Illegal drug trade

The illegal drug trade or drug trafficking is a global black market dedicated to the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of drugs that are subject to drug prohibition laws. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of many types of drugs through the use of drug prohibition laws.

The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime's World Drug Report 2005 estimates the size of the global illicit drug market at US$321.6billion in 2003 alone. With a world GDP of US$36 trillion in the same year, the illegal drug trade may be estimated as nearly 1% of total global trade. Consumption of illegal drugs is widespread globally and it remains very difficult for local authorities to thwart its popularity.

History

Chinese authorities issued edicts against opium smoking in 1729, 1796 and 1800. The West prohibited addictive drugs throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In the early 19th century, an illegal drug trade in China emerged. As a result, by 1838 the number of Chinese opium-addicts had grown to between four and twelve million. The Chinese government responded by enforcing a ban on the import of opium; this led to the First Opium War (1839-1842) between the United Kingdom and Qing-dynasty China. The United Kingdom won and forced China to allow British merchants to sell Indian-grown opium. Trading in opium was lucrative, and smoking it had become common for the Chinese in the 19th century, so British merchants increased trade with the Chinese. The Second Opium War broke out in 1856, with the British joined this time  by the French. After the two Opium Wars, the British Crown, via the treaties of Nanking (1842), and Tianjin (1858), obligated the Chinese government to pay large sums of money for opium they had seized and destroyed, which were referred to as "reparations".

In 1868, as a result of the increased use of opium, the UK restricted the sale of opium in Britain by implementing the 1868 Pharmacy Act. In the United States, control of opium remained under the control of individual US states until the introduction of the Harrison Act in 1914, after 12 international powers signed the International Opium Convention in 1912.

Between 1920 and around 1933 the Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution banned alcohol in the United States. Prohibition proved almost impossible to enforce and resulted in the rise of organized crime, including the modern American Mafia, which identified enormous business opportunities in the manufacturing, smuggling and sale of illicit liquor.

The beginning of the 21st century saw drug use increase in North America and Europe, with a particularly increased demand for marijuana and cocaine. As a result, international organized crime syndicates such as the Sinaloa Cartel and 'Ndrangheta have increased cooperation among each other in order to facilitate trans-Atlantic drug-trafficking. Use of another illicit drug, hashish, has also increased in Europe.

Drug trafficking is widely regarded by lawmakers as a serious offense around the world. Penalties often depend on the type of drug (and its classification in the country into which it is being trafficked), the quantity trafficked, where the drugs are sold and how they are distributed. If the drugs are sold to underage people, then the penalties for trafficking may be harsher than in other circumstances.

Drug smuggling carries severe penalties in many countries. Sentencing may include lengthy periods of incarceration, flogging and even the death penalty (in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and elsewhere). In December 2005, Van Tuong Nguyen, a 25-year-old Australian drug smuggler, was hanged in Singapore after being convicted in March 2004. In 2010, two people were sentenced to death in Malaysia for trafficking  of cannabis into the country. Execution is mostly used as a deterrent, and many have called upon much more effective measures to be taken by countries to tackle drug trafficking; for example, targeting specific criminal organisations (which are often also active in the smuggling of other goods (i.e. wildlife) and even people In many cases, links between politicians and the criminal organisations have been proven to exist.

Societal effects
The countries of drug production and transit are some of the most affected by the drug trade, though countries receiving the illegallyimported substances are also adversely affected. For example, Ecuador has absorbed up to 300,000 refugees from Colombia who are running from guerrillas, paramilitaries and drug lords. While some applied for asylum, others are still illegal immigrants. The drugs that pass from Colombia through Ecuador to other parts of South America create economic and social problems.

Honduras, through which an estimated 79% of cocaine passes on its way to the United States, has the highest murder rate in the world. According to the International Crisis Group, the most violent regions in Central America, particularly along the Guatemala–Honduras border, are highly correlated with an abundance of drug trafficking activity.

Violent crime

In many countries, the illegal drug trade is thought to be directly linked to violent crimes such as murder. This is especially true in all developing
countries, such as Honduras, but is also an issue for many developed countries worldwide. In the late 1990s in the United States the Federal Bureau of Investigation estimated that 5% of murders were drug-related. In Colombia, Drug violence can be caused by factors such as, the economy, poor governments, and no authority within law enforcement.

After a crackdown by US and Mexican authorities in the first decade of the 21st century as part of tightened border security in the wake of the September 11 attacks, border violence inside Mexico surged. The Mexican government estimates that 90% of the killings are drug-related.

A report by the UK government's Drug Strategy Unit that was leaked to the press, stated that due to the expensive price of highly addictive drugs heroin and cocaine, drug use was responsible for the great majority of crime, including 85% of shoplifting, 70–80% of burglaries and 54% of robberies. It concluded that "[t]he cost of crime committed to support illegal cocaine and heroin habits amounts to £16 billion a year in the UK"

Drug trafficking routes

South America

Venezuela has been a path to the United States and Europe for illegal drugs originating in Colombia, through Central America, Mexico and Caribbean countries such as Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico.

According to the United Nations, there was an increase of cocaine trafficking through Venezuela since 2002. In 2005, the government of Hugo Chávez severed ties with the United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), accusing its representatives of spying. Following the departure of the DEA from Venezuela and the expansion of DEA's partnership with Colombia in 2005, Venezuela became more attractive to drug traffickers. Between 2008 and 2012, Venezuela's cocaine seizure ranking among other countries declined, going from being ranked fourth in the world for cocaine seizures in 2008 to sixth in the world in 2012.

On 18 November 2016, following what was known as the Narcosobrinos incident, Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro's two nephews were found guilty of trying to ship drugs into the United States so they could "obtain a large amount of cash to help their family stay in power".

In August 2019, former Dominican players of the MLB,  Octavio Dotel and Luis Castillo were suspected of being involved with a massive drug-trafficking ring, alleged to be run by César Emilio Peralta. Authorities claim that they ran narcotics from South America into the United States and Europe.

According to a research conducted by the Abba Eban Institute as part of an initiative called Janus Initiative, the main routes that Hezbollah uses for smuggling drugs are from Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil into West Africa and then transported through northern Africa into Europe. This route serves Hezbollah in making a profit in the cocaine smuggling market to leverage it for terrorist activities.

West Africa

Cocaine produced in Colombia and Bolivia increasingly has been  shipped via West Africa (especially in Cape Verde, Mali, Benin, Togo, Nigeria, Cameroon, Guinea-Bissau and Ghana). The money is often laundered in countries such as Nigeria, Ghana and Senegal.

According to the Africa Economic Institute, the value of illicit drug smuggling in Guinea-Bissau is almost twice the value of the country's GDP. Police officers are often bribed. A police officer's normal monthly wage of $  is less than 2% of the value of   of cocaine  (€7000 or $). The money can also be laundered using real estate. A house is built using illegal funds, and when the house is sold, legal money is earned. When drugs are sent over land, through the Sahara, the drug traders have been forced to cooperate with terrorist organizations, such as Al Qaida in Islamic Maghreb.

Eastern and southern Africa
Heroin is increasingly trafficked from Afghanistan to Europe and America through eastern  and southern African countries. This path is known as the “southern route” or “smack track.” Repercussions of this trade include burgeoning heroin use and political corruption among intermediary African nations.

Asia
Drugs in Asia traditionally traveled the southern routes – the main caravan axes of Southeast Asia and Southern China – and include the former opium-producing countries of Thailand, Iran, and Pakistan.  After the 1990s, particularly after the Cold War ended, borders were opened and trading and customs agreements were signed so that the routes expanded to include China, Central Asia, and Russia. There is, therefore, a diversified drug trafficking routes available today, particularly in the heroin trade and these thrive due to the continuous development of new markets. A large amount of drugs are smuggled into Europe from Asia. The main sources of these drugs are Afghanistan, along with countries that constituted the so-called Golden Crescent. From these producers, drugs are smuggled into the West and Central Asia to its destinations in Europe and the United States. Iran is now the route for smugglers, having been previously a primary trading route, due to its large-scale and costly war against drug trafficking. The Border Police Chief of Iran said that his country "is a strong barrier against the trafficking of illegal drugs to Caucasus, especially the Republic of Azerbaijan." The drugs produced by the Golden Triangle of Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand, on the other hand, pass through the southern routes to feed the Australian, U.S., and Asian markets.

Online
Drugs are increasingly traded online on the dark web on darknet markets.

Profits

Statistics about profits from the drug trade are largely unknown due to its illicit nature. An online report published by the UK Home Office in 2007 estimated the illicit drug market in the UK at £4–6.6 billion a year

In December 2009 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Executive Director Antonio Maria Costa claimed illegal drug money saved the banking industry from collapse. He claimed he had seen evidence that the proceeds of organized crime were "the only liquid investment capital" available to some banks on the brink of collapse during 2008. He said that a majority of the $352 billion (£216bn) of drug profits was absorbed into the economic system as a result: "In many instances, the money from drugs was the only liquid investment capital. In the second half of 2008, liquidity was the banking system's main problem and hence liquid capital became an important factor...Inter-bank loans were funded by money that originated from the drugs trade and other illegal activities...there were signs that some banks were rescued that way".Costa declined to identify countries or banks that may have received any drug money, saying that would be inappropriate because his office is supposed to address the problem, not apportion blame.

Though street-level drug sales are widely viewed as lucrative, a study by Sudhir Venkatesh suggested that many low-level employees receive low wages.  In a study he made in the 1990s working closely with members of the Black Gangster Disciple Nation in Chicago, he found that one gang (essentially a franchise) consisted of a leader (a college graduate named J.T.), three senior officers, and 25 to 75 street level salesmen ('foot soldiers') depending on season.  Selling crack cocaine, they took in approximately $32,000 per month over a six-year period.  This was spent as follows: $5,000 to the board of twenty directors of the Black Gangster Disciple Nation, who oversaw 100 such gangs for approximately $500,000 in monthly income.  Another $5,000 monthly was paid for cocaine, and $4,000 for other non-wage expenses.  J.T. took $8,500 monthly for his own salary.  The remaining $9,500 monthly went to pay the employees a $7 per hour wage for officers and a $3.30 per hour wage for foot soldiers.  Contrary to a popular image of drug sales as a lucrative profession, many of the employees were living with their mothers by necessity.  Despite this, the gang had four times as many unpaid members who dreamed of becoming foot soldiers.

