Equine coat color genetics

Equine coat color genetics determine a horse's coat color. Many colors are possible, but all variations are produced by changes in only a few genes. Extension and agouti are particularly well-known genes with dramatic effects. Differences at the agouti gene determine whether a horse is bay or black, and a change to the extension gene can make a horse chestnut instead. Most domestic horses have a variant of the dun gene which saturates the coat with color so that they are bay, black, or chestnut instead of dun, grullo, or red dun. A mutation called cream is responsible for palomino, buckskin, and cremello horses. Pearl, champagne and silver dapple also lighten the coat, and sometimes the skin and eyes as well. Genes that affect the distribution of melanocytes create patterns of white such as in roan, pinto, leopard,  white, and even white markings. Finally, the gray gene causes premature graying, slowly adding white hairs over the course of several years until the horse looks white. Some of these patterns have complex interactions.

Most wild equids are bay dun, and so were many horses before domestication, though at least some were non-dun with primitive markings. Non-dun 1 is one of the oldest coat color mutations, and has been found in remains from 42,700 years ago, along with dun. Non-dun 2, the version of the dun gene that most domestic horses have, is thought to be much more recent, possibly from after domestication. Leopard complex patterns are also very old, having been found in horse remains from 20,000 years ago. The mutation causing black or grullo also predates domestication, and was especially common in the Iberia. The mutations causing chestnut, sabino 1, and tobiano are all at least 5000 years old, and happened at about the same time as horse domestication. Pearl appeared at least 3,400-4,200 years ago, and silver and cream appeared at least 2,400 years ago. The gray mutation is thought to be thousands of years old as well.

Fundamental concepts

Terminology
Heritable characteristics are transmitted, encoded, and used through a substance called DNA, which is stored in almost every cell in an organism. Proteins are molecules that do a variety of different things in organisms. The DNA instructions for how to make a protein are called a gene. A change to the sequence of DNA is called a mutation. Mutations are not inherently bad; in fact, all genetic diversity ultimately comes from mutations. Mutations that happen within a gene create alternate forms of that gene, which are called alleles. Alleles of a gene are simply slightly different versions of the instructions on how to make that gene's protein. The term "allele" is sometimes replaced with the word "modifier", because different alleles tend to modify the horse's appearance in some way. DNA is organized into storage structures called chromosomes. A chromosome is simply a very long piece of DNA, and a gene is a much shorter piece of it. With some rare exceptions, a gene is always found at the same place within a chromosome, which is called its locus. For the most part, chromosomes come in pairs, one chromosome from each parent. When both chromosomes have the same allele for a certain gene, that individual is said to be homozygous for that gene.  When the two alleles are different, it is heterozygous. A horse homozygous for a certain allele will always pass it on to its offspring, while a horse that is heterozygous carries two different alleles and can pass on either one. A trait that is only seen when the gene is homozygous for its allele is called recessive, and a trait that has the same effect no matter whether there is one copy or two is called dominant.

Notation
Often, the dominant allele is represented by an uppercase letter and the recessive allele by a lowercase letter. For instance, in silver dapple, this is Z for the dominant silver trait and z for the recessive non-silver trait. However, sometimes the alleles are distinguished by which is the "normal" or wild type allele and which is a more recent mutation. In our example z (non-silver) would be wild type and Z would be a mutation. Wild type alleles can be represented as + or n, so Zz, Zz+, Z/+, and Z/n are all valid ways to describe a horse heterozygous for silver. Wild type notation is mainly useful when there is no clear dominant/recessive relationship, such as with cream and frame overo, or when there are many alleles on the same gene, such as with MITF, which has four known alleles. Using n is also common in the results of genetic tests, where a negative result usually means none of the known mutations were found, but does not rule out undiscovered mutations.

Melanin
Genes affecting coat color generally do so by changing the process of producing melanin. Melanin is the pigment that colors the hairs and skin of mammals. There are two chemically distinct types of melanin: pheomelanin, which is a red to yellow color, and eumelanin, which is brown to black. Melanin is not a protein and therefore there is no gene that changes its structure directly, but there are many proteins involved in the production of melanin or the formation of melanocytes during embryonic development. Mutations that change the structure of proteins with a role in melanin production can result in slightly different variations of melanin. Genes affecting melanocytes, the cells that produce the pigment melanin, do not alter the structure of melanin but instead affect where and whether it is produced.

Extension

Extension, also called MC1R, is in charge of deciding when a hair follicle should produce red pigment and when it should produce black. When the MC1R protein produced by this gene works properly, it is capable of making the hair either red or black. When it is broken, it can only tell the hair to be red. It has no effect on skin color. E symbolizes Extension, and the working version is dominant over the broken version. That means that an E/E or E/e horse will be capable of producing either red or black pigment in the hairs. Black pigment may be restricted to the points, as in a bay, or uniformly distributed in a black coat. Meanwhile, a horse with the genotype e/e will only be able to color the hairs red, such as in a chestnut horse. Extension is also sometimes called "red factor" and can be identified through DNA testing. Horses with the genotype E/E are sometimes called "homozygous black", however depending on the mate there is no guarantee that offspring will be black coated, only that no offspring will be "red".

There are two known mutations to the extension gene in horses, both resulting in a chestnut color. The first to be discovered is symbolized by e, and is a change of a single cytosine to thymine at base pair 901 which results in the serine in position 83 being changed to a phenylalanine. The other is symbolized by ea, and is a change of a single guanine to adenine at base pair 903, resulting in aspartate being changed to asparagine at position 84 in the polypeptide. Visually there is no difference between the two, but some horses genetically tested before 2000 when the ea allele was discovered may have gotten incorrect results.

The extension gene is found on equine chromosome 3 and codes for the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R), which straddles the membrane of pigment cells (melanocytes). MC1R picks up a chemical called alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH), which is produced by the body, from outside the cell. When MC1R comes into contact with α-MSH, a complex reaction is triggered inside the cell, and the melanocyte begins to produce black-brown pigment (eumelanin). Without the stimulation of α-MSH, the melanocyte produces red-yellow pigment (pheomelanin) by default. Mutations that break protein function generally lead to recessively inherited lighter or redder coat colors in various mammals, while mutations that cause MC1R to be constantly active result in dominantly inherited black coats. In horses, both known mutations break the protein and therefore result in red coats.

Various mutations in the human MC1R gene result in red hair, blond hair, fair skin, and susceptibility to sunburnt skin and melanoma. Polymorphisms of MC1R also lead to light or red coats in mice, cattle, and dogs, among others. The Extension locus was first suggested to have a role in horse coat color determination in 1974 by Stefan Adalsteinsson. Researchers at Uppsala University, Sweden, identified a missense mutation in the MC1R gene that resulted in a loss-of-function of the MC1R protein. Without the ability to produce a functional MC1R protein, eumelanin production could not be initiated in the melanocyte, resulting in coats devoid of true black pigment. Since horses with only one copy of the defective gene were normal, the mutation was labeled e or sometimes Ee. A single copy of the wildtype allele, which encodes a fully functional MC1R protein, is protective against the loss-of-function. The normal or wildtype allele is labeled E, or sometimes E+ or EE.

Extension phenotypes

 E/E (+/+, E+/E+, EE/EE) wildtype, homozygous dominant. A horse with this genotype will be bay if it has the non-dun mutation and the wild-type version of every other allele. Otherwise, it could be black, seal brown, buckskin, perlino or smoky cream, bay dun or grullo, silver bay or silver black. They may also be gray or white. Horses that are E/E will always pass on a functional copy of the MC1R gene to its offspring, and will never produce offspring with the e/e genotype.
 E/e (+/e, E+/Ee, EE/Ee) wildtype, heterozygous. These horses can be any of the same colors as with E/E, but only have half a chance to pass on a functional MC1R allele. In addition, a recent study that compared horse genotypes to their coat color phenotypes did find a statistically significant connection that suggested that lighter bay shades were heterozygous for the Extension mutation (E/e) and darker bay shades were homozygous.
 e/e (Ee/Ee) homozygous recessive. A horse with this genotype will be chestnut if it has the non-dun mutation and the wild-type version of every other allele. Otherwise, it can be any of the red-based colors: red dun, palomino, cremello, gold champagne, and so on. Just like E/E horses, they can also be gray or white. Paired with an e/e mate, such horses will only ever produce red-family coat colors. At birth, the skin may be pink and the eyes blue, but these traits disappear after a few days and the eyes and skin of adult red coated horses are unaffected by this allele. No health defects are associated with MC1R mutations in horses.

Agouti
Agouti controls the restriction of true black pigment (eumelanin) in the coat. Horses with the normal agouti gene have the genotype A/A or A/a. Horses without a normal agouti gene have the genotype a/a, and if they are capable of producing black pigment, it is uniformly distributed throughout the coat. A third option, At, restricts black pigment to a black-and-tan pattern called seal brown. This allele is recessive to A and dominant to a, such that horses with the genotype A/At appear bay, while At/At and At/a horses are seal brown in the presence of a dominant Extension allele E.

The Agouti locus is occupied by the Agouti signalling peptide (ASIP) gene, which encodes the eponymous protein (ASIP). Agouti signalling peptide is a paracrine signaling molecule that competes with alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH) for melanocortin 1 receptor proteins (MC1R). MC1R relies on α-MSH to halt production of red-yellow pheomelanin, and initiate production of black-brown eumelanin in its place.

In many species, successive pulses of ASIP block contact between α-MSH and MC1R, resulting in alternating production of eumelanin and pheomelanin; hairs are banded light and dark as a result.  In other species, ASIP is regulated such that it only occurs in certain parts of the body. The light undersides of most mammals are due to the carefully controlled action of ASIP. In mice, two mutations on Agouti are responsible for yellow coats and marked obesity, with other health defects. Additionally, the Agouti locus is the site of mutations in several species that result in black-and-tan pigmentations. In normal horses, ASIP restricts the production of eumelanin to the "points": the legs, mane, tail, ear edges, etc. In 2001, researchers discovered a recessive mutation on ASIP that, when homozygous, left the horse without any ASIP. As a result, horses capable of producing true black pigment had uniformly black coats. One genetics testing lab began offering a test for At, but it was later found to be inaccurate and is no longer offered.

