Classification of sleep disorders

Classification of sleep disorders, as developed in the 19th century, used primarily three categories: Insomnia, Hypersomnia and Nightmare. In the 20th century, increasingly in the last half of it, technological discoveries led to rapid advances in the understanding of sleep and recognition of sleep disorders. Major sleep disorders were defined following the development of Electroencephalography (EEG) in 1924 by Hans Berger.

Three systems of classification are in use worldwide:
 the International classification of diseases (ICD) developed by the World Health Organization (WHO) and intended for use by general and more specialized practitioners,
 the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) from the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for psychiatrists and general practitioners, and
 the International classification of sleep disorders (ICSD), an advanced system cultured by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) for sleep specialists.
The ICD and DSM lump different disorders together while the ICSD tends to split related disorders into multiple discrete categories. There has, over the last 60 years, occurred a slow confluence of the three systems of classification.

Diagnoses of sleep disorders are based on self-assessment questionnaires, clinical interview, physical examination and laboratory procedures. The validity and reliability of various sleep disorders are yet to be proved and need further research within the ever-changing field of "Sleep Medicine". Admittedly, the development of sleep disorder classification remains as much an art as it is a science.

History

Milestones
The first book on sleep was published in 1830 by Robert MacNish; it described sleeplessness, nightmares, sleepwalking and sleep-talking. Narcolepsy, hypnogogic hallucination, wakefulness and somnolence were mentioned by other authors of the nineteenth century. Westphal in 1877 described first case of narcolepsy, the name coined later by Gelineu in 1880 in association with cataplexy. Lehermitte called it paroxysmal hypersomnia in 1930 to differentiate it from prolonged hypersomnia. Roger in 1932 coined the term parasomnia and classified hypersomnia, insomnia and parasomnia. Kleitman in 1939 recognized types of parasomnias as nightmares, night terrors, somniloquy (sleep-talking), somnambulism (sleepwalking), grinding of teeth, jactatians, enuresis, delirium, nonepileptic convulsions and personality dissociation. Broughton in 1968 developed classification of the arousal disorders as confusional arousals: night terrors and sleep walking. Insomnias were classified as primary and secondary till 1970 when they were recognized as symptoms of other disorders. Sir William Osler in 1906 correlated snoring, obesity and somnolence (sleepiness) to Dicken's description of Joe. Charles Burwell in 1956 recognized obstructive sleep apnea as Pickwickian syndrome. Circadian rhythm sleep disorders were discovered in 1981 by Weitzman as delayed sleep phase syndrome in contrast to advanced sleep phase syndrome in 1979.

Evolution of classifications of sleep disorders

The International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD)

The International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD) was produced by the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) in association with the European Sleep Research Society, the Japanese Society of Sleep Research, and the Latin American Sleep Society. The classification was developed as a revision and update of the Diagnostic Classification of Sleep and Arousal Disorders (DCSAD) that was produced by both the Association of Sleep Disorders Centers (ASDC) and the Association for the Psychophysiological Study of Sleep and was published in the journal Sleep in 1979.
 Disorder of initiating and maintain sleep (DIMS) - Insomnias
 Disorder of Excessive sleep (DOES) - Hypersomnias
 Disorder of sleep wake schedule
 Parasomnias
The International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD) uses a multiaxial system for stating and coding diagnoses both in clinical reports or for data base purposes. The axial system uses International Classification of Diseases (ICD-9- CM) coding wherever possible. Additional codes are included for procedures and physical signs of particular interest to sleep disorders clinicians and researchers. Diagnoses and procedures are listed and coded on three main “axes.” The axial system is arranged as follows:

Axis A ICSD Classification of Sleep Disorders

Axis B ICD-9-CM Classification of Procedures

Axis C ICD-9-CM Classification of Diseases (nonsleep diagnoses).

ICSD - I Revised 1997

Dyssomnias
 Intrinsic Sleep Disorders
 Extrinsic Sleep Disorders
 Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorders

Parasomnias
 Arousal Disorders
 Sleep-Wake Transition Disorders
 Parasomnias Usually Associated with REM Sleep
 Other Parasomnias

Sleep Disorders Associated with Mental, Neurologic, or Other Medical Disorders
 Associated with Mental Disorders
 Associated with Neurologic Disorders
 Associated with Other Medical Disorders

Proposed Sleep Disorders

ICSD 2 is tabulated in the main article International Classification of Sleep Disorders

ICSD - 3

The last edition of ICSD-3 is a unified classification of sleep disorders. It includes seven major categories: insomnia disorders, sleep-related breathing disorders, central disorders of hypersomnolence, circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders, sleep-related movement disorders, parasomnias, and other sleep disorders. Each of these categories has several subgroups:

1. Insomnia
 Chronic insomnia disorder
 Short-term insomnia disorder
 Other insomnia disorder

2. Sleep-related breathing disorders
 Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) disorders
 OSA, adult
 OSA, pediatric
 Central sleep apnea syndromes
 Central sleep apnea with Cheyne-Stokes breathing
 Central sleep apnea due to a medical disorder without Cheyne-Stokes breathing
 Central sleep apnea due to high altitude periodic breathing
 Central sleep apnea due to a medication or substance
 Primary central sleep apnea
 Primary central sleep apnea of infancy
 Primary central sleep apnea of prematurity
 Treatment-emergent central sleep apnea
 Sleep-related hypoventilation disorders
 Obesity hypoventilation syndrome
 Congenital central alveolar hypoventilation syndrome
 Late-onset central hypoventilation with hypothalamic dysfunction
 Idiopathic central alveolar hypoventilation
 Sleep-related hypoventilation due to a medication or substance
 Sleep-related hypoventilation due to a medical disorder
 Sleep-related hypoxemia disorder
 Isolated symptoms and normal variants

3. Central disorders of hypersomnolence
 Narcolepsy type 1
 Narcolepsy type 2
 Idiopathic hypersomnia
 Kleine-Levin syndrome
 Hypersomnia due to a medical disorder
 Hypersomnia due to a medication or substance
 Hypersomnia associated with a psychiatric disorder
 Insufficient sleep syndrome

4. Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders
 Delayed sleep-wake phase disorder
 Advanced sleep-wake phase disorder
 Irregular sleep-wake rhythm disorder
 Non-24-h sleep-wake rhythm disorder
 Shift work disorder
 Jet lag disorder
 Circadian sleep-wake disorder not otherwise specified

5. Sleep-related movement disorders
 Restless legs syndrome
 Periodic limb movement disorder
 Sleep-related leg cramps
 Sleep-related bruxism
 Sleep-related rhythmic movement disorder
 Benign sleep myoclonus of infancy
 Propriospinal myoclonus at sleep onset
 Sleep-related movement disorder due to a medical disorder
 Sleep-related movement disorder due to a medication or substance
 Sleep-related movement disorder, unspecified
 Isolated symptoms and normal variants
 Excessive fragmentary myoclonus
 Hypnagogic foot tremor and alternating leg muscle activation
 Sleep starts (hypnic jerks)

6. Parasomnias
 NREM-related parasomnias
 Confusional arousals
 Sleepwalking
 Sleep terrors
 Sleep-related eating disorder
 REM-related parasomnias
 REM sleep behavior disorder
 Recurrent isolated sleep paralysis
 Nightmare disorder
 Other parasomnias
 Exploding head syndrome
 Sleep-related hallucinations
 Sleep enuresis
 Parasomnia due to a medical disorder
 Parasomnia due to a medication or substance
 Parasomnia, unspecified
 Isolated symptoms and normal variants
 Sleep talking

7. Other sleep disorders

International Classification of Disease (ICD)

ICD-7R 1955
780.7 Disturbance of sleep

ICD-8 1965
306.4 Specific disorder of sleep

780.6 Disturbance of sleep

ICD-9 1975

327 Organic sleep disorders

327.0 Organic disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep [organic insomnia]
 327.00 Organic insomnia, unspecified
 327.01 Insomnia due to medical condition classified elsewhere
 327.02 Insomnia due to mental disorder
 327.09 Other organic insomnia

327.1 Organic disorder of excessive somnolence [organic hypersomnia]
 327.10 Organic hypersomnia, unspecified
 327.11 Idiopathic hypersomnia with long sleep time
 327.12 Idiopathic hypersomnia without long sleep time
 327.13 Recurrent hypersomnia
 327.14 Hypersomnia due to medical condition classified elsewhere
 327.15 Hypersomnia due to mental disorder
 327.19 Other organic hypersomnia

327.2 Organic sleep apnea
 327.20 Organic sleep apnea, unspecified
 327.21 Primary central sleep apnea
 327.22 High altitude periodic breathing
 327.23 Obstructive sleep apnea (adult)(pediatric)
 327.24 Idiopathic sleep related non-obstructive alveolar hypoventilation
 327.25 Congenital central alveolar hypoventilation syndrome
 327.26 Sleep related hypoventilation/hypoxemia in conditions classifiable elsewhere
 327.27 Central sleep apnea in conditions classified elsewhere
 327.29 Other organic sleep apnea

327.3 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder
 327.30 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, unspecified
 327.31 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, delayed sleep phase type
 327.32 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, advanced sleep phase type
 327.33 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, irregular sleep-wake type
 327.34 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, free-running type
 327.35 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, jet lag type
 327.36 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, shift work type
 327.37 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder in conditions classified elsewhere
 327.39 Other circadian rhythm sleep disorder

327.4 Organic parasomnia
 327.40 Organic parasomnia, unspecified
 327.41 Confusional arousals
 327.42 REM sleep behavior disorder
 327.43 Recurrent isolated sleep paralysis
 327.44 Parasomnia in conditions classified elsewhere
 327.49 Other organic parasomnia

327.5 Organic sleep related movement disorders
 327.51 Periodic limb movement disorder
 327.52 Sleep related leg cramps
 327.53 Sleep related bruxism
 327.59 Other organic sleep related movement disorders

327.8 Other organic sleep disorders

307.4 Specific disorders of sleep of nonorganic origin
 307.40 Nonorganic sleep disorder, unspecified
 307.41 Transient disorder of initiating or maintaining sleep
 307.42 Persistent disorder of initiating or maintaining sleep
 307.43 Transient disorder of initiating or maintaining wakefulness
 307.44 Persistent disorder of initiating or maintaining wakefulness
 307.45 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder of nonorganic origin
 307.46 Sleep arousal disorder
 307.47 Other dysfunctions of sleep stages or arousal from sleep
 307.48 Repetitive intrusions of sleep
 307.49 Other specific disorders of sleep of nonorganic origin

