1934 in art

The year 1934 in art involved some significant events and new works.

Events
April – David Low's cartoon character Colonel Blimp first appears in the London Evening Standard.
April 10 – The Just Judges, a panel of the Ghent Altarpiece painted by Jan van Eyck or his brother Hubert between 1430–32, is stolen from St Bavo's Cathedral, Ghent, Belgium. In November, on his deathbed, Arsène Goedertier admits to the theft but most of the panel is never recovered.
August 31 – John Smiukse destroys the mural Nightmare of 1934 in Tarrytown, New York.
Publication in the United States of Irving Stone's biographical novel of Vincent van Gogh, Lust for Life.

Works

Eileen Agar – The Autobiography of an Embryo
Hans Arp – Human Concretion (Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris)
Balthus – Guitar Lesson
Paul Cadmus
Coney Island
The Fleet's In!
Greenwich Village Cafeteria
Salvador Dalí – The Ghost of Vermeer of Delft Which Can Be Used As a Table
Edwin Dickinson – Stranded Brig
Antonio Donghi – Canzone
Raoul Dufy – Regatta at Cowes  (National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.)
Jacob Epstein – Portrait bust of George Bernard Shaw
M. C. Escher – Still Life with Spherical Mirror (lithograph)
Leo Friedlander – marble reliefs outside Oregon State Capitol
Covered Wagon
Lewis and Clark
Lily Furedi – The Subway
Edward Hopper – East Wind Over Weehawken
Paul Manship – Prometheus (gilded bronze sculpture, Rockefeller Center, New York City)
Joan Miró – Woman
Ronald Moody – Wohin (carved oak head)
José Clemente Orozco – The Epic of American Civilization (mural, Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, 1932-34)
Pablo Picasso – Minotauromachy
Diego Rivera – Man, Controller of the Universe (mural, Palacio de Bellas Artes, Mexico City)
Raphael Soyer – How Long Since You Wrote to Mother?

Exhibitions
April - The Unit One group holds its only exhibition, in Cork Street (London), accompanied by a book, Unit 1: the Modern Movement in English Architecture, Painting and Sculpture, edited by Herbert Read.

Awards
Archibald Prize: Henry Hanke – Self Portrait
Légion d'honneur: Gen Paul

Births
January 18 – Raymond Briggs, English illustrator
February 11 – Mary Quant, English fashion designer
February 26
Frank Bowling, Guyanese-born painter
José Luis Cuevas, Mexican artist (d. 2017)
February 27 – Vincent Fourcade, French interior designer (d. 1992)
March 1 – Jean-Michel Folon, Belgian sculptor (d. 2005)
March 7 – Gray Morrow, American comic book artist and book illustrator (d. 2001)
March 20 – Eric Hebborn, English art forger (d. 1996)
April 16 – Vicar, Chilean comic book artist
May 29 – Jef Geys, Belgian artist (d. 2018)
June 15 – Aron Tager, American-Canadian actor, voice actor and artist
June 18 – Dimitris Mytaras, Greek painter (d. 2017)
June 20 – Rius, Mexican cartoonist
July 11 – Giorgio Armani, Italian fashion designer
July 24 – Lee Friedlander, American photographer
August 14 – Lucien Clergue, French photographer (d. 2014)
September 14 – Kate Millett, American sculptor and feminist activist (d. 2017)
December 28 – Alasdair Gray, Scottish fiction writer and artist (d. 2019)
date unknown
Sheila Hicks, American-born textile artist
Neil Williams, American painter (d. 1988)

Deaths
 March 23 – Wenzel Hablik, German painter, graphic artist and designer (b. 1881)
 March 28 – Mahmoud Mokhtar, Egyptian sculptor (b. 1891)
 April 11 – John Collier, English Pre-Raphaelite painter (b. 1850)
 June 29 – Adolf Kašpar, Czech painter and illustrator (b. 1877)
 August 17 – Aleksandr Borisov, Russian Arctic landscape painter (b. 1866)
 September 1 – Yumeji Takehisa, Japanese poet and painter (b. 1884)
 October 11 – M. O. Hammond, Canadian photographer (b. 1876)
 October 12 – Gertrude Käsebier, American portrait photographer (b. 1852)
 October 17 – Adolf Hölzel, German painter of an Impressionism to expressive modernism style (b. 1853)
 November 4 – Sir Alfred Gilbert, English sculptor (b. 1854)
 December 4 – Paul-Albert Besnard, French painter (b. 1849)
 December 28 – Pablo Gargallo, Spanish painter and sculptor (b. 1881)
 date unknown – Alfred Boucher, French sculptor (b. 1850)

See also
 1934 in fine arts of the Soviet Union

References

Category:Years of the 20th century in art
Category:1930s in art


Fifth (chord)

In music, the fifth factor of a chord is the note or pitch that is the fifth scale degree, counting the root or tonal center. When the fifth is the bass note, or lowest note, of the expressed chord, the chord is in second inversion .

Conventionally, the fifth is second in importance to the root, with the fifth being perfect in all primary triads (I, IV, V and i, iv, v). In jazz chords and theory however, the fifth is often omitted, or assumed, in preference for the chord quality determining third and chord extensions and additions.

The fifth in a major and minor chord is perfect (G in C). When the fifth of a major chord is raised it is an augmented chord (G in C) . When the fifth of a minor chord is lowered it is a diminished chord (G in C) .

The open fifth and power chord consists of only the root, fifth and their octave doublings.

See also
Dominant seventh flat five chord

Sources

Category:Chord factors


Édson Uribe

Julio Édson Uribe Elera (born 9 May 1982 in Lima) was a Peruvian footballer who played as a midfielder. He is currently retired and the son of Julio César Uribe.

International career
He played for the Peru U-20 team in the 2001 Sudamericana sub-20.

Uribe made his senior debut with the Peru national football team against Paraguay in his team's first game in the 2001 Copa América. His father Julio César Uribe was the manager at the time and put Édson in for Abel Lobatón in the 68th minute of the match, which finished in a 3–3 draw. In total he has 2 caps for the Peru national team.

References

External links

Category:1982 births
Category:Living people
Category:Sportspeople from Lima
Category:Association football midfielders
Category:Peruvian footballers
Category:Peru international footballers
Category:Juan Aurich footballers
Category:Deportivo Maldonado players
Category:Club Atlético Huracán footballers
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Category:Expatriate footballers in Romania


Compound refractive lens

A Compound refractive lens (CRL) is a series of individual lenses arranged in a linear array in order to achieve focusing of X-rays in the energy range of 5-40 keV. They are an alternative to the KB mirror.

For all materials the real part of the refractive index for X-rays is close to 1, hence a single conventional lens for X-rays has an extremely long focal length (for practical lens sizes). In addition, X-rays attenuate as they pass through a material so that conventional lenses for X-rays have long been considered impractical. The CRL gets its reasonably short focal length, on the order of meters, by using many lenses in series, hence reducing the curvatures of each lens to practical levels. Absorption in the lens is still a challenge, however, and lenses are usually made from low-atomic-number materials such as aluminium, beryllium, or lithium.

CRLs were first demonstrated in the mid-1990s by a group of scientists at the ESRF. They drilled holes in an aluminium block, and achieved focusing in two dimensions. For X-rays a concave lens focuses the X-rays because the index of refraction is slightly below unity. In a CRL of this type the walls between the cylindrical holes act as concave lenses for X-rays traveling perpendicular to the axis of the drilled cylinders. In contrast, for visible light the index of refraction is larger than unity and focusing is done with a convex lens.

Scientists associated with the ESRF synchrotron have done much of the CRL's subsequent development, notably the parabolic CRLs pioneered by the Aachen group under Lengeler. Their signature material is beryllium: a group at the Advanced Photon Source APS demonstrated the same lenses in lithium. These lenses have a direct counterpart in visible light.

The saw-tooth lens is a unique optical scheme suggested and demonstrated by Cederstrom. It approximates a parabolic lens much as a numerical computation on a grid approximates a smooth line, with a series of prisms that each deflect the X-rays over a minute angle. Lenses of this type have been made from silicon, plastic, and lithium. To address the challenge with absorption in the lens, each prism in the saw-tooth lens can be exchanged for a column of smaller prisms, hence removing phase shifts of 2π that do not contribute to refraction but add absorption. This scheme is similar to the approximation of a conventional parabolic lens by a zone plate. The relatively simple manufacturing of the saw-tooth refractive lens and the prism-array lens make them usable also outside of research and both have been suggested for applications in medical x-ray imaging.

References

External links

Category:X-ray instrumentation


Canada–Madagascar relations

Canada–Madagascar relations are foreign relations between Canada and Madagascar. Both countries are full members of the Francophonie, United Nations and the World Trade Organization.

History
Both Canada and Madagascar share a common history in the fact that both nations were once part of the French colonial empire. During World War II troops from both nations fought in the Battle of France (May–June 1940). In 1965, Canada recognized and established diplomatic relations with Madagascar, five years after the country obtained independence from France.

In September 1987, Malagasy President Didier Ratsiraka paid a visit to Canada to attend the 2nd Francophonie summit held in Quebec City and met with Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. In September 1999, Malagasy President Ratsiraka returned to Canada to attend the 8th Summit of the Francophonie held in Moncton and met with Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien.

During the 2009 Malagasy political crisis which saw the removal of Malagasy President Marc Ravalomanana, Canada condemned the coup and the government crack-down on protesters. Democracy was restored to Madagascar after the election of President Hery Rajaonarimampianina in 2014.  A delegation from the Canada-Africa Parliamentary Association visited Madagascar in March 2014.

In November 2016, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau paid a visit to Madagascar to attend the 16th Francophonie summit being held in the Malagasy capital of Antananarivo. Prime Minister Trudeau met with President Rajaonarimampianina where they discussed the signing of a Double Taxation Agreement between both nations.

Trade

In 2017, trade between Canada and Madagascar totaled $115.5 million Canadian dollars. Canada's main exports to Madagascar include: nuclear machine equipment, miscellaneous textile articles, electric machinery and equipment, and dried peas. Madagascar's main exports to Canada include:  titanium ore, spices, vanilla beans, dried fish (other than cod), coffee, and woven apparel. Canadian mining company, Sherritt International, is major investor in Malagasy mines.

Diplomatic missions
 Canada is accredited to Madagascar from its high commission in Pretoria, South Africa.
 Madagascar has an embassy in Ottawa.

See also
 Olivier Le Jeune
 Mathieu Razanakolona

References

Madagascar
Canada


Joseph Kohl

Joseph Kohl was Mayor of Neutral Moresnet, a small neutral territory, from 1 July 1859 until 7 February 1882.

References

Category:Mayors of Moresnet
Category:1831 births
Category:1917 deaths
Category:Neutral Moresnet


Asma bint Umais

Asmā’ binṫ ‘Umays () was a companion of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. She is known for having married three companions of the Prophet: Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, Abu Bakr and Ali ibn Abi Talib.