Agouti phenotypes
 A/A wildtype, homozygous. Visually, the horse may be bay, buckskin, bay dun, amber champagne, and so on, or gray, or any member of the red family. However, such a horse will never be black, grullo, and so on, nor will a homozygous A horse ever produce uniform-black offspring or seal brown offspring.
 A/At Heterozygous Agouti. Visually Indistinguishable from the homozygous A Bay colored horse.  Such horses are unable to produce black colored foals.
 A/a wildtype, Heterozygous Agouti. Visually Indistinguishable from homozygous A. With the right partner, such horses have the ability to produce black colored foals.
 At/At The hypothetical At would modify the coat by restricting eumelanin in the coat to the points of the horse (Legs, ears, mane and tail).  In the presence of at least one dominant E allele, this would result in a seal brown coat color. The body is dark brown to almost black with light brown to tan hairs on the muzzle, around the eyes and on the withers of the horse. Variations of the theorized brown/seal brown coat color include: dark buckskin (also referred to as smokey brown) - A brown based horse with 1 cream gene; Perlino - a brown horse with 2 cream genes; Brown Dun - A brown based horse with at least 1 dun gene; and Sable Champagne - A brown based coat with at least 1 Champagne gene.
 At/a Indistinguishable from the homozygous seal brown. Such horses have the ability to produce black and black based colored horses.
 a/a homozygous recessive. In the presence of a dominant E allele, the horse's coat will be black.  With the presence of a single cream gene, the coat will be smoky black, and with the presence of 2 cream genes the coat will be smoky cream.  The Presence of at least 1 Dun gene will result in a grullo colored coat (black dun). The presence of at least 1 Champagne gene will result in classic champagne coat, and the presence of at least 1 Silver gene will turn the black coat into a silver black coat, and so on.

Dun

Dun is one of several genes that control the saturation or intensity of pigment in the coat. Dun is unique in that it is simple dominant, affects eumelanin and pheomelanin equally, and does not affect the eyes or skin. Horses with the dominant D allele (D/D or D/d genotype) exhibit hypomelanism of the body coat, while d/d horses have otherwise intense, saturated coat colors. The mane, tail, head, legs, and primitive markings are not diluted. In some breeds, zygosity for Dun can be determined with an indirect DNA test.

The Dun locus is TBX3 on equine chromosome 8. The molecular cause behind the dun coat colors is not entirely understood, but the dilution effect comes from the placement of pigment in only part of the hair. The associated coat colors were assigned to the Dun locus in 1974 by Stefan Adalsteinsson, separate from Cream, with the presence of dun dilution indicated by the dominant D allele. The dominant D allele is relatively rare compared to the alternative d allele, and for this reason, the dominant allele is often treated as a mutation. However, the pervasive coat color among wild equids is in fact dun, and researchers from Darwin to modern day consider dun to be the wildtype state.

An older non-dun mutation was found in 2015 and named non-dun 1. It creates primitive markings but does not dilute the base color, and is co-dominant with the more common non-dun 2 but recessive to dun.

Dun phenotypes
 D/D (+/+, D+/D+) wildtype, homozygous dominant. Visually, the horse may be bay dun, grullo, red dun, palomino dun, amber dun, gray, and so on. Such a horse will always pass on the D allele and will therefore always have dun offspring.
 D/d (+/d, D+/Dd) wildtype, heterozygous. Visually indistinguishable from the homozygous D horse.
 d/d (Dd/Dd) non-dun, homozygous recessive. The entire coat, barring the influence of other alleles, is a rich, saturated color. The primitive markings are no longer visible. The horse may be chestnut, bay, black, gray, palomino, and so on.

Cream

Cream is another one of the genes that control the saturation or dilution of pigment in the coat. Cream differs from Dun in that it affects the coat, skin, and eyes, and unlike Dun, is dosage dependent rather than simple dominant. Furthermore, the effects on eumelanin and pheomelanin are not equal. Horses with the homozygous recessive genotype (C/C) are not affected by cream. Heterozygotes (CCr/C) have one cream allele and one wildtype non-cream allele. Such horses, sometimes called "single-dilutes", exhibit dilution red pigment in the coat, eyes, and skin to yellow or gold, while eumelanin is largely unaffected. Homozygotes (CCr/CCr) have two cream alleles, and are sometimes called "double-dilutes." Homozygous creams exhibit strong dilution of both red and black pigment in the coat, eyes, and skin to ivory or cream. The skin is rosy-pink and the eyes are pale blue. Cream is now identifiable by DNA test.

The Cream locus is occupied by the Solute carrier family 45, member 2 (SLC45A2) gene, also called the Membrane associated transport protein or Matp gene. The Matp gene encodes a protein illustrated to have roles in melanogenesis in humans, mice, and medaka, though the specific action is not known.

Mutations in the human Matp gene result in several distinct forms of Oculocutaneous albinism, Type IV as well as normal variations in skin and hair color. Mice affected by a condition homologous to cream, called underwhite, exhibit irregularly shaped melanosomes, which are the organelles within melanocytes that directly produce pigment. The first descriptions of the dosage-dependent genetic control of the palomino coat color occurred early on in equine coat color inheritance research. However, the distinction between Dun and Cream remained poorly understood until Stefan Adalsteinsson wrote Inheritance of the palomino color in Icelandic horses in 1974. The mutation responsible, a single nucleotide polymorphism in Exon 2 resulting in an aspartic acid-to-asparagine substitution (N153D), was located and described in 2003 by a research team in France.

Cream phenotypes
 C/C homozygous wildtype. Visually, the horse may be any color other than the cream dilute shades of palomino, buckskin, smoky black, cremello, perlino, smoky cream, and so on.
 CCr/C heterozygous. The colors most commonly associated with this genotype are palomino, buckskin, and smoky black, though the phenotype may vary depending on other factors. Any pheomelanin in the coat is diluted to yellow or gold, and the eyes and skin are often slightly lighter than unaffected horses.
 CCr/CCr homozygous. The colors most commonly associated with this genotype are cremello, perlino, and smoky cream. Regardless, the coat will be cream- or ivory-colored, and the skin a rosy-pink. The eyes are pale blue.

Champagne

Champagne is a gene that controls the saturation or dilution of pigment in the coat. Unlike Cream, Champagne is not strongly dosage-dependent, and affects both types of pigment equally. Champagne differs from Dun in that it affects the color of the coat, skin, and eyes, and in that the unaffected condition is the wildtype. Horses with the dominant CH allele (CH/CH or CH/ch genotype) exhibit hypomelanism of the body coat, such that phaeomelanin is diluted to gold and eumelanin is diluted to tan. Affected horses are born with blue eyes which darken to amber, green, or light brown, and bright pink skin which acquires darker freckling with maturity. The difference in phenotype between the homozygous (CH/CH) and heterozygous (CH/ch) horse may be subtle, in that the coat of the homozygote may be a shade lighter, with less mottling. Horses with the homozygous recessive genotype (ch/ch) are not affected by champagne. Champagne is now identifiable by DNA test.

The Champagne locus is occupied by the Solute carrier family 36, member 1 (SLC36A1) gene, which encodes the Proton-coupled amino acid transporter 1 (PAT1) protein. This protein is one of many which is involved in active transport. The gene associated with the Cream coat colors is also a solute carrier, and orthologous genes in humans, mice, and other species are also linked to coat color phenotypes. The single nucleotide polymorphism responsible for the champagne phenotype is a missense mutation in exon 2, in which a C is replaced with a G, such that a threonine is replaced with arginine. This mutation was identified and described by an American research team in 2008.

Champagne phenotypes
 ch/ch (N/N) wildtype, homozygous recessive. Visually, the horse may be any color other than the champagne shades.
 CH/ch (CH/N) heterozygous. The colors most commonly associated with this genotype are gold champagne, amber champagne, and classic champagne, though the exact phenotype depends on a variety of factors. At birth, the skin is bright pink and the eyes bright blue, darkening to freckled and light brown or green, respectively, with age. Both red and black pigment in the hair are also diluted.
 CH/CH homozygous champagne. Homozygotes, which will never produce non-champagne offspring, are indistinguishable from heterozygotes except that their freckling may be sparser, and their coats a shade lighter.

Alleles and effects

Notable color combinations

See also
Equine coat color
Tiger eye
Horse genome
Horse breeding
Ann T. Bowling

References

External links

 "Horse coat color tests" from the UC Davis Veterinary Genetics Lab
"Introduction to Coat Color Genetics" from Veterinary Genetics Laboratory, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis.  Web Site accessed January 12, 2008
"Horse Color Calculator" From Animal Genetics Incorporated. This creates the possible coat coloring of the offspring from the imputed color of sire and dam.
"Horse Genome Project" A quick summary of horse color genetics.

Genetics
Category:Equine genetics


Nadia Reisenberg

Nadia Reisenberg Sherman (14 July 1904 – 10 June 1983) was an American pianist of Lithuanian birth.

Biography

Nadia Reisenberg was born in Vilnius to a Jewish family. Her parents were Aaron and Rachel Reisenberg. Her sister Anna (Newta) was born two years later, and Clara in 1911 who later took the married name of Clara Rockmore and became renowned for her virtuosity on the theremin. The three sisters remained extremely close. When Nadia was six, her uncle Paul sent the family a piano, and Nadia immediately knew she would be at the keyboard for the rest of her life. Her talent demanded that the family move to St. Petersburg for study at the Conservatory, where the director, famed composer Alexander Glazunov, took a special interest in the gifted girl. She studied under Leonid Nikolayev at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory. Due to the upheavals of the October Revolution, she and her family returned to Vilnius, then traveled to Warsaw and Germany. They finally settled in New York in 1922.

Her son, Robert Sherman, teaches courses on "The Business of Music" at Juilliard and previously wrote music criticism for The New York Times for four decades.

Death

Reisenberg died in 1983 at the age of 78 in New York City, a year and a half after performing at Carnegie Hall for the last time.

Music career
Reisenberg gave concerts in the 1920s, particularly with her sister Clara Rockmore, but in 1930 went to study again and chose Josef Hofmann as a tutor. Reisenberg's most important concert activity took place in the 1940s. She was especially praised for her series of concerts encompassing all the piano concertos by Mozart, played (with Alfred Wallenstein conducting) for WOR, which was broadcast in the 1939/40 season. These concerts "made radio history".

Reisenberg continued to perform until the end of her life, and appeared at Carnegie Hall a total of 22 times. While she usually appeared as a soloist with the New York Philharmonic, she gave two recitals at the venue: an all-Tchaikovsky program on 13 November 1943, in commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the composer's death, and another of unknown repertoire on 21 November 1947. In later years, Reisenberg taught at the Juilliard School and was a frequent juror for the Leventritt Competition.

Legacy
Reisenberg's sons co-authored a biography on their mother, Nadia Reisenberg: A Musician's Scrapbook (1985). Since 2002, the Nadia Reisenberg Recital Award sponsored by The Nadia Reisenberg & Clara Rockmore Foundation takes place every two years at the Mannes School of Music in New York City.

