category:Marxist feminists
Category:Socialist feminists
Category:New York University faculty
Category:University of Warsaw faculty
Category:Barnard College alumni
Category:American emigrants to Poland
Category:Naturalized citizens of Poland
Category:Guggenheim Fellows
Category:Historians from Pennsylvania
Category:American women historians


Smoky-fronted tody-flycatcher

The smoky-fronted tody-flycatcher (Poecilotriccus fumifrons) is a species of bird in the family Tyrannidae, and one of twelve in the genus Poecilotriccus.

It is found in Brazil, French Guiana, and Suriname.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests and subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests.

References

smoky-fronted tody-flycatcher
Category:Birds of the Guianas
Category:Birds of Brazil
smoky-fronted tody-flycatcher
Category:Birds of the Amazon Basin
Category:Taxonomy articles created by Polbot


Patricia Traxler

Patricia Traxler, winner of the 2019 Kansas Book Award in Poetry, is an American poet and fiction writer who lives in Salina, Kansas. She is the author of four poetry collections and a novel. Born and raised in San Diego, California, one of eight children in a working-class Irish-Catholic family, Traxler was much influenced by her maternal grandmother, Nora Dunne, a poet from County Cork, Ireland, who lived with the family for several years during Traxler’s childhood.

Biography
Traxler moved to Salina from San Diego in 1980, and later that year was named poet-in-residence of Salina by the Salina Arts and Humanities Commission, a post she held for five years. In 1983, as a component of her residency, she founded Salina's Spring Poetry Reading Series, which is still bringing poets of national repute into Salina each April.

She was named Bunting Poetry Fellow at Radcliffe College in 1990 i. and was renewed for a second year at Radcliffe, where she finished her third poetry collection, Forbidden Words. In 1996, she was named Hugo Poet at the University of Montana  and in 1997 she was made Thurber Poet at the Ohio State University.

Traxler has read, lectured, or served as a visiting poet at many universities including Radcliffe College, Old Dominion University, the University of San Diego, the Ohio State University, Utah State University, San Diego State University, the University of Montana Missoula, Kansas University Lawrence, and Kansas Wesleyan University. Though she enjoys teaching aspiring young poets and fiction writers in a university setting, Traxler is especially drawn to the inspiration and challenge of working as a writer in the community with people of all ages and backgrounds.

Traxler has worked with mainstreamed and gifted student populations at all academic levels and has developed writing programs and projects for at-risk student teens, deaf and hearing-impaired students, and students with learning disabilities. She has also created grief workshops for adults and children, programs for cancer patients, survivors of domestic violence, residents of homeless shelters, and for mental-health patients and stroke patients in a hospital setting. She taught creative writing at Kansas Wesleyan University, Salina, KS, for 17 years.

Work
Traxler's poetry has appeared in the Boston Review, Ploughshares, The Nation, The Kenyon Review, Slate, Ms. Magazine, the Los Angeles Times, Tikkun, Agni, New Letters and in Best American Poetry.

Traxler's first volume of poetry, Blood Calendar (1975), added humor and a sense of fantasy to the genre of feminist poetry, according to Library Journal.

In 1988, she published a local history anthology of people from the Salina area. To create the book, Traxler advertised that she would "be happy to help anyone trying to get his or her memories onto paper."

Traxler's 1994 book of poetry, Forbidden Words, examines the process of writing and giving voices to the voiceless. Publisher's Weekly wrote that "These poems strike a thrilling balance between personal disclosure and the rigors of writing."

Her first novel, Blood (2001), is a mystery. The story's descriptions were considered "especially vivid" by Library Journal and showed her poetic roots. Publisher's Weekly, however, felt that "in the end the book conveys the thick and clotted feeling of too much emotion and not enough thought."

Selected bibliography

 "The Day My Grandmother's Eyes Turned to Glass," - Grandmothers: Granddaughters Remember (Marguerite Bouvard, ed., Syracuse University Press, 1998).

 "Elena, Come Here, My Little Gerbil" - The Best of Bad Hemingway: Award Anthology (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich/Mariner Books, 1989, 1990)

Poetry Anthology Publications
 A Handbook of Heartbreak, "How I Got This Way," (Robert Pinsky, ed., William Morrow & Co., Inc., 1998)
 Anthology of Magazine Verse (Alan F. Pater, ed., Monitor Book Company, 1981)
 Best American Poetry, "Death of a Distant In-law," (A.R. Ammons, Ed., Scribners, 1994)
 Confluence, "The Widow," "Why She Waits," "The Roomer," "Death & the Redhaired Man" (Denise Low, ed., Cottonwood Press, 1983)
 e: the Emily Dickinson Award Anthology, "Blackberries," (Universities West Press, 2001)
 Hang Together, "At the New World Donut Shop," "Cicadas in August," "Heart at the Window," "How I Got This Way" (Robert Hershon, Dick Lourie, Ron Schreiber, eds., Hanging Loose Press, 1987)
 Kansas Women Writers, "Number 7 Love," "The Roomer," and "The Language of Crows," (Mel Farley, Ed., Cottonwood Press, 1981)
 So You Want to be a Writer, "Poem for My Son," ( Robert E. Moore, ed., Boyd & Fraser, 1974)
 Tangled Vines, "The Contest of Nerves," (Lyn Lifshin, ed., Beacon Press, 1978; Mariner Books, 1992)
 The Ring of Words, "War: a Memoir," (Andrew Motion, Ed., Telegraph Books & Sutton Publishing, 1998, UK)

Awards
2019 Kansas Book Award in Poetry for Naming the Fires
 Alice Carter Award for Poetry, Kansas University, 1994
 Georgia State University Award for Short Fiction, 1998
 Grand Prize winner of the International Imitation Hemingway Competition, 1978
 Hackney Literary Award for Short Fiction, 1997
 Kansas Literary Fellowship, 1994
 Nimrod’s Pablo Neruda Award, 1998
 Ploughshares' Cohen Award, 1991
 Poetry Society of America Writers Magazine/Emily Dickinson Award honors, 1994 & 1999
 Radcliffe’s Presidential Discretionary Award, 1991
 The Writer's Voice of New York City Open Voice Award for Short Fiction, 1993

References

 Poets & Writers, Directory of Writers, 2017 - Patricia Traxler
 KansasPoets.com - Patricia Traxler
 Washburn University - PTraxler reference - bibliography
 Washburn University - PTraxler reference - primary documents

External links
 Patricia Traxler's Website
 Poetry Foundation - Patricia Traxler Poetry
 Ploughshares, Poet Patricia Traxler
 Interview of Patricia Traxler – Originally published in the Touchstone Literary Journal, conducted by Erin Billing, 2003 (PDF doc)
 Interview of Patricia Traxler, conducted by Hutchinson Poet William Sheldon (Word doc)
 Salina Journal News - Patricia Traxler Spring Poetry Series - News Article
 Agni, publications (1991-2002) by Patricia Traxler
 Scholar Works, University of Montana, Cutbank Literary Journal, 2 poems by Poet Patricia Traxler, published during her tenure as Hugo Poet, 1996
 Slate Magazine, 6 poems by Poet Patricia Traxler
 Spokesman Review, a poem by Patricia Traxler

Category:Living people
Category:American women poets
Category:People from Salina, Kansas
Category:Year of birth missing (living people)


The Big Lemon

The Big Lemon is a bus and coach operator in Brighton, East Sussex. It is registered as a Community Interest Company.

History

The Big Lemon was founded by Tom Druitt in 2007.

Initial service
After gaining an operator licence, the first public transport route was launched on 1 September 2007. Route 42X originally operated from Brighton Station to Falmer Station, with hopes to expand the operation with more routes. After lower than expected passenger numbers, and competition from Brighton & Hove, the company scaled down the level of service, re-launching it in January 2008, and to reconsider its operating model.
From 7 to 29 January 2008, the service operated on a reduced frequency, ending once the original route registration expired after the mandated period.

Route 52
In September 2012 The Big Lemon successfully tendered to operate route 52 between Brighton Marina and Woodingdean which also goes to Ovingdean under contract to Brighton & Hove City Council.

Norman Baker

On 17 March 2017, it was announced that Norman Baker, the former Liberal Democrat MP and Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for the Department for Transport, had been appointed managing director of the Big Lemon.

New Routes
On 17 September 2017 , The Big Lemon took over routes 16, between Portslade and Hangleton, 47, between Brighton station and East Saltdean, 56, between Knoll estate and Patcham , 57, between Brighton station and East Saltdean and 66 which goes in a circular route around Portslade and Hangleton.