780.5 Sleep disturbances
 780.50 Sleep disturbance, unspecified
 780.51 Insomnia with sleep apnea, unspecified
 780.52 Insomnia, unspecified
 780.53 Hypersomnia with sleep apnea, unspecified
 780.54 Hypersomnia, unspecified
 780.55 Disruption of 24 hour sleep wake cycle, unspecified
 780.56 Dysfunctions associated with sleep stages or arousal from sleep
 780.57 Unspecified sleep apnea
 780.58 Sleep related movement disorder, unspecified
 780.59 Other sleep disturbances

292.85 Drug induced sleep disorders

ICD-NA (1997)

G47 Sleep disorders
 Excl.: nocturnal myoclonus (G25.80), nightmares (F51.5), nonorganic sleep disorders (F51.-), sleep terrors (F51.4), sleepwalking (F51.3)

G47.0 Disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep [insomnias], Excl. altitudinal insomnia (T70.2)

G47.1 Disorders of excessive somnolence [hypersomnias]

G47.2 Disorders of the sleep-wake schedule
 G47.20 Transient sleep wake schedule disorder
 G47.21 Advanced sleep phase disorder
 G47.22 Delayed sleep phase syndromes
 G47.23 Irregular sleep-wake pattern
 G47.24 Non 24 hour sleep wake cycle
 G47.28 Other disorder of sleep wake schedule

G47.3 Sleep apnoea
 Sleep related respiratory failure (ondine)
 Excl. pickwickian syndrome (E66.2), sleep apnoea of newborn (P28.3)
 G47.30 Alveolar hypoventilation syndrome
 G47.31 Central sleep apnoea
 G47.32 Obstructive sleep apnoea
 G47.38 Other sleep apnoea

G47.4 Narcolepsy and cataplexy
 G47.40 Narcolepsy
 G47.41 Cataplexy
 G47.42 Sleep paralysis
 G47.43 Hypnogogic and hypnopompic hallucination
 G47.44 Any combination of narcolepsy, cataplexy, Sleep paralysis, Hypnogogic and hypnopompic hallucination
 G47.48 Other forms of narcolepsy and cataplexy

G47.8 Other sleep disorders
 Excl: Other sudden death, cause unknown (R96-)
 Sleep apnoea (G47.3)
 newborn (R96.-)
 Sudden infant death syndrome (R95)
 G47.80 Other REM sleep related parasomnias
 Excl. nightmares (F51.5), Sleep paralysis (G47.42 )
 G47.800 REM sleep related behavior disorder (phantasmagorias)
 G47.801 Imapired REM sleep related non painful penile erection
 G47.802 REM sleep related painful penile erection
 G47.803 REM sleep related cardiac sinus arrest
 G47.804 REM sleep related headache (use additional code if required to indicate type of headache)
 G47.81 Other non REM sleep related parasomnias
 Excl: benign neonatal sleep syndrome (G25.37)
 G47.810 Sleep related bruxism
 G47.811 Sleep related enuresis
 G47.812 Non-REM-sleep related abnormal swallowing syndrome
 G47.813 Nocturnal paroxysmal dystonia
 G47.82 Sleep arousal disorders, confusional arousal, Sleep drunkenness
 G47.83 Sleep-wake transition disorders
 Excl. nocturnal leg cramps (R25.20)
 G47.830 Sleep related rhythmic movement disorder, head-banging (jactatio capitis noctunus)
 G47.831 Sleep starts
 G47.832 Sleepwalking
 G47.84 Kleine-Levin syndrome, Recurrent hypersomnia
 G47.88 Other specified sleep disorders

G47.9 Sleep disorder, unspecified

F51 Nonorganic sleep disorders
 Excl.: sleep disorders (organic) (G47.-)

F51.0 Nonorganic insomnia Excl.: insomnia (organic) (G47.0)

F51.1 Nonorganic hypersomnia Excl.: hypersomnia (organic) (G47.1), narcolepsy (G47.4)

F51.2 Nonorganic disorder of the sleep-wake schedule
 Psychogenic inversion of:
 circadian
 nyctohemeral
 sleep rhythm
 Excl.: disorders of the sleep-wake schedule (organic) (G47.2)

F51.3 Sleepwalking [somnambulism]

F51.4 Sleep terrors [night terrors]

F51.5 Nightmares, Dream anxiety disorder

F51.8 Other nonorganic sleep disorders

F51.9 Nonorganic sleep disorder, unspecified, Emotional sleep disorder NOS

P28.3 Primary sleep apnoea of newborn
 Sleep apnoea of newborn:
 central
 NOS
 obstructive

P28.4 Other apnoea of newborn
 Apnoea (of):
 newborn, obstructive
 prematurity Excl.: obstructive sleep apnoea of newborn (P28.3)

ICD-10-CM 2016

G47 Sleep disorders

G47.0 Insomnia
 G47.00 …… unspecified
 G47.01 …… due to medical condition
 G47.09 Other insomnia

G47.1 Hypersomnia
 G47.10 …… unspecified
 G47.11 Idiopathic hypersomnia with long sleep time
 G47.12 Idiopathic hypersomnia without long sleep time
 G47.13 Recurrent hypersomnia
 G47.14 …… due to medical condition
 G47.19 Other hypersomnia

G47.2 Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
 G47.20 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, unspecified type
 G47.21 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, delayed sleep phase type
 G47.22 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, advanced sleep phase type
 G47.23 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, irregular sleep wake type
 G47.24 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, free running type
 G47.25 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, jet lag type
 G47.26 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder, shift work type
 G47.27 Circadian rhythm sleep disorder in conditions classified elsewhere
 G47.29 Other circadian rhythm sleep disorder

G47.3 Sleep apnea
 G47.30 …… unspecified
 G47.31 Primary central sleep apnea
 G47.32 High altitude periodic breathing
 G47.33 Obstructive sleep apnea (adult) (pediatric)
 G47.34 Idiopathic sleep related nonobstructive alveolar hypoventilation
 G47.35 Congenital central alveolar hypoventilation syndrome
 G47.36 Sleep related hypoventilation in conditions classified elsewhere
 G47.37 Central sleep apnea in conditions classified elsewhere
 G47.39 Other sleep apnea

G47.4 Narcolepsy and cataplexy
 G47.41 Narcolepsy
 G47.411 …… with cataplexy
 G47.419 …… without cataplexy
 G47.42 Narcolepsy in conditions classified elsewhere
 G47.421 …… with cataplexy
 G47.429 …… without cataplexy

G47.5 Parasomnia
 G47.50 …… unspecified
 G47.51 Confusional arousals
 G47.52 REM sleep behavior disorder
 G47.53 Recurrent isolated sleep paralysis
 G47.54 …… in conditions classified elsewhere
 G47.59 Other parasomnia

G47.6 Sleep related movement disorders
 G47.61 Periodic limb movement disorder
 G47.62 Sleep related leg cramps
 G47.63 Sleep related bruxism
 G47.69 Other sleep related movement disorders

G47.8 Other sleep disorders

G47.9 Sleep disorder, unspecified

F51 Sleep disorders not due to a substance or known physiological condition

F51.0 Insomnia not due to a substance or known physiological condition
 F51.01 Primary insomnia
 F51.02 Adjustment insomnia
 F51.03 Paradoxical insomnia
 F51.04 Psychophysiologic insomnia
 F51.05 Insomnia due to other mental disorder
 F51.09 Other insomnia not due to a substance or known physiological condition

F51.1 Hypersomnia not due to a substance or known physiological condition
 F51.11 Primary hypersomnia
 F51.12 Insufficient sleep syndrome
 F51.13 Hypersomnia due to other mental disorder
 F51.19 Other hypersomnia not due to a substance or known physiological condition

F51.3 Sleepwalking [somnambulism]

F51.4 Sleep terrors [night terrors]

F51.5 Nightmare disorder

F51.8 Other sleep disorders not due to a substance or known physiological condition

F51.9 Sleep disorder not due to a substance or known physiological condition, unspecified

P28.3
Applicable To
 Central sleep apnea of newborn
 Obstructive sleep apnea of newborn
 Sleep apnea of newborn NOS
Approximate Synonyms
 Neonatal primary apnea
 Primary apnea in the newborn
 Sleep apnea, primary, neonatal

ICD-11-Beta - 10 Sleep Wake Disorder 2016

Insomnia disorders
 8A00 Chronic insomnia
 8A01 Short-term insomnia
 8A02 Disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep
 8A0Y Other specified insomnia disorders
 8A0Z Insomnia disorders,  unspecified

Sleep-related movement disorders
 8A10 Restless legs syndrome
 8A11 Secondary restless legs syndrome
 8A12 Periodic limb movements disorder
 8A13 Sleep-related bruxism
 8A14 Sleep-related leg cramps
 8A15 Sleep-related rhythmic movement disorder
 8A16 Benign sleep myoclonus of infancy
 8A1Y Other specified sleep-related movement disorders
 8A1Z Sleep-related movement disorders, unspecified

8A20 Hypersomnolence disorders
 8A20.1 Narcolepsy, Type 1
 8A20.2 Narcolepsy, Type 2
 8A20.3 Idiopathic hypersomnolence disorder
 8A20.4 Kleine-Levin syndrome
 8A20.5 Behaviourally induced hypersomnolence
 8A20.6 Hypersomnolence due to substances including medications
 8A20.Y Other specified hypersomnolence disorders
 8A20.Z Hypersomnolence disorders,  unspecified

Sleep-related breathing disorders
 8A30 Central sleep apnoeas
 8A31 Obstructive sleep apnoea
 8A32 Sleep-related hypoventilation or hypoxemia disorders
 8A3Y Other specified sleep-related breathing disorders
 8A3Z Sleep-related breathing disorders, unspecified

Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders
 8A40 Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder, delayed type
 8A41 Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder,  advanced type
 8A42 Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder, irregular sleep-wake rhythm type
 8A43 Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder, non-24 hour type
 8A44 Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder, shift work type
 8A45 Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorder, jet lag type
 8A4Y Other specified circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders
 8A4Z Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders, unspecified

Parasomnia disorders

Disorders of arousal in non-REM sleep
 8A50 Confusional arousals
 8A51 Sleepwalking disorder
 8A52 Sleep terrors
 8A5Y Other specified disorders of arousal in non-REM sleep
 8A5Z Disorders of arousal in non-REM sleep, unspecified
 8A60 Sleep-related eating disorder

8A61 REM sleep behavior disorder
 8A62 Recurrent isolated sleep paralysis
 8A63 Nightmare disorder 8A63 Nightmare disorder
 8A64 Hypnogogic exploding head syndrome
 8A65 Recurrent isolated sleep-related hallucinations

8A66 Parasomnia disorder due to substances including medications
 8A6Y Other specified parasomnia disorders
 8A6Z Parasomnia disorders,  unspecified
 7B60.1 Nocturnal enuresis
 8A70 Disorders of the sleep-wake schedule
 8A71 Parasomnia
 8A72 Sleeptalking
 8A7Y Other specified sleep-wake disorders
 8A7Z Sleep-wake disorders, unspecified
 ME21 Dyssomnia

DSM Classification of Sleep Disorders
 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) classification of sleep disorder was first introduced in 1968.

