L'Étourdi ou les Contretemps

L’Étourdi ou les Contretemps (The Blunderer, or the Counterplots), also known in English as The Bungler, is a five-act theatrical comedy by the French playwright Molière. After premiering in Lyon in 1655, it appeared at the Théâtre du Petit-Bourbon in Paris in November 1658.

Characters
 Lelio (Lélie in the French original), a young aristocrat
 Leander (Léandre), Lelio's rival
 Mascarille, Lelio's servant
 Hippolyta (Hippolyte), a young woman
 Celia (Célie), a gypsy girl
 Trufaldin, an old man
 Pandolphus (Pandolfe), Lelio's father
 Anselmo (Anselme), Hippolyta's father
 Ergaste, a servant
 Andrès, a young man

Plot
Two young aristocrats, Lelio and Leander, have been romancing a woman named Hippolyta, who is now engaged to Lelio. However, both men have become infatuated with Celia, a gypsy girl enslaved by an old miser named Trufaldin because her family owes him money. Lelio asks his servant Mascarille to devise a scheme to break his engagement with Hippolyta and win the love of Celia instead. Mascarille suggests paying the debt owed to Trufaldin, but Lelio is dependent on his wealthy father Pandolphus, who would not be willing to help. Instead Mascarille contrives to visit Celia by claiming he wants her to tell his fortune. Lelio ruins the scheme by contradicting Mascarille's story. Mascarille attempts to steal a purse from Hippolyta's father, Anselmo, but Lelio mistakenly interrupts. When Mascarille arranges for Anselmo to purchase Celia and bring her to him, Lelio, who does not know about the plan, interferes because he thinks Anselmo is taking her away.

For his next scheme, Mascarille involves Lelio in the plan. They send Pandolphus to his farm and fake his death. To get the money for Celia, they ask Anselmo for a loan on the pretense that Lelio can pay it back with his inheritance. This scheme is ruined when Pandolphus returns to the city prematurely. Mascarille then discovers that Leander has arranged to purchase Celia. Mascarille pretends Lelio has beaten him and offers to help Leander as revenge. However, before Mascarille can retrieve Celia, a messenger arrives claiming that Celia is the kidnapped daughter of a Spanish nobleman, who is coming to claim her. The letter is ruse by Lelio, who has again inadvertently spoiled his servant's plans. Mascarille commiserates with Leander about Lelio's deception, but also suggests that Celia is a woman of loose morals in an attempt to turn Leander against her. Upon hearing what Mascarille has said, Lelio does not realize it is a trick. He confronts the servant in front of Leander and accidentally exposes the lies Mascarille has told.

Ergaste informs Mascarille that Leander plans to take a group to Trufaldin disguised as female mummers who want Celia to join them for the evening. Mascarille decides to use the same trick before Leander. However, when Ergaste tells Lelio about Leander's plans, Lelio rushes to Trufaldin to warn him, not realizing he has again frustrated his servant's scheme.

Mascarille's next scheme is to disguise Lelio as a foreign merchant who knows Trufaldin's son, who Trufaldin has not seen in over a decade. Lelio is unable to keep the details of the story straight, and Trufaldin chases him away. Anselmo convinces Leander to abandon his pursuit of Celia and marry Hippolyta instead, but a new rival for Lelio appears when Celia's former love Andrès arrives to pay her family's debt. Mascarille arranges to have Andrès arrested, but Lelio mistakenly intervenes to prevent the arrest. As Andrès makes arrangements to leave with Celia, Lelio arrives and reveals his love for her. Celia confesses that she loves Lelio, but is not willing to hurt Andrès after he has rescued her. This impasse is resolved when it is revealed that both Andrès and Celia are Trufaldin's long-lost children. Since they are siblings, they cannot marry, thus freeing Celia to be with Lelio.

History
Molière was inspired by an Italian play, L'Inavvertito by Niccolò Barbieri, which had been published in 1629. The main character of that play, a servant called Scapino, was the inspiration for the character Mascarille, and many elements of the plot are similar. Molière played the role of Mascarille when his company performed the play.

Adaptations
Sir Martin Mar-all, a 1667 play by the English writer John Dryden, was based on a translation of L'Étourdi.