Historic routes
Route 42/42A/N42 was The Big Lemon's first public bus service, originating from its service 42X. Service 42 operated from Churchill Square to Sussex University via Lewes Road. During the evenings the route number changed to 42A and served West Street. It would later be renumbered N42. The N42 charged higher fares as it operated from 00:00 – 04:00.
In 2011 the company renumbered routes 42A and N42 to 42.

Route 43 ran from September 2010 - January 2011, focusing on student trade and operating from Old Steine during the day and Hove during the evening up to Brighton University's Falmer campus.

Route 44 was introduced at the same time as route 43 in September 2010, operating from Churchill Square to Saltdean.

Services
As at September 2017 The Big Lemon operate six services. Additionally they operate a shuttle bus for Brighton Metropolitan College Coaches run on biodiesel that is refined from waste cooking oil. Buses run on solar power and diesel.

Fleet
The Big Lemon operates a fleet of Mercedes-Benz O814D and Optare Solo buses. The company did temporarily use six enviro 200 and one Volvo B7TL Plaxton President until new solar power buses were received. Currently the Contract for The Enviro 200s has ran out and have been sold on, 4 new Solo EVs have been delivered.  The company also has five Volvo B10M coaches, three with a Van Hool body, one with Jonckheere and one with Plaxton Premiere, as well as an electric minibus.

The number of vehicles in total is 22.

See also
List of bus operators of the United Kingdom

References

External links

Company website

Category:Bus operators in Brighton and Hove
Category:Bus operators in East Sussex
Category:Transport in Brighton and Hove
Category:Transport in East Sussex
Category:British companies established in 2007


Motorcycle industry in China

The motorcycle industry of the People's Republic of China exceeds that of any country in the world with a motorcycle output of 22,891,700 in 2013, with 39.75% of the total production exported. China also produces auto rickshaws, all-terrain vehicles, and motorcycle components and accessories in great numbers.

In 2013 the total revenue of the Chinese motorcycle industry increased by 3.24% year on year to RMB 112,621 million; including a year-on-year profit increase of 20.24% to RMB 3,322 million. This profit increase was mainly attributed to technical improvement and higher added value on motorcycles despite of the sales volume decreases suffered during industrial transformation in recent years.

History

Motorcycle manufacture in China first began in 1951 when the People's Liberation Army began producing a 500cc motorcycle to meet the country's military requirements during the Korean War. It was developed on the lines of the K500, a German model used in World War II. Before the end of the 1970s motorcycles produced in China were used mainly by the military services, the major exception being the Beijing Motorcycle Factory which from 1958 onwards produced motorcycles for the general public that were based on the German pre war BMW R71 and Russian Ural and Dnepr models.
In Chongqing city in 1979 military munitions factory China Jialing Industrial Company began to independently manufacture motorcycles for civilian use ushering in the modern era of Chinese motorcycle production. In 2000 the Chinese industry took over as the biggest motorcycle producer in the world a position that it has maintained.

Geography of the industry
China's motorcycle manufacturing industry is centred on 3 main regions- Guangdong and Zhejiang provinces and Chongqing city in the Chongqing municipality (the biggest centre of motorcycle production in the world).

Domestic industry
China's domestic motorcycle market has suffered a downturn in recent years due to the banning of motorcycles in many Chinese urban centres.
China's domestic motorcycle sales reached a high of around 19,000,000 units in 2009 and then suffered gradual decreases for 4 consecutive years. In 2013, the market decreased by 5.73% from 2012 to 13,880,000 units, 26.94% less than 2009.
Domestic sales decreased due to ban on motorcycles in urban centres, the national economic transformation and the rural market downturn. In Chinese rural areas, motorcycles are used for a variety of purposes, including personal transportation, passenger vehicles, and cargo transportation. Improved living standard in these areas in recent years has led to the replacement of motorcycles with mini-cars and e-bikes.

Export industry
During the first 11 months of 2013 China exported 9,128,400 motorcycles totaling RMB 4,865 million at an average price of US$532.92 to 198 countries and regions. Export to Asia, Middle East, Africa, and Latin America accounted for 87.57% of the total export volume, with Myanmar, Nigeria, Argentina, Venezuela, Philippines, Togo, Mexico, Russia, Angola, Saudi Arabia, and Colombia topping the export destination list. A total of 4,639,600 motorcycles were exported to these top 10 countries, accounting for 50.83% of total export.

Global demand for Chinese motorcycles has taken a hit over the past couple of years, with various political and financial crises in many markets seriously disrupting the ability for manufacturers to profitably get their motorcycles to the end consumers. Both the financial problems in Argentina and the political problems in Egypt are examples of markets recently becoming completely unavailable to manufacturers.

Parts and accessories
China is also a leading producer of motorcycle parts and accessories. In 2013, motorcycle engine export saw a year-on-year increase of 0.87% to 26,191,300 units.

Manufacturers
China has more than 200 individual companies producing motorcycles nationally. China's leading motorcycle manufacturers include Grand River (Haojue brand), Lifan, Loncin, Zongshen, Jialing, Jianshe, Qianjiang, Haojin, Shineray, Bashan, Jonway, Wuxi Futong and Cyclone.

Joint ventures
Several Chinese motorcycle companies cooperate in joint ventures with foreign motorcycle manufacturers including Loncin (BMW), Zongshen (Piaggio) and (Norton Motorcycle Company), Qingqi (Suzuki and Peugeot), Jianshe (Yamaha), Lifan (MV Agusta), Qianjiang (owners of Benelli), Jialing (Honda). These joint ventures are different in every case, and range from research, development and production ventures through to distribution, sales and marketing joint ventures.

Chinese manufacturers have also partnered with European design houses to produce unique new models. CFMOTO worked with Austrian designers Kiska to develop their new 150NK motorcycle.

Shineray recently leased Husqvarna's factory in Biandronno, Italy and acquired the rights to produce several of their models under the resurrected SWM brand. Shineray will also use the leases to produce models under their SRM brand, which will be imported to China.

Zhongneng Vehicle Group acquired in 2018 italian brand Moto Morini

Key industry figures
 Li Bin - is the chairman of CAAM (China Association of Automobile manufacturers) motorcycle section.
 David McMullan - is the International Magazine Editor of ChinaMotor magazine (also known as Mega Chinamotor), Chinese motorcycle trade exhibition organiser (including the China International Motorcycle Trade Exhibition (CIMAmotor)) and industry consultant for the Chinese motorcycle industry.
 Yin Mingshan - the founder of Lifan Group
 Zuo Zongshen - the founder and owner of Zongshen motorcycles.
 Wang Min- Chairman of the China Chamber of Commerce (motorcycles)

See also
List of motorcycle manufacturers
Automotive industry in China

References

Category:Automotive industry in China


Mukesh Kumar Ahlawat

Mukesh Kumar Ahlawat is an Indian politician and is member of the Seventh Legislative Assembly of Delhi. He is a member of the Aam Aadmi Party and represents Sultan Pur Majra (Assembly constituency) of Delhi.

References

Category:Aam Aadmi Party politicians from Delhi
Category:Living people
Category:Delhi MLAs 2020–
Category:Aam Aadmi Party candidates in the 2020 Delhi Legislative Assembly election


Ananda Group

Ananda Group is a Bangladeshi business conglomerate. The first Ananda company was established in 1983 as the Ananda Builders. The diverse business areas of the group include ship building, heavy engineering, textiles, real estate and shipping.

The most well-known concern under the group is Ananda Shipyard & Slipways Limited. It is the largest of the private ship yards in Bangladesh.

List of companies
 Ananda Shipyard & Slipways Limited
 Zarina Composite Textile Industries
 Ananda Bag Mill
 Ananda Builders
 Ananda ICT
 Ananda El-Dorado
 Ananda International
 Ananda Shipping Lines

External links
 Website of Ananda Group
 Website of Ananda Shipyard & Slipways Ltd

Category:Companies based in Dhaka
Category:Conglomerate companies of Bangladesh
Category:Real estate companies of Bangladesh


Courtney Peak (Washington)

Courtney Peak is an  mountain summit located in the Methow Mountains, a sub-range of the North Cascades in Washington State. Situated on Sawtooth Ridge, Courtney Peak is protected by the Lake Chelan-Sawtooth Wilderness within the Okanogan National Forest. Courtney Peak ranks 78th on Washington's highest 100 peaks, and 81st on the "Bulger List". The nearest higher peak is Star Peak,  to the southeast. Precipitation runoff on the west side of the mountain drains into nearby Lake Chelan via Fish Creek, whereas the north side of the mountain drains into Oval Creek, and the east side drains into Buttermilk Creek, both of which are tributaries of the Twisp River. The mountain's name was officially adopted in 1985 to remember James (Ray) Courtney (1920-1982), a commercial packer and lifelong resident of Stehekin. The immediate vicinity of this peak was a favorite destination for his guided outings. Ray Courtney died in an accident while leading such a pack trip with 29 hikers when the horse he was riding lost its footing and fell down a gully.

