Vjekoslav Luburić

Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić (6 March 1914 – 20 April 1969) was a Bosnian Croat member of the fascist Ustaše movement who headed the system of concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) during much of World War II. Luburić also personally oversaw multiple massacres of Serbs, and spearheaded the contemporaneous genocides of Jews and Roma in the NDH.

Luburić joined Ante Pavelić's Ustaše movement in 1931, left Yugoslavia the following year and relocated to Hungary. Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia and the establishment of the NDH with Pavelić at its head, Luburić returned to the Balkans. In late June 1941, Luburić was dispatched to the Lika region, where he oversaw a series of massacres of Serbs, which served as the casus belli for the Srb uprising. Around this time, he was appointed head of Bureau III, a department of the Ustaše Surveillance Service tasked with overseeing the NDH's sprawling network of concentration camps, most notably Jasenovac, where approximately 100,000 were killed over the course of the war. In late 1942, Luburić was appointed commander of the Croatian Home Guard's 9th Infantry Regiment, but was stripped of his command after shooting and killing one of his subordinates. Under German pressure, he was placed under house arrest, but retained de facto control of the Ustaše concentration camps. In August 1944, he played a leading role in the disruption of the Lorković–Vokić plot, which sought to overthrow Pavelić and replace him with a pro-Allied government. In February 1945, Pavelić dispatched Luburić to Sarajevo, where over the next two months, he oversaw the torture and killing of hundreds of known and suspected communists. Luburić flew back to Zagreb in early April and was promoted to the rank of General.

The NDH collapsed in May 1945 and Croatia was reintegrated into Yugoslavia. Luburić stayed behind to conduct a guerrilla warfare campaign against the communists, during which he was seriously wounded. In 1949, he emigrated to Spain and became active in Ustaše émigré circles. In 1955, Luburić broke with Pavelić over the latter's professed support for a future division of Bosnia between Greater Croatia and Greater Serbia, and formed a rival Croatian nationalist organization known as the Croatian National Resistance. The spat resulted in great mutual acrimony between the two men, and when Pavelić died in 1959, Luburić was forbidden from attending his funeral. In April 1969, Luburić was found murdered in his home, a victim of either the Yugoslav secret police or rivals in the Croatian émigré community.

Early life
Vjekoslav Luburić was born in the village of Humac, near Ljubuški, on 6 March 1914. He was the third child of Ljubomir, a bank clerk, and Marija Luburić (), a homemaker. The couple had another son, Dragutin, and two daughters, Mira and Olga. Theirs was a Bosnian Croat family. Luburić was a devout and practicing Roman Catholic. In December 1918, his father was shot by a police officer while smuggling tobacco and died of blood loss. Following his father's death, Luburić came to "detest and resent Serbs and the Serbian monarchy", the historian Cathie Carmichael writes. Shortly thereafter, Luburić's sister Olga committed suicide by jumping into the Trebižat River after their mother forbade her from marrying a Muslim. Following the deaths of Luburić's father and sister, his mother found work in a tobacco factory to provide for her remaining children. She soon married a man named Jozo Tambić, with whom she had three more children. Luburić's half-siblings, borne of his mother's second marriage, were named Zora, Nada and Tomislav.

Luburić completed his primary education in Ljubuški, before relocating to Mostar to attend high school. There, he began associating with Croatian nationalist youths. He became increasingly aggressive towards his teachers and peers, and often truanted. Luburić’s first encounter with law enforcement occurred on 7 September 1929, when he was arrested for vagrancy and sentenced to two days’ imprisonment by a Mostar court. In his senior year, Luburić dropped out of high school to work in the Mostar public stock exchange. In 1931, he joined the Ustaše, a Croatian fascist and ultra-nationalist movement committed to the destruction of Yugoslavia and the establishment of Greater Croatia. The same year, he was arrested for the embezzlement of funds belonging to the exchange. On 5 December, Luburić was sentenced to five months in prison for embezzlement. Shortly thereafter, he escaped captivity and made it as far as the Albanian–Yugoslav border before being recaptured. Upon release, Luburić relocated to northern Croatia, and then to Subotica, where he surreptitiously crossed the Hungarian–Yugoslav border. Luburić first rendezvoused with the Croatian émigré community in Budapest before relocating to an Ustaše training camp called Janka Puszta. Situated close to the Yugoslav frontier, Janka Puszta was one of several Ustaše training camps established in Hungary and Italy, whose governments were sympathetic to the Ustaše cause and had territorial aspirations in Yugoslavia. It housed several hundred Croat émigrés, mostly manual labourers returning from Western Europe and North America. The recruits swore an oath of loyalty to the leader of the Ustaše, Ante Pavelić, took part in pseudo-military exercises, and produced anti-Serb propaganda material. It was at Janka Puszta that Luburić earned the nickname Maks, which he was to use for the remainder of his life.

In October 1934, Yugoslavia's King Alexander was assassinated while on a diplomatic visit to Marseilles, in a joint conspiracy between the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization and the Ustaše. Following the assassination, most of the Ustaše residing in Hungary were evicted by the country's government, with the exception of Luburić and several others. For a short time, Luburić resided in Nagykanizsa, where after a brief love affair, a local woman bore him a son.

World War II

Creation of the NDH

Following the 1938 Anschluss between Germany and Austria, Yugoslavia came to share its northwestern border with the Third Reich and fell under increasing pressure as its neighbours aligned themselves with the Axis powers. In April 1939, Italy opened a second frontier with Yugoslavia when it invaded and occupied neighbouring Albania. Following the outbreak of World War II, the Yugoslav government declared its neutrality. Between September and November 1940, Hungary and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact, aligning themselves with the Axis, and Italy invaded Greece. Yugoslavia was by then almost completely surrounded by the Axis powers and their satellites, and its neutral stance toward the war became strained. In late February 1941, Bulgaria joined the Pact. The following day, German troops entered Bulgaria from Romania, closing the ring around Yugoslavia. Intending to secure his southern flank for the impending attack on the Soviet Union, German dictator Adolf Hitler began placing heavy pressure on Yugoslavia to join the Axis. On 25 March 1941, after some delay, the Yugoslav government conditionally signed the Pact. Two days later, a group of pro-Western, Serbian nationalist Royal Yugoslav Army Air Force officers deposed the country's regent, Prince Paul, in a bloodless coup d'état. They placed his teenage nephew Peter on the throne and brought to power a "government of national unity" led by the head of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force, General Dušan Simović. The coup enraged Hitler, who immediately ordered the country's invasion, which commenced on 6 April 1941.

On 10 April, the creation of the Independent State of Croatia (; NDH) was announced over the radio by Slavko Kvaternik, a former Austro-Hungarian Army officer who had been in contact with Croatian nationalists abroad. Pavelić arrived in Zagreb on 15 April and proclaimed himself leader () of the NDH, having assured the Germans that the NDH would be loyal to the Axis cause. Disenchanted with more than 20 years of Serb hegemony, the majority of Croats enthusiastically welcomed the NDH's creation. The Axis invasion of Yugoslavia had transformed the Ustaše from a small and relatively obscure Croatian nationalist organization into a popular movement almost overnight. The Germans initially wanted to install Croatian Peasant Party leader Vladko Maček as the head of the Croatian puppet state, but Maček refused, citing his democratic convictions and his firm belief that the Axis powers would not win the war. The NDH was divided into German and Italian areas of influence. The Italian area of influence was divided into three operational zones. Zone I consisted of the area surrounding the cities of Šibenik and Zadar. Zone II encompassed much of Dalmatia and the Dalmatian Hinterland. Zone III extended as far as western and central Bosnia, a sliver of eastern Bosnia, and all of Herzegovina.

On 17 April, the Ustaše instituted the Legal Provision for the Defence of the People and State, a law legitimizing the establishment of concentration camps and the mass shooting of hostages across the NDH. The Jewish question was only of secondary concern to the Ustaše. Their foremost goal was to rid the NDH of its 1.9 million Serbs, who made up about 30 percent of the fledgling puppet state's total population. Senior Ustaše officials openly stated that they sought to kill one-third of Serbs living in the NDH, expel one-third and convert one-third to Roman Catholicism. The Ustaše movement's grievances centred around the perceived injustices inflicted upon the Croats in Serb-dominated Yugoslavia during the interwar period. Senior Ustaše officials cited the shooting of five Croatian parliamentary deputies in June 1928, the murder of the Croatian nationalist anthropologist and historian Milan Šufflay in 1931, the suppression of the Velebit Uprising in 1932, the murder of the Croatian Peasant Party vice-president Josip Predavec in 1933, and the arrest and incarceration of dozens of other Croatian political figures.

Initial cleansing operations

In early April 1941, Luburić had illegally crossed the Yugoslav border near the town of Gola. By mid-April, he arrived in Zagreb and was appointed to the Economic Bureau of the Main Ustaša Headquarters (; GUS), the Ustaše ruling body, serving as an adjutant to Vjekoslav Servatzy. On 6 May, Luburić was dispatched to the village of Veljun, near Slunj, to lead the round-up of 400 Serb males from the village in retaliation for the murder of a Croat family in neighbouring Blagaj the night before. Although the identity of the perpetrators remained a mystery, the Ustaše announced that the Serbs of Veljun were responsible and decided that the village's male inhabitants were to be collectively punished. Luburić had a total of 50 men at his disposal, many of them longtime Ustaše who had lived in exile in Italy in the 1930s. On the evening of 9 May, the Serb males of Veljun were brought to Blagaj, and killed with knives and blunt objects in the backyard of a local elementary school. The murders lasted all night. The following morning, Luburić was seen emerging from the school covered in blood, washing his hands and sleeves by a water well.

In late June, Ustaše officials driving through the villages of Gornja Suvaja and Donja Suvaja, in the Lika region, reported being shot at, prompting the regional authorities to order a "cleansing" action against the villages. On the morning of 1 July, Luburić led a group of Ustaše into the two villages. The historian Max Bergholz writes that up to 300 Ustaše took part in the operation. According to the journalist and Holocaust survivor Slavko Goldstein, Luburić had about 150 members of the Ustaše Auxiliary Force at his disposal, in addition to 250 members of the Croatian Home Guard. Many of Gornja and Donja Suvaja's male inhabitants had fled into the wilderness before the Ustaše arrived. Their female relatives stayed behind and were subjected to rape and sexual mutilation. The massacre lasted about two hours; the Ustaše relied primarily on knives and clubs to kill their victims. At least 173 villagers were killed, mostly women, children and the elderly.