Notes

References

Works cited

External links

  (in French)
  (in English)

Category:1655 plays
Category:Comedy plays
Category:French-language plays
Category:Plays by Molière
Category:Plays set in Sicily


Diabo

Diabo is a town in central Ivory Coast. It is a sub-prefecture and commune of Botro Department in Gbêkê Region, Vallée du Bandama District.

In 2014, the population of the sub-prefecture of Diabo was 26,272 .

Villages
The 27 villages of the sub-prefecture of Diabo and their population in 2014 are :

Notes

Category:Populated places in Vallée du Bandama District
Category:Sub-prefectures of Gbêkê
Category:Communes of Gbêkê
Category:Populated places in Gbêkê


Sena

Besides being a Spanish girls name,
Sena may refer to:

Places
 Sanandaj or Sena, a city in north-western Iran
 Sena (state constituency), represented in the Perlis State Legislative Assembly
 Sena, Dashtestan, a village in Bushehr Province, Iran
 Sena, Huesca, a municipality in Huesca province, Spain
 Sena, Iran, a village in Bushehr Province, Iran
 Sena, Yemen
 Seňa, a village and municipality in the Kosice Region, Slovakia
 Vila de Sena or Sena, Mozambique

People
 Balthasar Seña (1590–1614), Spanish Jesuit missionary
 Dominic Sena (born 1949), American movie director
 Suzanne Sena (born 1963), American television host
 Maryam Sena, wife of Sarsa Dengel, the Emperor of Ethiopia
 , Japanese snowboarder (born 1999)

Other uses
 Sena (film), a 2003 film
 Sena (record company), in Iceland
 Sena (wine)
 Sena dynasty, a dynasty that ruled Bengal in the 11th and 12th centuries
 Sena language, a language of central Mozambique
 Sena people, an ethnic group of Mozambique and Malawi
  or National Service of Learning, a Colombian national education institution
 Robin Sena, a character in Witch Hunter Robin
 Sena Kobayakawa, a character in Eyeshield 21
 Sena Hayami, a character in Mashin Sentai Kiramager
 Sena (moth), a moth genus in the subfamily Lasiocampinae

See also
 Amphoe Sena, a district in Ayutthaya Province, Thailand
 Bangladesh Senabahini, the native name of the Bangladeshi Army
 Bharatiya Sena, the native name of the Indian Army
 Nepali Sena, the native name of the Nepalese Army
 Saena, a city in Tuscany, Italy
 Sena de Luna, a municipality in León province, Spain
 Senigallia, formerly Sena Gallica, Ancona, Italy
 Senna (disambiguation)
 Shanti Sena or Peace army, made up of Gandhi's followers in India
 Shiv Sena, a political party in India

Category:Turkish feminine given names


Myosotella

Myosotella is a European genus or subgenus (of Ovatella) of small, salt marsh snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family Ellobiidae.  It eats algae growing on the rocks in a stream.

Species
Species within the genus Myosotella include:
 Myosotella bicolor (Morelet, 1860)
 Myosotella denticulata (Montagu, 1803)
 Myosotella myosotis Draparnaud, 1801

References

 Gofas, S.; Le Renard, J.; Bouchet, P. (2001). Mollusca, in: Costello, M.J. et al. (Ed.) (2001). European register of marine species: a check-list of the marine species in Europe and a bibliography of guides to their identification. Collection Patrimoines Naturels, 50: pp. 180–213

External links
 AnimalBase info at:

Category:Ellobiidae

nl:Gewoon muizenoortje


Adam Perelle

Adam Perelle (1640–1695) was a French artist and writer born in Paris in 1640 and died in the same city in 1695. He was the son of Gabriel Perelle and the younger brother of Nicolas Perelle.

Like his father from whom he learned his craft and his brother, he drew views of landscapes and monuments. He obtained the title of engraver of the King and taught drawing and painting in high society.

References

External links

Veües des plus beaux lieux de France et d'Italie : Digitized album containing 283 prints (Princeton University Digital Library)

Category:1640 births
Category:1695 deaths
Category:French draughtsmen
Category:French painters
Category:People from Paris


Mesosa kirishimana

Mesosa kirishimana is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Masaki Matsushita in 1943. It is known from Japan.