Climate

Lying east of the Cascade crest, the area around Courtney Peak is a bit drier than areas to the west. Summers can bring warm temperatures and occasional thunderstorms. Most weather fronts originate in the Pacific Ocean, and travel northeast toward the Cascade Mountains. As fronts approach the North Cascades, they are forced upward by the peaks of the Cascade Range, causing them to drop their moisture in the form of rain or snowfall onto the Cascades (Orographic lift). As a result, the North Cascades experiences high precipitation, especially during the winter months in the form of snowfall. With its impressive height, Courtney Peak can have snow on it in late-spring and early-fall, and can be very cold in the winter.

Geology

The North Cascades features some of the most rugged topography in the Cascade Range with craggy peaks, ridges, and deep glacial valleys. Geological events occurring many years ago created the diverse topography and drastic elevation changes over the Cascade Range leading to the various climate differences. These climate differences lead to vegetation variety defining the ecoregions in this area.

The history of the formation of the Cascade Mountains dates back millions of years ago to the late Eocene Epoch. With the North American Plate overriding the Pacific Plate, episodes of volcanic igneous activity persisted.  In addition, small fragments of the oceanic and continental lithosphere called terranes created the North Cascades about 50 million years ago.

During the Pleistocene period dating back over two million years ago, glaciation advancing and retreating repeatedly scoured the landscape leaving deposits of rock debris. The "U"-shaped cross section of the river valleys are a result of recent glaciation. Uplift and faulting in combination with glaciation have been the dominant processes which have created the tall peaks and deep valleys of the North Cascades area.

See also

 List of Highest Mountain Peaks in Washington
 Geography of Washington (state)
 Geology of the Pacific Northwest

References

External links
 Courtney Peak weather: Mountain Forecast

Category:North Cascades
Category:Mountains of Washington (state)
Category:Mountains of Okanogan County, Washington
Category:Mountains of Chelan County, Washington
Category:Cascade Range


Solomon Islands English

Solomon Islands English is the dialect of English spoken by Solomon Islanders.

Phonological features
Solomon Islands English has many features, especially in the phonology, that show the influence of local languages. It's also influenced by Australian English through the RAMSI program.

Consonant variations
Solomon Island English is non-rhotic.

The Letter r tends to be a tap [ɾ] or a trill [r] in Solomon Island English.

The interdental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ are often realized as [t̪] and [d̪].

Vowel variations
:  =
:  =
:  or  =  or
:  =
:  or  =  or
:  =
:  =
:  or  =  or
:  =
:  =  or
:  or  =  or
:  or  =  or
:  or  =  or
:  =
:  =
:  or  =  or
:  =  or
:  or  =  or
:  =
:  =
:  =
:  =  or
:  =
:  or  =  or
:  =
:  or  =  or

References

*A Handbook of Varieties of English - Edgar W. Schneider
A Handbook of World Englishes - Blackwell Publishing

Category:English dialects
English


Alexander Smorchkov

Alexander Pavlovich Smorchkov (; 29 November 1919 – 16 November 1998) was a Soviet fighter pilot. After gaining three shootdowns during World War II he went on to attain ace status in the Korean War, being credited with 12-13 solo victories on the MiG-15 for which he was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.

Early life and World War II
Smorchkov was born on 29 November 1919 to a Russian family in Chekmovo, Moscow. After completing his seventh grade of school in 1935 he worked and attended a trade school while training at an aeroclub. Having entered the military in 1938, he soon went on to graduate from the Kachin Military Aviation School of Pilots with the rank of junior lieutenant in 1940, after which he became a flight instructor at the Lviv Military Aviation School of Pilots. From December that year until August 1941 he worked trained pilots at the Fastovsky Military School of Aviation. In October he arrived at the warfront, where he was wounded in combat that month after tallying 51 sorties and 9 aerial engagements. After recovering from his injuries in December that year he was assigned to work for the  Chernogovskoye Military-Emergency Services Association, where he was soon promoted to flight commander. One year later he became a deputy squadron commander in the 761st Fighter Aviation Regiment, which was stationed away from the front. There he learned to pilot the Yak-7B before entering navigator courses. Upon redeployment in September 1943 he returned to combat, but during his first sortie he received minor injuries, resulting in him being sent back to study. Eventually he was able to return to the 523rd Fighter Aviation Regiment in May 1944, and by the end of the war he shot down two or three enemy aircraft  two Bf 109 and possibly an FW 109 throughout the course of over 200 missions. He remained in the 523rd Regiment after the war.

Korean War
Several months after the outbreak of the Korean War, Smorchkov was transferred to the 18th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment, and two months later in March 1951 the until was sent to China. In May he entered combat, and from then until February 1952 he flew over 100 sorties, which resulted in him tallying 52 aerial engagements, one shared and 12 or 13 solo shootdowns. According to Smorchkov, he and his wingman Dmitry Oskin shot down five Gloster Meteors during a single night. During one of his last flights he was wounded in the leg, but survived. On 13 November 1951 he was awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union for his first ten solo victories. The breakdown and exact number of his victories varies from source to source, but all indicate a tally of at least 12.

Postwar
In August 1952 during the midst of hostilities in Korea he was recalled from combat and sent to attend the Air Force Academy in Monino. After graduating in 1956 he became commander of the 826th Fighter Training Aviation Regiment, and in 1960 took command of the 802nd Fighter Training Aviation Regiment. In 1962 he was promoted to deputy commander of the 9th Fighter Aviation Division, and in 1964 he was made commander of the 95th Fighter Aviation Division; later that year he was made head of the command post of the 26th Air Army. In 1966 he began working at the Zhukovsky Air Force Engineering Academy, where he was promoted to senior teacher in 1967. After entering the reserve in 1975 he remained in Moscow, where he died on 16 November 1998 and was buried in the Troyekurovskoye cemetery.

Awards
 Hero of the Soviet Union (13 November 1951)
 Order of Lenin (13 November 1951)
 Three Order of the Red Banner (27 August 1944, 28 October 1944, and 28 March 1945)
 Order of Alexander Nevsky (26 December 1944)
 Two Order of the Patriotic War 1st class (1 July 1944 and 11 March 1985)
 Two Order of the Red Star (10 October 1951 and 5 November 1954)
 Medal "For Military Merit" (20 June 1949)

See also
List of Korean War flying aces

Footnotes

References

Bibliography

Category:1919 births
Category:1998 deaths
Category:Burials in Troyekurovskoye Cemetery
Category:Heroes of the Soviet Union
Category:Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Category:Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner
Category:Recipients of the Order of Alexander Nevsky
Category:Recipients of the Order of the Patriotic War, 1st class
Category:Recipients of the Order of the Patriotic War, 2nd class
Category:Russian aviators
Category:Soviet Korean War flying aces
Category:Soviet military personnel of the Korean War
Category:Soviet Air Force officers


Obrey (watches)

Obrey watches is a luxury watch manufacturer that distributes and sales jewellery and watches in Paris since 1951.

History

Émile Obrey opened his first shop in the 1930s. After being part of the French resistance during World War II, the company founded its branch on rue Tronchet, Paris, in 1951. The Obrey company launched a collection of solid silver watches in 1966. The company became popular during the 1960s-1970s. During this period, the company grew significantly, becoming an international firm, and selling its products worldwide, especially in the US and Germany. The house Obrey has always been administered by the Obrey family. Today, Émile Obrey's son is the current manager of the company. The house Obrey uses quartz mechanisms (Swiss mechanisms, mainly ETA).

References

Category:Watch brands
Category:Retail companies of France
Category:Luxury brands
Category:High fashion brands
Category:Jewellery retailers of France
Category:Watch manufacturing companies of France


Piazza Marina

Piazza Marina is a square of Palermo. It is located down the Cassaro street, in the quarter of the Kalsa, within the historic centre of Palermo. The square is dominated by the great Garibaldi Garden.