Free trade link
There are several arguments on whether or not free trade has a correlation to an increased activity in the illicit drug trade. Currently, the structure and operation of the illicit drug industry is described mainly in terms of an international division of labor. Free trade can open new markets to domestic producers who would otherwise resort to exporting illicit drugs. Additionally, extensive free trade among states increases cross-border drug enforcement and coordination between law enforcement agencies in different countries. However, free trade also increases the sheer volume of legal cross-border trade and provides cover for drug smuggling—by providing ample opportunity to conceal illicit cargo in legal trade. While international free trade continues to expand the volume of legal trade, the ability to detect and interdict drug trafficking is severely diminished. Towards the late 1990s, the top ten seaports in the world processed 33.6 million containers. Free trade has fostered integration of financial markets and has provided drug traffickers with more opportunities to launder money and invest in other activities. This strengthens the drug industry while weakening the efforts of law enforcement to monitor the flow of drug money into the legitimate economy. Cooperation among cartels expands their scope to distant markets and strengthens their abilities to evade detection by local law enforcement. Additionally, criminal organizations work together to coordinate money-laundering activities by having separate organizations handle specific stages of laundering process. One organization structures the process of how financial transactions will be laundered, while another criminal group provides the “dirty” money to be cleaned. By fostering expansion of trade and global transportation networks, free trade encourages cooperation and formation of alliances among criminal organizations across different countries.
The drug trade in Latin America emerged in the early 1930s. It saw significant growth in the Andean countries, including Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela. The underground market in the early half of the 20th century mainly had ties to Europe. After World War II, the Andean countries saw an expansion of trade, specifically with cocaine.

Drug trafficking by country

United States

Background
The effects of the illegal drug trade in the United States can be seen in a range of political, economic and social aspects. Increasing drug related violence can be tied to the racial tension that arose during the late 20th century along with the political upheaval prevalent throughout the 1960s and 70s. The second half of the 20th century was a period when increased wealth, and increased discretionary spending, increased the demand for illicit drugs in certain areas of the United States. Large-scale drug trafficking is one of the few capital crimes, and may result in a death sentence prescribed at the federal level.

Political impact
A large generation, the baby boomers, came of age in the 1960s. Their social tendency to confront the law on specific issues, including illegal drugs, overwhelmed the understaffed judicial system. The federal government attempted to enforce the law, but with meager effect.

Marijuana was a popular drug seen through the Latin American trade route in the 1960s. Cocaine became a major drug product in the later decades. Much of the cocaine is smuggled from Colombia and Mexico via Jamaica. This led to several administrations combating the popularity of these drugs. Due to the influence of this development on the U.S. economy, the Reagan administration began "certifying" countries for their attempts at controlling drug trafficking. This allowed the United States to intervene in activities related to illegal drug transport in Latin America. Continuing into the 1980s, the United States instated stricter policy pertaining to drug transit through sea. As a result, there was an influx in drug-trafficking across the Mexico–U.S. border. This increased the drug cartel activity in Mexico. By the early 1990s, so much as 50% of the cocaine available in the United States market originated from Mexico, and by the 2000s, over 90% of the cocaine in the United States was imported from Mexico. In Colombia, however, there was a fall of the major drug cartels in the mid-1990s. Visible shifts occurred in the drug market in the United States. Between the 1996 and 2000, U.S. cocaine consumption dropped by 11%.

In 2008, the U.S. government initiated another program, known as the Merida Initiative, to help combat drug trafficking in Mexico. This program increased U.S. security assistance to $1.4 billion over several years, which helped supply Mexican forces with "high-end equipment from helicopters to surveillance technology". Despite U.S. aid, Mexican "narcogangs" continue to outnumber and outgun the Mexican Army, allowing for continued activities of drug cartels across the U.S.–Mexico border.

Social impacts

Although narcotics are illegal in the US, they have become integrated into the nation's culture and are seen as a recreational activity by sections of the population. Illicit drugs are considered to be a commodity with strong demand, as they are typically sold at a high value. This high price is caused by a combination of factors that include the potential legal ramifications that exist for suppliers of illicit drugs and their high demand. Despite the constant effort by politicians to win the war on drugs, the US is still the world's largest importer of illegal drugs.

Throughout the 20th century, narcotics other than cocaine also crossed the Mexican border, meeting the US demand for alcohol during the 1920s Prohibition, opiates in the 1940s, marijuana in the 1960s, and heroin in the 1970s. Most of the U.S. imports of drugs come from Mexican drug cartels. In the United States, around 195 cities have been infiltrated by drug trafficking that originated in Mexico. An estimated $10bn of the Mexican drug cartel's profits come from the United States, not only supplying the Mexican drug cartels with the profit necessary for survival, but also furthering America's economic dependence on drugs.

Demographics
With a large wave of immigrants in the 1960s and onwards, the United States saw an increased heterogeneity in its public. In the 1980s and 90s, drug related homicide was at a record high. This increase in drug violence became increasingly tied to these ethnic minorities. Though the rate of violence varied tremendously among cities in America, it was a common anxiety in communities across urban America. An example of this could be seen in Miami, a city with a host of ethnic enclaves. Between 1985 and 1995, the homicide rate in Miami was one of the highest in the nation—four times the national homicide average. This crime rate was correlated with regions with low employment and was not entirely dependent on ethnicity.

The baby boomer generation also felt the effects of the drug trade in their increased drug use from the 1960s to 80s. Along with substance abuse, criminal involvement, suicide and murder were also on the rise. Due to the large amount of baby boomers, commercial marijuana use was on the rise. This increased the supply and demand for marijuana during this time period.

Mexico

Political influences
Corruption in Mexico has contributed to the domination of Mexican cartels in the illicit drug trade. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Mexico's political environment allowed the growth of drug-related activity. The loose regulation over the transportation of illegal drugs and the failure to prosecute known drug traffickers and gangs increased the growth of the drug industry. Toleration of drug trafficking has undermined the authority of the Mexican government and has decreased the power of law enforcement officers in regulation over such activities. These policies of tolerance fostered the growing power of drug cartels in the Mexican economy and have made drug traders wealthier. Many states in Mexico lack policies that establish stability in governance. There also is a lack of local stability, as mayors cannot be re-elected. This requires electing a new mayor each term. Drug gangs have manipulated this, using vacuums in local leadership to their own advantage.

In 1929, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) was formed to resolve the chaos resulting from the Mexican Revolution. Over time, this party gained political influence and had a major impact on Mexico's social and economic policies. The party created ties with various groups as a power play in order to gain influence, and as a result created more corruption in the government. One such power play was an alliance with drug traffickers. This political corruption obscured justice, making it difficult to identify violence when it related to drugs. By the 1940s, the tie between the drug cartels and the PRI had solidified. This arrangement created immunity for the leaders of the drug cartels and allowed drug trafficking to grow under the protection of the government officials. During the 1990s, the PRI lost some elections to the new National Action Party(PAN). Chaos again emerged as elected government in Mexico changed drastically. As the PAN party took control, drug cartel leaders took advantage of the ensuing confusion and used their existing influence to further gain power. Instead of negotiating with the central government as was done with the PRI party, drug cartels utilized new ways to distribute their supply and continued operating through force and intimidation. As Mexico became more democratized, the corruption fell from a centralized power to the local authorities. Cartels began to bribe local authorities, thus eliminating the structure and rules placed by the government—giving cartels more freedom. As a response, Mexico saw an increase in violence caused by drug trafficking.

The corruption cartels created resulted in distrust of government by the Mexican public. This distrust became more prominent after the collapse of the PRI party. In response, the presidents of Mexico, in the late twentieth century and early twenty-first century, implemented several different programs relating to law enforcement and regulation. In 1993, President Salinas created the National Institute for the Combat of Drugs in Mexico. From 1995–1998, President Zedillo established policies regarding increased punishment of organized crime, allowing "[wire taps], protected witnesses, covert agents and seizures of goods", and increasing the quality of law enforcement at the federal level. From 2001–2005, President Vicente Fox created the Federal Agency of Investigation.
These policies resulted in the arrests of major drug-trafficking bosses:

Mexico's economy
Over the past few decades drug cartels have become integrated into Mexico's economy. Approximately 500 cities are directly engaged in drug trafficking and nearly 450,000 people are employed by drug cartels. Additionally, the livelihood of 3.2 million people is dependent on the drug cartels. Between local and international sales, such as to Europe and the United States, drug cartels in Mexico see a $25–30bn yearly profit, a great deal of which circulates through international banks such as HSBC. Drug cartels are fundamental in local economics. A percentage of the profits seen from the trade are invested in the local community. Such profits contribute to the education and healthcare of the community. While these cartels bring violence and hazards into communities, they create jobs and provide income for its many members.

Culture of drug cartels
Major cartels saw growth due to a prominent set culture of Mexican society that created the means for drug capital. One of the sites of origin for drug trafficking within Mexico, was the state of Michoacán. In the past, Michoacán was mainly an agricultural society. This provided an initial growth of trade. Industrialization of rural areas of Mexico facilitated a greater distribution of drugs, expanding the drug market into different provinces. Once towns became industrialized, cartels such as the Sinaloa Cartel started to form and expand. The proliferation of drug cartel culture largely stemmed from the ranchero culture seen in Michoacán. Ranchero culture values the individual as opposed to the society as a whole. This culture fostered the drug culture of valuing the family that is formed within the cartel. This ideal allowed for greater organization within the cartels.
Gangs play a major role in the activity of drug cartels. MS-13 and the 18th Street gang are notorious for their contributions and influence over drug trafficking throughout Latin America. MS-13 has controlled much of the activity in the drug trade spanning from Mexico to Panama Female involvement is present in the Mexican drug culture. Although females are not treated as equals to males, they typically hold more power than their culture allows and acquire some independence. The increase in power has attracted females from higher social classes. Financial gain has also prompted women to become involved in the illegal drug market. Many women in the lower levels of major drug cartels belong to a low economic class. Drug trafficking offers women an accessible way to earn income. Females from all social classes have become involved in the trade due to outside pressure from their social and economic environments.