On 2 July, 130–150 Ustaše attacked the nearby village of Osredci. Most of the village's inhabitants had fled in anticipation of a massacre, having heard of what happened in Gornja and Donja Suvaja the day before. Over the course of the following two days, the Ustaše massacred about 30 of the village's inhabitants, mostly the elderly and infirm, who had been unable to flee along with the others. Concurrently, Luburić and his followers massacred the inhabitants of the nearby village of Bubanj. According to their own internal documents, the Ustaše killed 152 Serb civilians in Bubanj, and burned down 20 homes. In some households, not a single person was left alive. Survivor accounts suggest that the number of fatalities was about 270. On 3 July, one of Luburić's units detained 53 inhabitants of the village of Nebljusi, including ten children under the age of 12. They were transported by horse-drawn cart to the nearby village of Boričevac, which contained a barracks and a karst pit. The residents of Nebljusi were detained inside the barracks until nightfall, alongside twelve adult males who had been arrested earlier. That evening, they were marched to the karst pit in groups of eight and pushed inside to their deaths. Two of the victims managed to survive the ordeal. By the end of July, the Ustaše had killed at least 1,800 Serbs in and around Lika. The Ustaše atrocities against the NDH's Serb population prompted thousands of Serbs to join Josip Broz Tito's Partisans and Colonel Draža Mihailović's Chetniks. The Lika massacres in particular served as the casus belli for the Srb uprising, which commenced on 27 July. The revolt led to the Italian military occupations of Zone II and Zone III. "Luburić and his superiors had wrongly calculated that the brutal killings of an innocent population would quash any embryonic resistance to their plan for the creation of an 'ethnically pure area'," Goldstein remarked. "Their actions ... provoked the completely opposite effect." In mid-July 1941, Luburić was tasked with recapturing dozens of inmates who had escaped from the Kerestinec prison. Almost all the fugitives were captured or killed, and several Ustaše also lost their lives.

Ustaše Surveillance Service, Bureau III

Jasenovac, I–III

The NDH's security sector was made up of two agencies, the Directorate for Security and Public Order (; RAVSIGUR) and the Ustaše Surveillance Service (; UNS). Both the RAVSIGUR and the UNS were led by Kvaternik's son, Dido. The RAVSIGUR was established on 4 May 1941. The UNS was established in August. The latter was divided into three bureaus: Bureau I, Bureau III and Bureau IV. Bureau III, also known as the Ustaše Defense, was tasked with administering the NDH's concentration camps. There were about 30 in total stretching across the NDH. From April to August 1941, the RAVSIGUR had been responsible for the camps' administration. For much of the war, Bureau III was headed by Luburić. According to Siegfried Kasche, the German ambassador to the NDH, Luburić had envisaged creating a network of concentration camps during his time in exile.

In May 1941, Kvaternik had ordered the construction of two detention centers in the villages of Krapje (Jasenovac I) and Bročice (Jasenovac II), the first two sub-camps of what was to become the Jasenovac concentration camp. Krapje and Bročice opened on 23 August. The same day, faced with the Italian military occupation of Zone II, Bureau III ordered the dissolution of all concentration camps situated in the NDH's coastal areas.  In the first months of the Jasenovac concentration camp system's operation, Luburić rarely ordered mass executions without the consent of his superiors. Ante Moškov, a leading  Ustaše official, remarked: "He was more fond of the Poglavnik than he was even of his own mother and brothers, and loyalty and obedience to him was the meaning of his life." Luburić's loyalty and dedication eventually paid off, and as the war progressed, he became a trusted member of Pavelić's inner circle. In late September 1941, the government of the NDH dispatched Luburić to the Third Reich to study German methods of creating and maintaining concentration camps. Luburić's tour of the camps lasted ten days. Subsequent Ustaše camps were modelled on Oranienburg and Sachsenhausen. The Jasenovac camp system was situated in a heavily Serb-populated area. On Luburić's orders, between September and October 1941, all Serb villages in the vicinity of the two sub-camps were razed, their inhabitants rounded up and deported to Krapje and Bročice. Between 14 and 16 November 1941, Krapje and Bročice were dissolved. Able-bodied prisoners were forced to construct a third sub-camp, Jasenovac III, which came to be known as the Brickyard (). The sick and infirm were either killed or left to die in the abandoned campgrounds. Of the 3,000–4,000 prisoners detained in Krapje and Bročice at the time of their dissolution, only 1,500 lived to see the Brickyard.

Jasenovac, IV–V

Armed with the information he had gathered in Germany, Luburić was able to organize the Brickyard more efficiently than Krapje and Bročice had been. In January 1942, Bureau III ordered the establishment of Jasenovac IV, a sub-camp dedicated to leather production, which became known as the Tannery (). A fifth and final sub-camp, Jasenovac V, was established around the same time. Known as Stara Gradiška, after the village in which it was located, it was overseen by both male and female guards. Among them were Luburić's half-sisters, Nada and Zora. The former participated extensively in the tortures and executions that took place at Stara Gradiška. She went on to marry Dinko Šakić. During the war, Šakić served as the deputy commander of Stara Gradiška, and later, as the commander of the Brickyard. Luburić also recruited his cousin Ljubo Miloš. Miloš served as the labour service commandant at the Brickyard. Like Luburić, who was in his late twenties when he was appointed head of Bureau III, most of the Ustaše tasked with administering the Jasenovac camp system were extremely young. Šakić was 20 in 1941 and Miloš was 22.

The Jasenovac camp system was guarded by more than 1,500 Ustaše. The Brickyard, the Tannery and Stara Gradiška were capable of holding 7,000 inmates, although the number of inmates never exceeded 4,000 at any given time. Luburić visited the Jasenovac camp system two or three times per month. He insisted on personally killing at least one inmate on each of his visits. Luburić enjoyed taunting prisoners as to the date and method of their execution. He would "amuse himself by placing his revolver up against the heads of the prisoners," the Tito biographer Jasper Godwin Ridley writes. "Sometimes he pulled the trigger; sometimes he did not." Luburić's cruelty also extended to the other Ustaše camps. In one instance, he deliberately dispatched hundreds of typhus-ridden inmates from Stara Gradiška to Đakovo so as to expedite the spread of the disease among its prisoners. "Luburić created such an atmosphere," Miloš recalled, "that every Ustaša actually felt himself called upon to kill a prisoner, believing that this would be an act of patriotism." After unsuccessfully experimenting with gas vans, Luburić ordered that a gas chamber be constructed at Stara Gradiška, which used a combination of sulphur dioxide and Zyklon B. The gas chamber was poorly constructed and this method of killing was abandoned after three months. Over the course of the war, unlike in the German camps, most inmates were killed with knives or blunt objects.

In early 1942, conditions at Jasenovac improved somewhat in anticipation of a visit by a Red Cross delegation. Healthier inmates, who were provided with new beds and bedclothes, were allowed to speak to the delegation, while sick and emaciated ones were killed. After the delegation left, camp conditions reverted to their prior state. Whenever he was pressed for information by the families of those detained at Jasenovac, Luburić remained equivocal. When a Croatian Jewish civil servant named Dragutin Rosenberg attempted to persuade him to allow food and clothing to be delivered to Jasenovac on a name-by-name basis, Luburić only agreed to bulk consignments, so as not to reveal which detainees were still alive. Luburić also proved impervious to bribes, as exemplified by the case of Julius Schmidlin, a Red Cross representative, who attempted to bribe Luburić into treating the inmates at Jasenovac more humanely, but was angrily rebuffed. In addition, Luburić did not tolerate the mishandling of goods seized from camp inmates, as exemplified by his response to the so-called Gold Affair, in which camp guards were caught attempting to smuggle confiscated jewellery out of Jasenovac. Luburić ordered that the culprits be killed. Among those killed was the brother of Luburić's deputy Ivica Matković, who was beaten to death.

Kozara Offensive

On 21 December 1941, Ustaše units under the command of Luburić, Rukavina and Moškov marched into Prkosi, near Bosanski Petrovac. Luburić declared: "We have to kill everyone, in Prkos [sic] and in all of their villages, to the last man, even children." The Ustaše proceeded to round up more than 400 Serb civilians, mostly women, children and the elderly. Shortly thereafter, they were led to a nearby forest and killed. On 14 January 1942, Luburić led a group of Ustaše into the village of Draksenić, in northern Bosnia, and ordered the killing of its inhabitants. More than 200 villagers were killed in the ensuing massacre, mostly women, children and the elderly. In mid-1942, the State Intelligence and Propaganda Bureau (; DIPU) issued a stern warning to all newspapers in the NDH, forbidding them from reporting on Luburić, Bureau III and the NDH's so-called "collection centers". Despite the DIPU's warning, Luburić was featured in a 1942 propaganda short film titled Guard on the Drina (, ).

In June 1942, the Wehrmacht, Home Guard and Ustaše Militia launched the Kozara Offensive, aimed at dislodging Partisan formations around Mount Kozara, in northwestern Bosnia, which threatened Germany's access to the Belgrade–Zagreb railway line. Although the Partisans did suffer a humiliating defeat, the area's civilian population bore the brunt of the offensive. Between 10 June and 30 July 1942, 60,000 civilians living in the vicinity of Mount Kozara, mostly Serbs, were rounded up and taken to concentration camps. "Kozara was cleared to the last man," Wehrmacht Plenipotentiary General Edmund Glaise-Horstenau wrote, "and likewise, the last woman and last child."

Following Kozara's depopulation, Luburić envisaged creating an annual "tax", whereby Serb boys would be taken from their families, conditioned to renounce their Serb national identity, and inducted into the Ustaše fold. In late 1942, he "adopted" 450 boys who had been displaced during the fighting around Mount Kozara. Dressed in black Ustaše robes, Luburić dubbed the boys his "little janissaries", an allusion to the Ottoman Empire's devşirme system, which saw tens of thousands of boys taken from Christian families across the Balkans and inducted into the Ottoman military. Each morning, Luburić's "janissaries" were forced to take part in military drills and say the Lord's Prayer. The experiment failed and the majority of the boys refused to become Ustaše. Most subsequently died of malnutrition, dysentery and other diseases. Hundreds of other children abducted by the Ustaše in the aftermath of the Kozara Offensive were saved by a group of Red Cross volunteers from Zagreb, led by Diana Budisavljević. In her diary, Budisavljević recalled an encounter she had with Luburić at Stara Gradiška, in which the latter chastised her and her colleagues for "caring only about Serb children", while there were Croat and Bosnian Muslim children across the NDH who were suffering as well. According to Budisavljević, Luburić threatened to have her and her colleagues detained, ominously warning that, "no one would know what had happened to them or their whereabouts."