History

In the Middle Ages the area of Piazza Marina was a swamp connected to the ancient port of Palermo, the Cala. During the 14th century the area was cleared. In the Spaniard period, the space of the square was used by the Inquisition (whose headquarters was the adjacent Palazzo Chiaramonte) for its convictions.

In 1863, Giovan Battista Filippo Basile designed the Garibaldi Garden at the centre of Piazza Marina. This garden is famous because the biggest Ficus macrophylla of Europe is situated in it. In the zone of Piazza Marina are also located several buildings like Palazzo Chiaramonte, Palazzo Galletti di San Cataldo, Palazzo Fatta, Palazzo Notarbartolo di Villarosa Dagnino, Palazzo delle Finanze, the Hotel de France, the Teatro Libero, the churches of Santa Maria dei Miracoli, San Giovanni dei Napoletani and Santa Maria della Catena and the Fontana del Garraffo.

On March 12, 1909, the New York police officer Joe Petrosino was killed in Piazza Marina during a top secret mission against the Mafia. Later a small memorial (an engraved brass plate on a pole) was erected on the square in his remembrance.

See also
 Giardino Garibaldi
 Fontana del Garraffo
 Palazzo Chiaramonte

References

Marina


Nicely Formation

The Nicely Formation is a geologic formation in Oregon. It preserves fossils dating back to the Jurassic period.

See also

 List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Oregon
 Paleontology in Oregon

References

Category:Jurassic geology of Oregon


Jimmy Conrad

James P. Conrad (born February 12, 1977) is an American retired soccer player who played as a defender. During his 13-year MLS career, he was four-time MLS Best XI and the 2005 MLS Defender of the Year. He also earned 27 caps with the United States men's national soccer team and went to the 2006 FIFA World Cup. After his playing career Conrad has worked in the media industry  and currently stars on his YouTube channel Jimmy Conrad. He currently serves as the head coach of USL League Two side San Francisco Glens.

Career

High school and college
Born in Arcadia, California, Conrad attended Temple City High School in Temple City, California and was a four-year letterman in soccer. Conrad played at San Diego State University in 1994 and 1995, and then transferred to the University of California, Los Angeles. While playing for UCLA, he was a member of the 1997 NCAA Championship team.

Professional
Undrafted by MLS, Conrad had an unsuccessful trial with the Los Angeles Galaxy.  However, the Galaxy coaching staff recommended he play for one of their affiliated lower division teams.  Consequently, Conrad contacted the now-defunct San Diego Flash of the A-League which gave him a contract.  In 1999, Brian Quinn became the head coach of the San Jose Clash.  When Quinn began searching for an additional defender and goalkeeper for the Clash, Ralf Wilhelms, head coach of the Flash and a former teammate of Quinn on the San Diego Sockers, recommended Conrad and Flash goalkeeper Joe Cannon.  The Clash signed Conrad that year.  He played with the club, later re-branded as the Earthquakes, for four seasons, helping them to the MLS Cup in 2001. In 2000, he also played for Lech Poznań in Poland.

In 2003, Conrad was traded to the Wizards for a second-round draft pick, which the 'Quakes used to select Arturo Alvarez. Conrad's stock rose while with Kansas City; never a big scorer, he tallied four goals during his first season (he has ten in his MLS career). In 2004, he helped the Wizards to the US Open Cup and the MLS Cup Final as the leader of the league's stingiest defense and was named to the league's Best XI and was a finalist for MLS Defender of the Year Award. He won the award a year later.

Despite rumors of a possible European transfer following the Wizards' disappointing 2006 season, Conrad renewed his contract with the Wizards beginning the 2007 season, and new head coach Curt Onalfo rewarded him the club captaincy.

Conrad was out of contract after the 2010 MLS season and elected to participate in the 2010 MLS Re-Entry Draft. On December 15, 2010 Conrad was selected by Chivas USA in Stage 2 of the Re-Entry draft. He made his debut, and scored his first goal for his new team on March 19, 2011 in their first game of the 2011 MLS season – ironically against his old club, Sporting Kansas City.

After struggling with injury during the 2011 season, and suffering from side effects of six concussions, Jimmy Conrad announced his retirement from professional soccer on August 18, 2011.

International
Conrad received his first cap for the United States national team on July 7, 2005, in a Gold Cup match against Cuba. Less than one year later, Conrad made the U.S. roster for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. In Germany, Conrad came in as a substitute against Italy in the team's 1–1 draw with the eventual champions, and played all ninety minutes against Ghana. On January 20, 2007, Conrad captained the national team for the second time, where the United States hosted an international friendly with Denmark. The U.S. won that match 3–1. On February 7, 2007, in an international friendly with Mexico, Conrad was named the Man of the Match. He scored his first-ever goal for the U.S. in the fifty-second minute of that match. On June 25, 2009, after not having played with the national team in previous qualifying, Conrad was named to the U.S. squad for the upcoming CONCACAF Gold Cup.

Coaching
In September 2018, Conrad became technical director and head associate coach of the San Francisco Glens. He was named head coach of the Glens ahead of the 2020 season.

References

External links

 Articles by Jimmy Conrad on ESPN Soccernet

 Jimmy Conrad's YouTube Channel

Category:1977 births
Category:Living people
Category:People from Arcadia, California
Category:People from Temple City, California
Category:American soccer players
Category:American expatriate soccer players
Category:Soccer players from California
Category:San Diego Flash players
Category:San Jose Earthquakes players
Category:San Francisco Seals (soccer) players
Category:MLS Pro-40 players
Category:Sporting Kansas City players
Category:Chivas USA players
Category:Major League Soccer players
Category:Major League Soccer All-Stars
Category:Lech Poznań players
Category:UCLA Bruins men's soccer players
Category:San Diego State Aztecs men's soccer players
Category:CONCACAF Gold Cup-winning players
Category:2005 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
Category:2006 FIFA World Cup players
Category:2007 Copa América players
Category:2009 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
Category:United States men's international soccer players
Category:USISL A-League players
Category:USL A-League players
Category:Expatriate footballers in Poland
Category:American expatriate sportspeople in Poland
Category:Chivas USA non-playing staff
Category:Association football defenders
Category:American YouTubers


Soviet Navy

The Soviet Navy () was the naval arm of the Soviet Armed Forces. Often referred to as the Red Fleet, the Soviet Navy was a large part of the Soviet Union's strategic plan in the event of a conflict with the opposing superpower, the United States, or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), or another conflict related to the Warsaw Pact of Eastern Europe. The influence of the Soviet Navy played a large role in the Cold War (1945-1991), as the majority of conflicts centered on naval forces.

The Soviet Navy was divided into four major fleets: the Northern, Pacific, Black Sea, and Baltic Fleets; under separate command was the Leningrad Naval Base. The Caspian Flotilla was a smaller force operating in the land-locked Caspian Sea. Main components of the Soviet Navy included Soviet Naval Aviation, Naval Infantry (Soviet Marines), and Coastal Artillery.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia inherited the largest part of the Soviet Navy and reformed it into the Russian Navy, with smaller parts becoming the basis for navies of the newly independent post-Soviet states.

Early history

Russian Civil War (1917–1922)

The Soviet Navy was based on a republican naval force formed from the remnants of the Imperial Russian Navy, which had been almost completely destroyed in the two Revolutions of 1917 (February and October/November) during World War I (1914–1918), the following Russian Civil War (1917–1922), and the Kronstadt rebellion in 1921. During the revolutionary period, Russian sailors deserted their ships at will and generally neglected their duties. The officers were dispersed (some were killed by the Red Terror, some joined the "White" (anti-communist) opposing armies, and others simply resigned) and most of the sailors walked off and left their ships. Work stopped in the shipyards, where uncompleted ships deteriorated rapidly.

The Black Sea Fleet fared no better than the Baltic. The Bolshevik (Communist) revolution entirely disrupted its personnel, with mass murders of officers; the ships were allowed to decay to unserviceability. At the end of April 1918, Imperial German troops moved along the Black Sea coast and entered Crimea and started to advance towards the Sevastopol naval base. The more effective ships were moved from Sevastopol to Novorossiysk where, after an ultimatum from Germany, they were scuttled by Vladimir Lenin's order. The ships remaining in Sevastopol were captured by the Germans and then, after the later Armistice of 11 November 1918 on the Western Front which ended the War, additional Russian ships were confiscated by the British. On 1 April 1919, during the ensuing Russian Civil War when Red Army forces captured Crimea, the British Royal Navy squadron had to withdraw, but before leaving they damaged all the remaining battleships and sank thirteen new submarines. When the opposing Czarist  White Army captured Crimea in 1919, it rescued and reconditioned a few units. At the end of the civil war, Wrangel's fleet, a White flotilla, moved south through the Black Sea, Dardanelles straits and the Aegean Sea to the Mediterranean Sea to Bizerta in French Tunisia on the North Africa coast, where it was interned.