Colombia

Political ties
It was common for smugglers in Colombia to import liquor, alcohol, cigarettes and textiles, while exporting cocaine. Personnel with knowledge of the terrain were able to supply the local market while also exporting a large amount of product. The established trade that began in the 1960s involved Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela and Cuba. Peasant farmers produced coca paste in Peru and Bolivia, while Colombian smugglers would process the coca paste into cocaine in Colombia, and trafficked product through Cuba. This trade route established ties between Cuban and Colombian organized crime. From Cuba, cocaine would be transported to Miami, Florida; and Union City, New Jersey. Quantities of the drug were then smuggled throughout the US. The international drug trade created political ties between the involved countries, encouraging the governments of the countries involved to collaborate and instate common policies to eradicate drug cartels. Cuba stopped being a center for transport of cocaine following the establishment of a communist government in 1959. As a result, Miami and Union City became the sole locations for trafficking. The relations between Cuban and Colombian organized crime remained strong until the 1970s, when Colombian cartels began to vie for power. In the 1980s and 90s, Colombia emerged as a key contributor of the drug trade industry in the Western Hemisphere. While the smuggling of drugs such as marijuana, poppy, opium and heroin became more ubiquitous during this time period, the activity of cocaine cartels drove the development of the Latin American drug trade. The trade emerged as a multinational effort as supplies (i.e. coca plant substances) were imported from countries such as Bolivia and Peru, were refined in Colombian cocaine labs and smuggled through Colombia, and exported to countries such as the US.

Colombia's economy
Colombia has had a significant role in the illegal drug trade in Latin America. While active in the drug trade since the 1930s, Colombia's role in the drug trade did not truly become dominant until the 1970s. When Mexico eradicated marijuana plantations, demand stayed the same. Colombia met much of the demand by growing more marijuana. Grown in the strategic northeast region of Colombia, marijuana soon became the leading cash crop in Colombia. This success was short-lived due to anti-marijuana campaigns that were enforced by the US military throughout the Caribbean. Instead, drug traffickers in Colombia continued their focus on the exportation of cocaine. Having been an export of Colombia since the early 1950s, cocaine remained popular for a host of reasons. Colombia's location facilitated its transportation from South America into Central America, and then to its destination of North America. This continued into the 1990s, when Colombia remained the chief exporter of cocaine. The business of drug trafficking can be seen in several stages in Colombia towards the latter half of the 20th century. Colombia served as the dominant force in the distribution and sale of cocaine by the 1980s. As drug producers gained more power, they became more centralized and organized into what became drug cartels. Cartels controlled the major aspects of each stage in the traffic of their product. Their organization allowed cocaine to be distributed in great amounts throughout the United States. By the late 1980s, intra-industry strife arose within the cartels. This stage was marked by increased violence as different cartels fought for control of export markets. Despite this strife, this power struggle led to then having multiple producers of coca leaf farms. This in turn caused an improvement in quality control and reduction of police interdiction in the distribution of cocaine. This also led to cartels attempting to repatriate their earnings which would eventually make up 5.5% of Colombia's GDP. This drive to repatriate earnings led to the pressure of legitimizing their wealth, causing an increase in violence throughout Colombia.

Throughout the 1980s, estimates of illegal drug value in Colombia ranged from $2bn to $4bn. This made up about 7–10% of the $36bn estimated GNP of Colombia during this decade. In the 1990s, the estimates of the illegal drug value remained roughly within the same range (~$2.5bn). As the Colombian GNP rose throughout the 90's ($68.5bn in 1994 and $96.3bn in 1997), illegal drug values began to comprise a decreasing fraction of the national economy.
By the early 1990s, although Colombia led in the exportation of cocaine, it found increasing confrontations within its state. These confrontations were primarily between cartels and government institutions. This led to a decrease in the drug trade's contribution to the GDP of Colombia; dropping from 5.5% to 2.6%. Though a contributor of wealth, the distribution of cocaine has had negative effects on the socio-political situation of Colombia and has weakened its economy as well.

Social impacts
By the 1980s, Colombian cartels became the dominant cocaine distributors in the US. This led to the spread of increased violence throughout both Latin America and Miami. In the 1980s, two major drug cartels emerged in Colombia: the Medellin and Cali groups. Throughout the 90's however, several factors led to the decline of these major cartels and to the rise of smaller Colombian cartels. The U.S. demand for cocaine dropped while Colombian production rose, pressuring traffickers to find new drugs and markets. In this time period, there was an increase in activity of Caribbean cartels that led to the rise of an alternate route of smuggling through Mexico. This led to the increased collaboration between major Colombian and Mexican drug traffickers. Such drastic changes in the execution of drug trade in Colombia paired with the political instabilities and rise of drug wars in Medellin and Cali, gave way for the rise of the smaller Colombian drug trafficking organizations (and the rise of heroin trade). As the drug trade's influence over the economy increased, drug lords and their networks grew in their power and influence in society. The occurrences in drug-related violence increased during this time period as drug lords fought to maintain their control in the economy. Typically a drug cartel had support networks that consisted of a number of individuals. These people individuals ranged from those directly involved in the trade (such as suppliers, chemists, transporters, smugglers, etc.) as well as those involved indirectly in the trade (such as politicians, bankers, police, etc.). As these smaller Colombian drug cartels grew in prevalence, several notable aspects of the Colombian society gave way for further development of the Colombian drug industry. For example, until the late 1980s, the long-term effects of the drug industry were not realized by much of society. Additionally, there was a lack of regulation in prisons where captured traffickers were sent. These prisons were under-regulated, under-funded, and under-staffed, which allowed for the formation of prison gangs, for the smuggling of arms/weapons/etc., for feasible escapes, and even for captured drug lords to continue running their businesses from prison.

Trade in specific drugs

Cannabis

While the recreational use of (and consequently the distribution of) cannabis is illegal in most countries throughout the world, it is available by prescription or recommendation in many places, including Canada and 10 of the 50 US states (although importation and distribution is still federally prohibited). Beginning in 2014, Uruguay became the first country to legalize cultivation, sale, and consumption of cannabis for recreational use for adult residents. In 2018, Canada became the only second country to legalize use, sale and cultivation of cannabis. The first few weeks were met with extremely high demand, most shops being out of stock after operating for only four days.

Cannabis use is tolerated in some areas, most notably the Netherlands which has legalized the possession and licensed sale (but not cultivation) of the drug. Many nations have decriminalized the possession of small amounts of marijuana. Due to the hardy nature of the cannabis plant, marijuana is grown all across the world and is today the world's most popular illegal drug with the highest level of availability. Cannabis is grown legally in many countries for industrial, non-drug use (known as hemp) as well. Cannabis-hemp may also be planted for other non-drug domestic purposes, such as seasoning that occurs in Aceh.

The demand for cannabis around the world, coupled with the drug's relative ease of cultivation, makes the illicit cannabis trade one of the primary ways in which organized criminal groups finance many of their activities. In Mexico, for example, the illicit trafficking of cannabis is thought to constitute the majority of many of the cartels' earnings, and the main way in which the cartels finance many other illegal activities; including the purchase of other illegal drugs for trafficking, and for acquiring weapons that are ultimately used to commit murders (causing a burgeoning in the homicide rates of many areas of the world, but particularly Latin America).

Some studies show that the increased legalization of cannabis in the United States (beginning in 2012 with Washington Initiative 502 and Colorado Amendment 64) has led Mexican cartels to smuggle less cannabis in exchange for more heroin.

Alcohol

Alcohol, in the context of alcoholic beverages rather than denatured alcohol, is illegal in a number of Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, and this has resulted in a thriving illegal trade in alcohol. The manufacture, sale, transportation, importation and exportation of alcoholic beverage were illegal in the United States during the time known as the Prohibition in the 1920s and early 1930s.

Heroin

Up until around 2004 the majority of the world's heroin was produced in an area known as the Golden Triangle. However, by 2007, 93% of the opiates on the world market originated in Afghanistan. This amounted to an export value of about US$64 billion, with a quarter being earned by opium farmers and the rest going to district officials, insurgents, warlords and drug traffickers. Another significant area where poppy fields are grown for the manufacture of heroin is Mexico.

According to the United States Drug Enforcement Administration, the price of heroin is typically valued 8 to 10 times that of cocaine on American streets, making it a high-profit substance for smugglers and dealers. In Europe (except the transit countries Portugal and the Netherlands), for example, a purported gram of street heroin, usually consisting of 700–800 mg of a light to dark brown powder containing 5–10% heroin base, costs €30–70, making the effective value per gram of pure heroin €300–700. Heroin is generally a preferred product for smuggling and distribution—over unrefined opium due to the cost-effectiveness and increased efficacy of heroin.

Because of the high cost per volume, heroin is easily smuggled. A US quarter-sized (2.5 cm) cylindrical vial can contain hundreds of doses. From the 1930s to the early 1970s, the so-called French Connection supplied the majority of US demand. Allegedly, during the Vietnam War, drug lords such as Ike Atkinson used to smuggle hundreds of kilograms of heroin to the US in coffins of dead American soldiers (see Cadaver Connection). Since that time it has become more difficult for drugs to be imported into the US than it had been in previous decades, but that does not stop the heroin smugglers from getting their product across US borders. Purity levels vary greatly by region with Northeastern cities having the most pure heroin in the United States. On 17 October 2018 police in Genoa Italy, discovered 270 kg of heroin hidden in a ship coming from the Iranian southern port of Bandar Abbas. The ship had already passed and stopped at Hamburg in Germany and Valencia in Spain.

Penalties for smuggling heroin or morphine are often harsh in most countries. Some countries will readily hand down a death sentence (e.g. Singapore) or life in prison for the illegal smuggling of heroin or morphine, which are both internationally Schedule I drugs under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.

Methamphetamine

Methamphetamine is another popular drug among distributors. Three common street names are or "meth", "crank", and "ice".

According to the Community Epidemiology Work Group, the number of clandestine methamphetamine laboratory incidents reported to the National Clandestine Laboratory Database decreased from 1999 to 2009. During this period, methamphetamine lab incidents increased in mid-western States (Illinois, Michigan, Missouri, and Ohio), and in Pennsylvania. In 2004, more lab incidents were reported in Missouri (2,788) and Illinois (1,058) than in California (764). In 2003, methamphetamine lab incidents reached new highs in Georgia (250), Minnesota (309), and Texas (677). There were only seven methamphetamine lab incidents reported in Hawaii in 2004, though nearly 59 percent of substance abuse treatment admissions (excluding alcohol) were for primary methamphetamine abuse during the first six months of 2004. As of 2007, Missouri leads the United States in drug-lab seizures, with 1,268 incidents reported. Often canine units are used for detecting rolling meth labs which can be concealed on large vehicles, or transported on something as small as a motorcycle. These labs are more difficult to detect than stationary ones, and can often be obscured among legal cargo in big trucks.

Methamphetamine is sometimes used intraveneously, placing users and their partners at risk for transmission of HIV and hepatitis C. "Meth" can also be inhaled, most commonly vaporized on aluminum foil or in a glass pipe. This method is reported to give "an unnatural high" and a "brief intense rush".