References

External links
 Nadia Reisenberg Collection at the International Piano Archives at Maryland
 The Nadia Reisenberg & Clara Rockmore Foundation
 "Chopin helps Nadia Reisenberg, a forgotten pianist, come back to life" by Anthony Tommasini, The New York Times (5 January 2009)
 , Piano Sonata No. 52

Category:1904 births
Category:1983 deaths
Category:20th-century classical pianists
Category:American classical pianists
Category:American women classical pianists
Category:American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
Category:Juilliard School faculty
Category:Lithuanian Jews
Category:Musicians from New York City
Category:Piano pedagogues
Category:Jewish classical pianists
Category:20th-century American pianists
Category:20th-century American women musicians
Category:Educators from New York City
Category:Classical musicians from New York (state)
Category:Women music educators


Aurelia (gens)

The gens Aurelia was a plebeian family at Rome, which flourished from the third century BC to the latest period of the Empire.  The first of the Aurelian gens to obtain the consulship was Gaius Aurelius Cotta in 252 BC.  From then to the end of the Republic, the Aurelii supplied many distinguished statesmen, before entering a period of relative obscurity under the early emperors.  In the latter part of the first century, a family of the Aurelii rose to prominence, obtaining patrician status, and eventually the throne itself.  A series of emperors belonged to this family, through birth or adoption, including Marcus Aurelius and the members of the Severan dynasty.

In 212, the Constitutio Antoniniana of Caracalla (whose full name was Marcus Aurelius Severus Antoninus Augustus, with Aurelius as the nomen) granted Roman citizenship to all free residents of the Empire, resulting in vast numbers of new citizens who assumed the nomen Aurelius, in honour of their patron, including several emperors: seven of the eleven emperors between Gallienus and Diocletian (Claudius Gothicus, Quintillus, Probus, Carus, Carinus, Numerian and Maximian) bore the name "Marcus Aurelius". So ubiquitous was the name in the latter centuries of the Empire that it suffered abbreviation, as Aur., and it becomes difficult to distinguish members of the Aurelian gens from other persons bearing the name.

Origin
The nomen Aurelius is usually connected with the Latin adjective aureus, meaning "golden", in which case it was probably derived from the color of a person's hair.  However, Festus reports that the original form of the nomen was Auselius, and that the medial 's' was replaced by 'r' at a relatively early period; the same process occurred with the archaic nomina Fusia, Numisia, Papisia, Valesia, and Vetusia, which became Furia, Numeria, Papiria, Valeria, and Veturia in classical Latin.  According to Festus, Auselius was derived from a Sabine word for the sun.

Praenomina
All of the praenomina used by the chief families of the Aurelii were common throughout Roman history.  The Aurelii of the Republic primarily used Gaius, Lucius, Marcus, and Publius, to which the Aurelii Orestides added Gnaeus.  The Aurelii Fulvi of imperial times used Titus, Marcus, and Lucius, while the Aurelii Symmachi used Quintus and Lucius.

Branches and cognomina

There were three main stirpes of the Aurelii in republican times, distinguished by the cognomina Cotta (also spelled Cota), Orestes, and Scaurus.  Cotta and Scaurus appear on coins, together with a fourth surname, Rufus, which does not occur among the ancient writers.  A few personal cognomina are also found, including Pecuniola, apparently referring to the poverty of one of the Aurelii during the First Punic War.

Cotta, the surname of the oldest and most illustrious branch of the Aurelii under the Republic, probably refers to a cowlick, or unruly shock of hair; but its derivation is uncertain, and an alternative explanation might be that it derives from a dialectical form of cocta, literally "cooked", or in this case "sunburnt".  Marcus Aurelius Cotta, moneyer in 139 BC, minted an unusual denarius, featuring Hercules in a biga driven by centaurs, presumably alluding to some mythological event connected with the gens, but the exact symbolism is unknown.  The Aurelii Cottae were prominent from the First Punic War down to the time of Tiberius, after which they faded into obscurity.  The last of this family appearing in history include Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus, a friend of Tiberius, who squandered his family fortune through reckless prodigality, and his son, who received a stipend from Nero in order to maintain his household in a manner befitting his illustrious forebears.  The Cottae were related to Julius Caesar and Augustus through Aurelia Cotta, who was Caesar's mother.

The Aurelii Scauri were a relatively small family, which flourished during the last two centuries of the Republic.  Their surname, Scaurus, belongs to a common class of cognomina derived from an individual's physical features, and referred to someone with swollen ankles.

Orestes, the surname of a family that flourished for about a century toward the end of the Republic, was a Greek name, and belonged to a class of surnames of foreign origin, which appear during the middle and late Republic.  In Greek mythology, Orestes was the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, and avenged his father's murder by slaying his own mother, and after escaping the judgment of the Erinyes, became king of Mycenae.  The circumstances by which the name became attached to a branch of the Aurelii are unclear, but perhaps allude to some heroic deed, or military service in Greece.

The Aurelii Fulvi, who rose to prominence in imperial times, originally came from Nemausus in Gallia Narbonensis. Titus Aurelius Fulvus, the first of the family to attain the consulship, was made a patrician about AD 73 or 74.  In the second century, the Aurelii Fulvi obtained the Empire itself, when the consul's grandson, Titus Aurelius Fulvus, was adopted as the successor to Hadrian, becoming the emperor Antoninus Pius.  Most of the emperors who followed were born or adopted into the gens, through the end of the Severan dynasty.  The surname Fulvus was a common surname, referring to someone with yellowish, yellow-brown, tawny, or strawberry blond hair.

The Aurelii Galli were a family that achieved notability during the second century, attaining the consulship on at least three occasions.  Their surname, Gallus, had two common derivations, referring either to a cockerel, or to a Gaul.  In the latter case, it might indicate that the first of this family was of Gallic descent, that he was born in Gaul, that he had performed some noteworthy deed in Gaul, or that in some manner he resembled a Gaul.

The Aurelii Symmachi were one of the last great families of the western empire, holding the highest offices of the Roman state during the fourth and fifth centuries.  The Symmachi were regarded as members of the old Roman aristocracy, and acquired a reputation for their wisdom and learning.

Members

Aurelii Cottae
 Gaius Aurelius L. f. C. n. Cotta, consul in 252 and 248 BC, during the First Punic War, he fought against the Carthaginians in Sicily, taking the towns of Himera and Lipara, and receiving a triumph for his victories in the former year.  He was censor in 241, and magister equitum to the dictator Gaius Duilius in 231.
Gaius Aurelius C. f. L. n. Cotta, legate of the consul Claudius Marcellus in 216 BC.
Marcus Aurelius C. f. L. n. Cotta, plebeian aedile in 216 BC.  In 212, during the Second Punic War, he served under the consul Appius Claudius Pulcher at Puteoli.  He was appointed decemvir sacrorum in 203, and the following year was an ambassador to Philip V of Macedon.  He died in 201.
 Gaius Aurelius C. f. C. n. Cotta, praetor urbanus in 202 BC, and consul in 200, carried on the war against the Gauls in Italy.  When the enemy was defeated by the praetor Lucius Furius Purpureo, Cotta distracted himself by raiding and plundering the countryside.
 Marcus Aurelius M. f. C. n. Cotta, served as the legate of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus during the war against Antiochus III in 189 BC.  He brought Antiochus' ambassadors and other representatives of the east to Rome, where he gave his report to the senate.
 Lucius Aurelius C. f. C. n. Cotta, military tribune in 181 BC, was one of the commanders of the third legion in the war against the Ligures, together with Sextus Julius Caesar.
 Lucius Aurelius L. f. C. n. Cotta, as tribune of the plebs in 154 BC, attempted to use his sacrosanctity as tribune to evade his creditors.  Consul in 144 BC, he was denied the command against Viriathus through the influence of Scipio Aemilianus, who subsequently accused him of various crimes.  Cotta was acquitted, chiefly out of spite against Scipio.
 Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Cotta, consul in 119 BC, attempted to prosecute Gaius Marius, then tribune of the plebs, for a law he had proposed to reduce the influence of the optimates in the comitia.  Marius threatened to imprison Cotta, and the senate abandoned the consul's scheme.
 Marcus Aurelius (L. f. L. n.) Cotta, triumvir monetalis in 139 BC.  He married Rutilia, the sister of Publius Rutilius Rufus, consul in 105, and their three sons Marcus, Gaius, and Lucius became consuls in 74, 75, and 65 respectively.
 Aurelia L. f. L. n., the wife of Gaius Julius Caesar, proconsul of Asia early in the first century BC, and mother of the dictator Caesar.
 Lucius Aurelius (L. f. L. n.) Cotta, triumvir monetalis in 105 BC and tribune of the plebs circa 103; he tried to obstruct the prosecution of Quintus Servilius Caepio by the tribune Gaius Norbanus, but failed.  He was praetor in an uncertain year; Broughton places his praetorship circa 95.  Cicero describes him as a mediocre orator, who deliberately presented himself as a rustic.
 Marcus Aurelius M. f. L. n. Cotta, consul in 74 BC, received the province of Bithynia during the war with Mithradates.  He was defeated, and lost his entire fleet, for which he blamed his quaestor, Publius Oppius, whom Cicero defended.  Cotta himself was later condemned for extortion in his province, on the accusation of Gaius Papirius Carbo.
 Gaius Aurelius M. f. L. n. Cotta, a distinguished orator, praised by Cicero.  During the Social War, he had supported the cause of the allies, and was subsequently exiled until 82 BC.  Consul in 75, he attempted to reverse one of Sulla's most onerous laws, arousing the ire of the optimates.  He was granted a triumph for his successes as proconsul of Gaul, but died from an old wound on the day before the ceremony.
 Lucius Aurelius M. f. L. n. Cotta, as praetor in 70 BC, carried the lex Aurelia iudiciaria, expanding the classes of persons who could serve on juries. He became consul in 65, after accusing the consuls elect of ambitus, and became a target of the First Catilinarian conspiracy.  He was censor in 64, but the tribunes of the plebs compelled him to resign.  He was an ally of both Cicero and Caesar.
 Marcus Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta, son of the consul of 74 BC, upon assuming the toga virilis, avenged his father by charging Carbo, his father's accuser, of extortion in his province, the same crime for which the elder Cotta had been condemned. Probably the same Cotta who as propraetor of Sardinia in 49, fled to Africa before the arrival of Caesar's legate, Quintus Valerius Orca.
 Marcus Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta, probably a son of the propraetor Marcus, adopted a son of Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, who became Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus.
 Marcus Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta Maximus Messalinus, son of Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, was adopted into the gens Aurelia.  He was consul in AD 20, and an intimate friend of the emperor Tiberius.  He gained a reputation for hostility and cruelty, causing a number of leading senators to accuse him of majestas.  The emperor, however, defended him in a missive to the senate, whereupon Messalinus was acquitted.  He was also the patron of Ovid.
 Aurelius M. f. M. n. Cotta, a nobleman who received an annual stipend from the Emperor Nero in AD 58, because he had dissipated his family estate in profligacy.  He was doubtless the son of Marcus Aurelius Cotta Maximus Messalinus.