The first ship of the revolutionary navy could be considered the rebellious Imperial Russian cruiser , built 1900, whose crew joined the communist  Bolsheviks. Sailors of the Baltic fleet supplied the fighting force of the Bolsheviks led by Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky during the October Revolution of November 1917 against the democratic provisional government of Alexander Kerensky established after the earlier first revolution of February against the Czar. Some imperial vessels continued to serve after the revolution, albeit with different names.

The Soviet Navy, established as the "Workers' and Peasants' Red Fleet" (Russian: Рабоче-Крестьянский Красный флот, Raboche-Krest'yansky Krasny Flot or RKKF) by a 1918 decree of the new Council of People's Commissars, installed as a temporary Russian revolutionary government, was less than service-ready during the interwar years of 1918 to 1941.

As the country's attentions were largely directed internally, the Navy did not have much funding or training. An indicator of its reputation was that the Soviets were not invited to participate in negotiations for the Washington Naval Treaty of 1921–1922, which limited the size and capabilities of the most powerful navies - British,
American, Japanese, French, Italian. The greater part of the old fleet was sold by the Soviet government to post-war Germany for scrap. In the Baltic Sea there remained only three much-neglected battleships, two cruisers, some ten destroyers, and a few submarines. Despite this state of affairs, the Baltic Fleet remained a significant naval formation, and the Black Sea Fleet also provided a basis for expansion. There also existed some thirty minor-waterways combat flotillas.

Interwar period (1922–1941)
During the 1930s, as the industrialization of the Soviet Union proceeded, plans were made to expand the Soviet Navy into one of the most powerful in the world. Approved by the Labour and Defence Council in 1926, the Naval Shipbuilding Program included plans to construct twelve submarines; the first six were to become known as the Dekabrist class. Beginning 4 November 1926, Technical Bureau Nº 4 (formerly the Submarine Department, and still secret), under the leadership of B.M. Malinin, managed the submarine construction works at the Baltic Shipyard. In subsequent years, 133 submarines were built to designs developed during Malinin's management. Additional developments included the formation of the Pacific Fleet in 1932 and the Northern Fleet in 1933. The forces were to be built around a core of powerful Sovetsky Soyuz-class battleships. This building program was only in its initial stages by the time the German invasion forced its suspension in 1941.

The Soviet Navy had some minor action in the Winter War against Finland in 1939–1940, on the Baltic Sea. It was limited mainly to cruisers and battleships fighting artillery duels with Finnish forts.

World War II: The Great Patriotic War (1941–1945)

Building a Soviet fleet was a national priority, but many senior officers were killed in Stalinist purges in the late 1930s. The naval share of the national armaments budget fell from 11.5% in 1941 to 6.6% in 1944.

When Nazi Germany invaded in June 1941 and initially captured millions of soldiers, many sailors and naval guns were detached to reinforce the Red Army; these reassigned naval forces had especially significant roles on land in the battles for Odessa, Sevastopol, Stalingrad, Novorossiysk, Tuapse, and Leningrad. The Baltic fleet was blockaded in Leningrad and Kronstadt by minefields, but the submarines escaped. The surface fleet fought with the anti-aircraft defence of the city and bombarded German positions.

The U.S. and Britain through the Lend Lease program gave the USSR several of their ships with a total displacement of 810,000 tons.

The composition of the Soviet fleets in 1941 included:
 3 battleships,
 7 cruisers (including 4 modern Kirov-class heavy cruisers),
 59 destroyers (including 46 modern Gnevny-class and Soobrazitelny-class destroyers),
 218 submarines,
 269 torpedo boats,
 22 patrol vessels,
 88 minesweepers,
 77 submarine-chasers,
 and a range of other smaller vessels.
In various stages of completion were another 219 vessels including 3 battleships, 2 heavy and 7 light cruisers, 45 destroyers, and 91 submarines.

Included in the totals above are some pre-World War I ships (Novik-class destroyers, some of the cruisers, and all the battleships), some modern ships built in the USSR and Europe (like the Italian-built destroyer Tashkent and the partially completed German cruiser ). During the war, many of the vessels on the slips in Leningrad and Nikolayev were destroyed (mainly by aircraft and mines), but the Soviet Navy received captured Romanian destroyers and Lend-Lease small craft from the U.S., as well as the old Royal Navy battleship  (renamed Arkhangelsk) and the United States Navy cruiser  (renamed Murmansk) in exchange for the Soviet part of the captured Italian navy.

In the Baltic Sea, after Tallinn's capture, surface ships were blockaded in Leningrad and Kronstadt by minefields, where they participated with the anti-aircraft defense of the city and bombarded German positions. One example of Soviet resourcefulness was the battleship Marat, an aging pre-World War I ship sunk at anchor in Kronstadt's harbor by German Stukas in 1941. For the rest of the war, the non-submerged part of the ship remained in use as a grounded battery. Submarines, although suffering great losses due to German and Finnish anti-submarine actions, had a major role in the war at sea by disrupting Axis navigation in the Baltic Sea.

In the Black Sea, many ships were damaged by minefields and Axis aviation, but they helped defend naval bases and supply them while besieged, as well as later evacuating them. Heavy naval guns and courageous sailors helped defend port cities during long sieges by Axis armies. In the Arctic Ocean, Soviet Northern Fleet destroyers (Novik-class, Type 7, and Type 7U) and smaller craft participated with the anti-aircraft and anti-submarine defense of Allied convoys conducting Lend-Lease cargo shipping. In the Pacific Ocean, the Soviet Union was not at war with Japan before 1945, so some destroyers were transferred to the Northern Fleet.

From the beginning of hostilities, Soviet Naval Aviation provided air support to naval and land operations involving the Soviet Navy. This service was responsible for the operation of shore-based floatplanes, long-range flying boats, catapult-launched and vessel-based planes, and land-based aircraft designated for naval use.

As post-war spoils, the Soviets received several Italian and Japanese warships and much German naval engineering and architectural documentation.

Cold War (1945–1991)

In February 1946, the Red Fleet was renamed and became known as the Soviet Navy (). After the war, the Soviets concluded that they needed a navy that could disrupt supply lines, and display a small naval presence to the developing world. As the natural resources the Soviet Union needed were available on the Eurasian landmass, it did not need a navy to protect a large commercial fleet, as the western navies were configured to do. Later, countering seaborne nuclear delivery systems became another significant objective of the navy, and an impetus for expansion.

The Soviet Navy was structured around submarines and small, maneuverable, tactical vessels. The Soviet shipbuilding program kept yards busy constructing submarines based upon World War II German Kriegsmarine designs, which were launched with great frequency during the immediate post-war years. Afterwards, through a combination of indigenous research and technology obtained through espionage from Nazi Germany and the Western nations, the Soviets gradually improved their submarine designs, though they initially lagged behind the western North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries by a decade or two.

The Soviets were quick to equip their surface fleet with missiles of various sorts. Indeed, it became a feature of Soviet design to place large missiles onto relatively small, but fast, missile boats, while in the West such an approach would never have been considered tactically feasible. The Soviet Navy did also possess several very large and well-armed guided-missile cruisers, like those of the Kirov and Slava classes. By the 1970s, Soviet submarine technology was in some respects more advanced than in the West, and several of their submarine types were considered superior to their American rivals.

The 5th Operational Squadron (:ru:5-я Средиземноморская эскадра кораблей ВМФ) operated in the Mediterranean Sea. The squadron's main function was to prevent largescale naval ingress into the Black Sea, which could bypass the need for any invasion to be over the Eurasian land mass. The flagship of the squadron was for a long period the Sverdlov class cruiser Zhdanov.

Carriers and aviation

Large carriers were not needed to support the naval strategy of disrupting sea lines of communication.

The Soviet Navy still had the mission of confronting Western submarines, creating a need for large surface vessels to carry anti-submarine helicopters. During 1968 and 1969 the Moskva-class helicopter carriers were first deployed, succeeded by the first of four aircraft-carrying cruisers of the Kiev class in 1973. Both of these types were capable of operating ASW helicopters, and the Kiev class also operated V/STOL aircraft (e.g., the Yak-38 'Forger'); they were designed to operate for fleet defense, primarily within range of land-based Soviet Naval Aviation aircraft.