DSM II - 1968
 Disorders of Sleep

DSM III - 1980
 Other disorders with physical manifestation
 Sleep walking
 Sleep terror

DSM III-R 1987

Sleep Disorder

Dysomnias (disorders of amount, quality or time of sleep)
 Insomnia
 Hypersomnia
 Sleep wake schedule disorder

Parasomnia (abnormal event during sleep)
 Nightmare disorder
 Sleep terror
 Sleep walking

DSM IV TR Sleep Disorders

DSM-V Sleep Wake Disorders

Major changes from DSM IV
Sleep-wake disorders comprise 11 diagnostic groups:“
 M00 Insomnia disorder
 M01 Hypersomnolence Disorder
 M02 Narcolepsy/Hypocretin Deficiency
 M03 Obstructive Sleep Apnea Hypopnea Syndrome
 M04 Central Sleep Apnea
 M05 Sleep-Related Hypoventilation
 M06 Circadian Rhythm Sleep-Wake Disorder
 M07 Disorder of Arousal
 M08 Nightmare Disorder
 M09 Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Behavior Disorder
 M10 Restless Legs Syndrome
 M11 Substance-Induced Sleep disorder
 Sleep-Wake Disorders Not Elsewhere Classified
 Insomnia Disorder Not Elsewhere Classified
 Major Somnolence Disorder (Hypersomnia Not Elsewhere Classified) The following specifiers apply to Sleep-Wake Disorders where indicated:  Specify if: Episodic, Persistent, Recurrent  Specify if: Acute, Subacute, Persistent  Specify current severity: Mild, Moderate, Severe

References

External links

Category:Sleep disorders
Category:Medical classification


Mercy Bay

Mercy Bay is a Canadian Arctic waterway in the Northwest Territories.  It is a southern arm of M'Clure Strait on northeast Banks Island.  The mouth of Castel Bay is less than  to the west.  These bays are a part of Aulavik National Park.

HMS Investigator

In September 1851, Captain Robert McClure's ship,  became ice trapped in Mercy Bay during his search for the Northwest Passage and the lost Sir John Franklin Expedition.  By 1853, it was finally abandoned in the bay.  The crew sledged over ice to Melville Island, where they were rescued.

In July 2010, Parks Canada archeologists looking for HMS Investigator found it fifteen minutes after they started a sonar scan of Banks Island, Mercy Bay, Northwest Territories.  The archeology crew has no plans to raise the ship. They will do a thorough sonar scan of the area, then send a remotely operated vehicle. The Canadian archaeologists found the ship "largely intact" sitting upright in approximately 25 feet of pristine arctic water.

References

External links
 Video: Discovery of the HMS Investigator

Category:Bays of the Northwest Territories
Category:Banks Island


Rob Brezsny

Rob Brezsny is an American astrologer, author, and musician. His weekly horoscope column "Free Will Astrology" – formerly "Real Astrology" – has been published since 1980, and by 2010 was syndicated in around 120 periodicals.

Career
Brezsny uses first-person narrative in his horoscope columns, as well as a more literary approach than conventional horoscopes use. He conceives of astrology not as a science but as "a poetic language of the soul", comparing it to "a Neruda poem, Kandinsky paintings or a Nick Cave song." The Utne Reader described the column as "a blend of spontaneous poetry, feisty politics, and fanciful put-on", and The New York Times called it "glib, hectoring, oblique", and said that it appeals primarily to urban professionals "who turn to it for irreverence as much as for insight." Brezsny is quoted as saying "I'm on a mission to save people from the genocide of the imagination,"  and told the Times that his "secret agenda" is "to be a poet who gets paid for writing poetry." Brezsny said "I predict the present. I don't believe in predicting the future." The head of the mainstream New York Astrology Center called Brezsny's column "silly".

In 2017, in regard to the possible effects on Donald Trump of a solar eclipse which took place on August 21, Brezsny said:

I don't like to make absolute predictions, but [the eclipse] could result in an ego death ... In a normal person, that could be a good thing, because it would relieve that person of illusions and delusions that he has about himself. But in Trump's case, there could be a shattering ... The eclipse may portend a climax to [his] humiliation.

In the 1970s and 1980s, Brezsny was a singer and songwriter for Santa Cruz, California bands such as Kamikaze Angel Slander and Tao Chemical, and then, in the early 1990s, for the band World Entertainment War, for whom Brezsny wrote the song "Dark Ages", which was later recorded by Jefferson Starship for their 1995 album Deep Space / Virgin Sky. Jefferson Starship also recorded the World Entertainment War song "In A Crisis" on their 2008 album Jefferson's Tree of Liberty.

Brezsny contributed to the writing and soundtrack of the 1995 science fiction independent film The Drivetime.

Brezsny is author of the books Images Are Dangerous (1985); The Televisionary Oracle (2000), a novel; and a self-help book, Pronoia Is the Antidote for Paranoia: How the Whole World Is Conspiring To Shower You with Blessings (2005, rev.2009), which derives its name from the concept of pronoia.

References

Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
Category:Living people
Category:20th-century astrologers
Category:21st-century astrologers
Category:American astrologers
Category:American astrological writers
Category:American male non-fiction writers
Category:American male singer-songwriters
Category:American singer-songwriters


Video games in Japan

Video gaming in Japan is a major industry. Japanese game development is often identified with the golden age of video games, including Nintendo under Shigeru Miyamoto and Hiroshi Yamauchi, Sega during the same time period, Sony Computer Entertainment when it was based in Tokyo, and other companies such as Taito, Namco, Capcom, Square Enix, Konami, NEC, and SNK, among others.

History

Background

In 1966, Sega introduced an electro-mechanical game called Periscope - a submarine simulator which used lights and plastic waves to simulate sinking ships from a submarine. It became an instant success in Japan, Europe, and North America, where it was the first arcade game to cost a quarter per play, which would remain the standard price for arcade games for many years to come.

Sega later produced gun games that used rear image projection in a manner similar to the ancient zoetrope to produce moving animations on a screen. The first of these, the light-gun game Duck Hunt, appeared in 1969; it featured animated moving targets on a screen, printed out the player's score on a ticket, and had volume-controllable sound-effects. Another Sega 1969 release, Missile, a shooter, featured electronic sound and a moving film strip to represent the targets on a projection screen.

1970s–early 1980s
Use of color graphics and individualized antagonists were considered "strong evolutionary concepts" among space ship games. The Namco Galaxian arcade system board also introduced multi-colored animated sprites. That same year saw the release of SNK's debut shoot 'em up Ozma Wars, notable for being the first action game to feature a supply of energy, resembling a life bar, a mechanic that has now become common in the majority of modern action games. It also featured vertically scrolling backgrounds and enemies.

Japan's first home video game console was Epoch's TV Tennis Electrotennis, a licensed version of the ping-pong game from the Magnavox Odyssey. It was followed by the first successful Japanese console, Nintendo's Color TV Game, in 1977.

Sega's black and white boxing game Heavyweight Champ was released in 1976 as the first video game to feature fist fighting. The first stealth games were Hiroshi Suzuki's Manbiki Shounen (1979) and Manbiki Shoujo (1980), Taito's Lupin III (1980), and Sega's 005 (1981).

Eventually, the 1978 arcade release of Space Invaders would mark the first major mainstream breakthrough for video games in Japan. Created by Nishikado at Japan's Taito Corporation, Space Invaders pitted the player against multiple enemies descending from the top of the screen at a constantly increasing rate of speed. Space Invaders pitted the player against multiple enemies descending from the top of the screen at a constantly increasing rate of speed. The game used alien creatures inspired by The War of the Worlds (by H. G. Wells) because the developers were unable to render the movement of aircraft; in turn, the aliens replaced human enemies because of moral concerns (regarding the portrayal of killing humans) on the part of Taito Corporation. As with subsequent shoot 'em ups of the time, the game was set in space as the available technology only permitted a black background. The game also introduced the idea of giving the player a number of "lives". It popularised a more interactive style of gameplay with the enemies responding to the player-controlled cannon's movement, and it was the first video game to popularise the concept of achieving a high score, being the first to save the player's score. The aliens of Space Invaders return fire at the protagonist, making them the first arcade game targets to do so. It set the template for the shoot 'em up genre, and has influenced most shooting games released since then.

Taito's Space Invaders, in 1978, proved to be the first blockbuster arcade video game. Its success marked the beginning of the golden age of arcade video games. Video game arcades sprang up in shopping malls, and small "corner arcades" appeared in restaurants, grocery stores, bars and movie theaters all over Japan and other countries during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Space Invaders (1978), Galaxian (1979), Pac-Man (1980) and Bosconian (1981) were especially popular. By 1981, the arcade video game industry was worth $8 billion ($ in ). Some games of this era were so popular that they entered popular culture. The first to do so was Space Invaders. The game was so popular upon its release in 1978 that an urban legend blamed it for a national shortage of 100 yen coins in Japan, leading to a production increase of coins to meet demand for the game (although 100 yen coin production was lower in 1978 and 1979 than in previous or subsequent years, and the claim does not withstand logical scrutiny: arcade operators would have emptied out their machines and taken the money to the bank, thus keeping the coins in circulation). Japanese arcade games during the golden age also had hardware unit sales at least in the tens of thousands, including Ms. Pac-Man with over 115,000 units, Donkey Kong with over 60,000, Galaxian with 40,000, Donkey Kong Junior with 35,000, Mr. Do! with 30,000,

1980s–early 2000s

From 1980 to 1991, Nintendo produced a line of handheld electronic games called Game & Watch. Created by game designer Gunpei Yokoi, each Game & Watch features a single game to be played on an LCD screen. It was the earliest Nintendo product to gain major success.

Konami's Scramble, released in 1981, is a side-scrolling shooter with forced scrolling. It was the first scrolling shooter to offer multiple, distinct levels. Vertical scrolling shooters emerged around the same time. Namco's Xevious, released in 1982, is frequently cited as the first vertical scrolling shooter and, although it was in fact preceded by several other games of that type, it is considered one of the most influential.