Family
She was apparently born in Mecca as the daughter of immigrants. Her father was Umays ibn Ma'ad from the Khath'am tribe, and her mother was Hind bint Awf from the Himyar tribe.

Her full siblings were Salma bint Umais, wife of Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib, and Awn ibn Umais. Her maternal half-siblings included two of Muhammad's wives, Zaynab bint Khuzayma and Maymuna bint al-Harith, as well as Lubaba bint al-Harith, the wife of Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib, Al-Sa'ib ibn al-Harith, Qatn ibn al-Harith and the community treasurer Mahmiyah ibn Al-Jaz'.

Asma and her sister Salma both converted to Islam "after the Messenger of Allah had entered the house of al-Arqam", i.e., between late 614 and early 616. She is notable for having been the wife of three of Muhammad's close companions.

First husband
Her first husband was Ja'far ibn Abu Talib from the Hashim clan of the Quraysh tribe. In 616 she emigrated with him to Abyssinia, where she gave birth to three sons, Abdullah, Muhammad and Awn. Asma disliked Abyssinia and she later referred to "fear" and "harm" that she had suffered there while "far away and banished," though she did not enlarge on the nature of these difficulties.

They returned to Medina in 628 at the time of the Muslim conquest of Khaybar.

Ja'far fought at the Battle of Mu'tah against Byzantium in September 629 and, along with Zayd ibn Harithah and `Abd Allah ibn Rawahah, was killed there.

Asma narrated how she heard the news of her husband's death. "The Prophet came to me. I had prepared forty mann of 'dip' [tanned forty skins] and kneaded the dough. I took my two sons and I washed their faces and put oil on them. The Messenger of God came to me and said, 'O Asma, where are the sons of Ja'far?' I brought them to him and he embraced them and smelt them, then his eyes welled up and he cried. I said, 'Why, Messenger of God, perhaps [you have news] about Ja'far.' He replied, 'Yes, he was killed today.' I stood up and screamed, and the women came to me. The Prophet began to say, 'O Asma, do not speak obscene words or beat your chest!'" Her son Abdullah remembered: "He said, 'O Asma, will you not rejoice? Indeed, God most high has made two wings for Ja'far, that he may fly with them in Paradise!'" Then Muhammad told his daughter Fatimah, "Prepare food for the family of Ja'far, for they are preoccupied today."

Second husband
After Ja'far's death Asma married Abu Bakr. She gave birth to his son Muhammad in 632 at al-Baydaa while on the way to The Farewell Pilgrimage. Abu Bakr planned to send Asma and their child back to Medina, but Muhammad told him to let her make the major ablution and then rededicate herself in offering the pilgrimage.

The dying Abu Bakr left instructions that Asma should wash his corpse and that she should not fast on that day. She only remembered this instruction towards sunset, when she called for water to drink so that she would not have technically disobeyed him. As it was a very cold day, it was agreed that she did not have to perform an ablution after washing the body.

Third husband
When Abu Bakr died, Umar allotted Asma a pension of 1,000 dirhams.
Soon afterwards, however, she married Ali, the brother of her first husband Ja'far, who brought up Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr as his own son. Asma bore Yahya and Awn to Ali.

One tradition tells of a squabble that broke out between Muhammad ibn Ja'far and Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, each of them boasting that his own father had been better. Ali told Asma to settle the quarrel. She told the boys: "Ja'far was the best young Arab, and Abu Bakr was the best old Arab." Ali said: "That's a good answer. But you haven't said anything about me!" Asma replied, "Of the three, you are the least to choose."

Death and burial

It is believed that Asma's qabr (, grave) is at the Maqbarah al-Bāb aṣ-Ṣaghīr (, Cemetery of Bab as-Saghir) in Damascus, present-day Syria.

Legacy
Asma narrated ahadith from Muhammad. According to a report deemed authentic, she is considered one of the women of Paradise.

Historical controversy
The following historians state that Asma was present at Fatima's wedding ceremony in 1 AH:
 The author of Kashf Al-Ghummah
 Hadhrami in Rashfat al-Sadi, p. 10
 Ahmad ibn Hanbal in al-Manaqib.
 Ali ibn Abu Bakr al-Haythami in Majma al-Zawa'id
 Nisaee in Khasaes, pg 31
 Muhib Ad-Din Tabari in Dhakhaer al-Uqbi

They depend on the narrations of: Abu Abbas Khawarazmi from Husayn ibn Ali, Sayid Jalal al-Din Abu al-Hamid Ibn Fakhr al-Musawi, and Dulabi from Imam Baqir and his father. This is a historical problem that has not yet been solved despite the various attempts made by Majlisi in Bihar al-Anwar vol. 10. It is also narrated that she was present during the marriage of Aisha.

One theory states that Asma Bint Umais had actually immigrated with her husband to Abyssinia, but repeatedly returned to Mecca and Medina. The distance between Jeddah and Abyssinia is limited to that of the width of the Red Sea, which is not very difficult for a journey. One narration makes a mention of Ja'far supporting this stance.

See also
 Arabian peninsula
 Arabs
 Hejaz
 Middle East
 Sunni view of the Sahaba

References

External links
 Ilyas, Companion's Tree

Category:Female Sahabah
Category:Abu Bakr family


Marcia Gygli King

Marcia Gygli King (June 4, 1931 Cleveland, Ohio – January 18, 2011) was an American artist.

Life
She attended Laurel School in Shaker Heights, Ohio.
She graduated from Smith College with a BA in English.
She studied at the Corcoran School of Art, and graduated from the University of Texas at San Antonio with an MFA.

She moved to New York City in 1979.  as her art career prospered but she continued to return to her home in San Antonio throughout her life and lived at home in San Antonio in her final years. She spent her summers in Sagaponack, New York, where she painted, enjoyed the beach and the special light of Long Island with her family and friends.

Her work is in the Guggenheim Museum, Brooklyn Museum, Newark Museum, Cleveland Museum of Art, San Antonio Museum of Art, McNay Art Museum and National Museum of Women in the Arts.

Exhibitions
2009, "40 year Retrospective",  San Antonio Museum of Art; Southwest School of Arts and Crafts; University of Texas at San Antonio

Works
Scott A. Sherer (ed) Marcia Gygli King: Forty Years, San Antonio Museum of Art, 2008,
Marcia King, Hal Katzen Gallery, 1992
Marcia Gygli King: relief paintings 1982–1984, Marion Koogler McNay Art Museum, 1984

References

External links
Artist's website

Category:1931 births
Category:2011 deaths
Category:Artists from Cleveland
Category:Smith College alumni
Category:University of Texas at San Antonio alumni


Faiz Shakir

Faiz Shakir (; born 1979) is an American Democratic political advisor. Currently the campaign manager for Bernie Sanders' 2020 presidential campaign, Shakir previously worked as an aide to Congressional leaders Nancy Pelosi and Harry Reid, was an editor-in-chief of the ThinkProgress blog, and was the political director of the American Civil Liberties Union. Raised in Florida by Pakistani immigrants, Shakir is a progressive liberal and an advocate for Muslim American communities.

Early life and education
Shakir was born in 1979 to Pakistani immigrants to the United States and grew up in Florida. He is from a Muslim background.  Shakir completed his B.A. in government at Harvard University, and played on the Harvard Crimson baseball team for four years. Shakir graduated with a J.D. from Georgetown University.

Career
After graduating, Shakir worked as a communications aide in the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy and as a legislative aide to Senator Bob Graham. He also worked on the John Kerry 2004 presidential campaign as a junior staffer. In 2005, Shakir began working for the Center for American Progress as a policy adviser. There, he helped launch the ThinkProgress blog in 2005, of which he was the editor-in-chief from 2007 to 2012.

In 2012, Shakir became House Democratic Leader Nancy Pelosi's director of new media. During that time, he was involved in advocacy for Muslim-American communities. After that, he served as a senior adviser to Democratic Senate Leader Harry Reid of Nevada. Reid's former deputy chief of staff commented, "Reid did not make a big decision without consulting Faiz. There's no one he trusted more on how the progressive community would react on something and no one whose advice he took more seriously on pushing him to the left." Shakir informally advised Bernie Sanders' 2016 campaign for the Democratic presidential nomination, which drew the ire of the Hillary Clinton campaign team. According to the Podesta emails, Clinton's campaign chair John Podesta chided Shakir for advising Sanders. "Gave him a very hard time," Podesta wrote to Neera Tanden about Shakir's involvement. "I have to say this does not go down easy with me."

Shakir joined the American Civil Liberties Union as its political director in January 2017. In March, he helped the ACLU launch the People Power website, which engages volunteers to mobilize in defence of civil liberties. Shakir had first pitched the idea for such a website to ACLU Director Anthony Romero in 2015; at that time, Romero had dismissed the idea as too radical. The website attracted 225,000 volunteers in eight weeks, coordinating projects such as meetings with judges to film screenings to panels on law enforcement and immigration.

Upon joining Sanders' 2020 presidential campaign in February 2019, Shakir became the first Muslim and first Pakistani-American campaign manager for a major party U.S. presidential campaign.

He and Roger Lau (working for Elizabeth Warren's campaign), share the distinction of being the first Asian-Americans to serve as campaign manager for a major American presidential candidate.

Personal
Shakir is married to anti-monopoly advocate Sarah Miller.

References

Category:1980 births
Category:American campaign managers
Category:American Civil Liberties Union
Category:American progressive Muslims
Category:Bernie Sanders 2020 presidential campaign
Category:Georgetown University Law Center alumni
Category:Harvard College alumni
Category:Living people
Category:American people of Pakistani descent


History of the western steppe

This article summarizes the History of the western steppe, which is the western third of the Eurasian steppe, that is, the grasslands of Ukraine and southern Russia. It is intended as a summary and an index to the more-detailed linked articles. It is a companion to History of the central steppe and History of the eastern steppe. All dates are approximate since there are few exact starting and ending dates. This summary article does not list the uncertainties, which are many. For these, see the linked articles.

Geography
The area is approximately triangular. The line between forest and steppe began near the mouth of the Danube on the Black Sea and ran northeast toward Kazan and then turned south along the western side of the Ural Mountains. This was not a sharp line but rather a broad band of often deciduous forest-steppe. Its nature and location is hard to establish since most of it has now been cleared for agriculture. The southern boundary runs northeast and then east-southeast along the shore of the Black Sea, continues in the same direction along the north side of the Caucasus Mountains, meets the Caspian Sea and follows its western shore north. Between the north end of the Caspian to the Urals is open grassland that connects the area to the central steppe. The Sea of Azov projects northeast, turning the Black Sea-Caspian Steppe into a kind of peninsula. The western part is sometimes called the Kuban region from the Kuban River that drains the Caucasus northwest. The Crimean peninsula extends into the Black Sea and was a link from the steppe to the Byzantine and Turkish empires. In the far west, the Hungarian plain is an island of grassland separated from the main steppe by the mountains of Transylvania. Most of the area is suitable for agriculture except for the semi-desert west and north of the Caspian. North-south trade routes were along the Volga River and Dnieper River. Between them the Don River was a minor route.