In South Africa methamphetamine is called "tik" or "tik-tik"."Known locally as "tik," the drug was virtually unknown as late as 2003. Now, it is the country's main drug of abuse, even when alcohol is included. " Children as young as eight are abusing the substance, smoking it in crude glass vials made from light bulbs. Since methamphetamine is easy to produce, the substance is manufactured locally in staggering quantities.

The government of North Korea currently operates methamphetamine production facilities. There, the drug is used as medicine because no alternatives are available; it also is smuggled across the Chinese border.

The Australian Crime Commission's illicit drug data report for 2011–2012 stated that the average strength of crystal methamphetamine doubled in most Australian jurisdictions within a 12-month period, and the majority of domestic laboratory closures involved small "addict-based" operations.

Temazepam

Temazepam, a strong hypnotic benzodiazepine, is illicitly manufactured in clandestine laboratories (called jellie labs) to supply the increasingly high demand for the drug internationally. Many clandestine temazepam labs are in Eastern Europe. The labs manufacture temazepam by chemically altering diazepam, oxazepam or lorazepam. "Jellie labs" have been identified and shut down in Russia, the Ukraine, Czech Republic, Latvia and Belarus.

Surveys in many countries show that temazepam, MDMA, nimetazepam, and methamphetamine rank among the top illegal drugs most frequently abused.

Cocaine

Cocaine is a highly prominent drug among many drug dealers and manufacturers. The cocaine black market distribution industry is worth more than 85 billion dollars. It has been a heavily fought over and massively produced. Around 1.1 million kilograms of cocaine were made in 2009 and it is believed to have been consumed by around 17 million people worldwide. This drug's mass trade is believed to have been possible by notorious drug dealing kingpin Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán who ran the Sinaloa Cartel.

See also

Allegations of CIA drug trafficking
Arguments for and against drug prohibition
Black market
Counterfeit medications
Drug Cartel
Drug trafficking organizations
Drug prohibition law
Drug liberalization
Illegal drug trade in popular culture
Legal drug trade
Narco-capitalism
Prohibitionism
War on Drugs

International coordination:
Interpol
United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances

References

External links

 Official website of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
 Illicit drug issues by country, by the CIA

Drug trade
Category:Smuggling


Teta, Alf Marra

Teta, Alf Marra (Arabic for: Grandma, A Thousand Times) is a documentary film about a feisty Beiruti grandmother.

The 50-minute film was produced in 2010 as a UAE/Qatar/Lebanon co-production with the financial support of the Doha Film Institute and Screen Institute Beirut.  The film was produced by Veritas Films. It was the first film to be released by a company based in Twofour54, Abu Dhabi’s media content creation freezone.

“Teta, Alf Marra” achieved several ‘firsts’ for the regional filmmaking industry. It was the first locally produced documentary to show in cinemas in the UAE and secure regional distribution. It was also the first documentary produced in the GCC to qualify for Academy Awards qualification, with theatrical runs in Los Angeles and New York City.

Synopsis
The film is a poetic documentary that puts a feisty Beiruti grandmother at the center of brave film exercises designed to commemorate her many worlds before they are erased by the passage of time and her eventual death.

Teta Fatima is the 83-year-old matriarch of the Kaabour family and the sharp-witted queen bee of an old Beiruti quarter. With great intimacy, the film documents her larger-than-life character as she struggles to cope with the silence of her once-buzzing house and imagines what awaits her beyond death. Meanwhile, her beloved violinist husband (deceased 20 years) is both an essential absence and presence. His features manifest through the face of their filmmaker grandson while his previously unpublished violin improvisations weave through her world and that of the film. Teta, Alf Marra brings together grandfather, grandmother and grandson in a playful documentary that aims to defy a past death and a future one.

Director
Teta, Alf Marra was directed by award-winning filmmaker Mahmoud Kaabour.

Awards
Teta, Alf Marra has won a number of international awards, including:
October 2010: Audience Award for Best Documentary at the Doha Tribeca Film Festival, Qatar
October 2010: Special Jury Mention for filmmaker Mahmoud Kaabour at the Doha Tribeca Film Festival, Qatar
March 2011: Audience Award for Best International Documentary at DOX BOX, Syria
May 2011: Best Film Award at the London International Documentary Festival, UK
September 2011: Trophy in recognition of its contribution to Lebanese Cinema from Fondation Liban Cinema, Lebanon
October 2011: Special Jury Mention for filmmaker Mahmoud Kaabour for "an outstanding way of telling a story" at DocsDF Festival, Mexico
October 2011: Best Film Award in the "Celebrate Age" category at the Mumbai International Film Festival, India
October 2012: Merit Prize at the Taiwan International Film Festival

Festival attendances
October 2010: World Premiere at the Doha Tribeca Film Festival, Qatar
October 2010: African Premiere at Carthage Film Festival, Tunisia
 December 2010: Teta, Alf Marra screened at the grand opening of Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern Arts, Qatar
 January 2011: UAE Premiere in Abu Dhabi at the National Theatre
January 2011: European Premiere at International Film Festival Rotterdam, The Netherlands
March 2011: Dox Box International Documentary Film Festival Damascus, Syria
April 2011: American Premiere at Tribeca Film Festival New York, USA with a special screening and panel in the “TriBeCa Talks: After the Movie” series
May 2011: UK Premiere at London International Documentary Film Fest, UK
May 2011: Polish Premiere at Krakow Film Festival
May 2011: Festival Cinéma Arabe Amsterdam, The Netherlands
June 2011: Seattle International Film Festival, USA
June 2011: Screening at Royal Film Commission, Amman, Jordan
June 2011: Arab Film Week at INCAA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
July 2011: Arab Film Festival, Sydney, Australia
July 2011: Indianapolis International Film Festival, USA
August 2011: Santiago International Film Festival, Chile
August 2011: Montreal World Film Festival, Montreal, Canada
September 2011: Screening at Fondation Liban Cinema, Lebanon
October 2011: Vancouver International Film Festival, Canada
October 2011: DocsDF Festival, Mexico City, Mexico
October 2011: Arab Film Festival, San Francisco, Berkeley, San Jose, Los Angeles, USA
October 2011: St. John's International Women's Film Festival, Canada
October 2011: Calgary Arab Film Festival, Canada
October 2011: Iihlava International Documentary Film Festival, Czech Republic
October 2011: Thessaloniki Biennale of Contemporary Art, Greece
November 2011: Special Screening Tribeca Cinemas NYC, USA
January 2012: Tromsø International Film Festival, Norway
January 2012: Helsinki Documentary Film Festival, Finland
February 2012: Middle Eastern Film Festival Edinburgh, UK
February 2012: International Film Festival Port- land Oregon, USA
March 2012: Special Screening LAU Alumni Film Festival Beirut, Lebanon
April and May 2012: Documentary Edge Festival, New Zealand
May 2012: Jacob Burns Film Center New York, USA
June 2012: Shorts Shorts Film Festival & Asia in Japan Tokyo, Japan
Septembre 2012: Special Screening, Semaine du Liban in Paris, Embassy of Lebanon. France
October 2012: Taiwan International Documentary Festival, Taiwan
October 2012: London MINA Film Festival, UK
October 2012 Bjelovar Film Festival, Croatia

References

External links

 Veritas Films

Category:2010 films
Category:2010s documentary films
Category:Lebanese films
Category:Emirati documentary films
Category:Documentary films about women
Category:Documentary films about old age
Category:Documentary films about death
Category:Lebanese documentary films


Campina do Monte Alegre

Campina do Monte Alegre is a municipality in the state of São Paulo in Brazil. The population is 5,901 (2015 est.) in an area of 185 km². The elevation is 612 m, 2090 ft.

References

Category:Municipalities in São Paulo (state)


Bob Birrell (footballer)

Robert Birrell (6 October 1890 – 23 January 1956) was a Scottish professional football full back who played in the Scottish League for Heart of Midlothian, Cowdenbeath and St Mirren. He represented the Scottish League XI and was later one of the founders of Crossgates Primrose.

Career statistics

Honours
Cowdenbeath

 Scottish League Second Division (2): 1913–14, 1914–15
Eastern League (2): 1916–17, 1917–18

Heart of Midlothian

East of Scotland Shield (1): 1920–21
Wilson Cup (2): 1918–19, 1919–20
Rosebery Charity Cup (2): 1918–19, 1920–21

Individual

Cowdenbeath Hall of Fame

References

Category:1890 births
Category:Scottish footballers
Category:1956 deaths
Category:Association football fullbacks
Category:Sportspeople from Fife
Category:Cowdenbeath F.C. players
Category:Heart of Midlothian F.C. players
Category:St Mirren F.C. players
Category:Scottish Football League players
Category:Scottish Football League representative players


Karina Maki

is a Team handball player from Uki in Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan. She plays for Japan Handball League side Omron. She is a sister of Japan National Team International and JEF United Ichihara Chiba star, Seiichiro Maki and Nagoya Grampus forward/defender Yuki Maki. She is 169 cm tall and weighs 69 kg. Karina Maki's position is utility (often play as offensive defender). During her childhood school days she used to play Ice Hockey (with her brother Seiichiro Maki) and Basketball.  Her nickname is "Hiro" by her teammates and OMRON fans.

Playing style
Karina Maki is well known for her all round skills especially her offensive plays and skills

External links
https://web.archive.org/web/20070825090546/http://omronhbc.web.infoseek.co.jp/ (Japanese) profile of Karina Maki
https://web.archive.org/web/20070825090546/http://omronhbc.web.infoseek.co.jp/ OMRON Handball Team Official Website (Japanese)

Category:1982 births
Category:Living people
Category:Japanese female handball players
Category:Asian Games medalists in handball
Category:Handball players at the 2010 Asian Games
Category:Asian Games silver medalists for Japan
Category:Medalists at the 2010 Asian Games


National Football Museum

The National Football Museum is England's national museum of football. It is based in the Urbis building in Manchester city centre, and preserves, conserves and displays important collections of football memorabilia.

The museum was originally based in Deepdale, Preston, Lancashire, but moved to Manchester in 2012.

History

Origins

The idea for what became the National Football Museum goes back to 1994 when Baxi Partnership, a local company, acquired Preston North End Football Club (PNE) and began the redevelopment of Deepdale Stadium. A chance conversation between Bryan Gray, Chairman of PNE, and the Football League, led to a meeting with Harry Langton, the man who over thirty years put together what is now called the FIFA Museum Collection. FIFA recognised the importance of the collection and acquired it from Harry Langton with a view to finding a permanent home. FIFA saw the proposed museum at Preston as an ideal permanent location for the FIFA Museum Collection.