Aurelii Scauri
 Gaius Aurelius Scaurus, praetor in 186 BC, was assigned the province of Sardinia.
 Marcus Aurelius M. f. Scaurus, triumvir monetalis in 118 BC, perhaps the same as the consul of 108.
 Marcus Aurelius Scaurus, consul suffectus in 108 BC.  As a legate in Gaul in 105, he was defeated and captured by the Cimbri at the Battle of Arausio.  Scaurus was slain by the Cimbric chief, Boiorix, when he warned his captors that they could not hope to defeat Rome.
 Marcus Aurelius (M. f.) Scaurus, a quaestor mentioned in Cicero's oration against Verres.

Aurelii Orestides
 Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, consul in 157 BC.
 Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, consul in 126 BC, was sent against the Sardinians, over whom he triumphed in 122. Gaius Gracchus and Marcus Aurelius Scaurus served under his command.  Orestes and his brother, Gaius, were orators mentioned in passing by Cicero.
 Gaius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, and his brother, Lucius, were orators briefly mentioned by Cicero.
 Lucius Aurelius L. f. L. n. Orestes, consul in 103 BC, with Gaius Marius as his colleague.  Orestes died during his year of office.
 Gnaeus Aurelius Orestes, praetor urbanus in 77 BC, issued a decision that was appealed to the consul Mamercus Aemilius Lepidus.  Lepidus sustained the appeal, negating Orestes' decision.  Broughton identifies him with the consul of 71.
 Gnaeus Aurelius Cn. f. Orestes, adopted by Gnaeus Aufidius, the historian, assuming the name of Gnaeus Aufidius Orestes.  After he failed to win election as tribune of the plebs, he succeeded in obtaining the consulship for 71 BC.  Cicero, however, suggests that his election was due largely to the lavish gifts that he distributed among the people.
 Aurelia Orestilla, the second wife of Catiline, who reputedly slew his grown son in order to overcome her objection to their marriage.  According to Cicero's correspondent, Marcus Caelius Rufus, Aurelia's daughter was betrothed to Quintus Cornificius.

Aurelii Fulvi
 Titus Aurelius Fulvus, the grandfather of the emperor Antoninus Pius, was legate of the third legion during the reign of Nero, and subsequently a supporter of Vespasian, under whom he served as consul suffectus circa AD 71, and governor of Hispania Citerior from 75 to 78.  He was consul for the second time in 85, together with the emperor Domitian.  At one time, he was praefectus urbi.
 Titus Aurelius T. f. Fulvus, the father of Antoninus Pius, was consul in AD 89, for the first four months of the year.
 Titus Aurelius T. f. T. n. Fulvus, afterwards Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius, emperor from AD 138 to 161.  He had been consul in AD 120, then distinguished himself as Proconsul of Asia, and was adopted by Hadrian shortly before the emperor's death.
 Marcus Aurelius T. f. T. n. Fulvus Antoninus, a son of Antoninus Pius, who must have died before AD 138, as Antoninus had no living sons when he was adopted by Hadrian.
 Marcus Galerius Aurelius T. f. T. n. Antoninus, another son of Antoninus Pius, must also have died before AD 138.
 Aurelia T. f. T. n. Fadilla, daughter of Antoninus Pius, and wife of Lucius Aelius Lamia Silvanus, died shortly after her father was appointed governor of Asia.
 Anna Galeria T. f. T. n. Faustina, another daughter of Antoninus Pius, married her cousin, Marcus Aurelius, and was empress from AD 161 to her death, about 175.  She was noted for her extravagance and intrigues, which the emperor appears to have indulged, or at least tolerated.
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, born Marcus Annius Verus, a nephew of Antoninus Pius, by whom he was adopted on the orders of Hadrian in AD 138, and whom he succeeded as emperor from 161 to 180.
 Lucius Aurelius Verus, born Lucius Ceionius Commodus, was adopted by Antoninus Pius upon the latter's adoption by Hadrian in AD 138.  He was appointed emperor together with Marcus Aurelius in 161, reigning until his death in 169.
 Annia Aurelia M. f. Galeria Lucilla, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, married the emperor Lucius Verus.  When he died young, a rumour began that Lucilla had poisoned him.  Her second husband was the general Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, whom she despised as her inferior.  She joined a plot against her brother, the emperor Commodus, but after being detected was banished to Capreae, where she was put to death about AD 183.
 Annia Galeria M. f. Aurelia Faustina, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, and wife of Gnaeus Claudius Severus, consul in AD 167.  Their son, Tiberius Claudius Severus Proculus, was consul in 200.
 Titus Aelius Aurelius M. f., son of Marcus Aurelius, probably died young.
 Titus Aurelius M. f. Fulvus Antoninus Geminus, son of Marcus Aurelius and twin brother of Commodus, died at the age of four, circa AD 165.
 Domitia M. f. Faustina, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, apparently died young.
 Lucius Aurelius M. f. Commodus Antoninus, son of Marcus Aurelius, emperor from AD 177 to 192.  After a promising beginning, he gave himself over to luxury, self-indulgence, and tyranny.  He was assassinated at the end of 192.
 Annia Aurelia M. f. Fadilla, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, married Marcus Peducaeus Plautius Quintillus.
 Vibia Aurelia M. f. Sabina, daughter of Marcus Aurelius, married Lucius Antistius Burrus.

Aurelii Galli
 Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul suffectus in an uncertain year between AD 128 and 133.
 Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul suffectus Ex. Kal. Jul. in AD 146.
 Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul in AD 174.
 Lucius Aurelius Gallus, consul in AD 198.
 Lucius Aurelius Gallus, governor of Moesia Inferior from AD 201 to about 204.

Aurelii Symmachi

 Marcus Aurelius Valerius Tullianus Symmachus, proconsul of Achaea, to whom two laws of Constantine the Great were sent in AD 319, and consul in 330.
 Lucius Aurelius M. f. Avianius Symmachus, praefectus urbi in AD 364, and consul suffectus circa 376.  He was a superb diplomat, and among the most esteemed members of the senate.
 Quintus Aurelius L. f. M. n. Symmachus, one of the most respected scholars and rhetoricians of the late fourth century, and a passionate defender of Rome's pagan traditions.  He was banished by Gratian, but recalled by Valentinian I, and appointed praefectus urbi in AD 384.  He was consul in 391.
 Quintus Fabius Q. f. L. n. Memmius Symmachus, held a number of high offices, including the quaestorship and praetorship, before becoming proconsul of Africa in AD 415.  He was praefectus urbi in AD 418.
 Quintus Aurelius (Q. f. Q. n.) Symmachus, consul in AD 446 with Flavius Aëtius.
 Quintus Aurelius Q. f. (Q. n.) Memmius Symmachus, consul in AD 485, and praefectus urbi, was the father-in-law of Boëthius.

Others
 Publius Aurelius Pecuniola, a kinsman of the consul Gaius Aurelius Cotta, under whom he served during the siege of Lipara in 252 BC.  As a result of his negligence, his camp was set on fire, and nearly captured.  As a punishment, Pecuniola was scourged, and demoted to the rank of legionary.
 Aurelius Opilius, a freedman who became a philosopher, rhetorician, and grammarian, and a friend of Publius Rutilius Rufus, whom he accompanied into exile at Smyrna, around 92 BC.
 Aurelius Cornelius Celsus, a physician, perhaps named Aulus, rather than Aurelius.  He probably lived in the time of Augustus, or at the latest in the mid-first century.  He employed a scientific approach to medicine, and his treatise, De Medicina, in eight books, still survives.
 Lucius Aurelius Priscus, consul suffectus in AD 67.
 Quintus Aurelius Pactumeius Fronto, consul suffectus in AD 80.  He entered office on the Kalends of March, and held the consulate for two months.
 Titus Aurelius Quietus, consul suffectus in AD 82.  He served from the Kalends of September, perhaps until the end of the year.
 Aurelia Messalina, the wife of Ceionius Postumius and mother of Decimus Clodius Albinus.
 Aurelius, a physician, one of whose prescriptions is quoted by Galen.
 Marcus Aurelius Cleander, a freedman of Commodus, whom the emperor entrusted with the maintenance of his household, and then the imperial bureaucracy.  He enriched himself by selling magistracies, but following a grain shortage in AD 190, the praefectus annonae incited a riot against him.  The emperor made no effort to defend his favourite, who was put to death to placate the mob.
 Quintus Aurelius Polus Terentianus, governor of Dacia in 193.
 Lucius Aurelius Commodus Pompeianus, consul in AD 209.
 Aurelius Philippus, the tutor of Alexander Severus, who afterward wrote a life of the emperor.
 Lucius Julius Aurelius Septimius Vabalathus Athenodorus, king of the Palmyrene Empire.
 Marcus Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus, an esteemed poet during the reign of the emperor Carus, and the author of Cynegetica, a treatise on hunting with dogs, most of which has been lost.  Several fragments of his other works have survived.
 Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, a jurist, who probably flourished during the fourth century.
 Sextus Aurelius Victor, a Latin historian of the fourth century, and the author of several important historical and biographical works.  He was consul with the emperor Valentinian I in AD 373.
 Aurelius Clemens Prudentius, a jurist, poet, and Christian philosopher of the late fourth and early fifth century.

Stemma of the Aurelii Cottae
Stemma made from Münzer and Badian.

See also
 List of Roman gentes
 Lucius Domitius Aurelianus, emperor from 270 AD to 275 AD.
 Aurelius, one of the Martyrs of Córdoba - see Aurelius and Natalia
 Ambrosius Aurelianus, possible historical basis for King Arthur
 Saint Aurelius, a fifth-century Christian saint
 Contarini

Footnotes

References

Bibliography

Ancient sources

Marcus Tullius Cicero, Academica Priora, Brutus, De Domo Sua, De Lege Agraria contra Rullum, De Legibus, De Officiis, De Oratore, Divinatio in Quintum Caecilium, Epistulae ad Atticum, Epistulae ad Familiares, In Catilinam, In Pisonem, In Verrem, Orator ad Marcum Brutum, Philippicae, Pro Fonteio, Pro Murena, Pro Plancio, Pro Sestio.
Marcus Caelius Rufus, Apud Ciceronis ad Familiares.
Gaius Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Civili.
 Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Bellum Catilinae (The Conspiracy of Catiline), Historiae (The Histories).
Cornelius Nepos, De Viris Illustribus (On the Lives of Famous Men).
 Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace), Satirae (Satires).
 Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome.
Marcus Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History.
Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings).
Quintus Asconius Pedianus, Commentarius in Oratio Ciceronis In Cornelio (Commentary on Cicero's Oration In Cornelio).
Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella, De Re Rustica.
 Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), Historia Naturalis (Natural History).
Sextus Julius Frontinus, Strategemata (Stratagems).
 Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (Quintilian), Institutio Oratoria (Institutes of Oratory).
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales, Historiae, De Origine et Situ Germanorum (The Origin and Situation of the Germans, or "Germania").
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De Vita Caesarum (Lives of the Caesars, or The Twelve Caesars), De Illustribus Grammaticis (On the Illustrious Grammarians).
 Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Bella Mithridatica (The Mithridatic Wars), Bellum Civile (The Civil War).
 Aelius Galenus (Galen), De Compositione Medicamentorum Secundum Locos Conscriptorum (On the Composition of Medications According to the Place Prescribed).
 Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus (Cassius Dio), Roman History.
Herodianus, History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus.
 Aelius Lampridius, Aelius Spartianus, Flavius Vopiscus, Julius Capitolinus, Trebellius Pollio, and Vulcatius Gallicanus, Historia Augusta (Augustan History).
Eutropius, Breviarium Historiae Romanae (Abridgement of the History of Rome).
Sextus Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus (On the Caesars), De Viris Illustribus (On Famous Men).
Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae.
Codex Theodosianus.
Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, Epistulae.
Paulus Orosius, Historiarum Adversum Paganos (History Against the Pagans).
Digesta, or Pandectae (The Digest).
Paulus, Epitome de Sex. Pompeio Festo de Significatu Verborum (Epitome of Festus' De Significatu Verborum).
Joannes Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum (Epitome of History).