During the 1970s the Soviets began Project 1153 Orel ('Eagle'), whose stated purpose was to create an aircraft carrier capable of basing fixed-wing fighter aircraft in defense of the deployed fleet. The project was canceled during the planning stages when strategic priorities shifted once more. It was during the 1980s that the Soviet Navy acquired its first true aircraft carrier, Tbilisi, subsequently renamed Admiral of the Fleet of the Soviet Union Kuznetsov, which carries Sukhoi Su-33 'Flanker-D' and MiG-29 fighters, and Ka-27 helicopters. A distinctive feature of Soviet aircraft carriers has been their offensive missile armament (as well as long-range anti-aircraft warfare armament), again representing a fleet-defense operational concept, in distinction to the Western emphasis on shore-strike missions from distant deployment. A second carrier (pre-commissioning name Varyag) was under construction when the Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991. Construction stopped and the ship was sold later, incomplete, to the People's Republic of China by Ukraine, which inherited part of the old Soviet fleet after the break-up of the USSR. It was commissioned into the People's Liberation Army Navy in 2012 as the Liaoning.

Soon after the launch of this second Kuznetsov-class ship, the Soviet Navy began the construction of an improved aircraft carrier design, , which was to have been slightly larger than the Kuznetsov class and nuclear-powered. The project was terminated, and what little structure had been initiated in the building ways was scrapped.

In part to perform the functions usual to carrier-borne aircraft, the Soviet Navy deployed large numbers of strategic bombers in a maritime role, with the Aviatsiya Voenno-Morskogo Flota (AV-MF, or Naval Aviation service). Strategic bombers like the Tupolev Tu-16 'Badger' and Tu-22M 'Backfire' were deployed with high-speed anti-shipping missiles. Previously believed to be interceptors of NATO supply convoys traveling the sea lines of communication across the North Atlantic Ocean between Europe and North America, the primary role of these aircraft was to protect the Soviet mainland from attacks by U.S. carrier task forces.

Submarines

Due to the USSR's geographic position, submarines were considered the capital ships of the Navy. It was submarines that could penetrate attempts at blockade, either in the constrained waters of the Baltic and Black Seas or in the remote reaches of the USSR's western Arctic. Surface ships were clearly much easier to find and attack. The USSR had entered World War II with more submarines than Germany, but geography and the speed of the German attack precluded it from effectively using its more numerous fleet to its advantage. Because of its opinion that "quantity had a quality of its own" and the insistence of Fleet Admiral Gorshkov, the Soviet Navy continued to operate many first-generation missile submarines, built in the early 1960s, until the end of the Cold War in 1991.

In some respects, including speed and reactor technology, Soviet submarines achieved unique successes, but for most of the era lagged their Western counterparts in overall capability. In addition to their relatively high speeds and great operating depths they were difficult anti-submarine warfare (ASW) targets to destroy because of their multiple compartments, their large reserve buoyancy, and especially their double-hulled design. Their principal shortcomings were insufficient noise-damping (American boats were quieter) and primitive sonar technology. Acoustics was a particularly interesting type of information that the Soviets sought about the West's submarine-production methods, and the long-active John Anthony Walker spy ring may have made a major contribution to their knowledge of such.

The Soviet Navy possessed numerous purpose-built guided missile submarines, such as the , as well as many ballistic missile and attack submarines; their  are the world's largest submarines. While Western navies assumed that the Soviet attack submarine force was designed for interception of NATO convoys, the Soviet leadership never prepared their submarines for such a mission. The force also targeted American aircraft carrier battle groups.

Over the years Soviet submarines suffered a number of accidents, most notably on several nuclear boats. The most famous incidents include the  K-219, and the  Komsomolets, both lost to fire, and the far more menacing nuclear reactor leak on the  K-19, narrowly averted by her captain. Inadequate nuclear safety, poor damage control, and quality-control issues during construction (particularly on the earlier submarines) were typical causes of accidents. On several occasions there were alleged collisions with American submarines. None of these, however, has been confirmed officially by the U.S. Navy. On 28 August 1976, K-22 (Echo II) collided with frigate USS Voge in the Mediterranean Sea.

Transition
After the dissolution of the USSR and the end of the Cold War, the Soviet Navy, like other branches of Armed Forces, eventually lost some of its units to former Soviet Republics, and was left without funding.

Inventory

Soviet Navy in 1990:
63 ballistic missile submarines
 6 Project 941 (Typhoon-class) submarine
 40 Project 667B (Delta-class) submarine
 12 Project 667A (Yankee-class) submarine
 5 Project 658 (Hotel-class) submarine

72 cruise missile submarines
 6 Oscar-class submarine
 6 Yankee Notch submarine
 14 Charlie-class submarine
 30 Echo-class submarine
 16 Juliett-class submarine

68 nuclear attack submarines

 5 Akula-class submarine
 2 Sierra-class submarine
 6 Alfa-class submarine
 46 Victor-class submarine
 6 November-class submarine
 3 Yankee SSN submarine

 63 conventional attack submarines
 18 Kilo-class submarine
 20 Tango-class submarine
 25 Foxtrot-class submarine

9 auxiliary submarine
 1 Beluga-class submarine
 1 Lima-class submarine
 2 India-class submarine
 4 Bravo-class submarine
 1 Losos-class submarine

7 aircraft carriers / helicopter carriers
 1 Kuznetsov-class aircraft carrier
 4 Kiev-class aircraft carrier
 2 Moskva-class helicopter carrier

3 battlecruisers

 3 Kirov-class battlecruiser

30 cruisers
 3 Slava-class cruiser
 7 Kara-class cruiser
 4 Kresta I-class cruiser
 10 Kresta II-class cruiser
 4 Kynda-class cruiser
 2 Sverdlov-class cruiser

45 destroyers
 11 Sovremennyy-class destroyer
 11 Udaloy-class destroyer
 18 Kashin-class destroyer
 3 Kanin-class destroyer
 2 Kildin-class destroyer

113 frigates
 32 Krivak-class frigate
 1 Koni-class frigate
 18 Mirka-class frigate
 31 Petya-class frigate
 31 Riga-class frigate

124 corvettes
 10 Parchim-class corvette
 36 Nanuchka-class corvette
 78 Grisha-class corvette

35 amphibious warfare ships
 2 Ivan Rogov-class landing ship
 19 Ropucha-class landing ship
 14 Alligator-class landing ship
 6 Polnocny-class landing ship

≈425 patrol boats

Soviet Naval Aviation

The regular Soviet naval aviation units were created in 1918. They participated in the Russian Civil War, cooperating with the ships and the army during the combats at Petrograd, on the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, the Volga, the Kama River, Northern Dvina and on the Lake Onega. The newborn Soviet Naval Air Force consisted of only 76 obsolete hydroplanes. Scanty and technically imperfect, it was mostly used for resupplying the ships and the army.

In the second half of the 1920s, the Naval Aviation order of battle began to grow. It received new reconnaissance hydroplanes, bombers, and fighters. In the mid-1930s, the Soviets created the Naval Air Force in the Baltic Fleet, the Black Sea Fleet and the Soviet Pacific Fleet. The importance of naval aviation had grown significantly by 1938–1940, to become one of the main components of the Soviet Navy. By this time, the Soviets had created formations and units of the torpedo and bomb aviation.

Soviet Naval Infantry

During World War II, about 350,000 Soviet sailors fought on land. At the beginning of the war, the navy had only one brigade of marines in the Baltic fleet, but began forming and training other battalions. These eventually were:
 6 naval infantry regiments (650 marines in two battalions)
 40 naval infantry brigades of 5–10 battalions, formed from surplus ships' crews. Five brigades were awarded Gvardy (Guards) status.
 Numerous smaller units
 1 division - the 55th Marine Division, formerly an Red Army unit

The military situation demanded the deployment of large numbers of marines on land fronts, so the Naval Infantry contributed to the defense of Moscow, Leningrad, Odessa, Sevastopol, Stalingrad, Novorossiysk, Kerch. The Naval Infantry conducted over 114 landings, most of which were carried out by platoons and companies. In general, however, Naval Infantry served as regular infantry, without any amphibious training. They conducted four major operations: two during the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula, one during the Caucasus Campaign and one as part of the Landing at Moonsund, in the Baltic. During the war, five brigades and two battalions of naval infantry were awarded Guards status. Nine brigades and six battalions were awarded decorations, and many were given honorary titles. The title Hero of the Soviet Union was bestowed on 122 members of naval infantry units.