General observations
For unknown reasons, almost all movements on the steppe have been from east to west. For unknown reasons, from about 500 AD the original Iranian languages were replaced by Turkic languages. Unlike the central and eastern steppe, the western steppe has now been converted to agriculture. Steppe history must be reconstructed from scattered reports from neighboring literate societies, with some help from archeology. The numerous peoples mentioned were usually some clan or tribe that gained control over its neighbors and became politically significant. A few may have been ethnically homogenous and a few movements may have been genuine folk migrations. In most cases we do not know. Boundaries fluctuated and are not well-documented.

Before recorded history
According to the most common theory the Indo-European languages originated on the western steppe. Before perhaps 1000 BC Iranian languages were established all over the western and central steppe. The origin of steppe pastoral nomadism is poorly understood. Horse-borne raiding is first reported with the Cimerians about 700 BC. Archeologists have identified a Tripolye culture (c. 4000 BC) at the western edge of the steppe, a Sredny Stog culture at about the same time on the Dnieper, a Yamna culture (c. 3000 BC, Indo-European?), a Srubna culture (c. 1500 BC) linked eastward to the possibly Indo-Iranian Andronovo culture, and others.

Iranian period (c. 700 BC-450 AD)

Scythians broadly (c. 700 BC - ???): The Greeks called most of the people north of the Black Sea "Scythians".  The Persians called the people of the central steppe Sakas, the two words meaning about the same thing.  Both spoke Iranian languages.
Greeks (c. 650 BC-370 AD): From the seventh century BC the Greeks founded colonies around the Black Sea. They exported grain and slaves to Byzantium and beyond – a pattern that continued in various forms until the eighteenth century AD.  Many became organized as the Bosporian Kingdom which was later a Roman client.
The Maeotians lived around the Sea of Azov and practiced some agriculture. It is not clear whether the term is ethnic, political or merely geographic.
Cimerians (c. 700BC): According to Herotodus, writing 250 years later, the Scythians drove the Cimerians across the Caucasus where they lived by raiding. The Scythians pursued and defeated them and ruled south of the Caucasus for 28 years before returning north. Assyrian texts report Gimirri (c. 714 BC) and Ishkuzai (Scythians? c. 679 BC) fighting to their north.
The Scythians proper (c. 650-300 BC) may have started in the Kuban region around 650 BC and moved northwest about 550.  About 513 Darius I invaded Scythia, could not catch the Scythians and withdrew. The "Royal Scythians" ruled the "nomad Scythians" and groups of "farmer Scythians" who probably sold grain to the Greek cities.  After their defeat remnant Scythians had a kingdom in the Crimea (c. 170 BC-62 AD).
Sarmatians (c. 300 BC-375 AD): The Sarmatians took over from the Scythians and ruled the steppe until they were defeated by the Huns. They originally lived east of the Scythians, separated by the Don. Their language was close to Scythian. They used heavy cavalry as opposed to the Scythian's light cavalry and seem to have had female warriors which gave rise to Greek stories of the Amazons.
The Sarmatians  had a number of subdivisions with distinct histories, the most important being the Alans. Many were involved in the break-up of the Roman Empire. Sauromatae was either an older name for the Sarmatians or an earlier phase of that people. The Iazyges were the westernmost Sarmatians. They moved west and ended up in Hungary. The Roxolani started between the Don and Dnieper, followed the Iazyges west and fought the Romans. The Siraces lived east of the Sea of Azov and interacted with the Greek colonies. The Aorsi lived along the Don between Rostov and Stalingrad and were fairly powerful. The Alans seem to have originated on the Syr Darya River where they were noticed by the Chinese. They moved west, absorbed the Aorsi, continued west, joined the Germanic tribes attacking the Roman Empire and ended up in France, Spain and North Africa. Remnant Alans sought refuge in the Caucasus and became the modern Ossetians. The Saii lived around the Dnieper bend and were not very important. The ill-documented Royal Sarmatians lived north of the Saii.
Goths (c. 250-375 AD): The Ostrogoths crossed what is now Poland and occupied the western half of the western Steppe. After their defeat a few Goths continued to live in Crimea.
Huns (c. 350-454 AD): The non-European Huns arose somewhere in central Asia, crossed the Volga and Don, absorbed the Alans, drove the Goths into the Roman Empire,  raided the Roman Empire and broke up.  Fragments of their confederation reappeared under other names.
c. 450-550: The next hundred years does not appear to be well-documented.

Turkic period (c. 450-1775)
Early Turks (c. 450-550): The change from Iranian to Turkic languages does not appear to have changed daily life. After the Turks arrived there are few reports of Iranian remnants, which is hard to explain. The Turkic languages probably originated in the forest-steppe along the northern edge of  Mongolia. Many of the early peoples mentioned in the history of the eastern steppe may have been partly Turkic or proto-Turkic. Turkic sub-families reached the west in this order: Oghur (most went north and disappeared), Oghuz (most went southwest to Turkmenistan and Turkey) and Kipchak (remained on the western and central steppe). In the first centuries AD Turkic-speaking groups seem to have crossed the central steppe along with the Huns and others. The possibly Turkic Akatziri (c. 447 AD) fought with the Huns. The Saraguri, who attacked the Akatziri, and Onogurs (both c. 463) were driven west by the Sabirs. The kindred Kutrigurs (west) and Utigurs (east) (both c. 551) were probably Turkic. All of these peoples may have been part of the Hunnic confederation and were absorbed by the Bulgars and Khazars.
Sabirs (c. 463-582): The Turkic Sabirs were driven west by another group, drove the early Turks westward and occupied the Black-Sea-Caspian region. They fought for and against the Greeks and Persians and were absorbed by the Bulgars and Khazars.

Avars (c. 557-796):  The Pannonian Avars may have been partly related the Rouran who were driven out of Mongolia by the Gokturks in 555. They crossed the western steppe, absorbing the early Turks, Sabirs and Alans, and founded the Avar Khaganate (c. 568-796) in Hungary which was conquered by Charlemagne.  Based in Hungary, they seem to have lost control of the steppe, the area being taken by the Western Turkic Kaganate which was based in the central steppe.
Bulgars (c. 632-668): The Oghur Turkic Bulgars founded Old Great Bulgaria north of the Sea of Azov which was conquered by the Khazars from the east in 668. In 679 some Bulgars went to the Balkans, adopted the local Slavic language and gave their name to Bulgaria. Another group went up the Volga to near Kazan and founded Volga Bulgaria which adopted Islam in 922 and lasted until the Mongol conquest. The Chuvash people may be a remnant of the Volga Bulgars.
Hungarians (c. 800-900): The linguistic ancestors of the Uralic-speaking Hungarians or Magyars arose somewhere in the Urals. By c. 800 they had abandoned the forest and become steppe nomads partly subject to the Khazars. Around 900 they conquered Hungary and after 1000 became a Christian European kingdom.
Khazars (c. 626-960): The Turkic Khazars formed a state around and east of the Sea of Azov, adopted Judaism and were broken up by the Rus' and Pechenegs. Their state was large and fairly well-organized and was a useful ally of Byzantium. Their fall was linked with a shift of the Rus' trade from the Volga to the Pecheneg-controlled Dnieper.
Alans again (c. 700-1239): A group of Alan remnants re-emerged north of the Caucasus (Alania). After their destruction by the Mongols some sought refuge in the mountains and became the Ossets.
Kievan Rus (c. 862-1240): Vikings subdued and organized the forest tribes north of the steppe, adopted the local Slavic language and founded the state of Kievan Rus. They opened trade routes to Persia and Byzantium, raided both countries, adopted Greek Christianity in 988 and were conquered by the Mongols.
Pechenegs (c. 800-1091). The Pechenegs were Oghuz Turks who were driven west by other Oghuz, reached the Ural-Volga area, moved west of the Khazars, pushed the Magyars into Hungary, fought all their neighbors and were destroyed by the Cumans and Byzantines in 1091.
Chorni Klobuky (c. 1000-1240) were semi-settled Pechenegs (mostly) of the forest-steppe who interacted with the Rus'. The Torks or Torkils were a sub-group.
Oghuz in general: Oghuz was one of the main branches of the Turkic languages. It is not certain that they had anything in common other than their language family. The Oghuz Pechenegs entered the western steppe and broke up. The main body went southwest to Turkmenistan, became the Seljuks and Ottomans and established their language in Turkey.
Cumans (c. 1000-1241):  The Cumans (called Polovtsi by the Russians) were the western branch of the Kipchak Turks who extended far into the central steppe. The Kipchaks were independent tribes with no state or even confederation. They appeared on the western steppe circa 1000, reached the Danube area around 1070 and ruled the steppe until they were conquered by the Mongols in 1241. Some remnants fled to Hungary and were Magyarized, but retained a certain legal status until 1876. Their Kipchak language group remained the steppe language for about 800 years until it was replaced by Russian.
Mongols (c. 1222-1260): About 1223 the Mongols made a devastating raid into the western steppe and Russia. In 1236–1240 they conquered both places.
Golden Horde (c. 1260-1500): The Mongol Empire split into four parts, the western part becoming the Golden Horde. The rulers adopted the Kipchak language of their subjects and at some point became Muslims.  From its language it was also known as the Kipchak Khanate.
Baskkirs (c. 840-): The Bashkirs are Kipchak-speakers who live roughly between the Volga and Urals. Their presence is connected with the Volga trade route.
Byzantines: The Byzantine Empire interacted with the steppe peoples mainly when the steppe peoples invaded the Balkans, something that is too complex to be summarized here. They sometimes used the steppe peoples to attack the Persians. After they were replaced by the Ottomans in 1453 there were few invasions from the steppe.
Nogais (c. 1500-1775): When the Golden Horde broke up the steppe peoples became the Nogai Horde.
Kalmyks (c. 1630-1771): The Kalmyks were Buddhist Mongols. They crossed the central steppe from Dzungaria and settled on the north shore of the Caspian. In 1771 the majority returned to Dzungaria, leaving a remnant west of the Caspian.

The plow conquers the steppe (c. 1500-1900)

Parts of the Golden Horde broke off as follows: 1438: Khanate of Kazan on the upper Volga, 1449: Khanate of Crimea on the Black Sea, 1466: Astrakhan Khanate on the lower Volga. Russia regained its independence around 1480. The Golden Horde was abolished and the steppe peoples became the Nogai Horde. Those north of Crimea were nominally subject to the Crimean Khan who in turn was a vassal or ally of the Ottoman Empire.