House arrest and disruption of the Lorković–Vokić plot
In August 1942, Luburić was promoted to the rank of Bojnik (Major). Glaise-Horstenau complained to Pavelić that Luburić was interfering with German operations. The Germans distrusted Luburić, with one of their internal memorandums describing him as "a neurotic, pathological personality". Seeking to appease the Germans, Pavelić reassigned Luburić to Travnik. He appointed him commander of the Croatian Home Guard's 9th Infantry Regiment (), whose purpose would be to secure the NDH's border with Italian-occupied Montenegro in eastern Herzegovina, which had a heavy Chetnik presence.

As the 9th Infantry Regiment was preparing to leave for Herzegovina, Luburić shot and killed one of the Home Guards under his command. The killing sparked an outcry among the Home Guards. Luburić was immediately stripped of his command, which went to Colonel Franjo Šimić. In late November, at the urging of the Germans, Luburić was placed under house arrest, which he spent in a Zagreb apartment together with his mother and half-sisters. Stanko Šarc was appointed to oversee operations at Jasenovac in Luburić's absence. Luburić's deputy Ivica Matković was replaced by Ivica Brkljačić. The terms of Luburić's house arrest were very lenient and he was allowed to leave his apartment for strolls. Luburić exercised de facto control over the operations at Jasenovac, despite his officially having been replaced. For example, in late 1942, he arranged for the release of Miroslav Filipović, who had been jailed for committing a series of atrocities against the Serb population of northern Bosnia. Filipović was subsequently appointed commander of Stara Gradiška. For a period of two months, Maček and his wife lived alongside Luburić and his family. According to Maček, Luburić's mother tearfully told Maček's wife that she would regret having given birth to Luburić if her son had been responsible for the atrocities that he was rumoured to have committed.

By late 1942, the growing unrest in the NDH was beginning to harm German interests in Southeastern Europe. The Germans began placing pressure on Pavelić to bring stability to the NDH. To this end, they encouraged him to halt the Ustaše atrocities against the Serbs. In response, the Ustaše established the so-called Croatian Orthodox Church, whose purpose was to assimilate the NDH's Serb population, designating them as "Croats of the Orthodox faith". Pavelić singled out Slavko and Dido Kvaternik as scapegoats for all the NDH's troubles. He blamed the former for the Home Guard and Ustaše Militia's inability to bring the Partisans and Chetniks to heel, and the latter for the massacres of Serbs, even though the atrocities had been committed with Pavelić's knowledge. In October 1942, the father-and-son duo were exiled to Slovakia. On 21 January 1943, the UNS was dissolved and amalgamated into the Main Directorate for Security and Public Order (; GRAVSIGUR), which had been established to replace the RAVSIGUR earlier that month. The GRAVSIGUR then assumed responsibility for the administration of the NDH's concentration camps.

Still officially under house arrest, Luburić relocated to the village of Šumec, near Lepoglava, in mid-1943. Around this time, he also began planning guerrilla operations against the Partisans with Gestapo officer Kurt Koppel in the event of Germany's defeat. The number of Partisans in the NDH continued to grow, from a mere 7,000 in 1941, to 25,000 in 1942, and 100,000 in late 1943. On 8 September 1943, the Italians capitulated to the Allies. Countless Italian units surrendered to the Partisans, who disarmed them and thus acquired a significant amount of modern weaponry. Luburić remained sidelined for much of 1944, but his fortunes changed after the Lorković–Vokić plot came to light in August 1944. On 30 August, Luburić personally oversaw the arrests of government ministers Mladen Lorković and Ante Vokić. Lorković, the Minister of Defense, and  Vokić, the Minister of Internal Affairs, were accused of conspiring to overthrow Pavelić and install a pro-Allied government. Following their arrests, Luburić was tasked with interrogating Lorković and Vokić, as well as other suspected conspirators. That October, Luburić was promoted to the rank of Pukovnik (Colonel). In December 1944, the Croatian Home Guard and the Ustaše Militia were unified to create the Croatian Armed Forces. On 7 December, Luburić forced more than 30 members of the collaborationist Serbian Volunteer Corps off a train passing through Zagreb's main railway station and ordered that they be shot. Destined for Slovenia, they had received Pavelić's approval to pass through Zagreb unmolested, but Luburić showed no regard.

Terror in Sarajevo

In early 1945, Pavelić dispatched Luburić to Sarajevo to undermine the communist fifth column there. Luburić arrived in the city on 15 February. Five days later, Hitler declared Sarajevo a Festung (or "fortress"), insisting that it be defended at all costs. Hitler appointed General Heinz Kathner to organize the city's defenses in anticipation of a Partisan attack. On 24 February, Kathner organized a banquet in Luburić's honour. At the banquet, Luburić announced his intention to the destroy the communist resistance in Sarajevo. Luburić soon appointed nine Ustaše officers to a special task force for carrying out executions of known and suspected communists. His headquarters was located inside a villa in downtown Sarajevo, which came to be known as the "house of terror" among the city's residents.

On 1 March, the Partisans launched Operation Sarajevo, which aimed to wrest the city from the Germans and the Ustaše. By early March, Sarajevo had been encircled and cut off from the rest of the NDH. Luburić established a kangaroo court that he dubbed the Criminal War Court of Commander Luburić, which dealt with cases of alleged treason. The court also dealt with more gratuitous charges such as price fixing. The first batch of prisoners to be tried was a group of 17 Muslim refugees from Mostar. Over the course of the month, dozens of suspected communists were executed. The arrests and subsequent executions were of an alarmingly arbitrary nature, which only served to exacerbate the terror felt by Sarajevans. According to survivors, the torture method most commonly used by Luburić's agents involved tying prisoners' hands behind their backs, pulling their hands between their legs, placing a rod between their knees, hanging them upside down and then beating them. These torture sessions, which the Ustaše euphemistically referred to as interrogations, were usually followed by the prisoner's execution or deportation to a concentration camp. Luburić is said to have revelled in inviting the family members of his victims to the villa and then describing in great detail how their loved ones had been tortured and killed. As the killings progressed, some Sarajevans took to bomb shelters in fear for their lives, though the city had not been bombed in weeks.

On 16 March, Luburić convened a meeting of over 1,000 Ustaše political and military figures, and in the presence of senior German officials, issued a declaration denouncing Bolshevism, the Yalta Conference, and the new communist government in Belgrade. On 21 March, the Ustaše uncovered a plot to assassinate Luburić. His would-be assassin was a communist youth named Halid Nazečić, who was betrayed by one of his accomplices. Four Ustaše were subsequently killed in Partisan attacks within the city. On the night of 27–28 March, the Ustaše hanged fifty-five Sarajevans from trees and street lamps in Sarajevo's Marindvor neighbourhood. Signs bearing the phrase, "Long live the Poglavnik!" were placed around their necks. Their bodies were left to hang as an example to others. Those attempting to retrieve the bodies were fired upon. On 4 April, Luburić and his entourage left Sarajevo. About 350 Ustaše policemen and 400 Ustaše soldiers stayed behind to defend the city. Luburić's reign of terror in Sarajevo claimed 323 lives, according to a post-war war crimes commission. Several hundred others were deported to concentration camps. The Partisans entered Sarajevo on 6 April and proclaimed its liberation. The city's capture coincided with the fourth anniversary of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia. The exhumumation of bodies from the backyard of Luburić's villa, many of which belonged to children, was documented by a Soviet film crew. Another witness to the aftermath of Luburić's crimes was the American journalist Landrum Bolling, who recalled seeing a roomful of bodies "stacked like cordwood on top of one another." Many of the cadavers showed signs of torture and mutilation. Among the corpses was that of Halid Nazečić, whose head had been mutilated, eyes gouged out and genitals burned with boiling water.

Destruction of the NDH
Upon leaving Sarajevo, Luburić boarded a plane for Zagreb. While attempting to land at the Borongaj airfield, Luburić's plane crashed on a bomb-damaged runway. Luburić sustained a head injury and had to be hospitalized. Pavelić visited Luburić while he was convalescing and found his subordinate jaded and disillusioned, accusing the Germans of betraying Croatia. Shortly thereafter, Luburić was promoted to the rank of General. In early April, he ordered that Jasenovac's remaining prisoners be killed. He also ordered that documents pertaining to the camp's operation be destroyed, and the corpses from surrounding mass graves exhumed and cremated. Several individuals who possessed incriminating information pertaining to Luburić's wartime activities, such as the Gestapo agent Koppel, were killed at his behest. In late April, Luburić approved the executions of Lorković and Vokić, as well as others who had been implicated in the Lorković–Vokić plot.

As the Partisans neared, Luburić suggested that the Ustaše make their last stand in Zagreb, but Pavelić refused. The Ustaše were divided as to what to do. Some proposed retreating towards Austria as quickly as possible. Others, Luburić foremost among them, advocated establishing irregular formations in the countryside that would carry out guerrilla attacks following the NDH's demise. In early May, Luburić met with the Archbishop of Zagreb, Aloysius Stepinac, who implored him not to put up armed resistance against the Partisans. On 5 May, the government of the NDH left Zagreb, followed by Pavelić. By 15 May, the NDH had completely collapsed. Tens of thousands of Ustaše surrendered to the British Army but were handed back to the Partisans. An untold number were killed in subsequent Partisan reprisal killings, together with several thousand Serbian and Slovenian collaborationists. Some Ustaše, who came to be known as Crusaders (), remained in Yugoslavia and carried out guerrilla attacks against the communists. Among these was a small group of fighters led by Luburić, which remained in the forests of southern Slovenia and northern Slavonia, skirmishing with the newly formed Yugoslav People's Army (; JNA). Luburić evaded capture and probable execution by placing his identification papers next to the body of a dead soldier. Through Matković and Moškov, Luburić sent a letter to Pavelić, who had escaped to Austria, in which he signalled his intention to keep fighting. Three different accounts exist of Luburić's activities in post-war Yugoslavia. According to one, Luburić then headed south towards the Bilogora mountain range, where he rendezvoused with a group of more than fifty Crusaders under the leadership of Branko Bačić. They headed west, establishing a base at Fruška Gora. In November 1945, Luburić and about a dozen Crusaders crossed the Hungarian–Yugoslav border and escaped Yugoslavia. The second version holds that Luburić was wounded in a gunfight with the JNA, and carried across the Drava River to Hungary by General Rafael Boban, who subsequently returned to Yugoslavia and was never heard from again. The third version, espoused by Luburić himself, is that Luburić fought with the Crusaders until late 1947, when he was seriously wounded and forced to leave the country.