Bryan Gray formed a small team of people to work on the project including Keith Cooper of FIFA, David Fleming, Director of Tyne and Wear Museums, Brian Booth, formerly Vice Chancellor of the University of Central Lancashire, and Chris Newbery, director of the Royal Marines Museum in Portsmouth. The Football Association was represented by David Davies. The National Football Museum was incorporated as a private limited company in June 1995 and became a registered charity in November 1995.

Preston
After much hard work, an application to the Heritage Lottery Fund was successful and a grant of £7.5m was awarded in November 1997. The Museum would be located in the Bill Shankly Kop of Deepdale. The total project cost was estimated at £12m. A ground breaking ceremony took place on 26 September 1998 by Sepp Blatter of FIFA with the Rt Hon Chris Smith in attendance. The foundation stone was laid by Bryan Gray and Ben Casey (who had persuaded Baxi to buy PNE) in April 2000. Finally the National Football Museum was officially opened on 21 June 2001 by the Duke of Kent. Bryan Gray, the founding chairman of trustees, stood down in September 2001 to be succeeded by Brian Booth.

Rob Pratten was the first employee of the Football Museum: he joined the team in May 1995 and for some time was the only employee. Kevin Moore was appointed Director in August 1997 and was later joined by Mark Bushell, Hugh Hornby and Lindsey Jones. The museum's first site was outside Deepdale, Preston, Lancashire. Deepdale was particularly significant as it is the oldest continuously used professional football ground in the world. The museum's president is World Cup winner Sir Bobby Charlton.

In 2003 the museum and the University of Central Lancashire established the International Football Institute to conduct research into historical, social and cultural aspects of football.

On a visit in  2004, Sepp Blatter, President of FIFA commented  "The National Football Museum merits my admiration as a footballer and as the President of FIFA — it is a superb realisation, a real jewel!".  Sir Bobby Charlton commented that he “can’t think of a better museum anywhere in the world.” and Sir Alex Ferguson "Each time I visit the Museum I am so impressed by the great job it does in bringing the rich history of football to life". The museum received the award of Large Visitor Attraction of the Year, at the 2005 Lancashire and Blackpool Tourism Awards

In December 2008, chairman of the Football League, Brian Mawhinney caused controversy when he suggested that the Museum should be moved from Preston to Wembley Stadium in order to attract more visitors.
Founder Kevin Moore, stated that it had been an aim to have an exhibition at Wembley, but stated that the trustee's policy was to have its headquarters in Preston.

Manchester
Despite critical acclaim and attracting 100,000 visitors per year, funding was repeatedly an issue. In 2007, it had an income of £791,256 against out-goings of £1,231,195. The trustees were concerned about the museum's long-term future. In 2009, they approached Manchester City Council about moving the museum.  The city council offered a funding package worth £2m per year for the museum to move to Manchester. Despite an improved offer of £400,000 per year from Preston and Lancashire councils, the trustees voted to move the museum to the Urbis exhibition centre in Manchester.

It was intended that subject to satisfactory funding, the Preston site would remain open as a secondary centre.  However, the museum failed to agree a funding package with Lancashire County Council and the Preston site closed to the public at the end of April 2010. As of 2012, the Preston site is still used as a research and storage centre.

Urbis closed in February 2010 in preparation for an intended opening of the new National Football Museum in summer 2011.

The museum reopened in Manchester on 6 July 2012. The new museum aimed to attract 350,000 visitors per year. It was reported in August 2012 that the new National Football Museum attracted over 100,000 visitors in the first six weeks of opening. By the end of April 2013, the museum reached its 350,000 target, and was attracting 500,000 visitors by 2017. From January 2019, the museum adopted a charging model, while remaining free to city of Manchester residents.

Building layout

The museum is based in the Urbis building and is laid out over 4 floors:

Pitch Gallery – The largest floor, housing the zones:

 Trophies – Replicas of the FA Cup and Premier League trophies on display
 Hall of Fame – A full list of the museum's Hall of Fame inductees
 Changing Exhibitions – Currently Kosmo Vinyl's Is Saitch Yer Daddy? art display

Match Gallery – The largest floor, housing the zones:

 The Game – Features items such as the first ever rule book from 1863 and the shirt from the first ever international football match between England and Scotland
 Fans – Including the original painting of L.S. Lowry's "Going to the Match"
 Competition – Information about the various competitions and leagues, with the original version of the FA Cup and various replica trophies
England on the World Stage - A section dedicated to England national men and women's teams, featuring the Jules Rimet Trophy, the match ball from the 1966 World Cup Final and Diego Maradona's "Hand of God" shirt.
 Stadiums – Information about various stadiums and designs, with an original turnstile from the old Wembley Stadium and some original wooden seats.
 Media – Featuring various footage and clippings from old matches, including a sheepskin coat worn by John Motson.
 Clubs – Interactive screens with information on most league clubs in England.
 Players – A brief look at the scope of footballers, including the only Victoria Cross won by a professional footballer and the painting "The Art of the Game" portraying Eric Cantona.
 Our Beautiful Game – A 10-minute film in a cinema showcasing a month in English football on all levels.

Play Gallery – Featuring various paid-for football interactive games, as well the zones:

 Football for All – A showcase of how football is played by people of all abilities.
 Laws – Interactive screens explaining the original rules of football and referees roles in the game.
 Managers – Audio clips from managers and the original Manager of the Year trophy.
 Toys and Games – A showcase of various football-related games and toys
 Performance – Information about the medical side of playing football, including Willie Cunningham's knee cartilage.
 Discovery Zone – An area for under-5s to play.

Score Gallery – A changing exhibition space. In summer 2016, it hosted an exhibition celebrating 50th anniversary of England's World Cup triumph. In 2018/2019 it hosted The Game: Thirty Years Through the Lens of Stuart Roy Clarke.

Learning and Education Zone – A dedicated learning space for school and education groups.

Collections
Located at the Deepdale stadium in Preston, where the museum was open from June 2001 – March 2010, the  independent charity holds the following collections at its research facility:
 The FIFA Museum Collection
 The Football Association Collection
 The Football League Collection.
 The FIFA Book Collection
 The People's Collection
 The Football Clubs Collection
 The Harry Langton Collection
 The Sir Stanley Matthews Collection
 The Littlewoods Collection
 The Priory Collection
 The Neville Evans Collection

The Neville Evans collection forms part of the largest private collection of football memorabilia in the world. Also known as the National Football Collection, it consists of a wide range of football-related items, including the largest private collection of Tottenham Hotspur memorabilia in the world. At least 400 items are on long-term loan to the National Football Museum, with other items also being supplied to complement their in house and travelling exhibits. Started by UK businessman Neville Evans, the collection continues to grow and works to preserve and share the history of football for the next generation of fans.

 The Homes of Football – photography by Stuart Roy Clarke

At any time, around 2,500 items from the museum's collections are on display at its new home in Manchester city centre, with around a  further 140,000 items held. Key items include
 Both of the two balls used in the first World Cup Final in 1930.
 The ball from the 1966 World Cup Final.
 The replica of the Jules Rimet Trophy, made in secret by the FA in 1966 after the original was stolen, and paraded by the England players at the World Cup Final in 1966.
 The England captain's jersey and cap from the world's first official international football match, Scotland vs England, in 1872.
 The world's oldest women's football kit, from the 1890s.
 The shirt worn by Maradona during the 'Hand of God goal' and The Goal of the Century.
 The original rules of Association Football written down when The Football Association was formed in 1863 in the Freemasons Tavern, London.

Gallery

Exhibitions
Many exhibits are loaned to museums in the UK and artifacts have been loaned to exhibitions in Germany, Portugal, Switzerland and Belgium. The museum has worked in partnership with UEFA to create the UEFA Jubilee Exhibition, which opened in the European Parliament in Brussels, before moving to the National Football Museum. The museum also worked with UEFA to create the world's first exhibition dedicated to women's football, to coincide with the UEFA Euro 2005 Women's Championship. To mark the 2006 FIFA World Cup the museum worked with partners to develop exhibitions in Hong Kong and Germany. A special exhibition "Saved for the Nation: The Story of the FA Cup" which featured the oldest surviving FA Cup trophy, used during FA Cup Finals between 1896 and 1910, was launched in May 2006.

The museum's temporary exhibitions programme has also included "One for All: All for One", a photographic exhibition highlighting the work of Philip Colvin, documenting the experiences and challenges of disabled Crystal Palace supporter Samuel Burch as he travelled across the country in support of his team); and "The Greater Game: Football and The First World War", exploring the role football played at home and at the front during the war years, and explores the myths and reality of famous stories from the conflict, including a previously unseen diary detailing the events of the famous Christmas Truce of 1914, as well as lost footage from the front and of wartime football.

Saved for the Nation: The Story of the FA Cup - May 2006
One for All: All for One - March 2007 to June 2007
The Greater Game: Football and The First World War - December 2014
Out of Play: Technology in Football - May 2015
Ferenc Puskás: The World's Greatest Goalscorer - September 2015
Pitch to Pixel: The World of Football Gaming - October 2015 to June 2016
1966 World Cup Exhibition - June 2016 to April 2017
Pelé: Art Life Football - May 2017 to March 2018
The Game: Thirty Years Through the Lens of Stuart Roy Clarke - March 2018 - March 2019
Strip! How Football Got Shirty - 22 November 2019 - 7 June 2020

Publications

See also
 English Football Hall of Fame, which is housed at the museum

References

External links

 International Football Institute
 Priory Collection
 National Football Collection (Neville Evans)

Category:History of Preston
Category:Museums in Manchester
Category:Sports museums in England
Category:History of football in England
Category:Association football museums and halls of fame
Category:2001 establishments in England
Category:Museums established in 2001


May 24 incident

The May 24 incident (), also called the Liu Ziran incident () and the Reynolds riot, was an international incident between the United States and Taiwan that started over the killing of an ROC national and a court-martial conducted by U.S. military personnel in Taiwan, resulting in protests including separate mob attacks on the U.S. Embassy in Taipei, the United States Information Service buildings and a police station.

There were other acts of protests prior to, during and after May 24, 1957, across Taiwan and in Taipei that led U.S. government officials behind-the-scenes to refer to these events as "riots" but U.S. officials deliberately spoke of a "riot" to avoid any adverse psychological impact on its alliance with the ROC. Similarly, the May 24 incident was seen then and later as an "anti-American" protest. Although Chiang Kai-shek, president of the ROC, described the attitudes of his citizens as "anti-American," Chiang publicly referred to the events of May 24 as an "unfortunate incident" (不幸事變).