References

Category:Mesosini
Category:Beetles described in 1943


Lawrence Rosen

Lawrence Rosen may refer to:

 Lawrence Rosen (attorney), attorney and computer specialist
 Lawrence Rosen (anthropologist), American anthropologist and scholar of law

See also
 Larry Rosen (disambiguation)


Kabelo Mahlasela

Kabelo Mahlasela (born 13 February 1991) is a South African footballer who plays for Kaizer Chiefs.

References

Category:1991 births
Category:Living people
Category:South African soccer players
Category:Association football midfielders
Category:Roses United F.C. players
Category:Royal Eagles F.C. players
Category:Bloemfontein Celtic F.C. players
Category:Kaizer Chiefs F.C. players
Category:South African Premier Division players


Tuun Kʼabʼ Hix

Tuun Kʼabʼ Hix  (Cu Ix, Ku Ix, Kʼaltuun Hix; "Bound-Stone Jaguar") was a Maya king of the Kaan Kingdom.

Reign
Tuun Kʼab Hix reigned from the year 520 to 546. He is known only from foreign references.

A lintel at Yaxchilan describing the military successes of Kʼinich Tatbu Skull II records a captive from Kaan in AD 537 (the captive vassal of the Kaan ruler may have been a woman).

Stela 25 from Naranjo records the accession of Aj Wosal Chan Kʼinich in 546 under the auspices of Tuun Kʼabʼ Hix.

The Kaan Kingdom was asserting its influence in the southern Maya lowlands and inaugurating the struggle for supremacy with its great rival Tikal.

It was probably during the reign of Tuun Kʼabʼ Hix that a ruler of El Resbalón declared himself to be a vassal of Kaan in 529, as the one clear date on the El Resbalón hieroglyphic stairway is 529.

Family
Wife of Tuun Kʼabʼ Hix was Queen Ix Ekʼ Naah ("Lady Star House").

In 520 their daughter traveled to La Corona to marry a lord of that site.

Mother-in-law of Tuun Kʼabʼ Hix was Lady Bʼakabʼ.

References

Category:Kings of Calakmul
Category:6th century in the Maya civilization
Category:6th-century monarchs in North America
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:6th-century deaths


Chopra, Uttar Dinajpur

Chopra is a census town in Chopra CD Block in Islampur subdivision of Uttar Dinajpur district in the state of West Bengal, India.

Geography

Location
Chopra is located at .

In the map alongside, all places marked on the map are linked in the full screen version.

Police station
Chopra police station under West Bengal police has jurisdiction over Chopra CD Block. It is 145 km from the district headquarters and covers an area of 378.40 km2.

CD block HQ
The headquarters of Chopra CD block is at Chopra.

Demographics
As per the 2011 Census of India, Chopra had a total population of 5,777, of which 2,997 (52%) were males and 2,780 (48%) were females. The population below 6 years was 841. The total number of literates in Chopra was 3,388 (68.64% of the population over 6 years).

Transport
National Highway 27 passes through Chopra.

Education
Chopra Kamala Paul Smriti Mahavidyalaya was established in 2013-14 at Chopra. Affiliated to the North Bengal University, it offers honours courses in Bengali, history and political science. Urdu is taught as a general subject.

Chopra High School is a Bengali-medium coeducational higher secondary school established in 1968. Housed in a government building it has facilities for teaching from class VI to XII. It has 18 computers, a library and a playground.

Chopra Girls High School is Bengali-medium girls only higher secondary school established in 1979. Housed in a government building it has facilities for teaching from class VI to XII. It has 11 computers, a library and a playground.

Healthcare
Dalua rural hospital at Dalua (with 30 beds), the main medical facility in Chopra CD block, is located nearby.

Personalities

Mustaque Alam has become a Judge from Chopra. He was born in the year 1989 at Chopra. He passed his Madhyamik Exam from Chopra High School and completed his B. A. L. L. B. Course from the University of Calcutta. He passed the West Bengal Judicial Service Exam in 2015 and was appointed as a Civil Judge /Judicial Magistrate (first class). He is presently posted in Siliguri.

Chopra Nagorik Committee

A brutal rape case came into light at 2012 at Chopra for the first time in the history of Chopra. People were frightened and people formed the Chopra Nagorik Committee to protest unitedly against any misdeeds at present or in future. Mustaque Alam, an advocate of the High Court at Calcutta and Alok Sarkar, a reporter of AAJKAL Bengali daily founded Chopra Nagorik Committee (CNC). A student of Chopra Girls High School while returning home from school was abducted and raped mercilessly in a tea garden near Kalagach. Mustaque, Alok and Abhijit took out a protest rally against the brutal rape and their mouths were tied with black tags. People from all class joined the rally independently and demanded the arrest and punishment of the accused. The accused was arrested within a week.