Luburić's half-sister Nada and her husband Dinko Šakić escaped to Argentina. Some of Luburić's remaining kin were not as fortunate. Miloš was captured by the Yugoslav authorities in July 1947, together with several other Crusaders, after sneaking back into the country as part of the Crusaders' insurgency efforts. He was subsequently put on trial for the atrocities that he was alleged to have committed during the war. During his trial, he confessed in graphic detail to his role in the killings that took place at Jasenovac. He was convicted on all counts and executed in 1948.

Later years

Exile
In 1949, Luburić relocated to Spain. The country was viewed as a favourable destination by many Ustaše exiles, as it had been the only one outside the Axis to recognize the NDH. Luburić entered Spain under the pseudonym Maximilian Soldo. Upon arrival, Luburić was imprisoned by the Spanish authorities, but released shortly thereafter. With support from Agustín Muñoz Grandes, the former commander of the Blue Division, he was able to settle in the country. He took up residence in Benigànim.

Pavelić, in the meantime, had settled in Buenos Aires with his family and started a construction business. He became the unofficial leader of the Croatian émigré community in South America. Pavelić's exile in distant and remote Argentina rendered him virtually irrelevant in the eyes of increasing numbers of Croatian émigrés elsewhere, particularly in Europe. Faced with open rebellion, in July 1950, Pavelić dispatched Luburić to Rome as a warning to anyone wishing to challenge his authority in Western Europe's Croatian émigré communities. Given his wartime record, Luburić arrived "with a fearsome reputation," the historian Guy Walters writes. In August, Pavelić issued a declaration in a Chicago-based Croatian diaspora newspaper, warning Croats against joining foreign militaries. While Luburić is not thought to have killed any of Pavelić's political opponents in the post-war period, the mere invocation of his name drastically reduced the size of the anti-Pavelić faction among the émigrés. When the grumblings of discontent against Pavelić subsided, Luburić returned to Spain. In 1951, he appeared in Hamburg and set up a recruiting centre for the pro-Pavelić faction. That same year, he established a newspaper called Drina. In November 1953, Luburić married a Spanish woman named Isabela Hernaiz. The couple went on to have four children, two boys and two girls.

Rift with Pavelić

In 1955, Pavelić entered discussions with Chetnik émigrés over the future division of Bosnia and Herzegovina between Greater Croatia and Greater Serbia in the event of Yugoslavia's collapse. Luburić was incensed. In his writings, Luburić argued that Croatia, much like the NDH, should extend as far as the Drina River, but also include areas of Serbia, such as the Sandžak, which had never been part of the wartime puppet state. Luburić vehemently denounced Pavelić and his followers.  Shortly thereafter, he founded the Friends of the Drina Society () and the Croatian National Resistance (; HNO). In June 1956, Pavelić founded a rival organization, the Croatian Liberation Movement (; HOP).

In 1957, Luburić's wife received an anonymous letter detailing her husband's wartime atrocities, with great emphasis placed on his role in the killing of children. She filed for divorce shortly thereafter. During the divorce proceedings, Luburić was granted joint custody of the couple's children, as well as possession of their home. The same year, he sold the home and moved to the town of Carcaixent, near Valencia, where he opened a poultry farm. The farm quickly went out of business and Luburić soon became a traveling salesman. Upon moving to Carcaixent, he founded Drina Press, an amateur publishing house, which was situated in his home. Luburić's neighbours, who knew him by the name Vicente Perez Garcia, were apparently unaware of his wartime past. He wrote articles under the pseudonyms General Drinjanin and Bojnik Dizdar (Colonel Dizdar). In his writings, Luburić conceded that he had made certain mistakes during the war, but never admitted to or expressed remorse for the atrocities that had been attributed to him. He advocated "national reconciliation" between the pro-Ustaše and pro-communist Croats. Luburić also claimed to have made contact with the Soviet Union's intelligence services. He argued that Croatia should become a neutral state in the event of Yugoslavia's disintegration, which was received particularly poorly in some fiercely anti-communist Croatian émigré circles.

On 10 April 1957, while returning from a celebratory gathering marking the anniversary of the NDH's establishment in Buenos Aires, Pavelić was seriously wounded in an assassination attempt by the State Security Administration (; UDBA), the Yugoslav secret service. He died in Madrid in December 1959 of complications related to his wounds. Owing to the mutual resentment between the two men, Luburić was barred from attending his funeral. Following Pavelić's death, Luburić unsuccessfully attempted to take control of the HOP, citing his role as the last commander of the Croatian Armed Forces. After the HOP's senior leadership rebuffed him, Luburić went down an increasingly militarist path, establishing neo-Ustaše training camps in several European countries and publishing articles relating to military tactics and guerrilla techniques. In 1963, he established a paper called Obrana ("Defense").

Death
On the morning of 21 April 1969, Luburić's teenage son discovered his father's bloody corpse in one of the bedrooms in his home. Luburić had been killed the day before. Blood stains on the floor indicated that he had been dragged by his feet from the kitchen and crudely stuffed under a bed. He had been bludgeoned over the head multiple times with a blunt instrument. An autopsy determined that the blows to his head were not fatal; Luburić had choked on his own blood. Luburić was buried in Madrid. His funeral was attended by hundreds of Croatian nationalists in Ustaše uniform, who chanted Ustaše slogans and delivered fascist salutes. Luburić's death spelt the end of Drina and Obrana.

Luburić's murder came at a time when the UDBA was carrying out assassinations of leading Croatian nationalist figures across Europe and suspicion inevitably fell on them. In 1967, Luburić had employed his godson, Ilija Stanić, to work at his publishing firm. Stanić's father, Vinko, had served alongside Luburić during the war. He was captured by the Yugoslav authorities while fighting with the Crusaders and died in captivity. Stanić, who lived and worked in Luburić's home, returned to Yugoslavia in the immediate aftermath of Luburić's death. Declassified Yugoslav intelligence documents show that Stanić was an UDBA agent, codenamed Mongoose. According to the minutes of his May 1969 debriefing, Stanić told his handlers that he first placed poison in Luburić's coffee, which had been given to him by another UDBA agent. After the poision failed to kill Luburić, Stanić began to panic, and went to his room to retrieve a hammer. When he returned to the kitchen, Luburić complained that he was not feeling well. As Luburić went to vomit in the sink, Stanić struck him over the head several times. Luburić fell to the floor, motionless. Stanić then left the kitchen to make sure the front door was locked. When he returned, he saw Luburić standing over the sink and wincing in pain. Stanić struck him over the head once again, fracturing his skull. He then wrapped Luburić's body in blankets and dragged it to a nearby bedroom. Stanić claimed that he initially wanted to hide the body in the print shop, but that Luburić was too heavy. Upon entering the bedroom, Stanić hid the body under the bed and calmly left the house.

In a July 2009 interview with the Croatian weekly Globus, Stanić changed his story, claiming that Luburić had been killed by two HOP members. Aggrieved by a disparaging comment that Luburić had allegedly made about Stanić's father and his post-war guerrilla activities, Stanić claims that he sought out the two men, who assured him that they merely wished to administer a beating. The day that Luburić was murdered, Stanić alleged that he allowed the men inside Luburić's home, and the two proceeded to kill Luburić with a single blow to the head from a heavy metal bar. In 2012, Stanić changed his story once more, this time accusing two different men of killing Luburić.

Legacy

Influence on Croatian nationalism
Following Luburić's death, the leadership of the HNO went to several of his close associates, eventually splitting into rival leaderships in North America, Australia, Sweden and Argentina. Leadership of the HNO's Argentine faction was delegated to Luburić's brother-in-law Dinko Šakić. In April 1971, two HNO affiliates entered the Yugoslav embassy in Stockholm and killed Yugoslavia's ambassador to Sweden, Vladimir Rolović. The two men were arrested, but set free the following year after a group of Croatian nationalists hijacked a Swedish domestic flight demanding their release. One of Rolović's killers, Miro Barešić, underwent a baptism while in prison and adopted the Christian name Vjekoslav in Luburić's honour. The HNO boasted several thousand members at its height. Notable members included Zvonko Bušić, Gojko Šušak and Mladen Naletilić, among others. Bušić masterminded the hijacking of TWA Flight 355 in September 1976. Šušak became Croatia's Minister of Defence in 1991. Naletilić was convicted of committing war crimes against Bosniak civilians during the Bosnian War by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). He was sentenced to 20 years in prison.

During the Croatian War of Independence, open admiration for Luburić could be found in the Croatian Army's officer corps. Ante Luburić (no relation), who served as a senior officer during the Battle of Vukovar, was nicknamed Maks by his confederates because of his battlefield ferocity. Luburić "seemed please with his sobriquet", the journalist Robert Fox remarked. In early 1992, General Mirko Norac expressed admiration for Luburić after being relieved of his duties on the orders of Croatian President Franjo Tuđman. "Fuck all the Croatian generals with Tuđman at the top," Norac remarked. "The only general for me is ... Maks Luburić." Luburić is referenced in the opening lines of the Croatian nationalist song Jasenovac i Gradiška Stara, which read as follows:

Darko Hudelist, a journalist and Tuđman  biographer, considers Luburić one of the three most important Croatian political figures of the post-war period, alongside Tito and Tuđman. Hudelist argues that Tuđman was influenced by Luburić's writings, which called for the unification of the ideologically disparate factions that made up the Croatian diaspora. This became a key policy priority of Tuđman's Croatian Democratic Union during his presidency. The historian Ivo Goldstein concurs with Hudelist's hypothesis and surmises that Luburić in turn was influenced by Francisco Franco's calls for reconciliation between Republicans and Nationalists in the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War. Hudelist's hypothesis has been challenged by the journalist Ivan Bekavac, who accuses Hudelist of attempting to cast Tuđman in a pro-fascist light.

In 2017, flyers containing excerpts from a speech delivered by Luburić appeared in Sarajevo's Dobrinja neighborhood. In July 2018, Spain's ruling Socialist Workers' Party proposed a law against the memorization of fascist figures. It was speculated that if the law was passed, the Spanish authorities would be able to usurp Pavelić and Luburić's tombs, under the pretext that they had become places of pilgrimage for neo-fascists, and move them to less prominent locations or transfer them to Bosnia. On 29 September 2018, the historian Vlado Vladić held an event at a Roman Catholic priory in Split promoting his book Hrvatski vitez Vjekoslav Maks Luburić ("The Croatian Knight Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić"). The event was condemned by the Croatian left, who accused Vladić of glorifying Luburić and the Catholic Church of facilitating historical revisionism. Among those in attendance was Dario Kordić, who served as the vice-president of the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia during the Bosnian War. Kordić was later found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity by the ICTY for his role in the Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing, and was sentenced to 25 years in prison.