Modern sources

Jan Gruter, Inscriptiones Antiquae Totius Orbis Romani (Ancient Inscriptions from the Whole Roman World), Heidelberg (1603).
Ludovico Antonio Muratori, Novus Thesaurus Veterum Inscriptionum (New Treasury of Ancient Inscriptions), Milan (1739–42).
Johann Christian Wernsdorf, Poëtae Latini Minores (Minor Latin Poets), Altenburg, Helmstedt (1780–1799).
Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum Veterum (The Study of Ancient Coins, 1792–1798).
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849).
Theodor Mommsen et alii, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated CIL), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present).
 René Cagnat et alii, L'Année épigraphique (The Year in Epigraphy, abbreviated AE), Presses Universitaires de France (1888–present).
 George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII (1897).
Friedrich Münzer, Roman Aristocratic Parties and Families, translated by Thérèse Ridley, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999 (originally published in 1920).
T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952).
Ernst Badian, Studies in Greek and Roman History, Blackwell (1964).
Anthony R. Birley, Marcus Aurelius, B. T. Batsford, London (1966).
 Geza Alföldy, Fasti Hispanienses, F. Steiner, Wiesbaden (1969).
Michael Crawford, Roman Republican Coinage, Cambridge University Press (1974, 2001).
T. P. Wiseman, "Legendary Genealogies in Late-Republican Rome", Greece & Rome, Second Series, Vol. 21, No. 2 (Oct., 1974), pp. 153–164.
Dicţionar de istorie veche a României (Dictionary of Ancient Romanian History), Editura Ştiinţifică şi Enciclopedică (1976).
Paul A. Gallivan, "Some Comments on the Fasti for the Reign of Nero", in Classical Quarterly, vol. 24, pp. 290–311 (1974), "The Fasti for A.D. 70–96", in Classical Quarterly, vol. 31, pp. 186–220 (1981).
Brian W. Jones, The Emperor Domitian, Routledge, London (1992).
Benet Salway, "What’s in a Name?  A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700", in Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 84, pp. 124–145 (1994).
John C. Traupman, The New College Latin & English Dictionary, Bantam Books, New York (1995).

External links

Category:Roman gentes

Category:Nerva–Antonine dynasty


List of songs recorded by Saves the Day

The following is a sortable table of all songs by Saves the Day:

The column Song list the song title.
The column Writer(s) lists who wrote the song.
The column Album lists the album the song is featured on.
The column Producer lists the producer of the song.
The column Year lists the year in which the song was released.
The column Length list the length/duration of the song.

Studio recordings

See also
 Saves the Day discography

References
 Footnotes
Available for download when purchasing a copy of In Reverie (2003) on CD.
Later included on the rarities collection Ups & Downs: Early Recordings and B-Sides (2004).
Bonus tracks on the Japanese edition of Daybreak (2011).

 Citations

Saves the Day


Divisions of the Australian House of Representatives

In Australia, electoral districts for the Australian House of Representatives are called divisions  or more commonly referred to as electorates or seats. There are currently 151 single-member electorates for the Australian House of Representatives.

Constitutional and legal requirements
Section 24 of the Constitution of Australia requires that the total number of members of the Australian House of Representatives shall be "as nearly as practicable" twice as many as the number of members of the Australian Senate. The section also requires that electorates be apportioned among the states in proportion to their respective populations; provided that each original state has at least 5 members in the House of Representatives, a provision that has given Tasmania higher representation than its population would justify. There are also three electorates in the Australian Capital Territory and two in the Northern Territory.

In addition, Section 29 forbids electorate boundaries from crossing state lines, forcing populated areas along state and territory borders to be placed in different electorates, such as Albury in New South Wales being part of the electorate of Farrer, while nearby Wodonga in Victoria is part of the electorate of Indi. The same restriction does not apply to territories, and several current electoral divisions incorporate electors from multiple territories. This is currently the case for the Division of Bean (covering part of the ACT and the whole of Norfolk Island), the Division of Fenner (covering part of the ACT and the whole of Jervis Bay Territory), and the Division of Lingiari (covering part of the Northern Territory and the whole of Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands).

The Commonwealth Electoral Act 1918 sets out further provisions.

Apportionment

The Australian Electoral Commission (AEC) determines from time to time the number of members to which each state and territory is entitled and the boundaries of each electorate, in a process known in Australia as redistribution.

Within each state and territory, electoral boundaries are redrawn from time to time. This takes place at least once every 7 years, or when the state's entitlement to the number of members of the House of Representatives changes. Boundaries are drawn by a Redistribution Committee, and apportionment within a state is on the basis of the number of enrolled voters rather than total residents or "population".

The number of enrolled voters in each division cannot vary by more than 10% from the average across a state or territory, nor can the number of voters vary by more than 3.5% from the average projected enrolment 3.5 years into the future. However, due to various reasons, larger seats like Cowper (New South Wales) contain 80% more electors than that of smaller seats like Solomon (Northern Territory).

The last redistribution was completed in 2018, in time for the 2019 federal election. In this redistribution, the AEC added a seat to Victoria and the Australian Capital Territory, and also determined that South Australia would lose a seat. The total number of seats in the House of Representatives therefore increased to 151. Seats in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia were also abolished, in order to make way for seats in similar locations but with different names.

Naming
The Divisions of the House of Representatives are unusual in that many of them are not named after geographical features or numbered, as is the case in most other legislatures around the world. Most Divisions are named in honour of prominent historical people, such as former politicians (often Prime Ministers), explorers, artists and engineers.

In some cases where a Division is named after a geographical locality, the connection to that locality is sometimes tenuous. For instance, the Division of Werriwa, created in 1901, was named after the Aboriginal word for Lake George in the Canberra region. However, Werriwa has not contained Lake George for many decades, and has steadily moved some 200 km north to the south-western suburbs of Sydney over the past century.

List of Divisions in 2019
The lists below show the Divisions as they exist at the 2019 Australian federal election.

New South Wales

There are 47 Divisions in New South Wales:

Victoria

There are 38 Divisions in Victoria:

Queensland

There are 30 Divisions in Queensland:

Western Australia

There are 16 Divisions in Western Australia:

South Australia

There are 10 Divisions in South Australia:

Tasmania

There are 5 Divisions in Tasmania:

Australian Capital Territory

There are 3 Divisions in the Australian Capital Territory:

Northern Territory

There are 2 Divisions in the Northern Territory:

Abolished divisions
These Australian Divisions no longer exist:

Angas (1903–34) (SA)
Angas (1949–77) (SA)
Australian Capital Territory (1949–74) (ACT)
Balaclava (1901–84) (VIC)
Barrier (1901–22) (NSW)
Batman (1906–2019) (VIC)
Bland (1901–06) (NSW)
Bonython (1955–2004) (SA)
Bourke (1901–49) (VIC)
Burke (1949–55) (VIC)
Burke (1969–2004) (VIC)
Canobolas (1901–06) (NSW)
Charlton (1984–2016) (NSW)
Cook (1906–55) (NSW)
Coolgardie (1901–13) (WA)
Corinella (1901–06) (VIC)
Corinella (1990–96) (VIC)
Dalley (1901–69) (NSW)
Dampier (1913–22) (WA)
Darebin (1949–69) (VIC)
Darling (1901–77) (NSW)
Darling Downs (1901–84) (QLD)
Darwin (1903–55) (TAS)
Denison (1903–2019) (TAS)
Diamond Valley (1969–84) (VIC)
Dundas (1977–93) (NSW)
East Sydney (1901–69) (NSW)
Echuca (1901–37) (VIC)
Evans (1949–77) (NSW)
Fawkner (1906–69) (VIC)
Fraser (1974–2016) (ACT)
Grampians (1901–22) (VIC)
Gwydir (1901–2007) (NSW)
Hawker (1969–93) (SA)
Henty (1913–90) (VIC)
Higinbotham (1949–69) (VIC)
Hoddle (1949–55) (VIC)
Illawarra (1901–22) (NSW)
Isaacs (1949–69) (VIC)
Kalgoorlie (1901–2010) (WA)
Laanecoorie (1901–13) (VIC)
Lang (1901–77) (NSW)
Lawson (1949–69) (NSW)
Lowe (1949–2010) (NSW)
Martin (1922–55) (NSW)
McMillan (1949–2019) (VIC)
Melbourne Ports (1901–2019) (VIC)
Mernda (1901–13) (VIC)
Moira (1901–06) (VIC)
Murray (1949–2019) (VIC)
Namadgi (1996–98) (ACT)
Nepean (1906–22) (NSW)
Northern Melbourne (1901–06) (VIC)
Northern Territory (1922–2001) (NT)
Oxley (1901–34) (QLD)
Parkes (1901–69) (NSW)
Phillip (1949–93) (NSW)
Port Adelaide (1949–2019) (SA)
Prospect (1969–2010) (NSW)
Riverina-Darling (1984–93) (NSW)
Scullin (1955–69) (VIC)
South Australia (1901–03) (SA)
South Sydney (1901–34) (NSW)
Southern Melbourne (1901–06) (VIC)
St George (1949–93) (NSW)
Streeton (1984–90) (VIC)
Tasmania (1901–03) (TAS)
Throsby (1984–2016) (NSW)
Wakefield (1903–2019) (SA)
Watson (1934–69) (NSW)
West Sydney (1901–69) (NSW)
Wilmot (1903–84) (TAS)
Wimmera (1901–77) (VIC)
Yarra (1901–69) (VIC)

See also
List of members of the Australian House of Representatives
Australian electoral system

External links
Adam Carr's Electoral Archive: Index of House of Representatives Divisions 1901–2001

References

Category:Politics of Australia
Category:Subdivisions of Australia
Australia
Category:Australia politics-related lists
Category:Australian House of Representatives


Kenneth Tin-Kin Hung

Kenneth Tin-Kin Hung (, born 1976) is a Chinese-American new media artist who lives and works in New York. He earned his Bachelor of Arts in Arts degree from San Francisco State University. Hung's works are digital collages of popular culture and current events. His media includes hi-definition video animation, video games, net.art, digital graphics and mixed-media installations. Hung has been called the "John Heartfield of Digital Era". He loans 5 percent of his art earnings to low-income entrepreneurs listed on Kiva Microfunds.