Mustaque became the founder Secretary and Alok the founder President of Chopra Nagorik Committee.

After the rape case the Committee raised its voice for Thetor Majhi, a 75-year-old man living below the poverty line who was not getting old age pension because he was marked as dead in the Government records though he was alive. Chopra Nagorik Committee raised the issue strongly and media also take the issue seriously. He was deprived of all government benefits as he was dead in the eye of law. About 800 more people, according to an investigation report, were deprived likewise. The agitation of Chopra Nagorik Committee helped them to get justice and they again got their life in the government records and started getting their pensions and benefits of other government schemes as well.

Besides agitation and protest movements Chopra Nagorik Committee used to perform some programmes every year i.e. felicitate the meritorious students of the block and the people of various field who had done beneficial work for Chopra, giving award to the sera Durga Puja Committees, organizing Legal Aid programs, cultural programs, supplying books to the needy meritorious students, Pradip Kumar Smiriti Swarak Boktrita etc.

Chopra Nagorik Committee has such a place in the mind of people of Chopra that whenever any injustice is done to any member of the society, its reported to the members of C.N.C.

Dalua mela and Syed Saroor Ahmed

Most famous religious place for Hindu people is the Dalua Shivmandir. It is situated on the bank of Dock river in Dalua. Every year on Maghipurnima, a fair (locally known as "Dalua mela") is held. This Mela is more than 130 years old.

The most famous religious place for the Muslims is the Haptiagachh Mazar Sharif, situated under Haptiagachh GP of Chopra Block. The Mazar is of Hazrat Syed Shah Manzoor Ahmed and Hazrat Syed Shah Shahood Ahmed. The father and the son are known as Pir Sahabs (Sufi saints) who are of Silsila Kadriya and blood relations of Muhammad. The yearly URS MUBARAK of Hazrat Syed Shah Manzoor Ahmed and Hazrat Syed Shah Shahood Ahmed are held on 1 and 2 March every year. Thousands of people come to get blessings on the said dates across West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar, Jharkhand specially Hazaribagh. Both the Pir Sahabs has many MURIDANS (followers). Both the father and the son is known to be WALI-A-KUTUB. Now Syed Shah Saroor Ahmed is the Gaddinashin. So he is the Pirzada and Sajjadah Nashin. He used to live at Khanquah Alia Quadria Manzooria, Barabilla under Haptiagachh Gram Panchayat.

References

Category:Cities and towns in Uttar Dinajpur district


Music technology

Music technology is the study or the use of any device, mechanism, machine or tool by a musician or composer to make or perform music; to compose, notate, play back or record songs or pieces; or to analyze or edit  music. The earliest known applications of technology to music was prehistoric peoples' use of a tool to hand-drill holes in bones to make simple flutes. Ancient Egyptians developed stringed instruments, such as harps, lyres and lutes, which required making thin strings and some type of peg system for adjusting the pitch of the strings. Ancient Egyptians also used wind instruments such as double clarinets and percussion instruments such as cymbals. In Ancient Greece, instruments included the double-reed aulos and the lyre. Numerous instruments are referred to in the Bible, including the horn, pipe, lyre, harp, and bagpipe. During Biblical times, the cornet, flute, horn, organ, pipe, and trumpet were also used. During the Middle Ages, music notation was used to create a written record of the notes of plainchant melodies.

During the Renaissance music era, the printing press was invented, which made it much easier to mass-produce music (which had previously been hand-copied). This helped to spread musical styles more quickly and across a larger area. During the Baroque era (1600–1750), technologies for keyboard instruments developed, which led to improvements in the designs of pipe organs and harpsichords, and the development of a new keyboard instrument in about 1700, the piano. In the classical era, Beethoven added new instruments to the orchestra to create new sounds, such as the piccolo, contrabassoon, trombones, and untuned percussion in his Ninth Symphony. During the Romantic music era (c. 1810–1900), one of the key ways that new compositions became known to the public was by the sales of sheet music, which amateur music lovers would perform at home on their piano or other instruments. In the 19th century, new instruments such as saxophones, euphoniums, Wagner tubas, and cornets were added to the orchestra.