By the Mongol period the forest and forest-steppe south of the Oka River was largely depopulated. The area was kept clear of peasants by Nogai slave raids which extended as far northwest as Belarus. The captives were sold through Crimea to the Ottoman Empire. From around 1525 Russia began expanding south, filling the area with tax-paying peasants, until it annexed Crimea in 1783. In the same period peasant agriculture expanded east from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. During the Khmelnitsky Uprising (1648) Polish power on the steppe was broken. When things settled down the steppe was partitioned between Russia and Poland along the Dnieper. The Polish steppe was annexed by Russia in 1772–1795. Some areas in the southwest were taken from Turkey. In the nineteenth century the steppe between the Caspian and Black Sea was colonized. By 1900 steppe nomadism had almost completely disappeared in the western steppe, although it continued further east.

See also
History of the central steppe
History of the eastern steppe

References
Rene Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes, 1970
Denis Sinor (editor), The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, 1990
Cristoph Baumer, The History of Central Asia, 2012--, 3 volumes
Sources in the linked articles

*
Category:Ancient peoples of Russia
Category:Scythia
Category:Ancient history of Ukraine
Category:History of the Turkic peoples


The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship

The Flying Ship (Russian title Летучий корабль), or The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship, is a Russian fairy tale. Andrew Lang included it in The Yellow Fairy Book and Arthur Ransome in Old Peter's Russian Tales.

Uri Shulevitz illustrated a version of Ransome's tale, The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship, for which he won the Caldecott Medal in 1969. Also, a made-for-television stop motion-animated film with the same name was released in the United Kingdom in 1990.  It aired as part of WGBH's children's series, Long Ago and Far Away. Rabbit Ears Productions also produced an audiotape version, featuring Robin Williams, which was released on Showtime in 1991. It aired as part of Rabbit Ears' "We All Have Tales" series. In addition, Terry Gilliam's 1988 film The Adventures of Baron Munchausen contains several elements inspired by this story, particularly the opening sequence set at the court of the Grand Turk.

Synopsis

A couple had three sons, and the youngest was a fool. One day, the Tsar declared that whoever made him a ship that could sail through the air would marry his daughter. The older two set out, with everything their parents could give them; then the youngest set out as well, despite their ridicule and being given less fine food. He met a little man and, when the man asked to share, he hesitated only because it was not fit. But when he opened it, the food had become fine.

The man told him how to strike a tree with an axe; then, he was not to look at it but fall to his knees. When he was lifted up, he would find the tree had been turned into a boat, and could fly it to the Tsar's palace, but he should give anyone who asked a lift. He obeyed.

On the way, he met and gave a lift to a man who was listening to everything in the world, a man who hopped on one leg so that he would not reach the end of the world in one bound, a man who could shoot a bird at a hundred miles, a man who needed a great basket of bread for his breakfast, a man whose thirst could not be sated by a lake, a man with a bundle of wood that would become soldiers, and a man with straw that would make everything cold.

At the Tsar's place, the Tsar did not want to marry the princess to a peasant. He decided to send him to the end of the world to get healing water, before the Tsar finished his dinner. But the man who could hear heard him and told the youngest son, who lamented his fate. The fleet-footed man went after it. He fell asleep by the spring, and the huntsman shot the tree he was leaning against to wake him up, and he brought back the water in time. The Tsar then ordered him to eat twelve oxen and twelve tons of bread, but the glutton ate them all. The Tsar then ordered him to drink forty casks of wine, with forty gallons each, but the thirsty man drank them all.

The Tsar said that the betrothal would be announced after the youngest son bathed, and went to have him stifled in the bath by heat. The straw cooled it, saving him.

The King demanded that he present him with an army on the spot, and with the wood, the youngest son had it and threatened to attack if the Tsar did not agree. The Tsar had him dressed in fine clothing, and the princess fell in love with him on sight. They were married, and even the glutton and the thirsty man had enough to eat and drink at the feast.

DVD release
The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship was released on DVD in the United Kingdom in February 2010 by Revelation Films.

See also
 The Six Servants
 How Six Made Their Way in the World
 How the Hermit helped to win the King's Daughter
 Long, Broad and Sharpsight
 The King Of Lochlin's Three Daughters
 The Griffin
 List of animated feature films
 List of stop-motion films
 The Golden Goose
 Askeladden

External links
 The Flying Ship Lang's version
 The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship Ransome's version

  The Fool and the Flying Ship Rabbit Ears's version
 The Fool of the World and the Flying Ship on YouTube, Part 1 (1990 Version)

Category:Russian folk fairy tale
Category:1990 television films
Category:British television films
Category:British films
Category:British animated films
Category:Cosgrove Hall Films films
Category:1990s stop-motion animated films
Category:British aviation films
Category:Films set in the Russian Empire


Natchez revolt

The Natchez revolt, or the Natchez massacre, was an attack by the Natchez people on French colonists near present-day Natchez, Mississippi, on November 29, 1729. The Natchez and French had lived alongside each other in the Louisiana colony for more than a decade prior to the incident, mostly conducting peaceful trade and occasionally intermarrying. After a period of deteriorating relations, however, Natchez leaders were provoked to revolt when the French colonial commandant, Sieur de Chépart, demanded land from a Natchez village for his own plantation near Fort Rosalie. They plotted their attack over several days and managed to conceal their plans from most of the French; those who overheard and warned Chépart of an attack were considered untruthful and were punished. In a coordinated attack on the fort and the homesteads, the Natchez killed almost all of the Frenchmen, while sparing most of the women and African slaves. Approximately 230 colonists were killed overall, and the fort and homes were burned to the ground.

When the French in New Orleans, the colonial capital, heard the news of the massacre, they feared a general Indian uprising and were concerned that the Natchez might have conspired with other tribes. They first responded by ordering a massacre of the Chaouacha people, who had no relation to the Natchez revolt, wiping out their entire village. The French and their Choctaw allies then retaliated against the Natchez villages, capturing hundreds of Natchez and selling them into slavery, although many managed to escape to the north and take refuge among the Chickasaw people. The Natchez waged low-intensity warfare against the French over the following years, but retaliatory expeditions against Natchez refugees among the Chickasaw in 1730 and 1731 forced them to move on and live as refugees among the Creek and Cherokee tribes. By 1736 the Natchez had ceased to exist as an independent people.

The attack on Fort Rosalie destroyed some of the Louisiana colony's most productive farms and endangered shipments of food and trade goods on the Mississippi River. As a result, the French state returned control of Louisiana from the Company of the Indies to the crown in 1731, as the company had been having trouble running the colony. Louisiana governor Étienne Périer was held responsible for the massacre and its aftermath, and he was recalled to France in 1732.

Background

While descending the Mississippi River in 1682, Robert de La Salle became the first Frenchman to encounter the Natchez and declared them an ally. The Natchez were sedentary and lived in nine semi-autonomous villages; the French considered them the most civilized tribe of the region. By 1700 the Natchez' numbers had been reduced to about 3,500 by the diseases that ravaged indigenous populations in the wake of contact with Europeans, and by 1720 further epidemics had halved that population. Their society was strictly divided into a noble class called "the Suns" (Natchez: ) and a commoner class called in French "the Stinkards" (Natchez: ). Between 1699 and 1702, the Natchez received the explorer Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville in peace and allowed a French missionary to settle among them. At this time, the Natchez were at war with the Chickasaw people, who had received guns from their English allies, and the Natchez expected to benefit similarly from their relation with the French. Nonetheless, the British presence in the territory led the Natchez to split into pro-British and pro-French factions. The central village, called Natchez or the Grand Village, was led by the paramount chief Great Sun (Natchez: ) and the war chief Tattooed Serpent (Serpent Piqué in the French sources, Natchez obalalkabiche), both of whom were interested in pursuing an alliance with the French.

First, Second and Third Natchez Wars
The first conflict between the French and the Natchez took place in 1716, when the Governor of Louisiana, Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, passed through Natchez territory and neglected to renew the alliance with the Natchez by smoking the peace calumet. The Natchez reacted to this slight by killing four French traders. Cadillac sent his lieutenant Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville to punish the Natchez. He deceived the Natchez leaders by inviting them to attend a parley, where he ambushed and captured them, and forced the Natchez to exchange their leaders for the culprits who had attacked the French. A number of random Natchez from the pro-British villages were executed. This caused French–Natchez relations to further deteriorate. As part of the terms of the peace accord following this First Natchez War, the Natchez promised to supply labor and materials for the construction of a fort for the French. The fort was named Fort Rosalie, and it was aimed at protecting the French trade monopoly in the region from British incursions.

By 1717, French colonists had established the fort and a trading post in what is now Natchez, Mississippi. They also granted numerous concessions for large plantations, as well as smaller farms, on land acquired from the Natchez. Relations between Natchez and colonists were generally friendly—some Frenchmen even married and had children with Natchez women—but there were tensions. There were reports of colonists abusing Natchez, forcing them to provide labor or goods, and as more colonists arrived, their concessions gradually encroached on Natchez lands.

From 1722 to 1724, brief armed conflicts between the Natchez and French were settled through negotiations between Louisiana governor Bienville and Natchez war chief Tattooed Serpent. In 1723, Bienville had been informed that some Natchez had harassed villagers, and he razed the Natchez village of White Apple and enslaved several villagers, only to discover that the alleged harassment had been faked by the colonists to frame the Natchez. One of the later skirmishes in 1724 consisted of the murder of a Natchez chief's son by a colonist, to which the Natchez responded by killing another Frenchman named Guenot. Bienville then sent French soldiers from New Orleans to attack the Natchez at their fields and settlements, and the Natchez surrendered. Their plea for peace was met following the execution of one of their chiefs by the French.

Chronicler Le Page du Pratz, who lived among the Natchez and was a close friend of Tattooed Serpent, records that he once asked his friend why the Natchez were resentful towards the French. Tattooed Serpent answered that the French seemed to have "two hearts, a good one today, and tomorrow a bad one", and proceeded to tell how Natchez life had been better before the French arrived. He finished by saying, "Before the arrival of the French we lived like men who can be satisfied with what they have, whereas today we live like slaves, who are not suffered to do as they please." The most faithful ally of the French, Tattooed Serpent died in 1725, another blow to the relations between the Natchez and the colonists.

According to archaeologist Karl Lorenz, who excavated several Natchez settlements, another factor that complicated relations between the Natchez and the colonists was the fact that the French did not well understand the Natchez political structure. The French assumed that the Great Sun, the chief of the Grand Village, also held sway over all the other Natchez villages. In truth, each village was semi-autonomous, and the Great Sun's power only extended to the villages of Flour and Tioux (with which the Grand Village was allied) and not to the three pro-British villages of White Apple, Jenzenaque and Grigra. When the Great Sun died in 1728 and was succeeded by his inexperienced nephew, the pro-British villages became more powerful than the pro-French villages centered at Natchez.