Background
In 1951, the U.S. government agreed to establish a Military Advisory and Assistance Group-Taiwan. By January 1957, there were over 10,000 Americans living on Taiwan of which 61% were composed of MAAG advisers and their dependents. The U.S. government insisted that all of its civilian and military personnel including their dependents possess diplomatic immunity with the result that approximately 1000 Americans were subject to ROC law. Starting in 1955, the ROC and U.S. governments engaged in negotiations to establish a Status of Forces Agreement but talks failed because the ROC demanded the right to try U.S. personnel for rape and murder whereas the U.S. State and Defense Departments insisted on "exclusive jurisdiction". Prior to the riots, U.S.-ROC relations were already fraught with tensions in part because of criminal behavior including rape on the part of MAAG personnel.

On March 20, 1957, Sgt. Robert G. Reynolds, a veteran of World War II and the Korean War who had served in Taiwan for two years as a member of MAAG, confronted Liu Ziran, purportedly a Republic of China Army Major and staff member at the Institute of Revolutionary Practice in Taiwan, outside Reynolds' duplex home on Yangmingshan (known to locals as Grass Mountain). Reynolds claimed that Liu had been peeping through the bathroom window while his wife took a bath and that when he went to the front of the duplex and called out to Liu, Liu approached with a three-foot long object leading Reynolds to fire his .22 caliber revolver. He further claimed that after trying to hail Taiwanese military policemen, Liu approached a second time leading Reynolds to fire a second round. Wounded a second time, Liu walked toward a park across the street from the duplex. Later, Liu's body was found nearly 200 feet away from the duplex. Almost immediately, U.S. and ROC criminal investigators reached different conclusions about the shooting, Initially, the Americans believed that Reynolds acted in self-defense and did not intend to pursue charges. Although ROC investigators discounted Taiwan newspaper reports that claimed that Reynolds killed Liu because both were either involved in the black market or were in love with the same Taiwanese woman, they concluded that Reynolds killed in cold blood. Liu's body faced in the direction of Reynolds' duplex suggesting that he had not been shot twice while in the act of running away but rather at pointblank range at the spot where the body lay. Moreover, no object fitting the description provided by Reynolds was found anywhere near the duplex or the body. ROC pressure eventually led U.S. authorities to hold hearings to determine if Reynolds should face court-martial. These hearings recommended that Reynolds be charged with involuntary manslaughter on the basis that while the first shot might have been fired out of fear, Reynolds could have retreated rather than putting himself in a situation to fire a second, and what proved to be a fatal, shot.

On May 20, 1957, a U.S. military court-martial convened in Taipei in the MAAG chapel. Reynolds' defense attorney told the jury of five colonels and three sergeants, all of whom served in Taiwan, that Liu was a man intent on raping Reynolds' wife and that Reynolds merely tried to protect his family. The prosecution argued that after firing the first shot, Reynolds did not have to capture what he latter claimed was a burglar but instead should have retreated into his home and called police. Thus, he killed Liu out of the heat of anger. On May 23, though, the jury acquitted Reynolds of all charges. The not-guilty verdict angered ROC citizens who viewed the trial as rigged and could not understand how a person could kill another and not receive some type of punishment. Taiwanese were also outraged that an American could claim self-defense in a situation in which there was no evidence that Liu possessed any weapon.

Riots
On May 24 at around 10:00 a.m., Liu's widow arrived outside the U.S. Embassy with her daughter holding a poster that stated in English and Chinese: "The Killer--Reynolds is Innocent? Protest against US Court-Martial Unfair, Unjust Decision." Within hours, a mob of 6,000 gathered outside the embassy, chanting anti-American slogans and demanding justice for Liu. In the afternoon, waves of rioters entered the embassy doing damage including smashing vehicles and furniture and destroying the American flag. Eight Americans hiding in a basement bomb shelter were driven out, some with serious injuries. Separately, a mob surrounded the Sugar Building, headquarters for MAAG-Taiwan, while another mob wrecked two USIS buildings. Eventually, protesters surrounded the Taipei Municipal Police building and wreaked destruction. When a police officer was shot, other officers opened fire on the mob. Although the ROC government ordered military forces into Taipei to restore order, rioters continued to do damage to the embassy into the evening. By the end of what became known as Black Friday, 11 Americans, 62 police officers, and 11 rioters were injured and 1 rioter was dead. The police arrested 111. The damage to the U.S. Embassy and USIS buildings totaled over $500,000 ($4 million in 2015 terms).

Aftermath
The U.S. government immediately filed a protest with the ROC and accused various ROC officials including Chiang Ching-kuo, son of Chiang Kai-shek, of deliberately instigating the riots. ROC officials including Chiang Kai-shek did apologize for the riots, but the official ROC report denied allegations that the government planned and instigated the protests and riots. Instead, the report claimed that the protesters acted out of anger against the verdict in a manner that reflected spontaneity and mob psychology. The report also restated the ROC position that Reynolds had committed murder. An internal ROC investigation blamed the Chinese media in Taiwan and Hong Kong for writing inflammatory stories about the court-martial and for the rigid chain of command that prohibited ROC authorities from preventing the protests from evolving into riots. Of those arrested, 70 were released without charge. Of the remaining 41, 28 were found guilty. Two were sentenced to one year in prison, the maximum punishment meted out; the rest were sentenced to two to five months in prison. The riots ultimately reflected Chinese and Taiwanese anger over the verdict and diplomatic immunity which was perceived as extraterritoriality. The riots also touched the nerves of Asians who had their own resentments about the actions of U.S. military personnel especially in Japan which was already dealing with the Girard incident. Ultimately, both the ROC and U.S. managed to prevent the incident from causing a break in the alliance.

See also
Attacks on U.S. diplomatic facilities

References

External links

Category:1957 in Taiwan
Category:1957 riots
Category:Attacks on diplomatic missions of the United States
Category:United States military in Taiwan
Category:Taiwan–United States relations


Visitation (Tintoretto, Bologna)

Visitation or Visitation with Saint Joseph and Saint Zacharias is a c.1550 painting of the Visitation by Tintoretto, now in the Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna.

References

category:1550 paintings
Tintoretto
category:Paintings by Tintoretto
category:Paintings in Bologna


Rule of thirds (military)

The rule of thirds is a rule of thumb used when planning for the deployment and usage of a military organisation, according to which one third of the total military forces involved should be available for operations, one third should be preparing for operations and the final third, having been on operations, should be recuperating. Ideally, units and individuals regularly will rotate through each of the three phases.

Variations and implications
Different nations and militaries will vary the rule of thirds according to their own financial and manpower situations.

At times of financial constraint, rather than increasing the total number of forces, one temptation of politicians is to attempt to increase available manpower by folding together the preparation and recuperation phases, creating a rule of halves. A rule of halves was actually the basis of British Army planning during the British Empire, with each regiment consisting of a pair of battalions which would take turns recruiting, training and recuperating in the UK, and then being deployed overseas. However, because of the nature of transportation in the past, each of the phases at that time were longer (being a year or more) than is currently the case. Departing from a three-phase rotation for short periods is not impossible, but prolonged deployment is detrimental both to the psychological health of service personnel, and to the operational life of equipment, leading to an unwanted turnover in personnel, and to premature failure of equipment. For those military operations that are able to afford it, going to a four- or five-phase rotation schedule actually increases a nation's ability to conduct sustained military operations, even though it may appear that the majority of its servicemen are not doing anything.

As a critical cornerstone of their defence policies, the British and French submarine-launched ballistic missile forces uses a rule of fourths, where one submarine is on patrol, one is preparing to go on patrol, one returns from patrol, and the fourth is in maintenance. This force structure ensures that they will always have at least one ballistic missile boat on patrol at any one time.

The United States, in order to keep the maximum number of its submarines available at any one time, assigns two crews, called gold and blue, to each of its submarines, with the submarines themselves having a turnaround time that is as short as possible. However, the United States is one of the few nations that can afford both the manpower costs of doing this, while still being able to ensure that enough boats are in service to have the ability regularly to stagger boats out for deep maintenance without appreciably affecting the total number available.

References

Category:Military economics
Category:Military planning


Concert for Diana

Concert for Diana was a benefit concert held at the newly built Wembley Stadium in London, United Kingdom in honour of Diana, Princess of Wales, on 1 July 2007, which would have been her 46th birthday. 31 August that year brought the 10th anniversary of her death. The concert was hosted by Diana's sons, Prince William and Prince Harry, who helped to organise many of the world's most famous entertainers and singers to perform. Proceeds from the concert went to Diana's charities, as well as to charities of which William and Harry are patrons.

The concert was broadcast in 140 different countries across the world with an estimated potential audience of 500 million. In December 2006, 22,500 tickets were made available for purchase for the concert, selling out in just 17 minutes, while 63,000 people turned out to Wembley Stadium to watch the performances to commemorate Diana. At the end of the performances, a video montage of Diana as a child was presented, accompanied by the Queen song "These Are the Days of Our Lives".

The concert started at 16:00 BST and finished at approximately 22:15 BST – there were two short intermissions during the concert. A 2-Disc DVD set of the full concert was released on 5 November 2007. A Blu-ray high definition release of the full concert and documentary was released in November 2008.