Exhibitions

His work has been exhibited at the New Museum, New York; Yerba Buena Center for the Arts, San Francisco; Berkeley Art Museum, Berkeley, California; Sundance Film Festival, Park City, Utah; Postmasters Gallery, New York; Cartwright Hall, Bradford, United Kingdom; Urbis, Manchester, United Kingdom; Galerie Guy Bärtschi, Geneva, Switzerland; Hebbel Am Ufer theatre, Berlin, Germany and ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, Aarhus, Denmark.

Awards

Tribeca Film Institute Media Arts Fellowships
"VIPER International Award- Internet" in Switzerland
"Honorary Mention- Net Excellence" in the 2002 Prix Ars Electronica.

Works

腦殘遊記 The Travelogue of Dr. Brain Damages (2011)
In G.O.D. We Trust (2009)
Gas Zappers (2008)
Residential Erection (2008)
Because Washington Is Hollywood For Ugly People (2007)
Global Presidential Election (2003)
60X1.CAM ULTIMATE INTERACTIVE WEBCAM SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM FOR HOMELAND SECURITY (2003)
www.111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111.com (2001–present)

Commission Works

In 2004 he is commissioned by architect Rem Koolhaas and Office for Metropolitan Architecture to design the cover of their book "Content".
He is hired to design and create illustrations for electroclash artist Felix Da Housecat's album "Devin Dazzle & the Neon Fever".
He provides designs and illustration for hip-hop artist The Coup's album "Pick A Bigger Weapon".
He designs and illustrates Italian ska artist Roy Paci & Arestuka's "SuonoGlobal" album.
He is hired by Lane Crawford to create large pop-up book sculptures for their 2009 "Popstatic" campaign.

Press

His work has been reviewed in the following publication among many others:
The New York Times
Art in America
The Village Voice
Libération
Le Monde
El Pais
Der Spiegel
La Repubblica
Art Asia Pacific
San Francisco Bay Guardian
The Miami Herald

He is represented by Postmasters Gallery in New York, U.S.A. and Galerie Guy Bärtschi in Geneva, Switzerland.

External links
artist official home page

References

Additional References

Category:1976 births
Category:Living people
Category:American digital artists


Campbell Soup Company

The Campbell Soup Company, also known as just Campbell's, is an American processed food and snack company.  As the name implies, the company is most closely associated with its flagship canned soup products, however it has through mergers and acquisitions grown to become one of the largest processed food companies in the U.S., with a wide variety of products under its flagship Campbell's brand as well as such well-known brands as Pepperidge Farm, Snyder's of Hanover, V8, and Swanson.  Under these brands and many others, Campbell's produces not only soups and broths, but other canned meals such as SpaghettiOs, baked goods such as cookies and crackers, beverages, and salty snacks such as pretzels and potato chips. It is headquartered in Camden, New Jersey.

The classic red-and-white can design used by many Campbell's branded products has become an American icon, and its use in pop art was typified by Andy Warhol's series of Campbell's Soup Cans prints.

History
The company was started in 1869 by Joseph A. Campbell, a fruit merchant from Bridgeton, New Jersey, and Abraham Anderson, an icebox manufacturer from South Jersey. They produced canned tomatoes, vegetables, jellies, soups, condiments, and minced meats.

In 1876, Anderson left the partnership and the company became the "Joseph A. Campbell Preserve Company". Anderson's son, Campbell Speelman, split paths with his father and continued to work at Campbell's as a creative director, originally designing the Campbell's Soup Cans.

Campbell reorganized into "Joseph Campbell & Co." in 1896. In 1897, John T. Dorrance, a nephew of the general manager Arthur Dorrance, began working for the company at a wage of $7.50 a week. Dorrance, a chemist with degrees from MIT and Göttingen University, Germany, developed a commercially viable method for condensing soup by halving the quantity of its heaviest ingredient: water. He went on to become president of the company from 1914 to 1930, eventually buying out the Campbell family.

In 1898, Herberton Williams, a Campbell's executive, convinced the company to adopt a carnelian red and bright white color scheme, because he was taken by the crisp carnelian red color of the Cornell University football team's uniforms. To this day, the layout of the can, with its red and white design and the metallic bronze medal seal from the 1900 Paris Exhibition, has changed very little, with the exception of the French phrase on the top of the bronze seal that said "Exposition-Universelle-Internationale" which was changed to the English name of the exhibition as "Paris International Exposition".

Campbell Soup became one of the largest food companies in the world under the leadership of William Beverly Murphy. He was elected executive vice president of Campbell Soup in 1949 and was President and CEO from 1953 to 1972. While at Campbell's Soup Company, he took the corporation public and increased its brand portfolio to include Pepperidge Farm's breads, cookies, and crackers, Franco-American's gravies and pastas, V8 vegetable juices, Swanson broths, and Godiva's chocolates. David Johnson was President and CEO from 1990 until 1997.

Campbell Soup has invested heavily in advertising since its inception, and many of its promotional campaigns have proven value in the Americana collectible advertising market. Perhaps best known are the "Campbell's Kids" designed by illustrator Grace Drayton. Ronald Reagan was a spokesman for V8 when Campbell's acquired the brand in 1948.

In addition to collectible advertising, the company has had notable commercial sponsorships. Among these was Orson Welles's The Campbell Playhouse, which had previously been The Mercury Theatre on the Air.  After the program's adaptation of The War of the Worlds became a sensation for accidentally starting a mass panic due to its realism, Campbell's took over as sponsor of the radio theater program in December 1938.

The shutdown of Campbell's Camden, New Jersey, plant No. 1 was announced in 1989 and production stopped on the night of March 1, 1991. The following day, the plant was officially closed. It was demolished on November 1, 1991. Plants in Pocomoke City (Maryland), Crisfield (Maryland), and Smyrna (Tennessee) also shut down.

Plant No. 2, originally a tomato-processing plant, shut down in 1980. It was responsible for about 35% of all Campbell's products in the 1950s. Products included pork and beans, tomato juice, V-8 vegetable juice, Franco-American spaghetti, macaroni and cheese, and soups (notably: beans and bacon, cream of mushroom, cream of celery, and cream of asparagus).

A total of 2,800 jobs were lost, 940–1,000 of those jobs from the Camden plant. Campbell's agreed to give workers one week's payment for each year of employment as well as paying in full for six months of medical benefits, and paying half the cost for another six months. Salaried workers received one week's pay for each year of employment. Production was moved to plants in Napoleon (Ohio), Paris (Texas), and Maxton (North Carolina).

In the UK and Ireland, Campbell Soup was rebranded as Batchelors Condensed Soup (UK) and Erin (Ireland) in March 2008, when the license to use the brand name expired. Premier Foods, St. Albans, Hertfordshire bought the Campbell Soup Company in the UK and Ireland, for £450 million ($830 million) in 2006, but was licensed to use the brand only until 2008. Under this agreement, the US-based Campbell Soup Company continued to produce Campbell's Condensed Soup but could not sell the product in the UK for a further five years.

Campbell's continues to be a major part of Camden, regularly participating in charity events in the community. In 2009, Campbell's completed the building of a new and expanded headquarters in the city.

In January 2010, Campbell's Canadian subsidiary began selling a line of soups that are certified by the Islamic Society of North America as being halal (prepared in accordance with Islamic law). Although Campbell does not have any plans to sell its halal soups in the United States, the move has drawn criticism from anti-Muslim critics in the United States. Blogger Pamela Geller called for a boycott of the company.

In November 2007, Campbell's Soup sold Godiva to Yildiz Holding.

In July 2011, Campbell's Soup decided to once again sell its product in the UK after being absent since 2008. Symingtons began manufacturing the brand under license. The new line-up comprised twelve cup soups, five simmer soups designed to be cooked in a pot of water, four savoury rice lines, and four savory pasta and sauce packets. The new range were not sold in cans, but instead in packets and boxes. Later in 2011, the canned varieties also returned to supermarket shelves with refreshed labels and new lines.

In 2012, Campbell announced plans to buy Bolthouse Farms, a maker of juices, salad dressings and baby carrots, for $1.55 billion. Analysts saw this as an attempt to reach younger, more affluent consumers.

From 2012, Campbell Soup has been focused on updating their image and digital marketing to increase visibility among younger generations. They hired Umang Shah to lead global social and digital marketing. He led record social engagement campaigns including #DeclareRecess and #BIGFiveO.

In June 2013, Campbell acquired the Danish multinational baked goods company Kelsen Group for an undisclosed amount. Kelsen has an 85-country distribution network and is seen as providing Campbell with opportunities for international expansion, particularly into China and other Asian markets.

In June 2015, Campbell Soup acquired salsa maker Garden Fresh Gourmet for $231 million as it looked to expand into the fresh and organic packaged foods business.

In December 2017, Campbell's completed the acquisition of Pacific Foods of Oregon, LLC for $700 million and announced the agreement to acquire the snack company Snyder's-Lance for $4.87 billion in cash. The latter deal is the largest in the company's history.

The company announced in January 2018 that their only Canadian factory, in Toronto, would close. Production would shift to three existing facilities within the U.S. It was reported that the expected loss of jobs, as a result of the closing, would be 380.

Denise Morrison served as the company's president and CEO from 2011 through 2018.

On December 21, 2018, former Pinnacle Foods CEO Mark Clouse was named the next Campbell's CEO, effective January 22, 2019.

In July 2019, Campbell's agreed to sell its stake in the Kelsen Group for $300 million to a subsidiary of Ferrero SpA. The transfer will be completed sometime early 2020.

Pop art

In 1962, artist Andy Warhol took the familiar look of the Campbell's soup can and integrated it into a series of pop art silkscreens, a theme he would return to off and on through the 1960s and 1970s. The first batch in 1962 were a series of 32 canvases. At first, the cans were accurate representations of actual Campbell's cans, but as his series progressed, they became more surrealistic, with Warhol experimenting with negative-reversed color schemes and other varied techniques (many of these which would be used on other Warhol paintings of the period, such as his celebrity silkscreens of the 1960s). The silkscreens themselves have become iconic pieces of pop art, with one in particular, Small Torn Campbell Soup Can (Pepper Pot) (1962), commanding a price of $11.8 million at auction in 2006.

In 2004, Campbell's themselves recognized Warhol's art by releasing in the eastern United States a limited-edition series of cans that were inspired by the coloring and silkscreen effects of Warhol's pieces. This marked one of the few times in the company's history that they would change the trade dress for their main canned-soup line in any substantial manner. In 2012, the Warhol-inspired cans returned to shelves, in an exclusive retail partnership with Target.