Around the turn of the 20th century, with the invention and popularization of the gramophone record (commercialized in 1892), and radio broadcasting (starting on a commercial basis ca. 1919-1920), there was a vast increase in music listening, and it was easier to distribute music to a wider public. The development of sound recording had a major influence on the development of popular music genres, because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely distributed.  The invention of sound recording gave rise to new subgenre of classical music, the Musique concrete style of electronic composition. The invention of multitrack recording enabled pop bands to overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals, creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live performance. In the early 20th century, electric technologies such as electromagnetic pickups, amplifiers and loudspeakers were used to develop new electric instruments such as the electric piano (1929), electric guitar (1931), electro-mechanical organ (1934) and electric bass (1935). The 20th-century orchestra gained new instruments and new sounds. Some orchestra pieces used the electric guitar, electric bass or the Theremin.

The invention of the miniature transistor in 1947 enabled the creation of a new generation of synthesizers, which were used first in pop music in the 1960s. Unlike prior keyboard instrument technologies, synthesizer keyboards do not have strings, pipes, or metal tines. A synthesizer keyboard creates musical sounds using electronic circuitry, or, later, computer chips and software. Synthesizers became popular in the mass market in the early 1980s. With the development of powerful microchips, a number of new electronic or digital music technologies were introduced in the 1980s and subsequent decades, including drum machines and music sequencers. Electronic and digital music technologies are any device, such as a computer, an electronic effects unit or software, that is used by a musician or composer to help make or perform music. The term usually refers to the use of electronic devices, computer hardware and computer software that is used in the performance, playback, recording, composition, sound recording and reproduction, mixing, analysis and editing of music. Vai à merda

Mechanical technologies

Prehistoric eras

Findings from paleolithic archaeology sites suggest that prehistoric people used carving and piercing tools to create instruments. Archeologists have found Paleolithic flutes carved from bones in which lateral holes have been pierced. The Divje Babe flute, carved from a cave bear femur, is thought to be at least 40,000 years old. Instruments such as the seven-holed flute and various types of stringed instruments, such as the Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilization archaeological sites. India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (marga) are found in the Vedas, ancient scriptures of the Hindu tradition. The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BC.

Ancient Egypt

In prehistoric Egypt, music and chanting were commonly used in magic and rituals, and small shells were used as whistles. Evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to the Predynastic period, when funerary chants played an important role in Egyptian religion and were accompanied by clappers and possibly the flute. The most reliable evidence of instrument technologies dates from the Old Kingdom, when technologies for constructing harps, flutes and double clarinets were developed. Percussion instruments, lyres and lutes were used by the Middle Kingdom. Metal cymbals were used by ancient Egyptians. In the early 21st century, interest in the music of the pharaonic period began to grow, inspired by the research of such foreign-born musicologists as Hans Hickmann. By the early 21st century, Egyptian musicians and musicologists led by the musicology professor Khairy El-Malt at Helwan University in Cairo had begun to reconstruct musical instruments of Ancient Egypt, a project that is ongoing.

Indus Valley
The Indus Valley civilization has sculptures that show old musical instruments, like the seven-holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums have been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.

References in the Bible

According to the Scriptures, Jubal was the father of harpists and organists (Gen. 4:20–21). The harp was among the chief instruments and the favorite of David, and it is referred to more than fifty times in the Bible. It was used at both joyful and mournful ceremonies, and its use was "raised to its highest perfection under David" (1 Sam. 16:23). Lockyer adds that "It was the sweet music of the harp that often dispossessed Saul of his melancholy (1 Sam. 16:14–23; 18:10–11). When the Jews were captive in Babylon they hung their harps up and refused to use them while in exile, earlier being part of the instruments used in the Temple (1 Kgs. 10:12). Another stringed instrument of the harp class, and one also used by the ancient Greeks, was the lyre.  A similar instrument was the lute, which had a large pear-shaped body, long neck, and fretted fingerboard with head screws for tuning. Coins displaying musical instruments, the Bar Kochba Revolt coinage, were issued by the Jews during the Second Jewish Revolt against the Roman Empire of 132–135 AD. In addition to those, there was the psaltery, another stringed instrument which is referred to almost thirty times in Scripture. According to Josephus, it had twelve strings and was played with a quill, not with the hand. Another writer suggested that it was like a guitar, but with a flat triangular form and strung from side to side.