Timeline

 Order of performances

Elton John – "Your Song"
Duran Duran – "(Reach Up for the) Sunrise", "Wild Boys" and "Rio"
James Morrison – "You Give Me Something" and "Wonderful World"
Lily Allen – "LDN" and "Smile"
Fergie – "Glamorous" and "Big Girls Don't Cry"
The Feeling – "Fill My Little World" and "Love It When You Call"
Pharrell – "Drop It Like It's Hot" and "She Wants To Move (Remix)"
Nelly Furtado – "Say It Right", "I'm Like a Bird" and "Maneater"
English National Ballet – "Swan Lake" (Act IV)
Status Quo – "Rockin' All Over the World"
Joss Stone – "You Had Me" and "Under Pressure"
Roger Hodgson –  Supertramp Medley ("Dreamer", "The Logical Song" and "Breakfast in America") and "Give a Little Bit"
Orson – "Happiness" and "No Tomorrow"
Tom Jones – "Kiss", "I Bet You Look Good on the Dancefloor" and "Ain't That A Lot of Love?" (with Joss Stone)
Will Young – "Switch It On"
Natasha Bedingfield – "Unwritten"
Bryan Ferry – "Slave to Love", "Make You Feel My Love" and "Let's Stick Together"
Anastacia – "Superstar"
Connie Fisher and Andrea Ross – "Memory"
Andrea Bocelli – "The Music of the Night"
Josh Groban and Sarah Brightman – "All I Ask of You"
Donny Osmond, Jason Donovan, Lee Mead and Chickenshed – "Any Dream Will Do"
Rod Stewart – "Maggie May", "Baby Jane" and "Sailing"
Kanye West – "Gold Digger", " Touch the Sky", "Stronger", "Diamonds from Sierra Leone" and "Jesus Walks"
P. Diddy – "I'll Be Missing You"
Take That – "Shine", "Patience" and "Back for Good"
Ricky Gervais – "Freelove Freeway" (with Mackenzie Crook), "Chubby Little Loser"
Elton John – "Saturday Night's Alright For Fighting" "Tiny Dancer" "Are You Ready For Love"

 Order of speakers

Prince William and Prince Harry
Sienna Miller and Dennis Hopper
Kiefer Sutherland
Ryan Seacrest, Simon Cowell and Randy Jackson
Natasha Kaplinsky
Dennis Hopper
Fearne Cotton
Gillian Anderson
Boris Becker and John McEnroe
Cat Deeley
Patsy Kensit
Jamie Oliver
David Beckham
Ben Stiller
Prince William and Prince Harry
Ricky Gervais
Nelson Mandela
Bill Clinton
Tony Blair

Attendees
Prince William
Prince Harry
Queen Elizabeth II
Princess Beatrice of York
Zara Phillips
Peter Phillips
Sarah, Duchess of York
Princess Eugenie of York
Members of the Spencer family
Catherine Middleton with parents Carole and Michael Middleton and her younger brother, James and younger sister Philippa
Chelsy Davy
Kiefer Sutherland
Jason Donovan
P. Diddy
David Furnish
Mike Tindall
Autumn Kelly
Peaches Geldof
David Beckham

The Prince of Wales was not among the spectators. Together with the Queen, then Prime Minister Gordon Brown and his predecessor Tony Blair, he was among the guests at the Diana, Princess of Wales memorial service on 31 August 2007 in the Guards Chapel.

Planning

 In pre-concert interview, Prince William listed Michael Jackson as one of Diana's most favourite music acts, but Jackson did not appear on the show.
 In one of the many tabloid stories that surfaced relating to the concert and the following week's Live Earth event, it was alleged that Madonna, the Red Hot Chili Peppers, Keane, and other acts were set to play at the concert but were lost to Live Earth. The concert organisers were apparently trying to secure their top acts, and are also being pressured into rethinking their lineup to appeal to younger people, and compare to Live Earth.
 Kate Middleton, now Prince William's wife, and Chelsy Davy, the now ex-girlfriend of Prince Harry, attended the concert. It has been rumoured that they were involved in helping to plan the event.
 Queen guitarist Brian May was expected to perform alongside Joss Stone in her version of "Under Pressure", but pulled out of accompanying after finding the new arrangement of his band's song "different... from the original".

Broadcasting
The concert was broadcast in 140 countries. Jamie Theakston, Fearne Cotton and Claudia Winkleman presented for the BBC and many other television channels across the world. In the United States, VH1's coverage was presented by Aamer Haleem, Kate Thornton and Dave Berry.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom the concert was broadcast on BBC One, BBC HD and BBC Radio 2.

The concert was watched by an average of 8.9 million viewers, and peaked with 14.8 million. Over the 8-hour period it had a 44% viewing share. It received considerably more viewers than the Live Earth concert which was broadcast a week later.

Italy
Unlike other international events, the Concert for Diana wasn't broadcast by RAI. The live feed was aired by satellite broadcaster Sky Italia on its Sky Vivo channel from 17:00 to 23:00. The concert was also broadcast on commercial radio by RTL 102.5.

United States
In the US, MTV Live and VH1 broadcast the concert live from 11 am (EDT). The concert drew near double the viewing figures for the 2005 Live 8 concert with 1.4 million average over the 8 hours.

NBC broadcast a highlights show between 8 pm-11 pm EDT. The NBC showing was the US most watched programme, averaging 8.7 million viewers.

Canada
In Canada, the concert was broadcast live on CTV with a two-hour primetime special highlighting the best performances. The concert reached 2.8 million viewers and the primetime recap peaked at nearly 1 million viewers.

Australia
Foxtel on FOX8 in Australia, which was hosted by Molly Meldrum (with a highlights package broadcast by the Nine Network)

Other countries
VH1 Latin America broadcast the concert in Latin America, the Caribbean and Central America.

DStv carried it in Africa by showing it on a dedicated channel for the event. Prior to the concert there were television specials on the channel. Star TV throughout Asia, except Japan where it was shown by WOWOW.

A number of broadcasters showed the concert in Europe. Some countries saw the entire show live, others had only highlights. In Germany the broadcaster RTL II showed the highlights from 8.15 pm- 12.15 am CEST

Ricky Gervais
As with many live televised events, the Concert for Diana had a few technical problems, the most obvious of which occurred during comedian Ricky Gervais's stand up routine, before Elton John's musical finale. As a planned seven-minute routine became twelve minutes, viewers saw Gervais play to the sympathies of the crowd as a stagehand held up signs saying 'two minutes', then 'one minute'. The stand-up comic delivered a rendition of a song that David Bowie performed on his show Extras before finally being told to 'throw to the BBC' and presenters Claudia Winkleman and Jamie Theakston. During the extended piece, he performed his famous "dance" from The Office.

Charities
All net proceeds from the Concert went to the charities chosen by Princes William and Harry. These charities include Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund, Centrepoint and Sentebale, a charity founded in April 2006, by Prince Harry and Lesotho's Prince Seeiso. It helps vulnerable children and young people in Lesotho – particularly those orphaned as a result of AIDS.

During the airing of the concert, Diana, was hailed for her generous charity work with the Chain of Hope, Luton Indoor Bowling Club, and British Deaf Association charities. She was also celebrated for her work with the British Red Cross in helping get the word out on land mines in Angola.

See also
Diana, Princess of Wales Tribute Concert, a 1998 concert held at Althorp Park

References

External links
 Concert for Diana official news and information site (Archived)

Category:Benefit concerts in the United Kingdom
Category:Memorials to Diana, Princess of Wales
Category:2007 in music
Category:2007 in London
Category:English National Ballet
Category:Concerts at Wembley Stadium
Category:Tribute concerts in the United Kingdom
Category:July 2007 events in the United Kingdom


Quid Pro Quo (album)

{{Album ratings
|rev1 = AllMusic
|rev1score =
|rev2 = BBC
|rev2score = (favourable)
|rev3 = Classic Rock
|rev3score =
|rev4 = MusicOMH
|rev4score = <ref name="Music OMH">{{cite web |first=Farah |last=Ishaq |title=Review: Quid Pro Quo |publisher=MusicOMH |url=http://www.musicomh.com/albums/status-quo_0511.htm |date=6 June 2011 |accessdate=11 February 2012}}</ref>
}}Quid Pro Quo is the twenty-ninth studio album by English rock band Status Quo, released in May 2011. The album debuted at number 10 in the UK charts and features 14 new songs, as well as the 2010 version of their 1986 hit "In the Army Now" which was re-recorded in support of the Help for Heroes and British Forces Foundation charities. The accompanying Official Live Bootleg'' album features 12 older songs recorded by the band in concert in Amsterdam and Melbourne in 2010. In the UK the album was only available at branches of Tesco stores for its first week before being released conventionally on the band's Fourth Chord label on 6 June 2011.

The single "Rock 'n' Roll 'n' You" was initially released as a free track download from the band's official website, and was included on BBC Radio 2's 'A' playlist from 14 May 2011 onwards. The album was Radio 2's 'Album Of The Week' for the week commencing 28 May 2011. Subsequent singles "Two Way Traffic", "Better Than That" and "The Winner" were also included on the Radio 2 'A' playlist, and "Movin' On" was placed on the Radio 2 'B' playlist.

Track listing
 "Two Way Traffic" (Francis Rossi, John Edwards) – 4:00
 "Rock 'n' Roll 'n' You" (Rossi, Andy Bown) – 3:32
 "Dust to Gold" (Rossi, Bown, Edwards) – 4:52
 "Let's Rock" (Rick Parfitt, Wayne Morris) – 4:28
 "Can't See for Looking" (Parfitt, Bown, Edwards) – 3:55
 "Better Than That" (Rossi, Bob Young) – 3:18
 "Movin' On" (Rossi, Young) – 4:05
 "Leave a Little Light On" (Parfitt, Morris) – 4:05
 "Any Way You Like It" (Bown, Alan Crook, Edwards) – 3:18
 "Frozen Hero" (Rossi, Bown) – 4:21
 "Reality Cheque" (Parfitt, Edwards) – 4:05
 "The Winner" (Rossi, Young) – 3:18
 "It's All About You" (Rossi, Young) – 2:54
 "My Old Ways" (Rossi, Young) – 3:04
 "In the Army Now" (Rob Bolland, Fred Bolland) (UK release only) – 3:53

Official Live Bootleg track listing
 "Whatever You Want" (Parfitt, Bown) – 5:12
 "Down Down" (Rossi, Young) – 5:06
 "Don't Drive My Car" (Rossi, Bernie Frost) – 3:51
 "Hold You Back" (Rossi, Young, Parfitt) – 4:38
 "Pictures of Matchstick Men" (Rossi) – 2:29
 "Ice in the Sun" (Marty Wilde, Ronnie Scott) – 2:14
 "Beginning of the End" (Rossi, Edwards) – 4:27
 "Roll Over Lay Down" (Rossi, Young, Alan Lancaster, Parfitt, John Coghlan) – 5:58
 "Caroline" (Rossi, Young) – 5:08
 "Rockin' All Over the World" (John Cameron Fogerty) – 4:07

Deluxe Edition bonus tracks
"Paper Plane" (Rossi, Young) – 3:38
"Softer Ride" (Lancaster, Parfitt) – 3:46

Personnel
Francis Rossi - vocals, lead guitar
Rick Parfitt - vocals, guitar
John Edwards - bass, vocals
Andy Bown - keyboards
Matt Letley - drums

Additional personnel
Bob Young - harmonica on track 13
Nick Rossi - backing vocals on tracks 2, 6, 7, 12–14
Kick Horns - horns on track 4
Simon Clarke - baritone sax
Paul Spong - trumpet
Tim Sanders - tenor sax
Corps of Army Music, Kneller Hall, Twickenham and the voice of WO Eliott Drake on track 15
Recorded at ARSIS Studios 2010-2011

Chart performance

References

Quid Pro Quo
Category:2011 albums
Category:Albums produced by Mike Paxman


2019–20 Dhivehi Premier League

The 2019–20 Dhivehi Premier League is the fifth season of the Dhivehi Premier League, the top-tier football league in the Maldives. The season started on 14 June 2019. TC Sports are the defending champions.