Slogans
 Mmm Mmm Good (1935–present; their predominantly used slogan)
 Give Me The Campbell Life (1969–75)
 Soup Is Good Food (1975–c.1982)
 Never underestimate the power of soup! (1990s)
 Possibilities (2005–2008)
 So Many Many Reasons It's So Mmm Mmm Good (2009–2010)
 It's Amazing What Soup Can Do! (2010–present)
 Made for real, Real life (2015–present)

Health controversies
Many canned soups, including Campbell's condensed and chunky varieties, contain relatively high quantities of sodium and thus are not desirable for those on low-sodium diets. However, Campbell's Chunky, Healthy Request and other soups, as well as their V-8 and Tomato juices, are claimed by Campbell's to contain reduced sodium levels.

In fall 2007, Campbell's was awarded a Certificate of Excellence, for their efforts in lowering sodium levels, from Blood Pressure Canada.

By autumn 2009, Campbell's claimed it had lowered the sodium content in 50% of its soups range.
In March 2010, this claim was challenged. ABC News reported that the low-sodium variety of Campbell soup in fact contains the same amount of sodium as the regular variety, and that Campbell's Healthy Request soup contains more fat than the regular variety.

In December 2009, Consumer Reports found that major canned food companies including Campbell's Soup had tinned products which had bisphenol A (BPA) levels over 100 ppb in some cases; the testing revealed that just one serving of canned food would exceed an expert's recommendation for daily exposure (0.2 micrograms per kg body weight per day).

In July 2011, citing sinking sales, and a combination of: "consumer views and choices" and having "found no connection between sodium consumption and negative health outcomes" they increased the salt contents again.

GMO
Throughout 2012, Campbell's contributed $500,000 to a $46 million political campaign known as "The Coalition Against The Costly Food Labeling Proposition, sponsored by Farmers and Food Producers" This organization was set up to oppose a citizens' initiative, known as Proposition 37, demanding mandatory labeling of foods containing genetically modified ingredients.

In January 2016, they decided to support mandatory labeling and announced they would label their products that contained GMO additives.

Brands
Campbell's owns numerous brands that it markets worldwide.  Among these are:

Campbell's
The company's flagship brand, the Campbell's name is used to market soups, sauces, and canned meals.  Product lines under the Campbell's brand include:
Concentrated soups that are usually diluted with water or milk before eating
Campbell's Condensed Soups
Campbell's Healthy Request
Ready-to-eat soups that do not need additional water
Campbell's Chunky
Campbell's Chunky Maxx
Campbell's Home Style
Campbell's Soup on the Go
Campbell's Slow Kettle Style
Campbell's Well Yes
Other products
Campbell's SpaghettiOs
Campbell's Ready Meals
Campbell's Sauces

Kelsen Group
A Danish baked-goods company founded in 1933, it was acquired by Campbell's in 2013.  It currently produces various varieties of cookies, usually in distinctive round metal tins.  These brands include:

Copenhagen
Denmark
Kjeldsens
Riberhus
Royal Dansk

Pepperidge Farm
An American baked-goods company founded in 1937, it was acquired by Campbell's in 1961.  The Pepperidge Farm brand is used by Campbell's to market:
Breads
Sandwich breads
Swirl breads
Pepperidge Farm Buns and rolls
Farmhouse breads
Bagels
Stuffing
Ecce Pannis breads
Crackers
Goldfish crackers
Harvest Wheat
Classic Water
Golden Butter
Cookies
Milano
Farmhouse
Chunk
Distinctive
Pirouette
Deserts
Puff pastry
Layer cakes
Turnovers

Pace Foods
An American salsa company founded in 1947, it was acquired by Campbell's in 1995.  The Pace brand is used by Campbell's to market salsas and picante sauce.

Plants

United States
 Camden, New Jersey - World Headquarters, non-manufacturing.
 Maxton, North Carolina: Opened 1978
 Napoleon, Ohio
 Paris, Texas
 Milwaukee, Wisconsin
 Everett, Washington

International
 Toronto, Canada: Opened 1930 in St Marys, Ontario (closure announced in 2018)
 Shepparton, Victoria, Australia
 Lübeck, Germany
 Selangor, Malaysia
 Kings Lynn, Great Britain: Opened 1959, closed 2007. Site demolished 2012.
 Bekasi, Indonesia (as PT. Arnotts Indonesia)
Ribe, Denmark
Nørre Snede, Denmark

Recalls

2010
In June 22, 2010, Campbell's "SpaghettiOs and Meatballs" product was recalled after a Texas firm found possible traces of underprocessed meat in the product.

See also
 Cream of mushroom soup
 Green bean casserole
 List of food companies

Notes

References
 Collins, Douglas (1994). America's Favorite Food: The Story of Campbell Soup Company. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. .
 Shea, Martha Esposito, and Mathis, Mike (2002). Images of America: Campbell Soup Company. Arcadia Publishing. .
 Sidorick, Daniel (2009). Condensed Capitalism: Campbell Soup and the Pursuit of Cheap Production in the Twentieth Century. Cornell University Press. .

External links

 Campbell's Official consumer website
 Campbell's corporate website
 Campbell's UK website
  Campbell's Canadian website

Category:Brand name soups
Category:Companies based in Camden County, New Jersey
Category:Camden, New Jersey
Category:Food and drink companies established in 1869
Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Category:Food manufacturers of the United States
Category:1869 establishments in New Jersey
Category:Dorrance family


VRBD agar

VRDBA, VRDB Agar, or Violet Red Bile Dextrose Agar, is a microbiological growth medium. It can be used in agar plates to monitor or assess bacterial growth in the laboratory, particularly the growth of Enterobacteriaceae, for which it is selective.

References

Category:Microbiological media


Hrehory Chodkiewicz

Hrehory Chodkiewicz (, ;  – 9 November 1572) was a nobleman and military officer of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. He was a son of Aleksander, brother of Hieronim and Yurii, and uncle of Jan Hieronimowicz Chodkiewicz. He commanded the Lithuanian army during the later part of the  Livonian War after he had become the Great Lithuanian Hetman  in 1566.

Early career
Historiography usually provides that Chodkiewicz was born around 1505. However, Lithuania historian Genutė Kirkienė noted that in such a case Chodkiewicz began his political career in his mid-forties, when most nobles started in late twenties or early thirties. Kirkienė suggested that his father's marriage and birth of children should be moved from 1500s to mid-1510s. As a young boy Chodkiewicz was sent to the court of Albert, Duke of Prussia. He returned in 1532 with personal recommendation letters from Albert to King Sigismund I the Old, Prince Sigismund II Augustus and Queen Bona Sforza. The relationship and correspondence with Albert continued for decades; Chodkiewicz sent both of his sons to be educated at Albert's court.

He received his first position at the court in October 1544 when incoming Grand Duke Sigismund Augustus made a series of new appointments and elevated Chodkiewicz to court chamberlain (podkomorzy). Soon, however, the Chodkiewicz family fell from royal grace when they opposed the marriage between Sigismund Augustus and Barbara Radziwiłł. It seems that Hrehory Chodkiewicz remained close with Sigismund Augustus and often accompanied the Grand Duke to hunting. After his father's death in 1549, he inherited Supraśl and surrounding territories, including Zabłudów and Choroszcz. Chodkiewicz family slowly regained royal favor after Barbara's death in 1551 and when other Radziwiłłs opposed the proposed Union of Lublin in 1562.

Military achievements
As voivode of Kiev, Chodkiewicz defended the region from Tatar invasion. In 1558, he achieved a victory in Podolia against the Crimean Khanate. This victory raised prestige of Chodkiewicz as a military commander. On the onset of the Livonian War, he was promoted to castellan of Trakai with intention to use his skill in the war. In 1561, Grand Hetman Mikołaj "the Black" Radziwiłł, Chodkiewicz, and his brother Hieronim led the Lithuanian army into Livonia where they achieved victory against the Tsardom of Russia. After this campaign, Chodkiewicz was promoted to Field Hetman of Lithuania. On 20 January 1564 the Lithuanians under his command killed Russian commander Shuisky and defeated the Russian army in the Battle of Ula, which significantly improved Lithuania's standing in the war. He was hailed as war hero and promoted to castellan of Vilnius. Royal favor continued: Hrehory's nephew Jan Hieronimowicz received his late father's position as Elder of Samogitia in 1564, brother Yurii, who traveled to Moscow for diplomatic negotiations, became castellan of Trakai and Hrehory was appointed Grand Hetman of Lithuania in 1566. Thus, Hrehory Chodkiewicz became the second man after Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł and the Chodkiewiczs controlled three out of five top seats in the Lithuanian Council of Lords. In 1567, Chodkiewicz achieved another victory in Livonia, this time against the Kingdom of Sweden.

Cultural activities
Chodkiewicz devoted much attention to military matters. In 1562 and 1566, he wrote military regulations, which dealt with defense of fortresses and other matters. He also built and strengthened a number of border posts and conducted the military census of 1568 to determine how many troops each noble had to provide for the army. In 1563 Chodkiewicz founded an Eastern Orthodox church and a hospital for the poor in Zabłudów. Kirkienė found hints that Chodkiewicz was not strictly Orthodox and supported church union—eastern liturgy under the Pope in Rome. In 1566, Chodkiewicz sponsored Pyotr Mstislavets and Ivan Fyodorov, book printers who defected from Russia, and opened a printing press in Zabłudów. They published religious texts until Chodkiewicz's death.

Titles and positions
Chodkiewicz held the following positions:
 Court chamberlain (podkomorzy, 1544–1559)
 Starost of Kaunas (1546–1551), Rumšiškės (1551–1555), Karmėlava (1551–1563), Hrodna (1563–1569), Mogilev (1564–1569)
 Voivode of Vitebsk (1554) and Voivode of Kiev (1555–1558)
 Castellan of Trakai (1559–1564) and Vilnius (1564–1572)
 Administrator of the Eldership of Samogitia (1562–1563)
 Field Hetman of Lithuania (1561–1566) and Grand Hetman of Lithuania (1566–1572)

Family
Around 1537, Chodkiewicz married Katarzyna from the Wiśniowiecki family who brought many new lands into the Chodkiewicz family. Chodkiewicz sued Konstanty Ostrogski and his son Ilia for various territories belonging to his wife. They had two sons and three daughters. The sons had no heirs and the Supraśl line of the family became extinct. The possessions passed to Yurii Chodkiewicz, brother of Hrehory. All daughters married members of the Lithuanian Council of Lords. The children were:
Andrzej (born 1549) was starost of Mogilev (1574–1575). His father wanted him to marry a daughter of Mikołaj "the Red" Radziwiłł, but he died in 1575.
Aleksander (born 1550) married Aleksandra, daughter of Wasyl Tyszkiewicz. Died in 1578 with no heirs.
Anna married Pawel Sapieha, castellan of Kiev, and Pawel Pac, castellan of Vilnius
Zofia married Duke Janusz Zasławski (died 1562) and Filon Kmita Czernobylski, voivode of Smolensk
Aleksandra married famous military leader Roman Sanguszko, voivode of Bratslav and Lithuanian Field Hetman, in 1559

References
Notes

Bibliography

External links
 Closest family of Grzegorz Chodkiewicz

Category:1510s births
Category:1572 deaths
Category:People from Vilnius
Category:People from Vilnius Voivodeship
Grzegor Chodkiewicz
Category:Field Hetmans of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Category:Great Hetmans of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Category:Voivodes of Kiev


Lan Tirc

Lan Tirc (born 17 November 1994) is a Slovenian football defender who plays for Radomlje on loan from Domžale.