Assessment

Contemporary German accounts place the number of Serbs killed by the Ustaše at about 350,000. According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, between 320,000 and 340,000 Serbs were killed by the Ustaše over the course of the war. Most modern historians agree that the Ustaše killed over 300,000 Serbs, or about 17 percent of all Serbs living in the NDH. At the Nuremberg trials, these killings were judged to have constituted genocide. The Ustaše were also responsible for the deaths of 26,000 Jews and 20,000 Roma. The historian Emily Greble estimates that approximately 200,000 wartime deaths can be attributed to Luburić. During the war, Luburić boasted that the Ustaše had killed more Serbs in Jasenovac, "than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe." He also confided in Hermann Neubacher, the Reich Ministry of Foreign Affairs' Plenipotentiary for Southeastern Europe, that he believed about 225,000 Serbs had been killed at Jasenovac. An incomplete list of victims compiled by the Jasenovac Memorial Site contains the names of 83,145 individuals, including 47,627 Serbs, 16,173 Roma and 13,116 Jews. Most historians agree that around 100,000 people were killed at Jasenovac.

In 1998, Šakić was arrested in Argentina. The following year, he was extradited to Croatia to face charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity. Šakić was convicted on all counts and sentenced to twenty years' imprisonment. He died in July 2008. Luburić's half-sister Nada was arrested around the same time as her husband but was released due to lack of evidence. She died in February 2011. In July 2011, the Government of Serbia issued a warrant for her arrest, apparently unaware that she had died earlier that year. When the Serbian authorities learned of her death, the warrant was revoked. Šakić described his brother-in-law as a "humanitarian" and "a protector of the Jews". Several of Luburić's contemporaries, as well as numerous scholars, have offered a starkly different assessment. Arthur Häffner, an Abwehr officer, denounced Luburić as one of Pavelić's "fiercest bloodhounds." In academic literature, Luburić is frequently described as a sadist. The Holocaust scholar Uki Goñi characterizes him as "a bloodthirsty madman." "Of all the Poglavnik's thugs," Walters writes, "Luburić was the worst." Jozo Tomasevich, a historian specializing in the Balkans, described Luburić as one of the "most brutal and bloodthirsty" members of the Ustaše movement. Carmichael refers to Luburić as "one of the most notorious war criminals of the Second World War." The historians Ladislaus Hory and Martin Broszat describe Luburić as "one of the most feared and most hated" Ustaše leaders.

Footnotes

Citations

References
Books

Journals

News reports

Online resources

External links
Biography on the Jasenovac Memorial Site

Category:1914 births
Category:1969 deaths
Category:Assassinations in Spain
Category:Assassinated Croatian people
Category:Assassinated military personnel
Category:Assassinated Yugoslav people
Category:Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Category:Croatian collaborators with Nazi Germany
Category:Croatian collaborators with Fascist Italy
Category:Croatian fascists
Category:Holocaust perpetrators in Yugoslavia
Category:Nazi concentration camp commandants
Category:People from Ljubuški
Category:People from the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Category:Ustaše concentration camp personnel
Category:Ustaša Militia personnel
Category:1969 murders in Europe
Category:1960s murders in Spain
Category:1969 crimes in Spain


Mud Lake (Oregon)

There are at least sixteen lakes named Mud Lake within the U.S. state of Oregon.  Some have an alternate name of Mud Lake, but are listed here by their primary name.

See also
 List of lakes in Oregon

References
 USGS-U.S. Board on Geographic Names

Category:Lakes of Oregon


Scutalus

Scutalus is a genus of air-breathing land snails, a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family Bulimulidae.

Previously this genus was placed within the subfamily Bulimulinae.

Species
Species in the genus Scutalus include:

subgenus Scutalus Albers, 1850
 Scutalus chiletensis Weyrauch, 1967
 Scutalus cretaceus (Pfeiffer, 1855) - images
 Scutalus ortizpuentei Weyrauch, 1967
 Scutalus phaeocheilus (Haas, 1955)
 Scutalus proteiformis (Dohrn, 1863)
 Scutalus mariopenai Breure & Mogollón Avilla, 2010

subgenus Vermiculatus Breure, 1978
 Scutalus macedoi Weyrauch, 1967

subgenus ?
 Scutalus proteus (Broderip, 1832)
 Scutalus versicolor (Broderip, 1832)

References

External links

Category:Bulimulidae


A. M. Lamb House

The A. M. Lamb House is a historic building in Ruskin, Florida, United States. It is located at 2410 West Shell Point Road. On October 12, 2007, it was added to the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.

The house was built in 1910 in Palmetto, and was the home of Mississippi banker Asa Lamb and his family.

In September 2007, as part of an arrangement with Manatee County to preserve it, the house was moved by boat across the Tampa Bay from Palmetto to Ruskin.

References

External links
 News footage of home's transport across Tampa Bay

Category:Houses on the National Register of Historic Places in Hillsborough County, Florida
Category:1910 establishments in Florida


Narcisse Bonan

Narcisse Bonan (born August 3, 1984 in Yamoussoukro, Ivory Coast) is an Ivorian footballer.

External links

playerhistory.com

Category:1984 births
Category:Living people
Category:Ivorian footballers
Category:Ivorian expatriate footballers
Category:Expatriate footballers in France
Category:US Boulogne players
Category:Ligue 2 players
Category:Association football forwards
Category:UJA Maccabi Paris Métropole players
Category:People from Yamoussoukro


EFCA

EFCA can stand for:
 The Evangelical Free Church of America, a group of evangelical Christian congregations in the United States
 The Employee Free Choice Act, proposed United States federal legislation
 The European Fisheries Control Agency, an agency of the European Union (EU) based in Vigo, Spain


Kévin Aubeneau

Kévin Aubeneau (born 10 February 1989 in Niort, Deux-Sèvres) is a goalkeeper currently playing for Championnat de France amateur side Vitré. Between 2007 and 2011 he played for his hometown club Chamois Niortais, where he made 87 league appearances. Aubeneau made his league debut for Niort in the 2–1 victory over US Boulogne in Ligue 2 on 27 July 2007. On 2 June 2011, he joined Ligue 2 club Stade Laval. However, Aubeneau failed to break into the first team at Laval and made only one appearance for the reserve team, and subsequently joined CFA side Les Herbiers on 16 June 2012.

References

External links
Kévin Aubeneau career stats at chamoisfc79.fr

Category:1989 births
Category:Living people
Category:People from Niort
Category:French footballers
Category:Association football goalkeepers
Category:Chamois Niortais F.C. players
Category:Stade Lavallois players
Category:Les Herbiers VF players
Category:AS Vitré players
Category:Ligue 2 players
Category:Championnat National players
Category:Sportspeople from Deux-Sèvres


Overtown, North Lanarkshire

Overtown is a village in North Lanarkshire, Scotland. It has a population of 2,500. It is located to the west of the River Clyde, about  south of Wishaw. Originally developed as a mining village in the 19th century, its population declined after the closure of the coal mines and the associated railways in the 1950s.

The village only has a few buildings of note, Clyde Valley High School, which is located to the North-West, and Overtown Primary School. Overtown also has a community centre, and a small number of independent shops and takeaway restaurants. A "First Glasgow" (the former "Hutchison") bus depot is located in the village.

The A71 road, that links Edinburgh with Ayrshire, passes through Overtown. The road is the main street of the village. It is located on the edge of the Clyde Valley, and is only  away from  Garrion Bridge. The West Coast Main Line also passes through the village, but no passenger service trains stop there.

References

External links

Category:Villages in North Lanarkshire
Category:Wishaw
Category:Mining communities in Scotland


Cato Perkins

Cato Perkins was an African-American slave from Charleston, South Carolina who became a missionary to Sierra Leone.

He was enslaved by John Perkins.
Cato Perkins self-emancipated by joining the British during the Siege of Charleston and he joined General Clinton in New York and worked as a carpenter there. Perkins was evacuated to Birchtown, Nova Scotia in 1783 and he is listed in the Book of Negroes. Upon arriving in Nova Scotia he was converted by John Marrant of the Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion, which was a Methodist splinter group. Perkins migrated to Sierra Leone, where he led a strike of carpenters against the Sierra Leone Company. Cato Perkins established the first Huntingdon's Connexion church, and later on other Nova Scotian settler preachers established churches in the Liberated African villages. Cato Perkins died in 1805 and his churches are the remnant of the Huntingdon's Connexion churches around the world.

Sources

Category:American rebel slaves
Category:American Methodist missionaries
Category:African-American Methodist clergy
Category:American Methodist clergy
Category:Black Loyalists
Category:Methodist missionaries in Sierra Leone
Category:Nova Scotian Settlers
Category:Sierra Leone Creole people
Category:1805 deaths
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:American slaves
Category:African-American missionaries


Depressaria pentheri

Depressaria pentheri is a moth of the family Depressariidae. It is found in Bulgaria, Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina.

The wingspan is about 23 mm.

References

External links
lepiforum.de

Category:Moths described in 1904
Category:Depressaria
Category:Moths of Europe


2019 Junior World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships

The 2019 Rhythmic Gymnastics Junior World Championships were the inaugural Rhythmic Gymnastics Junior World Championships. They were held in Moscow, Russia, from 19 July to 21 July 2019.

Following the success of the event, which was measured by the amount of participating nations, The Executive Committee of the International Gymnastics Federation has announced the addition of the junior competitions to the official sporting calendar, which will take place every two years, in odd years. The next competition will be held in 2021.

Participating nations

  (8)
  (7)
  (7)
  (7)
  (2)
  (9)
  (2)
  (10)
  (9)
  (8)
  (1)
  (3)
  (1)
  (2)
  (2)
  (1)
  (9)
  (9)
  (7)
  (8)
  (3)
  (2)
  (7)
  (7)
  (9)
  (2)
  (9)
  (1)
  (9)
  (7)
  (7)
  (7)
  (4)
  (4)
  (4)
  (3)
  (7)
  (9)
  (8)
  (3)
  (9)
  (2)
  (8)
  (2)
  (2)
  (8)
  (2)
  (2)
  (7)
  (1)
  (10)
  (8)
  (1)
  (2)
  (1)
  (7)
  (1)
  (3)
  (7)
  (8)
  (7)

Medal winners

Individual

Team

Rope

Ball

Clubs

Ribbon

Group

All-Around
The top 8 scores in the apparatus qualifies to the group apparatus finals.