The Soviet experience in amphibious warfare in World War II contributed to the development of Soviet combined arms operations. Many members of the Naval Infantry were parachute trained, conducting more drops and successful parachute operations, than the Soviet Airborne Troops (VDV).

The Naval Infantry was disbanded in 1947, with some units being transferred to the Coastal Defence Forces.

In 1961, the Naval Infantry was re-formed and became one of the active combat services of the Navy. Each Fleet was assigned a Marine unit of regiment (and later brigade) size. The Naval Infantry received amphibious versions of standard Armoured fighting vehicle, including tanks used by the Soviet Army.

By 1989, the Naval Infantry numbered 18,000 marines, organized into a Marine Division and 4 independent Marine brigades;
 55th Marine Division, at Vladivostok
 63rd Guards Kirkenneskaya Brigade at Pechenga (Northern Fleet)
 175th Brigade, at Tumanny in the North
 336th Guards Brigade at Baltiysk (Baltic Fleet)
 810th Brigade, at Sevastopol (Black Sea Fleet)

By the end of the Cold War, the Soviet Navy had over eighty landing ships, as well as two Ivan Rogov-class landing ships. The latter could transport one infantry battalion with 40 armoured vehicles and their landing craft. (One of the Rogov ships has since been retired.)

At 75 units, the Soviet Union had the world's largest inventory of combat air-cushion assault craft. In addition, many of the 2,500 vessels of the Soviet merchant fleet (Morflot) could off-load weapons and supplies during amphibious landings.

On November 18, 1990, on the eve of the Paris Summit where the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE) Treaty and the Vienna Document on Confidence and Security-Building Measures (CSBMs) were signed, Soviet data were presented under the so-called initial data exchange. This showed a rather sudden emergence of three so-called coastal defence divisions (including the 3rd at Klaipėda in the Baltic Military District, the 126th in the Odessa Military District and seemingly the 77th Guards Motor Rifle Division with the Northern Fleet), along with three artillery brigades/regiments, subordinate to the Soviet Navy, which had previously been unknown as such to NATO. Much of the equipment, which was commonly understood to be treaty limited (TLE) was declared to be part of the naval infantry. The Soviet argument was that the CFE excluded all naval forces, including its permanently land-based components. The Soviet Government eventually became convinced that its position could not be maintained.

A proclamation of the Soviet government on July 14, 1991, which was later adopted by its successor states, provided that all "treaty-limited equipment" (tanks, artillery, and armored vehicles) assigned to naval infantry or coastal defense forces, would count against the total treaty entitlement.

Heads of the Soviet Naval Forces

Commanders of Naval Forces of the RSFSR ("KoMorSi")
 Vasili Mikhailovich Altfater (15 October 1918 – 22 April 1919),
 Yevgeny Andreyevich Berens (24 April 1919 – 5 February 1920),
 Aleksandr Vasiliyevich Nemits (5 February 1920 – 22 November 1921).

Commander-in-Chief's Assistant for Naval Affairs (from 27 August 1921)

Commanders-in-Chief of the Naval Forces of the USSR ("NaMorSi") (from 1 January 1924)
 Eduard Samoilovich Pantserzhansky (22 November 1921 – 9 December 1924),
 Vyacheslav Ivanovich Zof (9 December 1924 – 23 August 1926),
 Romuald Adamovich Muklevich (23 August 1926 – 11 June 1931),
 Fleet Flag-officer 1st Rank Vladimir Mitrofanovich Orlov (11 June 1931 – 15 August 1937),
 Fleet Flag-officer 2nd Rank Lev Mikhailovich Galler (10 July – 15 August 1937) Acting,
 Fleet Flag-officer 1st Rank Mikhail Vladimirovich Viktorov (15 August 1937 – 30 December 1937).

People's Commissars for the USSR Navy ("NarKom VMF USSR") (from 1938)
 Army Commissar 1st Rank Pyotr Alexandrovich Smirnov (30 December 1937 – 5 November 1938),
 Army Commander 1st Rank Mikhail Petrovich Frinovsky (5 November 1938 – 20 March 1939),
 Admiral Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov (from 27 April 1939).

Commanders-in-Chief of the Soviet Navy ("GlavKom VMF") (from 1943)
 Fleet Admiral Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov (to January 1947),
 Admiral Ivan Stepanovich Yumashev (17 January 1947 – 20 July 1951),
 Fleet Admiral of the Soviet Union Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov (20 July 1951 – 5 January 1956), second term,
 Fleet Admiral of the Soviet Union Sergey Georgyevich Gorshkov (5 January 1956 – 8 December 1985), considered the officer most responsible for reforming the Soviet Navy,
 Fleet Admiral Vladimir Nikolayevich Chernavin (8 December 1985 – December 1991; CIS Navy through August 1992).

See also
 Soviet Naval Aviation
 Soviet Naval Infantry
 Naval history of World War II
 1966 Soviet submarine global circumnavigation
 List of ships of the Soviet Navy
 List of USSR navy flags
 Morskaya Aviatsiya World War II Soviet Naval Air Service
 List of Russian admirals

References

Bibliography
 Goldstein, Lyle; Zhukov, Yuri (2004). "A Tale of Two Fleets: A Russian Perspective on the 1973 Naval Standoff in the Mediterranean". Naval War College Review.
 Goldstein, Lyle; John Hattendorf; Zhukov, Yuri. (2005) "The Cold War at Sea: An International Appraisal". Journal of Strategic Studies. ISSN 0140-2390
 Gorshkov, Sergeĭ Georgievich. Red Star Rising at Sea (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1974)

 Nilsen, Thomas; Kudrik, Igor; Nikitin, Aleksandr (1996). Report 2: 1996: The Russian Northern Fleet. Oslo/St. Petersburg: Bellona Foundation. . Chapter 8, "Nuclear submarine accidents".
 Oberg, James (1988). Uncovering Soviet Disasters. New York: Random House. .
 Rohwer, Jürgen, and Mikhail S. Monakov, Stalin's Ocean-Going Fleet: Soviet Naval Strategy and Shipbuilding Programmes, 1935–1953 (Psychology Press, 2001)

 Sontag, Sherry; Drew, Christopher; Drew, Annette Lawrence (1998). Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage. Harper. .

External links
 Russian Navy
 Globalsecurity.org page on the Soviet Navy.
 Admiral Gorshkov and the Soviet Navy
 Soviet Submarines
 Red Fleet
 Flags & Streamers
 Warship Listing
 Russian Navy Weapons
 All Soviet Warships – Complete Ship List (English)
 All Soviet Submarines – Complete Ship List (English)
 Understanding Soviet naval developments (English)

*
Category:Military of the Soviet Union
Category:Disbanded navies
Category:Military units and formations established in 1918
Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1991
Category:1918 establishments in Russia
Category:1991 disestablishments in the Soviet Union


Agdistis darwini

Agdistis darwini is a moth in the family Pterophoridae. It is known from South Africa.

References

Category:Agdistinae
Category:Moths of Africa
Category:Plume moths of Africa
Category:Moths described in 2009


John Kowalski

John Kowalski (born December 22, 1951 in Miłków, Poland) is a former coach of the professional United States soccer clubs Tampa Bay Mutiny (Major League Soccer), Pittsburgh Riverhounds (NASL) and Pittsburgh Spirit (MISL). He also briefly managed the United States national team in 1991, compiling a 2-0-1 record.

Kowalski was also the head coach of the 1989 and 1992 U.S. five-a-side (Futsal) teams which won a bronze medal in the Netherlands in 1989 and a silver medal in Hong Kong in 1992. Since the Futsal World Championship is a FIFA sanctioned event, the 1992 silver medal is the highest medal achievement the United States men's team has accomplished in FIFA worldwide soccer competition. The 1989 bronze was the first official US medal in a FIFA world competition.