Commandant Chépart
In 1728, Sieur de Chépart (also known as Etcheparre and Chopart), whom Governor Étienne Périer had recently appointed as commandant of Fort Rosalie, was brought to New Orleans and put on trial before the governor for abuse of power, specifically behavior toward the Natchez that was unpopular among the French. Chépart was saved from punishment, however, by "the interference of influential friends", and upon returning to the fort, he continued to administer it as he had before. Chépart told the Natchez that November that he wished to seize land for a plantation in the center of White Apple, where the Natchez had a temple of their people's graves. Governor Périer sided with Chépart and planted a cross on the land he sought. By this point, most of the colonists disapproved of Chépart's actions, including Jean-François-Benjamin Dumont de Montigny, a French historian who wrote that Chépart's demand marked the first time that a French colonial leader had simply claimed Natchez land as his own, without prior negotiations.

When the Natchez began to protest the seizure of their land for the plantation, Chépart said he would burn down the temple that contained their ancestors' graves. In response to this threat, the Natchez seemed to promise to cede the land, wrote Dumont de Montigny, but only if they were given two months to relocate their temple and graves. Chépart agreed to give them the time in exchange for pelts, oil, poultry, and grain—a request the Natchez promised to fulfill later.

Attack

The Natchez then began to prepare for a strike on the French at Fort Rosalie, borrowing firearms from some French colonists with promises to go hunting and to share the game with the guns' owners. Some French men and women overheard the Natchez planning such an attack. According to Le Page du Pratz, it was the Natchez female chief Tattooed Arm who attempted to alert the French of an upcoming attack led by her rivals at White Apple. When colonists told Chépart, he disregarded them and placed some in irons on the night before the massacre, when he was drunk.

On the morning of November 29, 1729, the Natchez came to Chépart with corn, poultry, and deerskins, also carrying with them a calumet—well known as a peace symbol. The commandant, still somewhat intoxicated from drinking the night before, was certain that the Natchez had no violent intentions, and he challenged those who had warned of an attack to prove that the rumors were accurate.

While Chépart was accepting the goods, the Natchez started firing, giving the signal for a coordinated attack on Fort Rosalie and on the outlying farms and concessions in the area now covered by the city of Natchez. Chépart ran to call his soldiers to arms, but they had already been killed. The details of the attack are mostly unknown, as chroniclers such as Le Page du Pratz, who talked with several eyewitnesses, stated that the events were "simply too horrific" to recount.

The Natchez had prepared by seizing the galley of the Company of the Indies anchored on the river, so that no Frenchmen could board it and attempt to escape. They had also stationed warriors on the other side of the river to intercept those who might flee in that direction. The commandant at the Yazoo trading post of Fort St. Pierre, Monsieur du Codère, was visiting Fort Rosalie with a Jesuit priest when they heard gunshots. They turned around to return to their ship, but warriors caught up with them, killing and scalping them.

The Natchez killed almost all of the 150 Frenchmen at Fort Rosalie, and only about 20 managed to escape. Most of the dead were unarmed. Women, children, and African slaves were mostly spared; many were locked inside a house on the bluff, guarded by several warriors, from where they could see the events. According to Dumont de Montigny's account of the attack, women seen defending their husbands from the violence, or trying to avenge them, were taken captive or killed. One woman's unborn baby was reportedly torn from her before she herself was killed. A year after the event, the tally of dead was put at 138 men, 35 women and 56 children, or approximately 230 overall. Some scholars argue that the Natchez spared the African slaves due to a general sense of affinity between the Natchez and the Africans; some slaves even joined the Natchez against their masters, while others took the chance to escape to freedom. A group of Yazoo people who were accompanying Commandant du Codère remained neutral during the conflict but were inspired by the Natchez revolt. When they returned to Fort St. Pierre, they destroyed the fort, killing the Jesuit priest and 17 French soldiers.

The Natchez lost only about 12 warriors during the attack. Eight warriors died attacking the homestead of the La Loire des Ursins family, where the men had been able to prepare a defense against the intruding Natchez.

Chépart himself was taken captive by the Natchez, who were at first unsure what to do with him, but finally decided that he should be killed by a stinkard—a member of the lowest caste in the tribe's hierarchy. The Natchez kept two Frenchmen alive, a carter named Mayeux who was made to carry all the goods of the French to the Great Village, and a tailor named Le Beau who was employed by the Natchez to refit the colonists' clothing to new owners. They set fire to the fort, the store, and all the homesteads, burning them to the ground. Just as Governor Bienville had done with the executed Indians in 1717 and 1723, the Natchez beheaded the dead Frenchmen and brought the severed heads for the Great Sun to view.

French response

News of the Fort Rosalie attack reached New Orleans in early December, and the colonists there began to panic. The city depended upon grain and other supplies from the Illinois settlement, and shipments up and down the Mississippi River would be threatened by the loss of Fort Rosalie. Governor Périer reacted to the massacre by forbidding the entry of a delegation of Choctaw people into the city, for fear that they were using the pretext of a friendly visit to launch an attack. He then ordered slaves and French troops to march downstream and massacre a small village of Chaouacha people who had played no part in the uprising in Natchez. His superiors in Paris reprimanded the leader for this act, which may have been intended to prevent any alliance between slaves and Native Americans against the French colonists. Many Louisiana colonists—Dumont de Montigny in particular—blamed Chépart (who was killed by the Natchez) and Périer for the massacre; Louis XV, the French king, ordered Périer back to France in 1732. Périer's replacement was his predecessor, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, whom the French state thought to be more experienced at dealing with the Native Americans of the region. A year earlier, the Company of the Indies had given up control of the colony to Louis XV because it had been costly and difficult to manage even before the rebellion.

More serious retaliation against the Natchez began late in December and in January 1730, with expeditions led by Jean-Paul Le Sueur and Henri de Louboëy. The two commanders besieged the Natchez in forts built near the site of the Grand Village of the Natchez, a mile or so east of Fort Rosalie, which had been rebuilt. They killed about 80 men and captured 18 women, and released some French women who had been captured during the massacre of Fort Rosalie. The French relied on allied support from Tunica and Choctaw warriors. The Choctaw attacked the Natchez without the French, killing 100 and capturing women and children. This ruined the element of surprise for the French as the Natchez had already scattered. At first, the Natchez were well prepared for French retaliatory strikes, having stocked up several cannons as well as the firearms that they had used in the massacre two months earlier. The Natchez captured by the Choctaw and Tunica allies of the French were given over to the governor and sold into slavery, and some were publicly tortured to death in New Orleans.

In late February 1730, with Louboëy seeking to catch the Natchez by surprise, the Natchez negotiated a peace treaty and freed French captives, but the French planned an attack on the Natchez fort the following day. The Natchez then brought gifts to Louboëy, but left their fort that night and escaped across the Mississippi River, taking African slaves with them. The next day, Louboëy and his men burned down the abandoned Grand Village fort as the Natchez hid in the bayous along the Black River. A subsequent expedition led by Périer in 1731 to dislodge the Natchez captured many of them and their leaders, including Saint Cosme, who was the new Great Sun, and his mother—the Female Sun, Tattooed Arm. The 387 captives, most of whom had belonged to the pro-French faction of the Natchez, were sold into slavery in Saint-Domingue. Many other Natchez escaped again, now taking refuge with the Chickasaw. Over the next decade, the few hundred remaining Natchez lived a life on the run, waging a low-intensity guerrilla campaign against the French. French historian Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix wrote in his history, "We were not slow in perceiving that the Natchez could still render themselves formidable, and that the step of sending the Sun and all who had been taken with him to be sold as slaves in Saint-Domingue, had rather exasperated than intimidated the remnant of that nation, in whom hatred and despair had transformed their natural pride and ferocity into a valor of which they were never deemed capable."

The French continued to press for the destruction of the Natchez who now lived among the Chickasaw, traditional allies of the British—this sparked the Chickasaw Wars. The Chickasaw at first agreed to drive out the Natchez from among them, but they did not keep good on the promise. In the Chickasaw Campaign of 1736, the French, under Governor Bienville, attacked the Chickasaw villages of Apeony and Ackia, and then retreated, suffering significant casualties, but inflicting few. In the Chickasaw Campaign of 1739, Bienville summoned more than 1,000 troops to be sent over from France. Bienville's army ascended the Mississippi River to the site of present-day Memphis, Tennessee, and attempted to build a military road westward toward Chickasaw villages. After waiting for months in the winter of 1739–40, the French never mounted an attack and retreated back to New Orleans. After having suffered the attacks against the Chickasaw, the remaining Natchez moved on to live among the Cherokee and Creek people. By that time the Natchez, reduced to scattered refugees, had ceased to exist as a political entity.

Historical interpretations

The Natchez revolt figured as an event of monumental significance in French historiography and literature of the 18th and 19th centuries. In France, the massacre and its aftermath was described in numerous historical works and inspired several works of fiction. Eighteenth-century historians generally attributed the Natchez uprising to oppression by Commandant Chépart.

In the French sources, one important discussion has centered on the question of whether the Natchez planned a simultaneous attack on the French with the other major tribes of the region. French colonial governor Étienne Périer, in a report to superiors in France written one week after the revolt, claimed that many of the Indian nations in the lower Mississippi Valley had plotted with the Natchez to attack the French on the same day and that even the Choctaw, who had been close allies of the French, were part of the plot. Périer then cancelled a meeting with the Choctaw planned for the first two days of December in New Orleans, contending that it was to be the occasion for an attack. Périer in this way defended his actions as governor by insinuating that the results of the massacre could have been worse if not for his prompt action. However, historians Gordon Sayre and Arnaud Balvay have pointed out that Jean-Baptiste Delaye, a militia commander in the French retaliations following the massacre, wrote in a 1730 unpublished narrative that Périer's claims were groundless, and that the Tioux, Yazoo, and other nations were not complicit and had no foreknowledge of the attack. Another document in French, of anonymous authorship, asserted that the Natchez revolt was a British plan to destroy a new French tobacco business in Louisiana.

To describe the details of the attack and its background, Dumont de Montigny and Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz, the leading 18th-century historians of Louisiana, drew on information collected from French women taken captive during the massacre. They explained that the Natchez had conspired with other nations but had attacked a few days earlier than the date agreed upon and that they had used a system of bundles of sticks held by each of the conspiring tribes in order to count down the number of days remaining until the strike. The undetected destruction of a couple of the sticks in the Natchez Grand Village derailed the count, although the reason for the lost sticks differed in each historian's account. The other nations called off their participation in the plot because of the Natchez' premature attack, and therefore the very existence of the conspiracy remained conjectural.