Maziya secured the league title on 19 January 2020.

Teams
A total of nine teams compete in the league. Fehendhoo and Thimarafushi were relegated from the previous season, while New Radiant were suspended for financial reasons. They were replaced by promoted teams United Victory and Da Grande.

Personnel

Note: Flags indicate national team as has been defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.

Foreign players

League table

Results

Matches 1–16

Matches 17–21

See also
2020 Maldives FA Cup

References

Category:Dhivehi Premier League seasons
Maldives
1
1


Tögrög, Govi-Altai

Tögrög () is a sum (district) of Govi-Altai Province in western Mongolia. Center of Tugrug sum located from Altai city in 145 km .

https://www.panoramio.com/user/997462/tags/GA_Tugrug_sum

Category:Populated places in Mongolia
Category:Districts of Govi-Altai Province


Jack Cameron (actor)

Jack Cameron (born Jacques Kammerer also known as Jack Kammerer; November 22, 1883 – September 25, 1956) was an American actor, singer, and acrobatic comedian whose career spanned almost five decades. He appeared in vaudeville, burlesque, film, radio, and television. Cameron was best known for his vaudeville performances, first as part of the Kammerer & Howland musical comedy act, and later as a principal comedian on the Keith-Albee circuit. He appeared in several motion pictures and could be heard on WPRO (AM) radio as the “Singing Salesman.”

Early life and career

Kammerer was born as Jacques Kammerer on November 2, 1883, in Troyes, France. In 1897, he emigrated to Providence, Rhode Island with his father, Joseph Kammerer, and grandmother, Victorine Kammerer. As a teenager, Kammerer worked in a hat factory and trained as a gymnast at the Providence Boys’ Club. He began performing as an acrobat at Rocky Point Amusement Park’s Forest Casino in 1903. He appeared in local minstrel shows and with The Newman Comedy Four. In 1904, Kammerer married Clara Montgomery Higgs. They had three children and divorced in 1911. After the divorce, the children lived with Kammerer’s grandmother, Victorine, and uncle on a dairy farm in Rehoboth, MA.

Kammerer & Howland
Kammerer entered Providence vaudeville as a performer of illustrated songs. In 1910, Kammerer and Edna Howland, a classically trained pianist, began appearing together at the Bijou theatre as “Kammerer & Howland -- Classical Comedy Singing and Talking Act”. The Bijou was specifically designed as a venue for illustrated songs, which were performed between films, and an act like Kammerer & Howland would offer an upward of nine song programs per day at six days per week. The duo joined Fred Homan’s Musical Stock Company at the Scenic Temple on Matthewson Street in 1911.  Homan's company also included Eddie Dowling. Though it disbanded after only two years, the company was remembered fondly by Rhode Island theatregoers.

Kammerer & Howland appeared on Marcus Loew’s national circuit for the first time in 1913. They toured North America on the Loew’s circuit for four years, and were known for comedic songs, clever banter, acrobatic dancing, and for Kammerer’s impersonations of Ford Sterling, Charlie Chaplin, and Bert Williams. Kammerer & Howland were billed alongside celebrated entertainers, such as Will Rogers and Marie Stoddard. In 1914, Kammerer joined the White Rats of America, a labor union organized by theatre employees in an effort to destabilize the Vaudeville Managers Association.

Toward the end of the decade, Kammerer & Howland appeared together in American burlesque. They married and had one child, Donald L. Kammerer, born in Missouri during Kammerer and Howland’s tour with the 1919-1920 season of Pat White’s Gaiety Girls. The cast included Joe Yule and Nell Carter, who welcomed their only child, Mickey Rooney, while on the same tour.

The Gaiety Girls’ tour was the last for the duo of Kammerer & Howland. Howland returned to Providence, RI, with their son shortly after his birth. In 1923, she sued Kammerer for divorce on grounds of neglect and extreme cruelty. Howland was awarded custody, as well as a provision of ten dollars per week.

Jack Cameron
In 1921, Kammerer adopted the stage name Jack Cameron. Around this time, he was offered a string of lead roles in New York City burlesques. He appeared in Sliding Billy Watson’s World of Frolics, Eddie Dowling’s Hello Miss Radio, and Fred Clark’s Let’s Go. In 1923, Cameron was cast as a principal in Charles Waldron’s Bostonians. The show earned mixed reviews, but Cameron was a stand out. Alfred Nelson, theatre critic for Billboard, referred to Cameron as “a singer, dancer, and versatile actor of remarkable ability.” Variety noted that the audience "couldn't get enough" of Cameron’s baritone. Bostonians also marked the first artistic collaboration between Cameron and the youthful singer, Leo Lee.

After Bostonians, Cameron was cast as the principal comedian in vaudeville producer Charles B. Maddock’s Tramp, Tramp, Tramp: A Song of the Road, book by Ballard MacDonald. Tramp paired Cameron once again with Leo Lee, along with six supporting male performers. The men played singing hobos, thrown together by fate in a camp beside a railroad track. The show was a hit and toured nationally on the Keith-Albee Circuit between 1925 and 1927. Cameron followed Tramp, Tramp, Tramp with lead roles in three other C.B. Maddock productions: Sidekicks (1927-1929), Style Shop (1930), and All Wet (1931).

In 1929, Cameron starred alongside Helen Morgan in the Rouben Mamoulian motion picture, Applause. Cameron’s character was true to life: he played an aging burlesque clown by the name of “Joe King.” During the opening scenes of Applause, Cameron’s comedic and acrobatic abilities are on full display, with shots of Cameron clowning-around and backflipping across the sound stage. Joe King disappears from the story after making an unsuccessful offer of marriage to Kitty Darling, played by Helen Morgan. Cameron appeared in two subsequent motion pictures: The Spy (1929) with Tom Howard, directed by Monte Brice, and Little Lord Fauntleroy (1936) with Mickey Rooney, directed by John Cromwell.

Later Years
Cameron continued to work as an entertainer throughout the 1930s and 1940s. He performed in the role of Gonzorgo in Babes in Toyland for two seasons, 1930 and 1931, with the Aborn Opera Company and Singer's Midgets, at the Imperial Theatre on Broadway. In 1934, he reunited with Leo Lee, from Tramp and Sidekicks, to star in a new show, Broadway to Withersville. It was a flop. Toward the end of the 1930s, Cameron launched his “drunk” nightclub act, There Is a Tavern in the Town, at the Old Fashioned Cafe in Boston, MA. Cameron could be heard on WPRO (AM) radio as the “Singing Salesman” and appeared on the WBZ television show, You’re On. Cameron retired from show business in 1947. He died in Rehoboth, MA, on September 25, 1956.

References

External links

Category:1883 births
Category:1956 deaths
Category:American male singers
Category:American male comedians
Category:American male stage actors
Category:American male film actors
Category:American Burlesque performers
Category:Vaudeville performers
Category:20th-century American singers
Category:20th-century American comedians
Category:20th-century American male actors
Category:20th-century male singers


Mohd Hafiszuan Salehuddin

Mohd Hafiszuan Salehuddin (born 21 June 1987) is a Malaysian footballer who is currently playing for Terengganu City in the Malaysia FAM League. His playing position is as a midfielder, but can also operate as a defender.

Career
Hafiszuan started his professional career in Perak FA youth squad. Starting from the 2009 season, he was one of several Perak youth players promoted to main squad after the exodus of Perak players to other teams. He signed to play for Perlis in early 2011, but returned to Perak on loan in August 2011 for Perak's Malaysia Cup campaign.

He was not retained in the Perlis squad for the 2012 Malaysia Premier League campaign.
In April 2012 he joint Felda United FC. In Second Transfer window 2013 he signed to KL SPA FC.

On 29 November 2016, he signed with Perlis FA.

References

External links
 Mohd Hafiszuan profile at Seladang.net

Category:1987 births
Category:Living people
Category:Malaysian footballers
Category:Perak FA players
Category:Perlis FA players
Category:People from Perak
Category:Malaysian people of Malay descent
Category:Malaysian Muslims
Category:Association football midfielders


FADS2

This article is about the gene, for main associated enzyme see D6D.

Fatty acid desaturase 2 (FADS2) is encoded by the FADS2 gene, the associated enzyme is sometimes known as FADS2 as well.  Its main associated enzyme is Delta 6 desaturase (D6D) however the human enzyme been shown to also catalyze some delta-8 and delta-4 desaturases in spite of naming conventions.

Function

Fatty acid desaturase 2 is a member of the fatty acid desaturase (FADS) gene family. Desaturase enzymes cause desaturation of fatty acids through the introduction of double bonds between defined carbons of the fatty acyl chain. FADS family members are considered fusion products composed of an N-terminal cytochrome b5-like domain and a C-terminal multiple membrane-spanning desaturase portion, both of which are characterized by conserved histidine motifs. This gene is clustered with family members FADS1 and FADS2 at 11q12-q13.1; this cluster is thought to have arisen evolutionarily from gene duplication based on its similar exon/intron organization.

Clinical significance

It was reported the FADS2 interacts with breastfeeding such that breast-fed children with the "C" version of the gene appear about 7 intelligence quotient (IQ) points higher than those with the less common "G" version (less than this when adjusted for maternal IQ).

An attempt to replicate this study in 5934 8-year-old children failed: No relationship of the common C allele to negative effects of formula feeding was apparent, and contra to the original report, the rare GG homozygote children performed worse when formula fed than other children on formula milk. A study of over 700 families recently found no evidence for either main or moderating effects of the original SNP (rs174575), nor of two additional FADS2 polymorphisms (rs1535 and rs174583), nor any effect of maternal FADS2 status on offspring IQ.

References

Further reading

Category:EC 1.14.19


Nihattin Koca

Nihattin Koca (born 1 January 1966) is a Turkish cross-country skier. He competed in the men's 15 kilometre event at the 1984 Winter Olympics.

References

Category:1966 births
Category:Living people
Category:Turkish male cross-country skiers
Category:Olympic cross-country skiers of Turkey
Category:Cross-country skiers at the 1984 Winter Olympics
Category:People from Sarıkamış


Lastex

Lastex is a type of elastic yarn that was introduced in the 1930s and was primarily used for swimwear, brassieres, girdles and corselettes. It consists of a rubber core surrounded by wool, rayon, silk or cotton threads. It was invented and distributed by the Adamson Brothers, a company owned by the US Rubber Company. It entered the market in 1931.

References

Category:Yarn