The first platform game to use scrolling graphics was Jump Bug (1981), a simple platform-shooter game developed by Alpha Denshi.

The North American video game industry was devastated by the 1983 video game crash, but in Japan, it was more of a surprise to developers, and typically known in Japan as the "Atari Shock". After the video game crash, analysts doubted the long-term viability of the video game industry. At the same time, following a series of arcade game successes in the early 1980s, Nintendo made plans to create a cartridge-based console called the Famicom, which is short for Family Computer. Masayuki Uemura designed the system. The console was released on July 15, 1983 as the Family Computer (or Famicom for short) alongside three ports of Nintendo's successful arcade games Donkey Kong, Donkey Kong Jr. and Popeye. The Famicom was slow to gather momentum; a bad chip set caused the initial release of the system to crash. Following a product recall and a reissue with a new motherboard, the Famicom's popularity soared, becoming the best-selling game console in Japan by the end of 1984. By 1988, industry observers stated that the NES's popularity had grown so quickly that the market for Nintendo cartridges was larger than that for all home computer software. By mid-1986, 19% (6.5 million) of Japanese households owned a Famicom; one third by mid-1988. In June 1989, Nintendo of America's vice president of marketing Peter Main, said that the Famicom was present in 37% of Japan's households. By the end of its run, over 60 million NES units had been sold throughout the world. In 1990 Nintendo surpassed Toyota as Japan's most successful corporation.

Because the NES was released after the "video game crash" of the early 1980s, many retailers and adults regarded electronic games as a passing fad, so many believed at first that the NES would soon fade. Before the NES/Famicom, Nintendo was known as a moderately successful Japanese toy and playing card manufacturer, but the popularity of the NES/Famicom helped the company grow into an internationally recognized name almost synonymous with video games as Atari had been, and set the stage for Japanese dominance of the video game industry. With the NES, Nintendo also changed the relationship between console manufacturers and third-party software developers by restricting developers from publishing and distributing software without licensed approval. This led to higher quality software titles, which helped change the attitude of a public that had grown weary from poorly produced titles for earlier game systems. The system's hardware limitations led to design principles that still influence the development of modern video games. Many prominent game franchises originated on the NES, including Nintendo's own Super Mario Bros., The Legend of Zelda and Metroid, Capcom's Mega Man franchise, Konami's Castlevania franchise, Square's Final Fantasy, and Enix's Dragon Quest franchises.

Following the release of the Famicom / Nintendo Entertainment System, the global video game industry began recovering, with annual sales exceeding $2.3 billion by 1988, with 70% of the market dominated by Nintendo. In 1986 Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi noted that "Atari collapsed because they gave too much freedom to third-party developers and the market was swamped with rubbish games". In response, Nintendo limited the number of titles that third-party developers could release for their system each year, and promoted its "Seal of Quality", which it allowed to be used on games and peripherals by publishers that met Nintendo's quality standards.

Japan's first personal computers for gaming soon appeared, the Sord M200 in 1977 and Sharp MZ-80K in 1978. In Japan, both consoles and computers became major industries, with the console market dominated by Nintendo and the computer market dominated by NEC's PC-88 (1981) and PC-98 (1982). A key difference between Western and Japanese computers at the time was the display resolution, with Japanese systems using a higher resolution of 640x400 to accommodate Japanese text which in turn affected video game design and allowed more detailed graphics. Japanese computers were also using Yamaha's FM synth sound boards from the early 1980s. During the 16-bit era, the PC-98, Sharp X68000 and FM Towns became popular in Japan. The X68000 and FM Towns were capable of producing near arcade-quality hardware sprite graphics and sound quality when they first released in the mid-to-late 1980s.

The Wizardry series (translated by ASCII Entertainment) became popular and influential in Japan, even more so than at home. Japanese developers created the action RPG subgenre in the early 1980s, combining RPG elements with arcade-style action and action-adventure elements. The trend of combining role-playing elements with arcade-style action mechanics was popularized by The Tower of Druaga, an arcade game released by Namco in June 1984. While the RPG elements in Druaga were very subtle, its success in Japan inspired the near-simultaneous development of three early action role-playing games, combining Druagas real-time hack-and-slash gameplay with stronger RPG mechanics, all released in late 1984: Dragon Slayer, Courageous Perseus, and Hydlide. A rivalry developed between the three games, with Dragon Slayer and Hydlide continuing their rivalry through subsequent sequels.  The Tower of Druaga, Dragon Slayer and Hydlide were influential in Japan, where they laid the foundations for the action RPG genre, influencing titles such as Ys and The Legend of Zelda.

The action role-playing game Hydlide (1984) was an early open world game, rewarding exploration in an open world environment. Hylide influenced The Legend of Zelda (1986), an influential open world game. Zelda had an expansive, coherent open world design, inspiring many games to adopt a similar open world design.

Bokosuka Wars (1983) is considered an early prototype real-time strategy game. TechnoSoft's Herzog (1988) is regarded as a precursor to the real-time strategy genre, being the predecessor to Herzog Zwei and somewhat similar in nature. Herzog Zwei, released for the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis home console in 1989, is the earliest example of a game with a feature set that falls under the contemporary definition of modern real-time strategy.

Data East's Karate Champ from 1984 is credited with establishing and popularizing the one-on-one fighting game genre, and went on to influence Konami's Yie Ar Kung-Fu from 1985. Capcom's Street Fighter (1987) introduced the use of special moves that could only be discovered by experimenting with the game controls. Street Fighter II (1991) established the conventions of the fighting game genre and allowed players to play against each other.

In 1985, Sega AM2's Hang-On, designed by Yu Suzuki and running on the Sega Space Harrier hardware, was the first of Sega's "Super Scaler" arcade system boards that allowed pseudo-3D sprite-scaling at high frame rates. The pseudo-3D sprite/tile scaling was handled in a similar manner to textures in later texture-mapped polygonal 3D games of the 1990s. Designed by Sega AM2's Yu Suzuki, he stated that his "designs were always 3D from the beginning. All the calculations in the system were 3D, even from Hang-On. I calculated the position, scale, and zoom rate in 3D and converted it backwards to 2D. So I was always thinking in 3D." It was controlled using a video game arcade cabinet resembling a motorbike, which the player moves with their body. This began the "Taikan" trend, the use of motion-controlled hydraulic arcade cabinets in many arcade games of the late 1980s, two decades before motion controls became popular on video game consoles.

Sega's Space Harrier, a rail shooter released in 1985, broke new ground graphically and its wide variety of settings across multiple levels gave players more to aim for than high scores. 1985 also saw the release of Konami's Gradius, which gave the player greater control over the choice of weaponry, thus introducing another element of strategy. The game also introduced the need for the player to memorise levels in order to achieve any measure of success. Gradius, with its iconic protagonist, defined the side-scrolling shoot 'em up and spawned a series spanning several sequels. The following year saw the emergence of one of Sega's forefront series with its game Fantasy Zone. The game received acclaim for its surreal graphics and setting and the protagonist, Opa-Opa, was for a time considered Sega's mascot. The game borrowed Defender's device of allowing the player to control the direction of flight and along with the earlier TwinBee (1985), is an early archetype of the "cute 'em up" subgenre.

Hydlide II: Shine of Darkness in 1985 featured an early morality meter, where the player can be aligned with justice, normal, or evil, which is affected by whether the player kills evil monsters, good monsters, or humans, and in turn affects the reactions of the townsfolk towards the player. In the same year, Yuji Horii and his team at Chunsoft began production on Dragon Quest (Dragon Warrior). After Enix published the game in early 1986, it became the template for future console RPGs. Horii's intention behind Dragon Quest was to create a RPG that appeals to a wider audience unfamiliar with the genre or video games in general. This required the creation of a new kind of RPG, that didn't rely on previous D&D experience, didn't require hundreds of hours of rote fighting, and that could appeal to any kind of gamer. The streamlined gameplay of Dragon Quest thus made the game more accessible to a wider audience than previous computer RPGs. The game also placed a greater emphasis on storytelling and emotional involvement, building on Horii's previous work Portopia Serial Murder Case, but this time introducing a coming of age tale for Dragon Quest that audiences could relate to, making use of the RPG level-building gameplay as a way to represent this. It also featured elements still found in most console RPGs, like major quests interwoven with minor subquests, an incremental spell system, the damsel-in-distress storyline that many RPGs follow, and a romance element that remains a staple of the genre, alongside anime-style art by Akira Toriyama and a classical score by Koichi Sugiyama that was considered revolutionary for console video game music. With Dragon Quest becoming widely popular in Japan, such that local municipalities were forced to place restrictions on where and when the game could be sold, the Dragon Quest series is still considered a bellwether for the Japanese video game market.

Shoot 'em ups featuring characters on foot, rather than spacecraft, became popular in the mid-1980s in the wake of action movies such as  Rambo: First Blood Part II. The origins of this type go back to Sheriff by Nintendo, released in 1979. Taito's Front Line (1982) established the upwards-scrolling formula later popularized by Capcom's Commando, in 1985, and SNK's Ikari Warriors (1986). Commando also drew comparisons to Rambo and indeed contemporary critics considered military themes and protagonists similar to Rambo or Schwarzenegger prerequisites for a shoot 'em up, as opposed to an action-adventure game. In 1986, Arsys Software released WiBArm, a shooter that switched between a 2D side-scrolling view in outdoor areas to a fully 3D polygonal third-person perspective inside buildings, while bosses were fought in an arena-style 2D battle, with the game featuring a variety of weapons and equipment.

The late 1980s to early 1990s is considered the golden age of Japanese computer gaming, which would flourish until its decline around the mid-1990s, as consoles eventually dominated the Japanese market.<ref name="retro_3"> Reprinted from {{citation|title=Retro Gamer|issue=67|year=2009|title-link=Retro Gamer}}</ref> A notable Japanese computer RPG from around this time was WiBArm, the earliest known RPG to feature 3D polygonal graphics. It was a 1986 role-playing shooter released by Arsys Software for the PC-88 in Japan and ported to MS-DOS for Western release by Brøderbund. In WiBArm, the player controls a transformable mecha robot, switching between a 2D side-scrolling view during outdoor exploration to a fully 3D polygonal third-person perspective inside buildings, while bosses are fought in an arena-style 2D shoot 'em up battle. The game featured a variety of weapons and equipment as well as an automap, and the player could upgrade equipment and earn experience to raise stats. (Translation) Unlike first-person RPGs at the time that were restricted to 90-degree movements, WiBArm's use of 3D polygons allowed full 360-degree movement.