References

External links
UEFA profile

Category:1994 births
Category:Living people
Category:Sportspeople from Ljubljana
Category:Slovenian footballers
Category:Association football defenders
Category:NK Domžale players


1720 in piracy

See also 1719 in piracy, 1721 in piracy and Timeline of piracy.

Events

Caribbean Sea
February - Bartholomew Roberts robs four vessels near Barbados.
February 26 - Two pirate ships commanded by Bartholomew Roberts and Montigny la Palisse are attacked near Barbados by local ships and driven away with heavy casualties.
March - Two sloops sent from Martinique to capture Roberts and his men arrive too late to capture the pirates, who have sailed northward.  Roberts adopts a new flag threatening death to the inhabitants of Barbados and Martinique.
August - Calico Jack Rackham steals John Haman's sloop from the harbor of Nassau, Bahamas and leads a crew of pirates to sea, including Anne Bonny & Mary Read.
September Rackham and his pirates loot several fishing boats in the Bahamas. They then raid French Hispaniola for cattle and capture two sloops.
Roberts returns to the Caribbean, bombards Saint Kitts and burns two ships in the harbor.  Some weeks later, Roberts captures a French ship near Carriacou and commandeers it, renaming it the Royal Fortune.
October - Pirates under Rackham's leadership ransack several vessels off northern Jamaica.
October - Rackham and his crew are captured by a commissioned sloop commanded by Jonathan Barnet. After the main mast is disabled, the surprised pirates make no resistance except for Anne Bonny and Mary Read and one other.
November Rackham & his crew are tried, sentenced & hanged. Rackham & 2 others are gibbetted. Read & Bonny are tried a week later, sentenced (execution delayed due to pregnancy).

Indian Ocean
Undated - Edward England ravages the Malabar Coastal shipping, taking one Dutch vessel and an unknown number of Indian hulls.
October - Captain Condent captures an Arab ship off Bombay, stealing approximately ₤150,000 worth of cash and cargo.
 November 20, 1720 - Captain England in the Fancy and Captain Olivier Levasseur alias "la Buse" attack Captain James Macrae in the East Indiaman Cassandra near Anjouan in the Comoros.  Macrae is ultimately forced aground after a bloody battle.
 November–December - Captain England and some of his friends are marooned by their pirate crew, who elect John Taylor to replace him.

North America
June 21 - Bartholomew Roberts invades the harbor of Trepassey, Newfoundland, plundering 22 vessels and burning all but one.
July - Roberts captures nine or ten French vessels off the Grand Banks and  commandeers a new ship, the 26-gun Fortune.  Aboard the Fortune, Roberts proceeds to take ten English vessels, then sails back toward the Caribbean.

West Africa
October–November - Roberts in the Royal Fortune tries to reach the Cape Verde Islands, but misses his landfall and is forced back to the West Indies by the trade wind.  Shortage of water kills many of his pirates.

Deaths
November 17 - Calico Jack Rackham hanged for piracy at Gallows Point, Port Royal, Jamaica (born December 21, 1682).

Piracy
Category:Piracy by year
Category:1720 in military history


Basil Bartlett

Sir Basil Hardington Bartlett, 2nd Baronet (15 September 1905 – 2 January 1985) was an actor, screenwriter and writer, and in the 1950s the head of the BBC's script department. In June 1921, at the age of 16, he became the second Baronet Bartlett of Hardington Mandeville, when he inherited the title from his grandfather, the building contractor Sir Herbert Bartlett, as his father had died the year before.

He was educated at Repton School in Repton, Derbyshire, before continuing to Corpus Christi College at Cambridge University, where he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts.

Having started as a stage actor in the 1930s, he joined the British Army at the outbreak of World War II, and served as a captain during the retreat to Dunkirk in 1940. He was mentioned in despatches and wounded during the retreat. He published My First War: An Army Officer's Journal for May 1940, Through Belgium to Dunkirk. During his convalescence he worked as screenwriter of the war films The Next of Kin (1942) (which he later also turned into a novel), Secret Mission (1942) and They Met in the Dark (1943) before joining the Intelligence Corps, where he gained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in charge of the kinematographic group of 21st Army Group.

After the war, he briefly tried to take up his career as actor again, appearing in Captain Horatio Hornblower R.N. (1951), before joining the BBC, where he became head of the script department, but also translated a couple of French screenplays. He also participated as model in three of the six 15-minute programmes in BBC's first ever series in colour, Men, Women and Clothes, a history of fashion which was broadcast between 21 April and 26 May 1957 (available in the BBC on line archive).

He was married to Mary Malcolm, one of the first two regular female announcers on BBC Television after World War II, from 1937 to 1960, and they had three daughters. When he died in 1985, the baronet title went to his younger brother, the Olympic fencer David Bartlett.

Filmography
 Less Than Kind (TV film) (1959) (translator)
 Men, Women and Clothes: Informal Clothes  (TV programme) (1957) (actor)<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/whatwewore/5611.shtml BBC Archive: 'Men, Women and Clothes: Informal Clothes]. Retrieved 8 November 2012</ref>
 Men, Women and Clothes: Sense and Nonsense in Fashion (TV programme) (1957) (actor)
 Men, Women and Clothes: How Fashions Come and Go (TV programme) (1957) (actor)
 It Is Midnight, Doctor Schweitzer (TV film) (1953) (translator)
 Asmodée (TV film) (1952) (translator)
 Captain Horatio Hornblower R.N. (1951) (actor, playing Captain Elliott – uncredited)
 Dunkirk: A Personal Perspective (radio programme) (1950) (narrator)
 They Met in the Dark (scenario) (1943)
 Secret Mission (screenwriter) (1942)
 The Next of Kin (screenwriter and military supervisor) (1942)

Bibliography
 Captain Sir Basil Bartlett Bt: My First War: An Army Officer's Journal for May 1940, Through Belgium to Dunkirk – London: Chatto & Windas, 1940.
 Sir Basil Bartlett: Next of Kin, a novel – London: Chatto & Windus, 1944
  Sir Basil Bartlett: Writing for Television – London: Allen & Unwin, 1955
 Sir Basil Bartlett: Jam Tomorrow: Some Early Reminiscences'' – London: Harper Collins, 1978.

References

Category:British male screenwriters
Category:British Army personnel of World War II
Category:Intelligence Corps officers
Category:1905 births
Category:1985 deaths


Lois T. Henderson

Lois T. Henderson is an American author of Christian novels, many of which are dramatizations of Biblical narratives about women.

Selected publications

Fiction
The Holy Experiment: a Novel About the Harmonist Society (1974)
Hagar: a Novel (1978). About the slave girl who bore Abraham's son. This work was a finalist for the Gold Medallion Book Award of the Evangelical Christian Publishers Association.
Lydia: a Novel (1979). About the seller of purple who was Paul's first Christian convert in Europe.
 The Blessing Deer (1980).
Abigail: a Novel (1980). About the second wife of King David
Ruth: a Novel (1981). About the woman from Moab who eventually became the wife of Boaz, a relative of King David.
 A Candle in the Dark (1982).
Miriam: a Novel (1983).
Touch of the Golden Scepter (1983).
Her Contrary Heart (1984).
Priscilla and Aquila: A Novel [with Harold Ivan Smith] (1985).

Nonfiction
The Opening Doors: My Child's First Eight Years Without Sight (1954).
Do You Believe in Miracles (1965).
Another Way of Seeing (1982).

Translated into German
Die Purpur-Händlerin von Philippi (Lydia) [Translator: KH Neumann (1985)]  Leuchter Verlag eG - D-6106 Erzhausen
''Von Moab nach Bethlehem" (Ruth) [Bestell Nr. 20 097 vom Leuchter Verlag eG]

References

Category:Christian novelists
Category:American religious writers
Category:American historical novelists
Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
Category:Living people
Category:Place of birth missing (living people)
Category:American women novelists
Category:Women historical novelists
Category:American women non-fiction writers


Papilio iswara

Papilio iswara, the great Helen, is a species of large swallowtail butterfly found in parts of Southeast Asia.

Status
Papilio iswara is not uncommon and not threatened.

Subspecies
Papilio iswara iswara (southern Burma to Singapore, Sumatra, Bangka)
Papilio iswara araspes C. & R. Felder, 1859 (northern Borneo, Natuna Island)

Taxonomy
Papilio iswara is a member of the helenus species group. The members of this clade are:
Papilio helenus Linnaeus, 1758
Papilio iswara White, 1842
Papilio iswaroides Fruhstorfer, 1898
Papilio nephelus Boisduval, 1836
Papilio nubilus Staudinger, 1895
Papilio sataspes C. & R. Felder, 1865

Type material
The holotype is conserved in the Natural History Museum, London.

References

White, A., 1842, Notice of two New Species of Papilio from Penang, presented to the British Museum by Sir. Wm. Norris. Entomologist 1:280.

External links
Butterflies in Indo-China

iswara
Category:Butterflies described in 1842
Category:Butterflies of Singapore
Category:Butterflies of Borneo
Category:Butterflies of Indochina


Wilf equivalence

In the study of permutations and permutation patterns, Wilf equivalence is an equivalence relation on permutation classes.
Two permutation classes are Wilf equivalent when they have the same numbers of permutations of each possible length, or equivalently if they have the same generating functions. The equivalence classes for Wilf equivalence are called Wilf classes; they are the combinatorial classes of permutation classes. The counting functions and Wilf equivalences among many specific permutation classes are known.

Wilf equivalence may also be described for individual permutations rather than permutation classes. In this context, two permutations are said to be Wilf equivalent if the principal permutation classes formed by forbidding them are Wilf equivalent.

References

Category:Enumerative combinatorics
Category:Permutation patterns
Category:Equivalence (mathematics)


Toconce River

The Toconce River is a river of Chile.

See also
List of rivers of Chile

References
 EVALUACION DE LOS RECURSOS HIDRICOS SUPERFICIALES EN LA CUENCA DEL RIO BIO BIO

Category:Rivers of Chile
Category:Rivers of Antofagasta Region


Ligidia

Ligidia is a genus of moths of the family Noctuidae.

References
Natural History Museum Lepidoptera genus database

Category:Acontiinae