5 Hoops

5 Ribbons

Medal table

References

External links

Category:Rhythmic Gymnastics World Championships
Category:Junior World Gymnastics Championships
Category:International gymnastics competitions hosted by Russia
World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships
World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships
Category:Sports competitions in Moscow
Junior World Rythmic Gymnastics


Jun (drink)

Jun () or Xun is an effervescent fermented health tonic roughly similar to kombucha but feeding on a dominant base of green tea and raw honey rather than a dominant base of black tea and concentrated Cane Sugar. So little credible information exists about Jun that even its most basic characteristics are in dispute: some claim its true definition to be an exclusively anaerobic lactobacillus ferment, and others that it is similar to kombucha in including yeasts. The fermentation process requires a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) similar to that used to make kombucha. It is suggested that, in the absence of a definitive jun SCOBY, a kombucha SCOBY can be gradually adapted, but there is some debate about this.

Among the characteristics of Jun known to include yeast:  Like kombucha, it can achieve an alcohol content of 2–7%. Jun has faster brewing times of ~3–7 days rather than kombucha's ~5–8, and more effervescence. Its flavor reflects its ingredients which in the case of raw honey produces a less pungent or sour taste than kombucha. A large number of its consumers cite that Jun is lighter and more palatable than kombucha. Though like many cultures Jun can subsist on many diets such as yerba mate, peony, and guayusa, how authentic the result relative to the name becomes is unclear. Jun's cultures are purportedly probiotic in similar fashion to those comprising kombucha and water kefir. Jun, like kombucha, is a probiotic because of the lactobacillus and other beneficial bacteria present in the SCOBY used to brew these drinks, and thus imparted into the liquid. One Jun producer in Washington State (Huney Jun) has tested its products probiotic bacteria content on several occasions, finding two dominant strains in their Jun: Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus paracasei. Total bacteria count reported was 1.3 Trillion CFU/12oz, far more than ever reported from a test sample of kombucha. The most plausible reason for the greater probiotic content in Jun is the prebiotic environment that raw honey creates during the fermentation process.

Jun's origin is unclear. It is thought to have originated in northern China and Tibet; many brewers and distributors claim stock originating from imported heirloom Chinese or Tibetan jun cultures and/or openly confess stock to have originated from contraband. According to food writer Sandor Katz, "The lack of credible information on the history of Jun leads me to the conclusion that it is a relatively recent divergence from the kombucha family tree. Some websites claim that it comes from Tibet, where it has been made for 1000 years; unfortunately, books on Tibetan food, and even a specialized book on Himalayan ferments, contain no mention of it... The culture is somewhat obscure and hard to find, but its epicenter seems to be the Pacific Northwest, where the Eugene, Oregon-based Herbal Junction Elixirs produces it commercially as well as Leavenworth, Washington producer Huney Jun."  Despite Katz's profession of a paucity of evidence for Jun's history, the oldest Tibetan tradition, the Bon, still today cultivate it.

Katz's conjecture is also contradicted by Chris Straight's observation that a refined ingredient like cane sugar, unavailable in the distant past of Jun's ostensible origin, couldn't plausibly be the original ferment's recipe, whereas raw honey is—as it has ever been—ready to use straight from the hive. Straight does note that today's commercially produced raw honey, if unstrained, has the potential to introduce contaminants such as bee parts. Perhaps due to honey's strong antiseptic properties, Straight notes that in his years of experience he has never yet yielded a compromised batch.

The obscurity of Jun is partly due to the ethos surrounding its origin as a beverage to aid enlightenment:  commercial transactions of Jun culture are viewed by its creators to violate its intent, and many brewing practices common amongst other fermentations may be viewed by many of Jun's most venerable brewers as confounding conditions considered prerequisite to obtaining Jun's greatest potential.  Jun's origins' obscurity may partly be a function of its embracing local ecologies, similarly to Japanese koji culture (Aspergillus oryzae) which starts simply from rice thrown onto healthy soil, making Jun more accurately considered a genre of ferments rather than being capable of codifying a definition as any specific sampling from amongst myriad suitable sources.

References

External links

 http://sourcebotanics.co.nz/
 http://www.eugeneweekly.com/article/preserving-sacred-cultures
 http://nourishedkitchen.com/how-to-make-jun-tea/
 http://store.organic-cultures.com/juncustwstte.html
 http://www.thehealthyhomeeconomist.com/how-to-make-jun-tea-kombucha-champagne/

Category:Chinese tea
Category:Fermented drinks
Category:Food and drink in Tibet


The Mandrake (disambiguation)

The Mandrake is a satirical play by Italian Renaissance writer Niccolò Machiavelli.

The Mandrake may also refer to:

 The Mandrake (1965 film), a 1965 Franco-Italian film
 The Mandrake (band), an American death metal band
 The Mandrake (Surrealist group), a 20th-century Chilean Surrealist group

See also

 Mandrake (disambiguation)


Todd E. Creason

Todd E. Creason (born May 26, 1967) is an American author of both fiction and non-fiction, who writes primarily on the topic of Freemasonry.  An active Freemason, Creason is best known as the author of the Famous American Freemasons series.

Career

As a Freemason, he is the Past Master of Ogden Lodge No. 754 (IL) Ancient Free & Accepted Masons He is a 33° Scottish Rite Mason in the Valley of Danville (IL).  He belongs to several Masonic research organizations, including the Missouri Lodge of Research, the Philalethes Society, and the Scottish Rite Research Society.  He serves as an officer in the Illinois Lodge of Research.

Shortly after becoming a Master Mason, he began researching and writing the Famous American Freemasons series, which is a collection of short profiles of famous American Freemasons and their impact on American history, culture, and leadership throughout American history. The first book in the series was released in 2007, and the second in 2009. He also published a collection of quotes in 2009 A Freemason Said That? Great Quotes of Famous Freemasons which was a companion of the series.

Creason published his novels One Last Shot in 2010, A Shot After Midnight in 2012, and Shot To Hell in 2014..

In 2012, Creason wrote and produced a dramatic video Freemasons: Friends or Foes which helped dispel myths about Freemasonry and introduced viewers to many of the famous American Freemasons Creason had featured in his Famous American Freemasons series.

He is also the founder and a regular contributor to the popular Midnight Freemasons blog.

Creason has worked at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign since 1998, and is currently the business manager at the Office of Technology Management.

Works

Famous American Freemasons: Volume I, 2007.
Famous American Freemasons: Volume II, 2009.
 A Freemason Said That? Great Quotes of Famous Freemasons, 2009.
One Last Shot, (A Novel) 2010.
A Shot After Midnight, (A Novel) 2012.
Shot To Hell, (A Novel) 2014.

Video Productions

Freemasons: Friends or Foes? (2012)

References

External links
 Official Todd E. Creason Website
 The Midnight Freemasons blog

Category:1967 births
Category:Living people
Category:American non-fiction writers
Category:University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign people
Category:People from Danville, Illinois
Category:Writers from Illinois


Interactive programming

Interactive programming is the procedure of writing parts of a program while it is already active. This focuses on the program text as the main interface for a running process, rather than an interactive application, where the program is designed in development cycles and used thereafter (usually by a so-called "user", in distinction to the "developer"). Consequently, here, the activity of writing a program becomes part of the program itself.

It thus forms a specific instance of interactive computation as an extreme opposite to batch processing, where neither writing the program nor its use happens in an interactive way. The principle of rapid feedback in extreme programming is radicalized and becomes more explicit.

Synonyms: on-the-fly-programming, just in time programming, conversational programming

Application fields
Interactive programming techniques are especially useful in cases where no clear specification of the problem that is to be solved can be given in advance. In such situations (which are not unusual in research), the formal language provides the necessary environment for the development of an appropriate question or problem formulation.

Interactive programming has also been used in applications that need to be rewritten without stopping them, a feature which the computer language Smalltalk is famous for. Generally, dynamic programming languages provide the environment for such an interaction, so that typically prototyping and iterative and incremental development is done while other parts of the program are running.

As this feature is an apparent need in sound design and algorithmic composition, it has evolved significantly there. More recently, researchers have been using this method to develop sonification algorithms.

Using dynamic programming languages for sound and graphics, interactive programming is also used as an improvisational performance style live coding, mainly in algorithmic music and video.

Example code
Live coding of 3D graphics in ActionScript using COLT
An example of some code in the dynamic programming language SuperCollider is available here.
Another example, written in ChucK is available here
Live coding of graphics with fluxus: a screenshot
 impromptu
An example of livecoding in English with Quoth
Hot-swapping in the functional reactive programming language Elm

See also
 Live coding
 Rapid application development
 Read–eval–print loop

References

Category:Programming paradigms


Danish Design Centre

The Danish Design Centre (DDC) is Denmark’s national center for design. Established in 1978, it is a semi-public organization under the Danish Ministry of Business, Industry and Financial Affairs. The role of DDC is to promote the use of design in business and industry, help professionalise the design industry, and document, promote and brand Danish design in Denmark and abroad.

DDC operates at the intersection of business and industry, the design profession, education and research institutions and public institutions, nationally and internationally.

The Danish Design Centre is rooted in Denmark’s design history and in the values of Danish design but is oriented towards the future. The official mission is "using design as an enabler of transformation", and the centre is organized in five platforms: Design Cities, Future Health, Design Startup, Design Resource and Next Business.

The Danish Design Centre is located in BLOX, a hub for design, architecture and urban innovation in Copenhagen, and the CEO is Christian Bason.

References

Category:Modernist architecture in Copenhagen
Category:Design museums


Shut Down (Prison Break)

"Shut Down" is the 60th episode of the American television series Prison Break and was broadcast on September 8, 2008 in the United States on the Fox Network. Jodi Lyn O'Keefe does not appear in this episode.

Plot
After learning that they have five more cards to track down, Michael Scofield confronts Don Self about the news. Self swears that he knows nothing about the five other cards, and orders him to track the next one by the end of the day, or they will return to prison. Michael has no choice but to find the second Scylla card. While Michael discusses with the gang about finding the next card, Alexander Mahone disappears to make a call to Agent Felicia Lang, imploring her to find out who murdered his son. Lincoln Burrows becomes suspicious of Mahone, as he overhears the phone call. Meanwhile in Self's office, his director, Stanton is shocked to discover the fact that Scofield's team has to find another five cards. Despite Self's reassurances, Stanton is adamant that the team will not succeed and decides to shut down the operation.