On October 30, 1987, the PC Engine made its debut in the Japanese market and it was a tremendous success. The console had an elegant, "eye-catching" design, and it was very small compared to its rivals. The PC Engine, TurboGrafx-16, known as TurboGrafx-16 in the rest of the world, was a collaborative effort between Hudson Soft, who created video game software, and NEC, a major company which was dominant in the Japanese personal computer market with their PC-88 and PC-98 platforms.R-Type, an acclaimed side-scrolling shoot 'em up, was released in 1987 by Irem, employing slower paced scrolling than usual, with difficult levels calling for methodical strategies.Todd, Brett, R-Type Dimensions Review, GameSpot, February 7, 2009. Accessed February 13, 2009 1990's Raiden was the beginning of another acclaimed and enduring series to emerge from this period.Buchanan, Levi, Raiden , IGN, February 17, 2004. Accessed February 13, 2009 In 1987, Square's 3-D WorldRunner was an early stereoscopic 3-D shooter played from a third-person perspective, followed later that year by its sequel JJ, and the following year by Space Harrier 3-D which used the SegaScope 3-D shutter glasses. Also in 1987, Konami created Contra as a coin-op arcade game that was particularly acclaimed for its multi-directional aiming and two player cooperative gameplay.Digital Devil Story: Megami Tensei by Atlus for the Nintendo Famicom abandoned the common medieval fantasy setting and sword and sorcery theme in favour of a modern science-fiction setting and horror theme. It also introduced the monster-catching mechanic with its demon-summoning system, which allowed the player to recruit enemies into their party, through a conversation system that gives the player a choice of whether to kill or spare an enemy and allows them to engage any opponent in conversation. Sega's original Phantasy Star for the Master System combined sci-fi & fantasy setting that set it apart from the D&D staple. It was also one of the first games to feature a female protagonist and animated monster encounters, and allowed inter-planetary travel between three planets. Another 1987 title Miracle Warriors: Seal of the Dark Lord was a third-person RPG that featured a wide open world and a mini-map on the corner of the screen.

According to Wizardry developer Roe R. Adams, early action-adventure games "were basically arcade games done in a fantasy setting," citing Castlevania (1986) and Trojan (1986) as examples. IGN UK argues that The Legend of Zelda (1986) "helped to establish a new subgenre of action-adventure", becoming a success due to how it combined elements from different genres to create a compelling hybrid, including exploration, adventure-style inventory puzzles, an action component, a monetary system, and simplified RPG-style level building without the experience points. The Legend of Zelda was the most prolific action-adventure game series through to the 2000s.

The first Nintendo Space World show was held on July 28, 1989. It was a video game trade show that was hosted by Nintendo until 2001. At the same year, Phantasy Star II for the Genesis established many conventions of the RPG genre, including an epic, dramatic, character-driven storyline dealing with serious themes and subject matter, and a strategy-based battle system. The game's science fiction story was also unique, reversing the common alien invasion scenario by instead presenting Earthlings as the invading antagonists rather than the defending protagonists. Capcom's Sweet Home for the NES introduced a modern Japanese horror theme and laid the foundations for the survival horror genre, later serving as the main inspiration for Resident Evil (1996). Tengai Makyo: Ziria released for the PC Engine CD that same year was the first RPG released on CD-ROM and the first in the genre to feature animated cut scenes and voice acting. The game's plot was also unusual for its feudal Japan setting and its emphasis on humour; the plot and characters were inspired by the Japanese folk tale Jiraiya Goketsu Monogatari. The music for the game was also composed by noted musician Ryuichi Sakamoto.

The ‘golden age’ of console RPGs is often dated in the 1990s. Console RPGs distinguished themselves from computer RPGs to a greater degree in the early 1990s. As console RPGs became more heavily story-based than their computer counterparts, one of the major differences that emerged during this time was in the portrayal of the characters, with most American computer RPGs at the time having characters devoid of personality or background as their purpose was to represent avatars which the player uses to interact with the world, in contrast to Japanese console RPGs which depicted pre-defined characters who had distinctive personalities, traits, and relationships, such as Final Fantasy and Lufia, with players assuming the roles of people who cared about each other, fell in love or even had families. Romance in particular was a theme that was common in most console RPGs but alien to most computer RPGs at the time. Japanese console RPGs were also generally more faster-paced and action-adventure-oriented than their American computer counterparts. During the 1990s, console RPGs had become increasingly dominant.

In 1990, Dragon Quest IV introduced a new method of storytelling: segmenting the plot into segregated chapters. The game also introduced an AI system called "Tactics" which allowed the player to modify the strategies used by the allied party members while maintaining full control of the hero. Final Fantasy III introduced the classic "job system", a character progression engine allowing the player to change the character classes, as well as acquire new and advanced classes and combine class abilities, during the course of the game. That same year also saw the release of Nintendo's Fire Emblem: Ankoku Ryu to Hikari no Tsurugi, a game that set the template for the tactical role-playing game genre and was the first entry in the Fire Emblem series. Another notable strategy RPG that year was Koei's Bandit Kings of Ancient China, which was successful in combining the strategy RPG and management simulation genres, building on its own Nobunaga's Ambition series that began in 1983. Several early RPGs set in a post-apocalyptic future were also released that year, including Digital Devil Story: Megami Tensei II, and Crystalis, which was inspired by Hayao Miyazaki's Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind. Crystalis also made advances to the action role-playing game subgenre, being a true action RPG that combined the real-time action-adventure combat and open world of The Legend of Zelda with the level-building and spell-casting of traditional RPGs like Final Fantasy. That year also saw the release of Phantasy Star III: Generations of Doom, which featured an innovative and original branching storyline, which spans three generations of characters and can be altered depending on which character the protagonist of each generation marries, leading to four possible endings.

In 1991, Final Fantasy IV was one of the first role-playing games to feature a complex, involving plot, placing a much greater emphasis on character development, personal relationships, and dramatic storytelling. It also introduced a new battle system: the "Active Time Battle" system, developed by Hiroyuki Ito, where the time-keeping system does not stop. The fact that enemies can attack or be attacked at any time is credited with injecting urgency and excitement into the combat system. The ATB combat system was considered revolutionary for being a hybrid between turn-based and real-time combat, with its requirement of faster reactions from players appealing to those who were more used to action games.

Nintendo executives were initially reluctant to design a new system, but as the market transitioned to the newer hardware, Nintendo saw the erosion of the commanding market share it had built up with the Nintendo Entertainment System. Nintendo's fourth-generation console, the Super Famicom, was released in Japan on November 21, 1990; Nintendo's initial shipment of 300,000 units sold out within hours. Despite stiff competition from the Mega Drive/Genesis console, the Super NES eventually took the top selling position, selling 49.10 million units worldwide, and would remain popular well into the fifth generation of consoles. Nintendo's market position was defined by their machine's increased video and sound capabilities, as well as exclusive first-party franchise titles such as Super Mario World, The Legend of Zelda: A Link to the Past and Super Metroid.

In the early 1990s, the arcades experienced a major resurgence with the 1991 release of Capcom's Street Fighter II, which popularized competitive fighting games and revived the arcade industry to a level of popularity not seen since the days of Pac-Man, setting off a renaissance for the arcade game industry in the early 1990s. Its success led to a wave of other popular games which mostly were in the fighting genre, such as Fatal Fury: King of Fighters (1992) by SNK, Virtua Fighter (1993) by SEGA, and The King of Fighters (1994–2005) by SNK. In 1993, Electronic Games noted that when "historians look back at the world of coin-op during the early 1990s, one of the defining highlights of the video game art form will undoubtedly focus on fighting/martial arts themes" which it described as "the backbone of the industry" at the time.

A new type of shoot 'em up emerged in the early 1990s: variously termed "bullet hell", "manic shooters", "maniac shooters" and , these games required the player to dodge overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles and called for still more consistent reactions from players.Ashcraft, p. 77 Bullet hell games arose from the need for 2D shoot 'em up developers to compete with the emerging popularity of 3D games: huge numbers of missiles on screen were intended to impress players. Toaplan's Batsugun (1993) provided the prototypical template for this new breed, with Cave (formed by former employees of Toaplan, including Batsugun's main creator Tsuneki Ikeda, after the latter company collapsed) inventing the type proper with 1995's DonPachi. Bullet hell games marked another point where the shoot 'em up genre began to cater to more dedicated players. Games such as Gradius had been more difficult than Space Invaders or Xevious, but bullet hell games were yet more inward-looking and aimed at dedicated fans of the genre looking for greater challenges.Ashcraft, pp. 77-78 While shooter games featuring protagonists on foot largely moved to 3D-based genres, popular, long-running series such as Contra and Metal Slug continued to receive new sequels.Staff, Contra Q&A , GameSpot, October 1, 2002. Accessed February 17, 2009 Rail shooters have rarely been released in the new millennium, with only Rez and Panzer Dragoon Orta achieving cult recognition.Maragos, Nich, Space Harrier (PS2), 1UP.com, January 1, 2000. Accessed February 17, 2009

1992 saw the release of Dragon Quest V, a game that has been praised for its involving, emotional family-themed narrative divided by different periods of time, something that has appeared in very few video games before or since. It has also been credited as the first known video game to feature a playable pregnancy, a concept that has since appeared in later games such as Story of Seasons. Dragon Quest V's monster-collecting mechanic, where monsters can be defeated, captured, added to the party, and gain their own experience levels, also influenced many later franchises such as Pokémon, Digimon and Dokapon. In turn, the concept of collecting everything in a game, in the form of achievements or similar rewards, has since become a common trend in video games. Shin Megami Tensei, released in 1992 for the SNES, introduced an early moral alignment system that influences the direction and outcome of the storyline, leading to different possible paths and multiple endings. This has since become a hallmark of the Megami Tensei series. Another non-linear RPG released that year was Romancing Saga, an open-world RPG by Square that offered many choices and allowed players to complete quests in any order, with the decision of whether or not to participate in any particular quest affecting the outcome of the storyline. The game also allowed players to choose from eight different characters, each with their own stories that start in different places and offer different outcomes. Data East's Heracles no Eikō III, written by Kazushige Nojima, introduced the plot element of a nameless immortal suffering from amnesia, and Nojima would later revisit the amnesia theme in Final Fantasy VII and Glory of Heracles. The TurboGrafx-CD port of Dragon Knight II released that year was also notable for introducing erotic adult content to consoles, though such content had often appeared in Japanese computer RPGs since the early 1980s. That same year, Game Arts began the Lunar series on the Sega CD with Lunar: The Silver Star, one of the first successful CD-ROM RPGs, featuring both voice and text, and considered one of the best RPGs in its time. The game was praised for its soundtrack, emotionally engaging storyline, and strong characterization. It also introduced an early form of level-scaling where the bosses would get stronger depending on the protagonist's level, a mechanic that was later used in Enix's The 7th Saga and extended to normal enemies in Square's Romancing Saga 3 and later Final Fantasy VIII.