François-René de Chateaubriand depicted the massacre in his 1827 epic Les Natchez, incorporating his earlier best-selling novellas Atala and René into a longer narrative that greatly embellished the history of the French and the Natchez in Louisiana. In Chateaubriand's work, the grand conspiracy behind the massacre implausibly included native tribes from all across North America. Chateaubriand saw the Natchez Massacre as the defining moment in the history of the Louisiana colony, a position consistent with the views of other 18th-century historians, such as Le Page du Pratz and Dumont de Montigny.

The 19th-century Louisiana historian Charles Gayarré also embellished the story of a conspiracy behind the Natchez revolt, composing in his book a lengthy speech by the Great Sun in which the leader exhorted his warriors to invite the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Yazoo to join in the attack on the French. In his 2008 book on the Natchez revolt, Arnaud Balvay wrote that more likely than not, the conspiracy claim was false because of incoherence in primary sources.

In contrast to the French tradition, the Natchez and their conflicts with the French have been mostly forgotten in contemporary American historiography. Historian Gordon Sayre attributes this to the fact that both the French and the Natchez were defeated in colonial wars before the birth of the United States.

See also

 American Indian Wars
 Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands
 List of Indian massacres

References

Bibliography

  (Translation by Gordon Sayre)

  (Translation by Gordon Sayre)

External links
 Description of the massacre from Gettysburg College
 "Massacre at Fort Rosalie" – description and list of known survivors from Adams County, Mississippi Genealogical and Historical Research
 "A Failed Enterprise: The French Colonial Period in Mississippi" from the Mississippi Historical Society

Category:1729 in North America
Category:18th century in New France
Category:Conflicts in 1729
Category:Events in New France
Category:Massacres by Native Americans
Category:Natchez people
Category:Native American history of Louisiana
Category:Native American history of Mississippi
Category:Rebellions in North America
Category:1729 in New France


1957 Mauritanian Territorial Assembly election

Territorial Assembly elections were held in Mauritania on 31 March 1957. The result was a victory for the Mauritanian Progressive Union, which won 33 of the 34 seats. The other seat was won by an independent candidate in the Baie du Levrier constituency.

Results

References

1957
Category:1957 elections in Africa
Category:1957 in Mauritania
Category:March 1957 events


Tu'er Shen

Tu'er Shen (, The Leveret Spirit) or Tu Shen (, The Rabbit God), is a Chinese deity who manages the love and sex between homosexual people. His name literally means "rabbit deity".

In a folk tale from 17th century Fujian, a soldier is in love with a provincial official, and spies on him to see him naked. The official has the soldier tortured and killed, but he returns from the dead in the form of a leveret (a rabbit in its first year) in the dream of a village elder. The leveret demands that local men build a temple to him where they can burn incense in the interest of "affairs of men". The story ends:

Legends
According to What the Master Would Not Discuss (), written by Yuan Mei () during the Qing dynasty, Tu'er Shen was a man named Hu Tianbao () who fell in love with a very handsome imperial inspector of Fujian Province. One day he was caught peeping on the inspector through a bathroom wall, at which point he confessed his reluctant affections for the other man. The imperial inspector had Hu Tianbao sentenced to death by beating. One month after Hu Tianbao's death, he appeared to a man from his hometown in a dream, claiming that since his crime was one of love, the underworld officials decided to right the injustice by appointing him the god and safeguarder of homosexual affections.

After his dream the man erected a shrine to Hu Tianbao, which became very popular in Fujian, so much so that in late Qing times, the cult of Hu Tianbao was targeted for extermination by the Qing government.

The deity can be seen as an alternative to Yue Lao, the matchmaker god, for heterosexual relations.

Cults
A slang term for homosexuals in late imperial China was "rabbits" which is why Hu Tianbao is referred to as the rabbit deity, though in fact he has nothing to do with rabbits and should not be confused with Tu'er Ye, the rabbit on the moon.

Government suppression
Images of Hu Tianbao show him in an embrace with another man. The sense that the villagers must keep the reason for the temple secret in the story may relate to pressure from the central Chinese authorities to abandon the practice.  Qing dynasty official Zhu Gui (1731-1807), a grain tax circuit intendant of Fujian in 1765, strove to standardize the morality of the people with a "Prohibition of Licentious Cults".  One cult which he found particularly troublesome was the cult of Hu Tianbao. As he reports,

Modern interpretations
Although Tu'er Shen is popularly revered by some temples, some Taoist schools may have considered homosexuality as sexual misconduct through history, probably deeming it is outside marriage. However, many Taoism scriptures do not mention anything against same-gender relations, mostly maintaining neutrality.

The story may be an attempt to mythologize a system of male marriages in Fujian attested to by the scholar-bureaucrat Shen Defu and the writer Li Yu.  The older man in the union would play the masculine role as a qixiong or "adoptive older brother", paying a "bride price" to the family of the younger man- it was said virgins fetched higher prices- who became the qidi, or "adoptive younger brother".  Li Yu described the ceremony, "They do not skip the three cups of tea or the six wedding rituals- it is just like a proper marriage with a formal wedding."  The qidi then moved into the household of the qixiong, where he would be completely dependent on him, be treated as a son-in-law by the qixiongs parents, and possibly even help raise children adopted by the qixiong.  These marriages could last as long as 20 years before both men were expected to marry women in order to procreate.

Keith Stevens reports seeing images like these in Hokkien-speaking communities in Taiwan island, Malaysia, Thailand and Singapore. Stevens refers to these images as 'brothers' or 'princes' and calls them Taibao (), which is probably a perversion of Tianbao. Stevens was usually told that the two figures in an embrace were brothers, and only in one temple in Fujian was he told that they were homosexuals.

The history of Hu Tianbao has been largely forgotten even by the temple keepers. However, there is a temple in Yonghe District, Taiwan that venerates Hu Tianbao in his traditional guise. The temple is known as the Hall of Martial Brilliance ().

Revival
In 2006, Lu Wei-ming founded a temple for Tu'er Shen in Yonghe District in the New Taipei City in Taiwan. Roughly 9,000 gay pilgrims visit the temple each year praying to find a suitable partner. The Wei-ming temple also performs a love ceremony for gay couples at the world's only religious shrine for homosexuals.

Depiction in media works
 He is the main character of a 2010 Taiwanese drama, "The Rabbit God's Matchmaking".
 In Andrew Thomas Huang's short film, "Kiss of the Rabbit God", Tu'er Shen seduces a restaurant worker.

See also
LGBT rights in Taiwan
Homosexuality in China

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links
 Tu Er Shen (Rabbit God) by Yuan Mei, Translated by Nathaniel Hu A translation of Tu Er Shen story from Zibuyu.
 Wei Ming Temple

Category:Chinese folk religion
Category:Chinese folklore
Category:Chinese gods
Category:Chinese mythology
Category:Fujian folklore
Category:Hokkien Taoism
Category:LGBT themes in mythology
Category:Love and lust gods


Loukas Sideras

Lucas Sideras (; 5 December 1944, Athens) is the former drummer of the Greek progressive rock band Aphrodite's Child.

Biography

Aphrodite's Child
He started playing drums at the age of 13. By the time he was 15 years old, he started playing drums with several bands in Athens. Later on he met Vangelis and Demis Roussos and they formed Aphrodite's Child. In 1967 they signed with Mercury Records in France and they released three albums: End of the world (which includes the song "Rain and Tears"), It's Five O'Clock and 666, the latter of which sold 20 million copies worldwide.

After Aphrodite's Child split up in 1972, Lucas began to compose his own music and released his first solo album, One Day with Polydor-France, selling 28,000 copies. In 1974 Lucas released another solo album, Pax Spray, which sold 45,000 copies.

Producer
Sideras was also active as a producer. In 1975 he produced the album Alba for Riccardo Cocciante which hit #1 in Italy’s charts. He also did a lot of producing for Sigma Fay, starting in 1979 with the album Love's Fool and selling 75,000 copies, and then in 1981 with the album Dead Line, which sold 52,000 copies. In 1984 he produced the single "You're the Drug in My Life" for Sigma Fay and sold 34,000 copies.

Other projects
In 1977 Sideras formed the group Ypsilon with Lakis Vlavianos and Dimitris Katakouzinos. They released the album Metro Music Man, which sold 75,000 copies. In 1984 he produced Sigma Fay's single Alien Child, which sold 60,000 copies.

In 1987 he formed the blues-rock band Diesel (not to be confused with the Dutch band of the same name) with Sigma Fay and Yanis Drolapas. The band was together for ten years and appeared regularly as a live act and in jamming sessions, but their sole release was the 1995 album Diesel. While with the band, Sideras also composed music for several documentaries and advertisements in his studio.

In 2005 he formed the blues-rock band Los-Tres with Simos Kokavesis and Bary Zeally, and they have appeared live numerous times. In 2008 Sideras released a solo album Stay With Me, which he composed, arranged and produced in his studio. The album was strongly influenced by world music.

References

Category:1944 births
Category:Living people
Category:Musicians from Athens
Category:Greek drummers


From Death to the Stars

From Death to the Stars is a collection of a fantasy novel and science fiction short stories by L. Ron Hubbard.  It was published in 1953 by Fantasy Publishing Company, Inc. in an edition of 300 copies.  The book is an omnibus edition of Hubbard's Death's Deputy and The Kingslayer.  Many of the stories had originally appeared in the magazines Unknown and Astounding.

Contents
 "Death's Deputy"
 "The Kingslayer"
 "The Beast"
 "The Invaders"

References

Category:1953 short story collections
Category:Science fiction short story collections
Category:Fantasy short story collections


Moogy Klingman

Mark "Moogy" Klingman (September 7, 1950 – November 15, 2011) was an American musician and songwriter. He was a founding member of Todd Rundgren's band, Todd Rundgren's Utopia, and later became a solo recording artist, bandleader and songwriter. He released two solo recordings, and his songs have been covered by artists as wide ranging as Johnny Winter, Carly Simon, James Cotton, Thelma Houston, Eric Clapton, Barry Manilow and Guns N' Roses. He played on stage with Jimi Hendrix, Chuck Berry, Luther Vandross, Lou Reed, Jeff Beck and Allan Woody & Warren Haynes of the Allman Brothers and Gov't Mule. Other than Rundgren, his longest musical association may have been with Bette Midler, whom he served as band leader and who adopted for her signature song "(You Gotta Have) Friends", composed by Klingman and William "Buzzy" Linhart.

Life and career
"Moogy" Klingman's nickname was not from the Moog synthesizer, pronounced "Mogue", but from his baby sister's pronunciation of "Marky" as "Moo-Gee." His nickname was already well established by the time that he did later play the instrument.