He also coached the Robert Morris University women's soccer team from 2001 until 2019. With the Colonials, he amassed a career 112-224-19 record, and guided RMU to their first ever Northeast Conference Tournament appearance. Kowalski is also the head coach of  the Fort Pitt FC Regiment of the NPSL, and the U-14 Girls Stars United team, located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

References

Category:1951 births
Category:Living people
Category:American soccer coaches
Category:Tampa Bay Mutiny coaches
Category:Major League Soccer coaches
Category:Robert Morris Colonials coaches
Category:Polish emigrants to the United States
Category:United States men's national soccer team managers
Category:Pittsburgh Riverhounds SC coaches


Sandra Stotsky

Sandra Stotsky is Professor emerita in the Department of Education Reform  at the University of Arkansas, and held the 21st Century Chair in Teacher Quality. Her research ranges from teacher licensure tests, e.g., (1), coherence in the literature and reading curriculum, e.g., (2), and academic achievement in single-sex classrooms, e.g., (3)  to critiques of Common Core’s standards in English language arts, e.g., (4) mathematics.(5), and US History and civic education (6), and other aspects of the Common Core project, e.g., (7), and to reviews of books in education, e.g., (8)   She is an advocate of standards-based reform and strong academic standards and assessments for students and teachers.

From 2004 to 2006, she was a Research Scholar in the School of Education at Northeastern University. From 1984 to 2000, she was a research associate at the Harvard Graduate School of Education affiliated with the Philosophy of Education Research Center (PERC). For 12 years, she directed a summer institute on civic education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, sponsored by the Lincoln and Therese Filene Foundation. From 1991-1997, she served as editor of Research in the Teaching of English, the research journal sponsored by the National Council of Teachers of English. On a consultant basis from 1992 to 2002, she worked for the United States Information Service and the U.S. State Department on the development of civic education programs in Poland, Lithuania Ukraine, and Romania with educators and ministry officials in Eastern Europe. She has also worked on two UNESCO-sponsored curriculum development and teacher training projects, one in Amman, Jordan in 2006 with officials in the Afghan Ministry of Education, and one in Beirut, Lebanon in 2014 with educators from 20 Arab countries in the Middle East and North Africa.  She has taught elementary school, French and German at the high school level, and undergraduate and graduate courses in reading, children's literature, and writing pedagogy.

She is editor of and contributor to What's at Stake in the K-12 Standards Wars: A Primer for Educational Policy Makers (Peter Lang, 2000) and author of Losing Our Language (Free Press, 1999, reprinted by Encounter Books, 2002). Her most recent book is on teacher licensing regulations and tests (1).  Her publications address many areas and disciplines in education, including civic education. She currently serves on the Advisory Board for Pioneer's InstituteCenter for School Reform and the Carus Publishing Company and on the Board of Directors for the American Council of Trustees and Alumni and the National Association of Scholars. She is also on the Professional Development and Governmental Affairs Committees for the International Dyslexia Association. She served on Common Core’s Validation Committee (2009–2010),  the Massachusetts Board of Elementary and Secondary Education (2006–2010), and the Steering Committee for the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) reading assessment standards framework (2003–2004) for the 2009 assessment and beyond. She received a B.A. degree with distinction in French Literature from the University of Michigan and a doctorate in reading research and reading education with distinction from the Harvard Graduate School of Education.

While serving as Senior Associate Commissioner in the Massachusetts Department of Education from 1999 to 2003, she directed complete revisions of the state's preK-12 standards for every major subject that have been judged among the best in the country by independent experts for the Thomas B. Fordham Institute in two decades of reviews of state standards. On the 2005, 2007, 2009, 2011, and 2013 tests given by NAEP, Massachusetts students had the highest average scores in grades 4 and 8 in both mathematics and reading,  The scores of the state’s low-income students, compared with those in other states on NAEP's 2007 tests, were tied for first place in grades 4 and 8 mathematics and in grade 4 reading. In grade 8 reading, they were tied for second place.

For results on international tests in mathematics and science (TIMSS) given in 2007 and 2013, Massachusetts 4th graders ranked second worldwide in science achievement and tied for third in mathematics; the state’s 8th graders tied for first in science and ranked sixth in mathematics. The Bay State percent of public high school students passing Advanced Placement courses with a 3 or more is a larger percentage than in most other states in the nation and well above the national average of 15.2 percent.

She served on the National Mathematics Advisory Panel in 2006 and co-authored its final report: Foundations for Success, as well as two of its task group reports, one on Assessment, and the other on Conceptual Knowledge and Skills.

Essays

1.	An Empty Curriculum:  The Need to Reform Teacher Licensing Regulations and Tests.  (2015). Rowman & Littlefield. See, also,“Can a state department of education increase teacher quality? Lessons learned in Massachusetts.” With Lisa Haverty. (2004). In D. Ravitch (Ed.), Brookings papers on education policy, 2004 (pp. 131–180). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.

2.	The death and resurrection of a coherent literature curriculum: What secondary English teachers can do. (2012). Rowman & Littlefield.

3.	Single-sex classrooms and reading achievement: An exploratory study.  (2012).  Co-authored with George Denny.  Journal of School Choice, 6 (4), 439-464.

4.	How Common Core's ELA standards place college readiness at risk.  Co-authored with Mark Bauerlein.  (September 2012), Pioneer Institute White Paper # 89.  http://pioneerinstitute.org/download/how-common-cores-ela-standards-place-college-readiness-at-risk/

5.	Lowering the bar: How Common Core math fails to prepare students for STEM.  Co-authored with R. James Milgram. (September 2013).  Pioneer Institute White Paper #103.
http://pioneerinstitute.org/news/lowering-the-bar-how-common-core-math-fails-to-prepare-students-for-stem/

6.	Imperiling the Republic: The Fate of US History under Common Core. Co-authored with Ralph Ketcham and Anders Lewis. (September 2014). Pioneer Institute White Paper # 121. (http://pioneerinstitute.org/featured/study-common-core-ela-standards-will-further-harm-u-s-history-instruction/

7.	“An Invalid Validation of the Common Core Standards” (pp. 55–72) and “How Did Charlatans Ever Get to Design National English Standards, and Why Would We Respect Them?” (pp. 103–122).  In K. Lombard (Ed.), Common Ground on Common Core.  Madison, Wisconsin: Resounding Books, 2014.

8.	Essay review of Seven Myths about Education by Daisy Christodoulou, (London, UK: The Curriculum Centre, 2013). Journal of School Choice, 8, 3, 2014, 530-532.

Essay review of Finnish Lessons: What Can the World Learn from Educational Change in Finland by Pasi Sahlberg (NY: Teachers College Press, 2011). The Serpent in Finland’s Garden of Equity (March 2012). Policy Brief.  Boston: Pioneer Institute.  http://pioneerinstitute.org/pdf/120305_Finland_Stotsky.pdf

References

Category:American academics
Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
Category:Living people
Category:University of Arkansas faculty
Category:University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni
Category:Harvard Graduate School of Education alumni


National Intelligence Service (Burundi)

The National Intelligence Service (, or SNR) is the state intelligence agency of Burundi. The SNR is headed by a general administrator who reports directly to the President of Burundi, while its individual agents report both to the SNR hierarchy and the public prosecutor. It runs its own detention facilities and is separate from the National Police of Burundi (PNB) and the National Defence Force (FDN).

The SNR superseded the National Security Service (Surêté nationale) founded in 1984 which was widely known as the "National Documentation" (la documentation nationale). It was reorganised in 2006 under the regime of Pierre Nkurunziza with a mission of "research, centralization, and exploitation of all information of a political, security, economic and social nature necessary for the government to act to guarantee the security of the state". Its members wear plain clothes and are often recruited from among former members of the Forces for the Defense of Democracy (FDD) militia who fought for Nkurunziza in the Burundian Civil War. It is one of the few Burundian government institutions not subject to the system of ethnic quotas imposed by the Arusha Accords.

According to a 2006 report by Human Rights Watch (HRW), SNR agents "are known to be particularly brutal in carrying out their missions and to often act outside the law". It attributed 38 extrajudicial killings to SNR members in that year alone. The SNR has been accused of numerous human rights abuses in connection to the political unrest in Burundi since 2015. HRW subsequently documented numerous allegations of torture perpetrated by the SNR, sometimes in collaboration with the National Police during this period. In 2018 BBC News investigated allegations that the SNR had been running a "secret killing house" in Bujumbura where anti-government activists had been detained illegally, tortured, and killed.

General Administrators
Adolphe Nshimirimana (2004–2014)
Godefroid Niyombare (2014–2015)
Etienne Ntakirutimana (2015– )

See also
Guardians of the Peace, a pro-government militia active in 1997–2005

References

Bibliography

Category:Intelligence agencies
Category:1984 establishments in Burundi
Category:Law enforcement in Burundi
Category:Military units and formations established in 1984