Sara Tancredi discovers an e-mail that was sent to Stuart Tuxhorn about an arrival in London. Mahone suggests that the email is actually written in code, and Scofield quickly deciphers the contents, revealing the word "Scylla", and a four o'clock meeting. Roland then traces the e-mails to a server in Anaheim. While Fernando Sucre and Brad Bellick stake out Tuxhorn's office, the rest head to Anaheim to hack into the main server. Sara distracts an officer by claiming that she has "a job interview with human resources", sneaking his security badge from desk and passing it to Michael. Michael and Roland find the server room on the first floor and Roland proceeds to retrieve the email. Lincoln, who is observing from afar, spots the officer confronting Sara over his security badge, and calls Michael to warn him. To stall for time, Michael activates the fire alarm. When Roland successfully retrieves the email, they realize that they are trapped in the server room. As a fire safety measure, the server room is locked down and the oxygen is sucked out of the room to prevent the spread of the fire. Michael manages to call Lincoln, who shows up in time with a fire axe and rescues them by smashing a window.

Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell finds himself on one of James Whistler's furnished apartments in Los Angeles. He later opens a Gate corporation letter, which mentions that he would be paid $75,000 a year, with a further $10,000 commencement bonus. He contacts the director of the organization, who readily agrees to meet him. The director has never met him before, and a meeting for the next day is arranged. Elsewhere in Chicago, Wyatt interrogates Bruce Bennett, who doesn't reveal anything. Wyatt injects him with a substance which seems to disorient him, trying to make him talk. Bennett maintains that he does not know their whereabouts, but eventually reveals that Sara is somewhere in Los Angeles. With this new-found information, Wyatt shoots Bennett in the back of the head, execution style.

Back in Los Angeles, Sucre and Bellick prepare to leave when Tuxhorn does not shows up for work. However, they are quickly surrounded by armed agents and Sucre manages to text Michael a warning message, asking them simply to "Run." The gang flees after Roland learns that he is being locked out of the servers. They escape in a SUV, and a car chase ensues. The chase continues on foot when their vehicles are stuck in a gridlock and Self tracks them with their GPS ankle bracelets while they are on the run. They take temporary refuge in a tunnel where the GPS signal is lost. Michael figures out the code in the emails that leads them to the 4pm meeting at the Newport Beach power plant. They carjack a taxi and head to the power plant. However, Self tracked them down and detains everyone except for Michael who manages to slip away with some help from Sara. Michael sneaks across the plant to the meeting between Tuxhorn and the Pad Man and discovers that the meeting was between all six cardholders. Michael records the meeting on video and turns himself in to Self back at the warehouse, presenting him with the video. With the identity of the six cardholders in the video, Self decides to let the team to continue their work. Mahone receives information from Agent Lang on his son's killer. Lincoln confronts Mahone and agrees to help him find his son's killer when the Scylla mission is over - a change of heart from the last episode.

Reception
IGN gave the episode a rating of 8.1/10 saying that in contrast to the premiere episode of the season "The story made sense, the action sequences were quite good, and the last scene was very satisfying."

References

External links

Category:Prison Break episodes
Category:2008 American television episodes


Aro History

Aro History starts from Ibibio migration to the present Arochukwu area.

Ibibio presence
Before Igbo arrival in the Aro territory, a Semi-Bantu group of the Ibibio arrived from present day Southern Cameroon. They mainly inhabited the area now known as Southeastern Nigeria. Prominent settlements were Ibom and Obong Okon Ita. These hunters and farmers perhaps lived peacefully until foreign settlers invaded.

Igbo migration and invasion
The Igbo migration led by Eze Agwu clan from Abiriba among the Ibibio in the Aro territory started around the 17th century. Tensions escalated between the Eze Agwu group led by Agwu Inobia and Obong Okon Ita kingdom led by Akpan Okon resulting in the Aro-Ibibio Wars. Neither group had a victorious position in the war. Eze Agwu asked Priest Nnachi of the Edda clan near Afikpo for help. The alliance also supported prince Kakpokpo Okon's coup against his brother Akpan Okon. The war escalated and Nnachi called on Eastern Cross River allies for assistance.

Akpa invasion and the foundation of Arochukwu
Osim and Akuma Nnubi were Akpa merchant princes from the Akamkpa area. They led Akpa forces into the Aro territory to assist their Igbo allies to victory. However, this came at the cost of Osim losing his life at the start of the 18th century. With the Akpas and Igbos being victorious, the Arochukwu kingdom was founded with Akuma as its first king or EzeAro. After Akuma died, the Igbo took over the throne starting with Nnachi's son Oke Nnachi in 1720. Many changes occurred as Arochukwu expanded into 19 city-states due to the increasing population and Aro colonies were forming throughout the area now known as Southern Nigeria.

Aro Confederacy

By the mid-18th century, there were mass migrations of several Aro business families all over Eastern Nigeria and surrounding areas. This migration, influence of their god Ibini Ukpabi through priests, and their military power supported by alliances with several related neighboring Igbo and eastern Cross River militarized states (particularly Ohafia, Abam, Abiriba, Afikpo, Ekoi, etc.) quickly established the Aro Confederacy as a regional economic power.

Aro activities helped coastal Niger Delta city-states become important centers for the export of palm oil and slaves. Such city-states included Opobo, Bonny, Brass, Calabar, as well as other slave trading city-states controlled by the Ijaw, Efik, and Igbo. The Aros formed a strong trading network, colonies, and incorporated hundreds of communities that formed into powerful kingdoms. The Ajalli, Arondizuogu, and Bende Kingdoms were the most powerful Aro states in the Confederacy after Arochukwu. Some were founded and named after Commanders and Chiefs like Izuogu Mgbokpo and Iheme whom led Aro forces to conquer Ikpa Ora and founded Arondizuogu. Later Aro commanders such as Okoro Idozuka also of Arondizuogu expanded the state's borders through warfare in the start of the 19th century. The Aro Confederacy's power, however, was mostly derived from its economic and religious position. With European colonists on their way at the end of the 19th century, things changed.

British conquest
British colonialism in the late 19th century turned Anglo-Aro relations sour. Aro leaders knew that Christianity, colonialism, and end of their monopoly would destroy Aro economic rule. Also the British felt that repeated Aro attacks rendered outright war inescapable. They made plans for war in 1899. The conflict had both religious and economic causes. Aro traders and the Royal Niger Company, had their own issues. An Aro invasion of Obegu in 1901 started the Anglo-Aro War. In 1902, following a direct attack on Arochukwu and months of fighting, the British were victorious. The Aro Confederacy's power was shattered, making it easier for the British to take over the Eastern Nigerian region although resistance in the area was far from over. Although Aro dominance crumbled in March 1902, many Aros took part in later resistances against the British in the region such as Afikpo (1902–1903), Ezza (1905), and other areas where the Aro had a particularly significant presence.

Nigeria
When Nigeria won independence from Great Britain in 1960, ethnic tensions rose between the regions resulting in the Nigerian Civil War in 1967-1970. After the war, the Aros and the rest of the Igbo People suffered discrimination from other Nigerians.  Aro culture suffered. However, they are currently efforts to unite Aro people and revive their culture.

References
Arochukwu Network geography page
(https://archive.is/20041205014430/http://eabuja.com/index.html)

Category:History of Igboland
Category:History of Africa
Category:Aros


Torquoselectivity

Torquoselectivity is a special kind of stereoselectivity observed in electrocyclic reactions in organic chemistry, defined as "the preference for inward or outward rotation of substituents in conrotatory
or disrotatory electrocyclic reactions." Torquoselectivity is not to be confused with the normal diastereoselectivity seen in pericyclic reactions, as it represents a further level of selectivity beyond the Woodward-Hoffman rules. The name derives from the idea that the substituents in an electrocyclization appear to rotate over the course of the reaction, and thus selection of a single product is equivalent to selection of one direction of rotation (i.e. the direction of torque on the substituents). The concept was originally developed by Kendall N. Houk.

For ring closing reactions, it is an example of enantioselectivity, wherein a single enantiomer of a cyclization product is formed from the selective ring closure of the starting material. In a typical electrocyclic ring closing, selection for either conrotatory or disrotatory reactions modes still produces two enantiomers. Torquoselectivity is a discrimination between these possible enantiomers that requires asymmetric induction.

Torquoselectivity is also used to describe selective electrocyclic ring openings, in which different directions of rotation produce distinct structural isomers. In these cases, steric strain is often the driving force for the selectivity. Studies have shown that the selectivity can also be changed by the presence of electron donating and electron withdrawing groups.

Other mechanisms by which torquoselectivity can operate include chiral Lewis acid catalysts, induction via neighboring stereocenters (in which case the torquoselectivity is a case of diastereoselectivity), and axial-to-tetrahedral chirality transfer. An example of the latter case is shown below for the torquoselective Nazarov cyclization reaction of a chiral allenyl vinyl ketone.

References

Category:Stereochemistry


Marie-Françoise Mégie

Marie-Francoise Megie (born September 21, 1950) is a Canadian physician, university professor, and an independent member of the Senate of Canada. Born in Haiti, she was appointed on November 2, 2016 by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. At the time of her appointment, she was a family physician and a professor at the Université de Montréal.

References

External links

Category:1950 births
Category:Living people
Category:Canadian senators from Quebec
Category:Independent Canadian senators
Category:Women members of the Senate of Canada
Category:21st-century Canadian politicians
Category:21st-century Canadian women politicians
Category:Independent Senators Group
Category:Black Canadian politicians
Category:Haitian emigrants to Canada


Bosc de Virós

Bosc de Virós (or Virós-Vallferrera) is a ski resort for Nordic skiing in the town of Bordes de Virós, in the municipality of Alins, in Catalonia, opened in 2001. It's located in the Alt Pirineu Natural Park.

The Gall Fer refuge is the base for all activities, including hosting service for 25 people and a restaurant.

 Total of cross-country skiing trails: 28 km
 Longest cross-country skiing trail: 12 km
 Sled-dog circuit: 12 km

References

External links
website

Category:Ski areas and resorts in Catalonia


Hunter Lane

James Hunter Lane (July 20, 1900 – September 12, 1994) was a third baseman in Major League Baseball. He played for the Boston Braves in 1924.  He also played college football as an end for the Tennessee Volunteers football team. He was known by the nickname "Dodo" Lane while playing for Tennessee.