Klingman grew up in the Long Island suburb of Great Neck, New York.  By age 10 he was collecting comic books and gramophone records, playing DJ in his basement. Through his older sister, he got an access pass to attend the 1965 Newport Folk Festival performance where Bob Dylan "went electric," meeting Dylan before and after the concert. Back home, his band The Living Few was signed to a demo deal by producer Dick Glass and recorded a demo of Dylan songs and original tunes.

At 16, he joined Jimmy James and the Blue Flames with Jimi Hendrix and Randy California. His jug band performance with schoolmate Andy Kaufman in a controversial civil rights concert resulted in his expulsion from high school in 1966, after which he went to Quintano's School for Young Professionals in New York City.  By then, his band Glitterhouse had made records with the star producer Bob Crewe, as well as Crewe's soundtrack to the 1968 Roger Vadim film Barbarella with Jane Fonda.

Klingman's association with Todd Rundgren commenced in 1968 when they met outside the Cafe Au Go Go in Greenwich Village. In Klingman's Manhattan loft, he and Rundgren constructed the Secret Sound recording studio where Rundgren produced his A Wizard, A True Star, Todd, and other albums. Moogy was the original keyboardist for Todd Rundgren's Utopia, and Klingman's band Moogy & the Rhythm Kings (Kevin Ellman, Ralph Schuckett, John Seigler) formed the core of the original Utopia. He played on ten Todd Rundgren solo albums, as well as several Utopia albums.

When Lou Reed found himself in 1972 with an acclaimed album, Transformer, but no backing musicians to support it on tour, he tried hiring an inexperienced bar band called The Tots, but ultimately fired them mid-tour. With barely a week's notice, Klingman came up with a new five-member backing band, and completed the tour. The band consisted of Tom Cosgrove on lead guitar, Ralph Schuckett on rhythm guitar, "Buffalo" Bill Gelber on bass and "Chocolate" on drums.

Klingman played keyboards and produced Bette Midler's duet with Bob Dylan "Buckets of Rain" – which appeared on Midler's 1976 album, Songs for the New Depression. He became her musical director, taking over from Barry Manilow. Klingman collaborated with William "Buzzy" Linhart in co-writing "(You Gotta Have) Friends", which became Bette Midler's de facto theme song.

Klingman had solo albums out on Capitol and EMI records, as well as on his own label. Songs from his solo albums were covered by Johnny Winter, Eric Clapton, Barry Manilow, Bette Midler, Todd Rundgren and others.  His song "Dust in the Wind" (not to be confused with the hit song of the same name by Kansas) was covered by Todd Rundgren on his album Something/Anything? and has been performed live in concert by Guns N' Roses.

In 1985 Klingman helped the group Mandolindley Road Show mix and master their debut self-titled album. He mentored the late, influential hip-hop producer Paul C., who was a member of the band.

Klingman became the executive producer and musical director of the Music From Free Creek "supersession" project when Rundgren's agent Albert Grossman wanted too much money on his behalf, and Rundgren passed the job on to his friend. The sessions featured the participation of Eric Clapton, Jeff Beck, Keith Emerson, Mitch Mitchell, Harvey Mandel and Linda Ronstadt.

Klingman also performed live at many venues with various groups, playing for Chuck Berry, Jimi Hendrix, Buzzy Linhart and then in the 1990s, with members of the Allman Brothers/Gov't Mule, and a summer tour with Bo Diddley. He was the co-founder of the band The Peaceniks, along with Barry Gruber. Klingman also played in the Moogy/Woody Band with Allman Brothers alumni Allan Woody, and Warren Haynes. In 1979 he had a show on Manhattan Cable Channel J called "Manhattan Alley".

A benefit concert was held in January 2011, to help pay Klingman's medical expenses, and saw the original Todd Rundgren's Utopia, featuring Ralph Schuckett, Kevin Ellman, John Siegler and Klingman, reunite on stage for the first time in over thirty years.

Klingman died of bladder cancer in New York City on November 15, 2011, at the age of 61.

References

External links

 Moogy Klingman Discography
 Moogy's official myspace page
 Moogy Klingman 2007 audio interview on RundgrenRadio.com
 Moogy Klingman 2009 audio interview on RundgrenRadio.com
 Moogy Klingman 2010 audio interview on RundgrenRadio.com

Category:1950 births
Category:2011 deaths
Category:American rock musicians
Category:American rock keyboardists
Category:Songwriters from New York (state)
Category:Record producers from New York (state)
Category:Musicians from New York City
Category:Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Category:Utopia (American band) members


Bacounoun

Bacounoun is a village in Senegal situated in Basse-Casamance, to the south-west of Nyassia. It is part of the rural district (communauté rurale] of Nyassia in the arrondissement of Nyassia, part of the department of Ziguinchor in the region of Ziguinchor.

At the census of 2002, the settlement contained 170 inhabitants in 24 habitations.

External links
PEPAM

Category:Populated places in the Ziguinchor Department


Trung Hòa

Trung Hòa may refer to several places in Vietnam, including:

Trung Hòa, Cầu Giấy, a ward of Cầu Giấy District in Hanoi
Trung Hòa, Chương Mỹ, a commune of Chương Mỹ District in Hanoi
Trung Hòa, Bắc Kạn, a commune of Ngân Sơn District
Trung Hòa, Đồng Nai, a commune of Trảng Bom District
Trung Hòa, Hòa Bình, a commune of Tân Lạc District
Trung Hòa, Hưng Yên, a commune of Yên Mỹ District
Trung Hòa, Tiền Giang, a commune of Chợ Gạo District
Trung Hòa, Tuyên Quang, a commune of Chiêm Hóa District

See also
Trung Hoà–Nhân Chính, a borough in southwestern Hanoi
Trung Hóa, a commune of Minh Hóa District in Quảng Bình Province


AMB-FUBINACA

AMB-FUBINACA (also known as FUB-AMB and MMB-FUBINACA) is an indazole-based synthetic cannabinoid that is a potent agonist for the cannabinoid receptors, with Ki values of 10.04 nM at CB1 and 0.786 nM at CB2 and EC50 values of 0.5433 nM at CB1 and 0.1278 nM at CB2, and has been sold online as a designer drug.  It was originally developed by Pfizer which described the compound in a patent in 2009, but was later abandoned and never tested on humans.  AMB-FUBINACA was the most common synthetic cannabinoid identified in drug seizures by the Drug Enforcement Agency in 2017 and the first half of 2018.

Mass casualties
On July 12, 2016 the New York City Emergency Medical Services responded  to a "mass casualty event" in Brooklyn, New York, where 33 people ranging in age from 25 to 59 years old were adversely affected by the drug.  18 were hospitalized.   All of the victims were described by by-standers as “zombielike” and the cause was attributed to use of AMB-FUBINACA as the demethylated metabolite was found in the blood and urine of eight of the hospitalized  patients that had been sent for testing by the DEA. Screening for the more usual drugs of abuse was negative in all 8 patients. AMB-FUBINACA itself was found in a sample from the product smoked by another patient. The metabolite was identified after 10 days and the AMB-FUBINACA was only confirmed 17 days after the incident.

Up to 20 deaths in New Zealand have also been attributed to AMB-FUBINACA during 2017, with tested products containing between 32 mg/g and 400 mg/g of the active ingredient, between 2x to 25x stronger than the product involved in the mass casualty event in New York a year earlier.

Legal status

In the United States, AMB-FUBINACA is a Schedule I Controlled Substance.  Prior to being scheduled at the federal level, the state of Louisiana banned AMB-FUBINACA through an emergency rule after it was detected in a synthetic cannabis product called "Train Wreck 2" which had been linked to adverse events and seizures on 3 June 2014.

Sweden's public health agency suggested classifying AMB-FUBINACA as a hazardous substance on November 10, 2014.

See also

 5F-AB-PINACA
 5F-ADB
 5F-AMB
 5F-APINACA
 AB-CHFUPYCA
 AB-FUBINACA
 AB-PINACA
 ADB-CHMINACA
 ADB-FUBINACA
 ADB-PINACA
 ADSB-FUB-187
 APINACA
 MDMB-CHMICA
 MDMB-CHMINACA
 MDMB-FUBINACA
 PX-2
 PX-3

References

Category:Cannabinoids
Category:Designer drugs
Category:Fluoroarenes

Category:Indazolecarboxamides


Kris Blanks

Kris Blanks (born November 3, 1972) is an American professional golfer who currently plays on the PGA Tour and previously played on the Nationwide Tour.

Blanks was born in Warner Robins, Georgia. He attended Huntingdon College.

Blanks played on the Nationwide Tour in 2005, 2007, and 2008. His best finish was a win at the 2008 Bank of America Open. In 2008, he finished 13th on the Nationwide Tour Money List and thus earned his PGA Tour card for 2009 for finishing in the top 25.

He has played on the PGA Tour since 2009. He finished in second place at the 2010 Puerto Rico Open. In 2011, he finished the RBC Canadian Open in a tie with Sean O'Hair and went on to lose the sudden death playoff to finish second.

Blanks was arrested on June 30, 2013 after he attempted to carry a gun on board a plane at Palm Beach International Airport. The charges were later dropped.

In March 2014, Blanks won his second event on the Web.com Tour with a sudden death playoff victory at the Chitimacha Louisiana Open over Brett Stegmaier.

Professional wins (2)

Web.com Tour wins (2)

Results in major championships

CUT = missed the half-way cut

See also
2008 Nationwide Tour graduates
2009 PGA Tour Qualifying School graduates
2012 PGA Tour Qualifying School graduates

References

External links

Category:American male golfers
Category:PGA Tour golfers
Category:Korn Ferry Tour graduates
Category:Golfers from Georgia (U.S. state)
Category:Golfers from Florida
Category:Huntingdon Hawks athletes
Category:People from Warner Robins, Georgia
Category:People from Jupiter, Florida
Category:1972 births
Category:Living people


List of Egyptian films of 1975

A list of films produced in Egypt in 1975. For an A-Z list of films currently on Wikipedia, see :Category:Egyptian films.

External links
 Egyptian films of 1975 at the Internet Movie Database
 Egyptian films of 1975 elCinema.com

Category:Lists of Egyptian films by year
Category:1975 in Egypt
Category:Lists of 1975 films by country or language


List of Swedish consorts

This is a list of Swedish queens consort and spouses of Swedish monarchs and regents. The list covers a large time span and the role of a consort has changed much over the centuries. The first Swedish consorts are spoken of in legends. The consorts until c. 1000 are often semi-legendary, as are the monarchs. Between the 14th and 16th century, during periods of de facto Swedish independence from the formal union with Denmark, the Swedish regents did not have the title of king or queen, nor did the spouses of kings have the title of queen consort, although they had the equivalent position. Due to unions with Finland, Denmark and Norway, many of the Swedish consorts were also consorts of monarchs of those countries. Consorts listed during the period of 1380–1520 were in fact also consorts to monarchs of Denmark. The consorts listed during the period of 1814-1905 were also consorts to monarchs of Norway. Finland was from the Middle Ages a part of Sweden, and although there was no official title, such as "Queen Consort of Finland", from the 16th century until the year of 1809, the queen consort of Sweden also held the title "Grand Princess of Finland."