3D polygon graphics were popularized by the Sega Model 1 games Virtua Racing (1992) and Virtua Fighter (1993), followed by racing games like the Namco System 22 title Ridge Racer (1993) and Sega Model 2 title Daytona USA, and light gun shooters like Sega's Virtua Cop (1994), gaining considerable popularity in the arcades.

In 1993, Square's Secret of Mana, the second in the Mana series, further advanced the action RPG subgenre with its introduction of cooperative multiplayer into the genre. The game was created by a team previously responsible for the first three Final Fantasy titles: Nasir Gebelli, Koichi Ishii, and Hiromichi Tanaka. The game received considerable acclaim, for its innovative pausable real-time battle system, the "Ring Command" menu system, its innovative cooperative multiplayer gameplay, where the second or third players could drop in and out of the game at any time rather than players having to join the game at the same time, and the customizable AI settings for computer-controlled allies. The game has influenced a number of later action RPGs. That same year also saw the release of Phantasy Star IV: The End of the Millennium, which introduced the use of pre-programmable combat manoeuvers called 'macros', a means of setting up the player's party AI to deliver custom attack combos. That year also saw the release of Romancing Saga 2, which further expanded the non-linear gameplay of its predecessor. While in the original Romancing Saga, scenarios were changed according to dialogue choices during conversations, Romancing Saga 2 further expanded on this by having unique storylines for each character that can change depending on the player's actions, including who is chosen, what is said in conversation, what events have occurred, and who is present in the party. PCGamesN credits Romancing SaGa 2 for having laid the foundations for modern Japanese RPGs with its progressive, non-linear, open world design and subversive themes.

In 1994, Final Fantasy VI moved away from the medieval setting of its predecessors, instead being set in a steampunk environment,. The game received considerable acclaim, and is seen as one of the greatest RPGs of all time, for improvements such as its broadened thematic scope, plotlines, characters, multiple-choice scenarios, and variation of play. Final Fantasy VI dealt with mature themes such as suicide, war crimes, child abandonment, teen pregnancy, and coping with the deaths of loved ones.  Square's Live A Live, released for the Super Famicom in Japan, featured eight different characters and stories, with the first seven unfolding in any order the player chooses, as well as four different endings. The game's ninja chapter in particular was an early example of stealth game elements in an RPG, requiring the player to infiltrate a castle, rewarding the player if the entire chapter can be completed without engaging in combat. Other chapters had similar innovations, such as Akira's chapter where the character uses telepathic powers to discover information. Robotrek by Quintet and Ancient was a predecessor to Pokémon in the sense that the protagonist does not himself fight, but sends out his robots to do so. Like Pokémon, Robotrek was designed to appeal to a younger audience, allowed team customization, and each robot was kept in a ball.

FromSoftware released their first video game, titled King's Field, as a launch title for the PlayStation in 1994. The game was later called the brainchild of company CEO Naotoshi Jin, who was later considered a key creative figure in the series. The eventual success of the first King's Field prompted the development of sequels, establishing the King's Field series. The design of King's Field would influence later titles by FromSoftware including Shadow Tower, which used similar mechanics to King's Field; and Demon's Souls, described by its staff as a spiritual successor to King's Field, and inspired multiple follow-up titles which form part of the Souls series and propelled FromSoftware to international fame.

In 1995, Square's Romancing Saga 3 featured a storyline that could be told differently from the perspectives of up to eight different characters and introduced a level-scaling system where the enemies get stronger as the characters do, a mechanic that was later used in a number of later RPGs, including Final Fantasy VIII. Sega's Sakura Wars for the Saturn combined tactical RPG combat with dating sim and visual novel elements, introducing a real-time branching choice system where, during an event or conversation, the player must choose an action or dialogue choice within a time limit, or not to respond at all within that time; the player's choice, or lack thereof, affects the player character's relationship with other characters and in turn the characters' performance in battle, the direction of the storyline, and the ending. Later games in the series added several variations, including an action gauge that can be raised up or down depending on the situation, and a gauge that the player can manipulate using the analog stick depending on the situation. The success of Sakura Wars led to a wave of games that combine the RPG and dating sim genres, including Thousand Arms in 1998, Riviera: The Promised Land in 2002, and Luminous Arc in 2007.

The survival horror video game genre began with Capcom's Resident Evil (1996), which coined the term "survival horror" and defined the genre."Enter The Survival Horror... A Resident Evil Retrospective," Game Informer 174 (October 2007): 132-133. The game was inspired by Capcom's Sweet Home (1989), retroactively described as survival horror.

The first Tokyo Game Show was held in 1996. From 1996 to 2002, the show was held twice a year: once in the Spring and once in Autumn (in the Tokyo Big Sight). Since 2002, the show has been held once a year. It attracts more visitors every year. 2011's show hosted over 200,000 attendees and the 2012 show bringing in 223,753. The busiest TGS was in 2016 with 271,224 people in attendance and 614 companies had exhibits. The event has been held annually since 1996 and was never canceled. The 20th anniversary of TGS was celebrated in 2016.

The Fujitsu FM Towns Marty is considered the world's first 32-bit console (predating the Amiga CD32 and 3DO), being released only released in Japan on February 20, 1993 by Fujitsu. However, it failed to make an impact in the marketplace due to its expense relative to other consoles and inability to compete with home computers. Around the mid-1990s, the fifth-generation home consoles, Sega Saturn, PlayStation, and Nintendo 64, began offering true 3D graphics, improved sound, and better 2D graphics, than the previous generation. By 1995, personal computers followed, with 3D accelerator cards. While arcade systems such as the Sega Model 3 remained considerably more advanced than home systems in the late 1990s.

The next major revolution came in the mid-to-late 1990s, which saw the rise of 3D computer graphics and optical discs in fifth generation consoles. The implications for RPGs were enormous—longer, more involved quests, better audio, and full-motion video. This was clearly demonstrated in 1997 by the phenomenal success of Final Fantasy VII, which is considered one of the most influential games of all time, akin to that of Star Wars in the movie industry. With a record-breaking production budget of around $45 million, the ambitious scope of Final Fantasy VII raised the possibilities for the genre, with its more expansive world to explore, much longer quest, more numerous sidequests, dozens of minigames, and much higher production values. The latter includes innovations such as the use of 3D characters on pre-rendered backgrounds, battles viewed from multiple different angles rather than a single angle, and for the first time full-motion CGI video seamlessly blended into the gameplay, effectively integrated throughout the game. Gameplay innovations included the materia system, which allowed a considerable amount of customization and flexibility through materia that can be combined in many different ways and exchanged between characters at any time, and the limit breaks, special attacks that can be performed after a character's limit meter fills up by taking hits from opponents. Final Fantasy VII continues to be listed among the best games of all time, for its highly polished gameplay, high playability, lavish production, well-developed characters, intricate storyline, and an emotionally engaging narrative that is much darker and sophisticated than most other RPGs. The game's storytelling and character development was considered a major narrative jump forward for video games and was often compared to films and novels at the time.

One of the earliest Japanese RPGs, Koei's The Dragon and Princess (1982), featured a tactical turn-based combat system. Koji Sumii's Bokosuka Wars, originally released for the Sharp X1 computer in 1983 and later ported to the NES in 1985, is credited for laying the foundations for the tactical RPG genre, or "simulation RPG" genre as it is known in Japan, with its blend of basic RPG and strategy game elements. The genre became with the game that set the template for tactical RPGs, Fire Emblem: Ankoku Ryū to Hikari no Tsurugi (1990).

Treasure's shoot 'em up, Radiant Silvergun (1998), introduced an element of narrative to the genre. It was critically acclaimed for its refined design, though it was not released outside Japan and remains a much sought after collector's item.McCarthy, Dave, The Best Games That Never Came out in Britain , IGN, January 26, 2009, Accessed February 13, 2009 Its successor Ikaruga (2001) featured improved graphics and was again acclaimed as one of the best games in the genre. Both Radiant Silvergun and Ikaruga were later released on Xbox Live Arcade. The Touhou Project series spans 22 years and 27 games as of 2018 and was listed in the Guinness World Records in October 2010 for being the "most prolific fan-made shooter series". The genre has undergone something of a resurgence with the release of the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Wii online services, while in Japan arcade shoot 'em ups retain a deep-rooted niche popularity. Geometry Wars: Retro Evolved was released on Xbox Live Arcade in 2005 and in particular stood out from the various re-releases and casual games available on the service. The PC has also seen its share of dōjin shoot 'em ups like Crimzon Clover, Jamestown: Legend of the Lost Colony, Xenoslaive Overdrive, and the eXceed series. However, despite the genre's continued appeal to an enthusiastic niche of players, shoot 'em up developers are increasingly embattled financially by the power of home consoles and their attendant genres.

2005 - 2015

In 2002, the Japanese video game industry made up about 50% of the global market; that share has since shrunk to around 10% by 2010. The shrinkage in market share has been attributed to a difference of taste between Japanese and Western audiences, and the country's economic recession.

In 2009, FromSoftware released Demon's Souls for the PlayStation 3, which brought them international exposure. Its spiritual successor, Dark Souls, was released in 2011. In March 2014, Dark Souls II, was released, while Dark Souls III was released in 2016. A title inspired by the Souls series, Bloodborne, was released in March 2015. The Souls series, along with Bloodborne, received widespread critical acclaim, as well as strong sales domestically and internationally.May 8, 2014, Financial Highlights for the Fiscal Year Ended March 2014, NAMCO BANDAI Holdings Inc. They have also received a number of awards, primarily those for the role-playing genre, including multiple "RPG of the Year" and Game of the Year awards. Since release, Dark Souls and Bloodborne have been cited by many publications to be among the greatest games of all time.

The decline of the Japanese video game development industry during this period was partially attributed to the traditional development process. Japanese companies were criticized for long development times and slow release dates on home video game consoles, their lack of third-party game engines, and for being too insular to appeal to a global market. Yoichi Wada stated in the Financial Times on April 27, 2009 that the Japanese video game development industry has become a "closed environment" and "almost xenophobic." He also stated: "The lag with the US is very clear. The US games industry was not good in the past but it has now attracted people from the computer industry and from Hollywood, which has led to strong growth." At the 2010 Tokyo Game Show, Keiji Inafune stated that "Everyone's making awful games - Japan is at least five years behind", and that "Japan is isolated in the gaming world. If something doesn't change, we're doomed.", stressing the need for Japanese developers to bring in Western approaches to game development to make a comeback.