References

External links

Category:1900 births
Category:1994 deaths
Category:Major League Baseball third basemen
Category:Boston Braves players
Category:Tennessee Volunteers football players
Category:People from Pulaski, Tennessee
Category:Baseball players from Tennessee


Olivia Orchard

Olivia Orchard (born ) is an Australian female volleyball player. She is part of the Australia women's national volleyball team.

She participated in the 2014 FIVB Volleyball World Grand Prix.
On club level she played for University Blues in 2014.

References

External links
 Profile at FIVB.org

Category:1984 births
Category:Living people
Category:Australian women's volleyball players
Category:Place of birth missing (living people)
Category:Wing spikers


Urgleptes obscurellus

Urgleptes obscurellus is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Bates in 1863.

References

Category:Urgleptes
Category:Beetles described in 1863


Pauline Félicité de Mailly

Pauline Félicité de Mailly-Nesle (1712–1741), marquise de Vintimille, was the second of the five famous de Nesle sisters, four of whom would become mistresses of King Louis XV of France.  She was his mistress between 1739 and 1741.

Early life and family
Pauline Félicité was born the second daughter of Louis de Mailly, marquis de Nesle et de Mailly, Prince d'Orange (1689 - 1767), and Armande Félice de La Porte Mazarin (1691 - 1729). Her parents had been married in 1709. Her mother was the daughter of Paul Jules de La Porte, duc Mazarin et de La Meilleraye (1666 - 1731), the son of the famous adventuress, Hortense Mancini, the niece of Cardinal Mazarin. Pauline Félicité had four full sisters:

Louise Julie de Mailly, Mademoiselle de Mailly, comtesse de Mailly (1710–1751),
Diane Adélaïde de Mailly, Mademoiselle de Montcavrel, duchesse de Lauraguais (1714–1769),
Hortense Félicité de Mailly, Mademoiselle de Chalon, marquise de Flavacourt (1715–1799).
Marie Anne de Mailly, Mademoiselle de Monchy, marquise de La Tournelle, duchesse de Châteauroux (1717–1744).

The only one of the de Nesle sisters not to become one of Louis XV's mistresses was the marquise de Flavacourt. Louise Julie was the first sister to attract the king followed by Pauline Félicité, but it was Marie Anne who was the most successful in manipulating him and becoming politically powerful.

Pauline Félicité also had a younger half-sister, Henriette de Bourbon (1725 - 1780), Mademoiselle de Verneuil, from her mother's relationship with the duc de Bourbon, the chief minister of Louis XV from 1723 to 1726.

In her youth, Pauline Félicité was known as Mademoiselle de Nesle.

Mistress to Louis XV

In 1738, Pauline Félicité wrote to her elder sister, Louise Julie, the king's official mistress, asking to be invited to court. She received the invitation, and during her stay proceeded to seduce the king, who fell passionately in love with her.

Pauline Félicité then became the second mistress of Louis XV, although her sister kept the official position of maîtresse en titre.  The king lavished her with gifts, the greatest being the castle of Choisy-le-Roi, newly decorated in blue and silver.
To provide her an appropriate status at court, the king arranged for her to marry a nobleman only who agreed not to interfere in their relationship. On 28 September 1739, Pauline Félicité married Jean Baptiste Félix Hubert de Vintimille, marquis de Vintimille, comte du Luc (born 1720), who departed to the country after their wedding. After the wedding, she was also given the post of designate Dame du Palais (lady-in-waiting) to the future bride of the crown prince and 6000 livres; though the crown prince was not yet even married, this gave her an official place in the court hierarchy. The new marquise de Ventimille soon became pregnant by the king.

Pauline Félicité was described as taller, louder and wittier than her older sister. She was much more ambitious than her older sister and predecessor, and demonstrated a desire for money and political influence; her arrogance quickly made her hated within the court and by the public.

Her period as royal mistress was cut short; she died of convulsions in 1741 while giving birth to a son.
Her corpse was placed at Lit de parade in the town of Versailles, but during the night the guards left the room to drink, and a mob broke in and mutilated the corpse of "the king's whore".

Both the king and her older sister, Louise Julie, were devastated by the death of their lover and sister, and Louise Julie reportedly underwent a Catholic ritual of penitence by washing the feet of the poor out of mourning for her departed sister.

The son of the king and Madame de Ventimille was named Louis after his father and given the title of duc de Luc. He so resembled his father that he was called Demi-Louis ("Small Louis"). He was raised by his aunt, Louise Julie. The king took care of his financial needs but never paid him much attention. Later, Madame de Pompadour wanted to marry her daughter to him, but the king would not allow it.

Depiction in Fiction
Pauline is one of the central characters in Sally Christie's The Sisters of Versailles (Simon&Schuster 2015), a novel about Louis XV and the notorious Mailly-Nesle sisters.

References

Category:Mistresses of Louis XV of France
Category:French untitled nobility
Category:Deaths in childbirth
Category:1712 births
Category:1741 deaths


Frank Murphy (footballer, born 1900)

Frank Murphy (14 March 1900 – 28 May 1953) was an Australian rules footballer who played with Carlton and Hawthorn in the Victorian Football League (VFL).

Notes

External links

Frank Murphy's profile at Blueseum

Category:1900 births
Category:Australian rules footballers from Victoria (Australia)
Category:Carlton Football Club players
Category:Hawthorn Football Club players
Category:1953 deaths


Udston mining disaster

The  Udston mining disaster occurred in Hamilton, Scotland on Saturday, 28 May 1887 when 73 miners died in a firedamp explosion at Udston Colliery. Caused, it is thought, by unauthorised shot firing the explosion is said to be Scotland's second worst coal mining  disaster.

Keir Hardie, then Secretary of the Scottish Miners' Federation, denounced the deaths as murder a few days later.

Location

The Udston Colliery, owned by the Udston Coal Company, was situated at the top of Hillhouse, Hamilton behind where Townhill Road now runs. Opened in 1875, it was a small pit employing approximately 200 men and boys working in three coal seams at depths of up to  underground. The workings of the colliery extended for  and were bordered on three sides by the Blantyre, Earnock, and Greenfield Collieries. The last remaining colliery buildings and the pit waste were removed in 2002 and today the site of the colliery is now a housing estate and part of Hamilton’s western expansion programme.

The disaster
The morning of 28 May, 184 men had entered the mine. At 9am, having been already at work for almost three hours, many of the day shift put down their tools for their breakfast. During this break, at approximately 9:07am, an explosion ripped through the Splint Seam destroying everything in its path. At the time of the explosion all but two of the 184 workers were still in the pit.

The explosion manifested itself in a volume of flame and dust at the number two or downcast shaft, followed seconds later by a volume of flame from the upcast or number one shaft which set fire to the wooden sheds or headings above it.

The sound of the explosion was heard in neighbouring Greenfield Colliery through a  barrier of solid coal. In the Blantyre Colliery (where an estimated 216 men had lost their lives 10 years earlier) miners working that morning were temporarily blinded with the dust thrown up by the vibration of the explosion. An initial assessment of the damage by one of the managers revealed both compartments of No 1 shaft and one of the compartments of No 2 Pit were blocked by the cages used to lower the miners.

Rescue efforts were immediate, first by volunteers who were then aided by experienced miners from nearby colleries. By 3pm all the men in the Ell and Main Coals were evacuated and it was discovered that these coal seams were not damaged from the explosion. Five of the men in the main coal shaft died of choke-damp arising from the Splint Coal. The Splint Coal workings were ventilated for exploration and removal of the deceased. 45 hours after the explosion they had all been explored and almost all of the bodies removed. Two men were found alive at the bottom of pit 2, however all others were deceased.

The official causes of death were determined by Dr. Robertson of Hamilton. In his examination of the bodies he confirmed that 53 were burned and 20 were suffocated.

The 73 men who died at the Udston disaster were paid on average 3/3d (16p) per day or 17/6 (86p) per week (equivalent to £69.72 per week today in 2007) .

The investigation into the explosion by the Inspector of Mines, Ralph Moore, Esq, concluded that the explosion was likely caused by a (coal) dust explosion as a result of unauthorized shot-firing.

Memorials

In December 2001 South Lanarkshire Council acknowledged the disaster by placing a commemorative plaque on the miner’s statue standing outside Brandon Gate council offices in Hamilton’s Brandon Street. Accepting the plaque on behalf of the victims was Hamilton’s oldest surviving retired coal miner, 96-year-old Jimmy Glen who, in 1917 at the age of 13 years, started work at the screening tables in the Bent Colliery.

In 2002, a memorial plaque dedicated to the six East Kilbride miners, who died in the disaster,
was unveiled in the memorial garden at Priestknowe roundabout in East Kilbride.

References

Notes
 "Udston 28th May 1887", Scottish Mining
 "Udston Colliery Disaster 28th May 1887", Hamilton Advertiser, June 4, 1887
 Moore, Ralph Report to the Right Honourable the Secretary of State for the Home Department . On the Circumstances Attending an Explosion at Udston Colliery, Hamilton, on the 28th May 1887, London, Houses of Parliament, 1888

Category:1887 in Scotland
Udston
Udston
Category:History of South Lanarkshire
Category:19th-century mining disasters
Category:Hamilton, South Lanarkshire


1988 Hardy Cup

The 1988 Hardy Cup was the 1988 edition of the Canadian intermediate senior ice hockey championship.

Final
Best of 7
Campbellton 5 Quesnel 1
Campbellton 7 Quesnel 5
Campbellton 7 Quesnel 5
Campbellton 7 Quesnel 3
Campbellton Tigers beat Quesnel Kangaroos 4-0 on series.

External links

Hockey Canada

Category:Hardy Cup
Hardy


San Carlos Department, Mendoza

San Carlos is a western department of Mendoza Province in Argentina.

The provincial subdivision has a population of about 28,000 inhabitants in an area of  , and its capital city is San Carlos, which is located around  from the Capital federal.

Districts

Chilecito
Eugenio Bustos
La Consulta
Pareditas
San Carlos

External links
Mendoza Travel Site (Spanish)

Category:Departments of Mendoza Province
Category:States and territories established in 1772


Mollalar, West Azerbaijan

Mollalar (, also Romanized as Mollālar; also known as Mulla Liār) is a village in Akhtachi-ye Sharqi Rural District, Simmineh District, Bukan County, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 477, in 97 families.

References

Category:Populated places in Bukan County