Sweden has had three female monarchs. One of the consorts listed below is male.

Semi legendary queens

This is a list of Swedish queens of legend.

 Vana, (wife of Sveigðir)
 Drifa (wife of Vanlandi)
 3rd century : Drott, wife of Domar
 4th century : Skjalf (wife of Agne)
 5th century : Bera (wife of Alf)
 6th century : Yrsa, wife of Eadgils
 7th century : Gauthildr Algautsdóttir of Götaland, (wife of Ingjald)
 7th century : Princess of Småland, daughter of king Heidrek of Småland, (wife of Ivar Vidfamne)
 8th century : Inghild of Sweden (wife of Randver)
 970-975 : Ingeborg Thrandsdotter (wife of Olof Björnsson)

House of Uppsala and Stenkil

House of Sverker and of Eric

House of Bjälbo

House of Mecklenburg

Union queens and Regent Consorts 1397–1523
Several of the Queens on this list were also Queen of Denmark and Norway, as well as spouses to Swedish regents who did not have the title king.
Queen consorts

Regent consorts
 1448 : Karin Karlsdotter, third wife of Regent Nils Jönsson
 1448 : Merete Lydekedatter Stralendorp of Venngarn, second wife of Regent Bengt Jönsson.

Queen consorts

Regent consorts
1466-1467 : Elin Gustavsdotter Sture (second time), Regent Erik Axelsson Tott

Queen consorts

Regent consorts
 1470-1497 : Ingeborg Tott, (first time), wife of Regent Sten Sture the Elder, d.1507.

Queen consorts

Regent consorts
1501-1503 : Ingeborg Tott (second time), wife of Regent Sten Sture the Elder, d.1507.
 1504-1512 : Mette Dyre, second wife of Svante, Regent of Sweden.
 1512-1520 : Christina Gyllenstierna, wife of Regent Sten Sture the Younger d.1559.

Queen consorts

House of Vasa

House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken

House of Hesse

House of Holstein-Gottorp

House of Bernadotte

Regents
Some Swedish consorts acted as regents for their husbands or children, and had seats in the governments. These were:

 1318-1326 : Duchess Ingeborg, as widow of Prince Eric she was regent during the initial minority of her son.
 1424-1430 : Philippa of England, her husbands' representative in the country during the union.
 1470-1497 : Ingeborg Tott, (inconsistently during these years), during her husband's absence.
 1504-1512 : Mette Dyre, (inconsistently during these years) seat in the government during husband's absences.
 1520-1520 : Christina Gyllenstierna, regent and commander of Stockholm during the minority of her son.
 1605-1605 : Christina of Holstein-Gottorp, during the absence of her husband.
 1611-1611 : Christina of Holstein-Gottorp, as interim regent during the minority of her son.
 1660-1672 : Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp, during the minority of her son.
 1697-1697 : Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp, during the minority of her grandson.
 1700-1713 : Hedwig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp, during the absence of her grandson.
 1731-1731 : Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden, during the absence of her husband.
 1738-1738 : Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden, during the absence of her husband.

Queens regnant
This is a list of Swedish queens regnant:
 1389-1412 : Margaret I of Denmark
 1632-1654 : Christina of Sweden
 1718-1720 : Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden (Queen consort 1720-1741)

Titular Queens
 1396-1405 : Agnes of Brunswick-Lüneburg, spouse of King Albert of Sweden, deposed in 1389, renounced claims in 1405.
 1605-1631 : Constance of Austria, spouse of King Sigismund III Vasa
 1637-1644 : Cecilia Renata of Austria, spouse of King Władysław IV Vasa
 1646-1660 : Ludwika Maria Gonzaga, spouse of King Władysław IV Vasa

See also
 List of Swedish monarchs
 List of Finnish consorts (c. 13th-century-1809)
 List of Danish consorts (1397–1520)
 List of Norwegian consorts (1814–1905)

Notes

Consorts
Swedish queens
*
Swedish
Sweden
Category:Lists of Swedish women


Bill Dalley

William Charles "Bill" Dalley (18 November 1901 – 9 February 1989) was a New Zealand rugby union player. Starting out as a utility back, Dalley made his debut at a provincial level for  in 1921. He became a specialist halfback in 1924, and was quickly selected for the New Zealand national side, the All Blacks, that year. Between then and 1929 he played 35 matches for the All Blacks including five internationals. He captained the side in his final two appearances in 1929. In all he scored five tries for the All Blacks. After retiring as a player, Dalley served as a member of the Canterbury Rugby Union's management committee from 1932 to 1955, the last three years as chairman.

References

Category:1901 births
Category:1989 deaths
Category:People educated at Christchurch Boys' High School
Category:New Zealand rugby union players
Category:New Zealand international rugby union players
Category:Canterbury rugby union players
Category:Rugby union scrum-halves
Category:New Zealand referees and umpires


Jean-Claude Larréché

Jean-Claude Larréché (born 3 July 1947) is a French organizational theorist, and the Alfred H. Heineken Chaired Professor of marketing at INSEAD, a post he has held since 1993. He is known for his pioneering work in the use of computer simulations (i.e. simulation games) in marketing training, his work at INSEAD on marketing excellence and customer focus, and his book The Momentum Effect.

Biography
Larréché received his degree for Ingénieur en électronique from INSA, Lyon in 1968, his MSc in Computer Science from the University of London in 1969, his MBA, INSEAD and his PhD at the Graduate School of Business of the Stanford University.

After completing his MBA in 1970 Larreche was working as a research assistant an INSEAD when he was asked to assist L’Oreal assess a computerised marketing model they were considering purchasing. He was fascinated by it and "decided to investigate the best places in the world to study marketing modelling." . Larréché is quoted as saying that he chose Stanford for his PhD so that he could study under Dave Montgomery, one of the founders of marketing modelling.

Between 1974 and 1977, working with an assistant, Hubert Gatignon, he developed his work on marketing modelling to create a teaching simulation called Markstrat . Markstrat is a game where teams of students compete against each other in an artificial world under realistic market conditions. It is claimed that Markstrat is now used in 8 out of the top 10 business schools in the world and 25 of the top 30 schools in the US.. More recently he developed the simulation [http://www.digbusinesslearning.com/ ''''DiG - Discovery Innovation Growth] a versatile learning tool to develop competencies in innovation, customer centricity, value based marketing, business acumen, leadership and team performance ().

In 1983, at the age of just 36 Larréché was appointed to the board of Reckitt & Coleman (now Reckitt Benckiser plc) in a non-executive role after previously working for the firm in a consultancy capacity . He remained on the board for 18 years. He founded a consultancy business, StratX, in 1984. . The company currently offers experiential learning programs for top corporations and universities worldwide.

During the 1990s Larreche’s work began to concentrate on the underlying capabilities that impact on a business’s ability to compete in the marketplace. He published a series of reports based on surveys conducted with more than 1200 executives in hundreds of Fortune 1000 companies. The surveys attempted to define and evaluate the attributes, characteristics and behaviours of large global firms and assess their impact on corporate performance. That work, combined with computer modelling and his long-time work on customer focus, converged on the concept of “momentum” – an attempt to map out a process for improving the efficiency of a firm’s growth. The culmination of this period of Larreche’s work was the publication in 2008 of The Momentum Effect: How to ignite exceptional growth .

He received the following awards:
 1995 – Marketing Educator of the Year, Club 55, the European Community of Marketing Experts.
 1995 – "Best Case of the Year" Award for the Virgin Atlantic Airways case study in Relationship Marketing category, EFMD
 1996 – "Overall European Case of the Year" Award for the Virgin Atlantic Airways case study, ECCH
 1997 – "Best Case of the Year" Award for the First Direct case study in Relationship Marketing category, European Foundation for Management Development (EFMD)
 2000 – "Overall European Case of the Year" Award for the First Direct: Branchless Banking case study, European Case Clearing House (ECCH)

 Selected publications

 The Competitive Fitness of Global Firms. (1998–2002). Financial Times Management/Financial Times Prentice Hall.
 Marketing Strategy: A Decision-Focused Approach''. 5th ed. (2006). McGraw-Hill. (Co-authors John Mullins, Orville Walker, and Boyd Harper)

References

External links
 Larreche's website

Category:1947 births
Category:Alumni of the University of London
Category:French academics
Category:French business theorists
Category:Business educators
Category:Business writers
Category:Marketing people
Category:Marketing theorists
Category:French marketing people
Category:Advertising theorists
Category:Stanford Graduate School of Business alumni
Category:INSEAD faculty
Category:Living people


Cremer

Cremer is an occupational surname with the same origin as the name Kramer. Notable people with the surname include:

 Bruno Cremer (1929–2010), French actor
 (1840–1876), French general
 Christoph Cremer (born 1944), German physicist
 Cristina Cremer de Busti (born 1952), Argentine politician
 Erika Cremer (1900–1996), German physical chemist
 Esther Cremer (born 1988), German middle-distance runner
 Fritz Cremer (1906–1993), German sculptor
 Gerard de Cremere (1512–1594), Flemish cartographer
 Graeme Cremer (born 1986), Zimbabwean cricketer
 Grant Cremer (born 1978), Australian middle-distance runner
 Hermann Cremer (1834–1903), German theologian
  (1827–1880), Dutch writer and painter
 Jacob Theodoor Cremer (1847–1923), Dutch businessman and politician
 Jan Cremer (born 1940), Dutch author
 Melanie Cremer (born 1970), German field hockey player
 Peter-Erich Cremer, (1911–1992), German U-boat Captain
 R. W. Ketton-Cremer (1906–1969), English biographer and historian
 Ted Cremer (1919–1980), American football player
 Thomas Cremer (born 1945), German German geneticist and molecular biologist
 Victoriano Crémer (1906–2009), Spanish poet and journalist
 William Randal Cremer (1828–1908), English Member of Parliament and pacifist
 Alex Cremer (1996–2069), Professional Tobacco Chewer
Cremers
 Armin B. Cremers (born 1946), German mathematician and computer scientist
 Cas Cremers (born 1974), Dutch computer scientist
 Coos Cremers (1806–1882), Dutch politician
 Eppo Cremers (1823–1896), Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs and Speaker of the House
 Jan Cremers (born 1952), Dutch politician and sociologist
 Ruud Cremers (born 1992), Dutch cyclist
 Vittoria Cremers (1859–?), Italian Theosophist
 Vittoria Cremer (1859–?), Italian Theosophist
De Cremer
 David De Cremer (born 1972), Belgian psychologist

See also
 Cremer & Wolffenstein, architecture firm
 Kramer (disambiguation)