Related to the isolationism, games developed in Western countries did not perform well in Japan, whereas Japanese games were readily played by Western market consumers. Foreign games often sell more poorly in Japanese markets due to differences in what consumers expect for escapism between these cultures. Microsoft had attempted to push both the Xbox and Xbox 360 consoles in Japan with poor success, at they struggled to compete against Sony and Nintendo there.

However, as detailed above, Japanese console games became less successful, even in their own country, as of 2013.

In the Japanese gaming industry, arcades have remained popular through to the present day. As of 2009, out of Japan's $20 billion gaming market, $6 billion of that amount is generated from arcades, which represent the largest sector of the Japanese video game market, followed by home console games and mobile games at $3.5 billion and $2 billion, respectively. In 2005, arcade ownership and operation accounted for a majority of Namco's for example. With considerable withdrawal from the arcade market from companies such as Capcom, Sega became the strongest player in the arcade market with 60% marketshare in 2006. Despite the global decline of arcades, Japanese companies hit record revenue for three consecutive years during this period. However, due to the country's economic recession, the Japanese arcade industry has also been steadily declining, from ¥702.9 billion (US$8.7 billion) in 2007 to ¥504.3 billion ($6.2 billion) in 2010. In 2013, estimation of revenue is ¥470 billion.

In the 2010s, Japanese RPGs have been experiencing a resurgence on PC, with a significant increase in the number of Japanese RPGs releasing for the Steam platform. This began with the 2010 release of doujin/indie game Recettear (2007) for Steam, selling over 500,000 units on the platform. This led to many Japanese doujin/indie games releasing on Steam in subsequent years.

Beyond doujin/indie titles, 2012 was a breakthrough year, with the debut of Nihon Falcom's Ys series on Steam and then the Steam release of From Software's Dark Souls, which sold millions on the platform. Other Japanese RPGs were subsequently ported to Steam, such as the previously niche Valkyria Chronicles which became a million-seller on the platform, and other titles that sold hundreds of thousands on Steam, such as the 2014 localization of The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky (2014) and ports of numerous Final Fantasy titles. Japanese developers have been increasingly considering Steam as a viable platform for the genre, with many Japanese RPGs available on the platform.

By 2015, Japan had become the world's fourth largest PC game market, behind only China, the United States, and South Korea. The Japanese game development engine RPG Maker has also gained significant popularity on Steam, including hundreds of commercial games. Every year, hundreds of games released on Steam are created using RPG Maker, as of 2017.

In the present day, Japan is the world's largest market for mobile games. The Japanese market today is becoming increasingly dominated by mobile games, which generated $5.1 billion in 2013, more than traditional console games in the country.

Former rivals in the Japanese arcade industry, Konami, Taito, Bandai Namco Entertainment and Sega, are now working together to keep the arcade industry vibrant. This is evidenced in the sharing of arcade networks, and venues having games from all major companies rather than only games from their own company.

2016 - present

Since 2016, Japanese video games have been experiencing a resurgence, as part of a renaissance for the Japanese video game industry. In 2017, Japanese video games gained further commercial success and greater critical acclaim. In 2016, the global success of Pokémon Go helped Pokémon Sun and Moon set sales records around the world. Final Fantasy XV was also a major success, selling millions. There were also other Japanese RPGs that earned commercial success and/or critical acclaim that year, including Dragon Quest VII: Fragments of the Forgotten Past, Shin Megami Tensei IV: Apocalypse, Bravely Second, Fire Emblem Fates, Dragon Quest Builders, World of Final Fantasy, Exist Archive: The Other Side of the Sky and I Am Setsuna.

In 2017, Japanese RPGs gained further commercial success and greater critical acclaim. The year started strong with Gravity Rush 2, followed by Yakuza 0, which some critics consider the best in the Yakuza series, Nioh which is considered to have one of the eighth-generation's best RPG combat systems, and then Nier Automata which has gameplay and storytelling thought to be some of the best in recent years. Persona 5 won the Best Role Playing Game award at The Game Awards 2017. Some Japanese RPGs that were previously considered niche became mainstream million-sellers in 2017, including Persona 5, Nier: Automata, Nioh, and Xenoblade Chronicles 2 on the Nintendo Switch. 2017 was considered a strong year for Japanese RPGs, with other notable releases including Dragon Quest VIII on the Nintendo 3DS, Tales of Berseria, Valkyria Revolution, Ever Oasis, Final Fantasy XII: The Zodiac Age, Ys VIII, Etrian Odyssey V, Dragon Quest Heroes II, The Legend of Heroes: Trails in the Sky the 3rd, Fire Emblem Echoes: Shadows of Valentia, Final Fantasy XIV: Stormblood, and Tokyo Xanadu. In 2018, Monster Hunter: World sold over 10million units, becoming Capcom's best-selling single software title, and Square Enix's Octopath Traveler'' sold over 1million units.

See also
Video games developed in Japan

References

External links

Japan
Category:Japanese culture
Category:Japanese games
Category:Media in Japan


Tetsuya Yoneda

Tetsuya Yoneda (, born March 3, 1938 in Tottori, Japan) is a Japanese former professional baseball pitcher who spent most of his career with the Hankyu Braves in Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball. He was so tough that he was known as Gasoline Tank and also Human Tank. Yoneda was inducted into the Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame in 2000.

Career
Yoneda attended Sakai High School. He was signed out of high school by the Hanshin Tigers, but his selection was invalidated after Hankyu complained of an impropriety; he then signed with Hankyu.

Yoneda won 21 games at age 19, and 23 games at age 20 in 1958.  That year he also tossed 11 shutouts, a Pacific League record that still stands.

Yoneda led the Pacific League (PL) in losses in 1959 with 24 (despite a 2.12 ERA and 20 complete games, including five shutouts). He led the Pacific League in strikeouts in 1962 with 231. In 1963 Yoneda again led the PL in losses with 23. In 1966 Yoneda led the PL in wins with 25, and innings pitched with 310.

In 1968 Yoneda went 29-13, with a 2.79 ERA and 237 strikeouts. He had 22 complete games and 6 shutouts, winning the Pacific League Most Valuable Player Award. The Braves made it to the Japan Series three striahgt years, from 1967–1969, losing all three times to the Yomiuri Giants.

During his career, Yoneda won 20 or more games eight separate times. In total he won 350 games and accumulated 3,388 strikeouts. He is the career victories and strikeout leader for right-handed pitchers, and #2 on both all-time lists behind Masaichi Kaneda. Yoneda was also a strong hitter for a pitcher, slugging 33 home runs in his 22 seasons in NPB.
Yoneda was a founding member of Meikyukai in 1978.

Notes

References

Category:1938 births
Category:Living people
Category:Japanese baseball players
Category:Hankyu Braves players
Category:Hanshin Tigers players
Category:Kintetsu Buffaloes players
Category:Japanese Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Category:Nippon Professional Baseball MVP Award winners
category:Japanese baseball coaches
Category:Nippon Professional Baseball coaches


Fine Line (album)

Fine Line is the second studio album by English singer and songwriter Harry Styles, released on 13 December 2019 by Columbia and Erskine Records. Supported by four singles — "Lights Up", "Watermelon Sugar", "Adore You", and "Falling" — Fine Line debuted at number three on the UK Albums Chart and number one on the Billboard 200, making it Styles' second consecutive number-one album in the US. The album had the third-largest sales week of 2019 in the US and broke the record as the biggest debut from a British male artist since Nielsen SoundScan began. It was the last number one of the 2010s and also the first number one on the Billboard 200 in the 2020s. Fine Line has been described as rock, pop and pop rock, with elements of prog-pop, psychedelic pop, folk, soul, funk and indie pop.

Background
In an interview with Rolling Stone released on 26 August 2019, it was reported that the singer was putting the "final touches" on his album which Styles explained was "all about having sex and feeling sad." The album was also described to contain his "toughest, most soulful songs he's written yet." On the direction of his second album, Styles revealed he wanted to be more fun and adventurous compared to his self-titled debut album. Styles further acknowledged using psychedelic drugs during the recording process.

Promotion
Shortly before release, the single "Lights Up" was promoted by billboards and the caption: "Do You Know Who You Are?" in several cities around the world. The song was released on 11 October 2019 as the lead single of the album. Styles officially announced the release of Fine Line on his social media on 4 November, preceding the release of his second single, "Watermelon Sugar". On 2 December, Styles revealed the trailer for the album's third single, "Adore You", which was narrated by Spanish singer Rosalía. The song and music video were released on 6 December. Styles promoted the album on the 16 November episode of NBC's Saturday Night Live as both a host and a musical guest.

Styles collaborated with Spotify to organize a fan-exclusive event held in an undisclosed location in Los Angeles for a private listening party, where fans were taken to experience Eroda, an elaborate theme created for his single Adore You. To celebrate the release, Styles held a one-night-only show at The Forum in Los Angeles that coincided with the album's December 13 release, followed by another show at the Electric Ballroom, London on 19 December with special guest Stormzy. The album will be promoted with Love On Tour. On 28 February 2020, "Falling" was released as the fourth single alongside a music video.

Musical style
Fine Line has been described as rock,, pop and pop rock. It also includes elements of prog-pop, psychedelic pop, folk, soul, funk and indie pop.

Commercial performance
Fine Line debuted atop the US Billboard 200 with 478,000 album-equivalent units (of which 393,000 are pure sales) in the week ending December 19. It marked the biggest week for a pop album by a male artist in over four years.

The album remained number one on the US Billboard 200 in its second week of release, selling an additional 89,000 album equivalent units consisting of 47,000 pure album sales, and becoming the first pop album to spend two weeks at number one since Ed Sheeran's No.6 Collaborations Project in August 2019.

Critical reception

Fine Line was met with generally positive reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from professional critics, the album has an average score of 76 out of 100, based on 20 reviews.

Gregory Robinson, writing for The Guardian, regarded the album as "confident, convincing and catchy." Alexandra Pollard of The Independent stated that "it may not reach the pinnacle of sex or sadness, but Fine Line is a fine album nonetheless." Hannah Mylrea of NME found the album to be "a total joy", calling it "an elegant combination of the ex-boybander's influences, slick modern pop and his own roguish charm." Rea McNamara of NOW Magazine praised Styles' decision to lean towards "ebullient, soulful pop" while naming "Sunflower, Vol. 6" as the album's best track. Writing for Rolling Stone, Nick Catucci deemed the album "excellent" and felt that "if there’s a nontoxic masculinity, Harry Styles just might’ve found it." David Smyth of The Evening Standard remarked that while Styles' music can not "live up to the sparkling imagery of his press profiles", his second album makes "a strong argument for being the most interesting boy band escapee yet."

Jon Pareles of The New York Times described the production as a "tour-de-force" and complimented how "Styles exults in sound, not image." Chris Willman of Variety commented that, contrary to Style's description of the record, the sensuality and melancholy are "a little on the muted side", while Styles is "still stuck" in the classic rock era that he "casually [claims] as his own." Bryan Rolli of Consequence of Sound called Fine Line an "airy, melancholy album that diplomatically addresses heartache while declining to wallow in it", complimenting his more honest songwriting but lamenting the lack of energy in his vocal performance. The Daily Telegraph Neil McCormick characterized the album as "charming but inconsequential", while Mark Richardson of The Wall Street Journal described it as "earnest, forthright and delivered with polish", but "more imitative than original" and offering "no fresh perspective". In a mixed review, Jeremy D. Larson of Pitchfork described the "actual sound" of Fine Line as "incredible" as Styles's influences permeate the record, but considered his songwriting shallow and lacking in imagination.

Year-end lists

Track listing
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes

Notes
  indicates a co-producer
  indicates an additional producer

Personnel
Credits adapted from the album's liner notes

 Harry Styles – lead vocals (all tracks), background vocals (tracks 1–10, 12), dulcimer (track 10), acoustic guitar (track 12)
 Kid Harpoon (Thomas Hull) – production (tracks 2, 6–8, 10, 12), co-production (track 1), additional production (tracks 4, 5), electric guitar (tracks 2–4, 8, 10), acoustic guitar (tracks 1, 2, 10, 12), background vocals (tracks 1, 2, 7), moog bass (tracks 1, 6, 7), piano (tracks 2, 6, 8), bass (tracks 3, 5, 10), keyboards (tracks 3, 8, 10), drums (tracks 3, 9), engineering & drum programming (track 3), organ (track 6)
 Tyler Johnson – production (tracks 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 12), co-production (tracks 3, 8), additional production (tracks 6, 10), keyboards (tracks 1–5, 12), background vocals (tracks 1, 2, 4, 7), drum programming (tracks 3, 4), engineering, drums, bass & acoustic guitar (track 4), programming & electric guitar (track 5), mixing (track 7) piano & moog bass (track 12)
 Mitch Rowland – electric guitar (tracks 1, 2, 7, 8, 10, 12), drums (tracks 1, 2, 7, 8, 12), slide guitar (tracks 1, 2, 5, 10), acoustic guitar (tracks 7, 10), glockenspiel (track 1), background vocals (track 7)
 Sammy Witte – engineering (tracks 1, 2, 4–8, 10, 12), production & acoustic guitar (track 5), background vocals (track 7)
 Spike Stent – mixing (tracks 1–3, 5, 6, 8–12)
 Michael Freeman – mixing assistance (tracks 1–3, 7, 8, 10, 12)
 Greg Kurstin – production, engineering, bass, drums, guitar, organ, clav & electric sitar (track 9)
 Jeff Bhasker – piano (tracks 8, 11), production, strings arrangement, strings conducting, background vocals, mellotron (track 11)
 Jeremy Hatcher – engineering (tracks 3, 4), engineering assistance (tracks 1, 5, 7, 8)
 Mark Rankin – engineering (tracks 2, 5, 7, 8), additional engineering (track 1)
 Nick Lobel – engineering (tracks 2, 4), additional engineering (tracks 1, 7), mixing (track 7)
 Oli Jacobs – engineering assistance (tracks 1, 2, 5, 7, 12)
 Oli Middleton – engineering assistance (tracks 1, 2, 5, 7, 12)
 Jon Castelli – additional engineering (tracks 1, 7), mixing (track 4), drum programming (track 7)
 Rob Bisel – engineering (track 5), engineering assistance (tracks 1, 5, 8)
 Kevin Smith – engineering assistance (tracks 1, 5, 7, 8)
 Tyler Beans – engineering assistance (tracks 1, 5, 8)
 Dylan Neustadter – engineering assistance (tracks 1, 5, 8)
 Ivan Jackson – horns (tracks 2, 4, 12)
 Matt Tuggle – engineering assistance (tracks 2–4)
 Dan Ewins – engineering assistance (tracks 2, 6, 12)
 Aaron Sterling – drums (tracks 5, 7), percussion (track 7)
 Gabe Noel – cello, double bass & sarangi (track 7)
 Morgan Kibby – keyboards, moog bass & background vocals (track 12)
 Leo Abrahams – electric guitar (tracks 1, 6)
 Pino Palladino– bass (tracks 2, 8)
 Davey Chegwidden – percussion (tracks 2, 10)
 Jason White – choir contracting (track 4), choir conducting (track 11)
 Nikki Grier (Nikisha Daniel) – choir vocals (tracks 4, 11)
 Tiffany Smith – choir vocals (tracks 4, 11)
 Tiffany Stevenson – choir vocals (tracks 4, 11)
 Brandon Winbush – choir vocals (tracks 4, 11)
 David Campbell – strings arrangement (track 5), orchestra arrangement (track 12)
 Sarah Jones – background vocals (track 2)
 Amy Allen – background vocals (track 3)
 Ian Fitchuk – congas (track 4)
 Matthew Wallick – engineering assistance (track 4)
 Ingmar Carlson – mixing assistance (track 4)
 James Gadson – drums (track 8)
 Julian Burg – engineering (track 9)
 Alex Pasco – engineering (track 9)
 John Kirby – keyboards (track 10)
 Jess Wolfe – vocals (track 11)
 Holly Laesiig – vocals (track 11)
 Jason Morales – choir vocals (track 11)
 Nick Movshon – bass (track 11)
 Laurence Juber – guitar (track 11)
 Homer Steinweiss – drums (track 11)
 Serena Goransson – violin (track 11)
 Tereza Stanislav – violin (track 11)
 Jonathan Moerschel – viola (track 11)
 Jacob Braun – cello (track 11)
 Elizabeth Pupo-Walker – congas (track 11)
 Jens Jungkurth – engineering (track 11)
 Ryan Nasci – engineering (track 11)
 Molly Hawkins – creative director
 Randy Merrill – mastering
 Hélène Pambrun – photography
 Tim Walker – photography
 Bradley Pinkerton – graphic design

Charts

Weekly charts

Year-end charts

Certifications

Release history

References

Category:2019 albums
Category:Columbia Records albums
Category:Harry Styles albums
Category:Albums recorded at Shangri-La (recording studio)
Category:Pop rock albums by English artists


Canepa, San Marino

Canepa is a small village (curazia) of San Marino. It belongs to the municipality of San Marino.

See also
San Marino (city)
Cà Berlone
Casole
Castellaro
Montalbo
Murata
Santa Mustiola

Category:Curazie in San Marino
Category:City of San Marino


Gates P. Thruston

Gates Phillips Thruston (June 11, 1835 – December 9, 1912) was an American lawyer and businessman. Born in Ohio, he served in the Union Army during the American Civil War and started a legal practise in Nashville, Tennessee in the postbellum era. He served as the president of the State Insurance Company. He also was an amateur archeologist, and the author of several books about Native American mounds and artifacts. His collection is held at the Tennessee State Museum.

Early life
Gates P. Thruston was born on June 11, 1835, in Dayton, Ohio. His paternal grandfather, Buckner Thruston, was a United States Senator.

Thurston graduated as a valectorian with a Doctor of Humane Letters in Archeology and Literature from Miami University in 1855. He received a law degree from the Cincinnati Law School.

He volunteered for the American Civil War and joined the Union Army, being commissioned as Captain in the 1st Ohio Infantry Regiment. He took part in the battles of Shiloh and Stones River, in the later as ordnance officer on the staff of the XX Corps under Maj.Gen. Alexander M. McCook, his former regimental commander. Afterwards he became and aide and adjutant to Maj.Gen. William S. Rosecrans when he commanded the Army of the Cumberland, though eventually returning to the XX Corps as its Chief of Staff. Thruston fought in the Battle of Chickamauga and continued his staff work under Maj.Gen. George H. Thomas during the Atlanta Campaign. He eventually was promoted up to Lieutenant Colonel and served as Judge-Advocate General of the Army of the Cumberland; afterwards being brevetted Brigadier General for his services during the war.  Toward the end of the Civil War and during early Reconstruction, Thruston established provost courts, arguing that the only means for African-Americans to be accorded equal treatment under the law was through the supervision of the Army..

Career
After the war, Thruston became a lawyer in Nashville, Tennessee. He retired from legal practise in 1878. Two years later, in 1880, he was appointed as the president of the State Insurance Company.

Thruston served as the vice president of the Tennessee Historical Society. An amateur archaeologist, Thruston dug at Noel Farm in Nashville, where he found Native American artifacts, and he started a collection. He also dug at Pompei in Italy. In 1890, he published his first book privately. Entitled The Antiquities of Tennessee and the Adjacent States, it was reviewed in American Anthropologist, the flagship journal of the American Anthropological Association. When it was republished for commercial use in 1897, it was reviewed in Science, the journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Thurston went on to write several other books.

Additionally, Thruston was a collector of medals and coins for which he won an award at the Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition. He was a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Thruston was a commissioner of the Watkins Institute. He was also the president of the Nashville Art Association. Additionally, he served on the board of trustees of the University of Nashville.

Personal life, death and legacy
Thruston was married twice. He married his first wife, Ida Hamilton, the daughter of James M. Hamilton, in December 1865. In 1894, he married Fanny Dorman. He had a son, Gates Thruston Jr., who predeceased him.

Thruston died on December 9, 1912, in Nashville, Tennessee. His funeral was conducted by a Presbyterian minister; pall-bearers included James Hampton Kirkland and Robert Ewing, and he was buried at the Mount Olivet Cemetery.

His collection of Native American artifacts, which he had donated to Vanderbilt University in 1907, has been exhibited at the Tennessee State Museum since 1986. A book about the collection authored by Stephen D. Cox, the curator of cultural history at the museum, was published in 1985.

Works

Further reading

References

External links
Gates P. Thruston on the Internet Archive

Category:1835 births
Category:1912 deaths
Category:American people of English descent
Category:Businesspeople from Dayton, Ohio
Category:Businesspeople from Tennessee
Category:Miami University alumni
Category:People from Nashville, Tennessee
Category:Tennessee lawyers
Category:Union Army officers
Category:University of Cincinnati College of Law alumni