Among the wind instruments used in the biblical period were the cornet, flute, horn, organ, pipe, and trumpet. There were also silver trumpets and the double oboe. Werner concludes that from the measurements taken of the trumpets on the Arch of Titus in Rome and from coins, that "the trumpets were very high pitched with thin body and shrill sound." He adds that in War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, a manual for military organization and strategy discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls, these trumpets "appear clearly capable of regulating their pitch pretty accurately, as they are supposed to blow rather complicated signals in unison." Whitcomb writes that the pair of silver trumpets were fashioned according to Mosaic law and were probably among the trophies which the Emperor Titus brought to Rome when he conquered Jerusalem. She adds that on the Arch raised to the victorious Titus, "there is a sculptured relief of these trumpets, showing their ancient form. (see photo)

The flute was commonly used for festal and mourning occasions, according to Whitcomb. "Even the poorest Hebrew was obliged to employ two flute-players to perform at his wife's funeral." The shofar (the horn of a ram) is still used for special liturgical purposes such as the Jewish New Year services in orthodox communities. As such, it is not considered a musical instrument but an instrument of theological symbolism which has been intentionally kept to its primitive character. In ancient times it was used for warning of danger, to announce the new moon or beginning of Sabbath, or to announce the death of a notable. "In its strictly ritual usage it carried the cries of the multitude to God," writes Werner.

Among the percussion instruments were bells, cymbals, sistrum, tabret, hand drums, and tambourines. The tabret, or timbrel, was a small hand-drum used for festive occasions, and was considered a woman's instrument. In modern times it was often used by the Salvation Army. According to the Bible, when the children of Israel came out of Egypt and crossed the Red Sea, "Miriam took a timbrel in her hands; and all the women went out after her with timbrels and with dance."

Ancient Greece

In Ancient Greece, instruments in all music can be divided into three categories, based on how sound is produced: string, wind, and percussion. The following were among the instruments used in the music of ancient Greece:

the lyre: a strummed and occasionally plucked string instrument, essentially a hand-held zither built on a tortoise-shell frame, generally with seven or more strings tuned to the notes of one of the modes. The lyre was used to accompany others or even oneself for recitation and song.
the kithara, also a strummed string instrument, more complicated than the lyre. It had a box-type frame with strings stretched from the cross-bar at the top to the sounding box at the bottom; it was held upright and played with a plectrum. The strings were tunable by adjusting wooden wedges along the cross-bar.
 the aulos, usually double, consisting of two double-reed (like an oboe) pipes, not joined but generally played with a mouth-band to hold both pipes steadily between the player's lips. Modern reconstructions indicate that they produced a low, clarinet-like sound. There is some confusion about the exact nature of the instrument; alternate descriptions indicate single-reeds instead of double reeds.
 the Pan pipes, also known as panflute and syrinx (Greek συριγξ), (so-called for the nymph  who was changed into a reed in order to hide from Pan) is an ancient musical instrument based on the principle of the stopped pipe, consisting of a series of such pipes of gradually increasing length, tuned (by cutting) to a desired scale. Sound is produced by blowing across the top of the open pipe (like blowing across a bottle top).
 the hydraulis, a keyboard instrument, the forerunner of the modern organ. As the name indicates, the instrument used water to supply a constant flow of pressure to the pipes. Two detailed descriptions have survived: that of Vitruvius  and Heron of Alexandria. These descriptions deal primarily with the keyboard mechanism and with the device by which the instrument was supplied with air. A well-preserved model in pottery was found at Carthage in 1885. Essentially, the air to the pipes that produce the sound comes from a wind-chest connected by a pipe to a dome; air is pumped in to compress water, and the water rises in the dome, compressing the air, and causing a steady supply of air to the pipes.

In the Aeneid,  Virgil makes numerous references to the trumpet. The lyre, kithara, aulos, hydraulis (water organ) and trumpet all found their way into the music of ancient Rome.

Roman Empire

The Romans may have borrowed the Greek method of 'enchiriadic notation' to record their music, if they used any notation at all. Four letters (in English notation 'A', 'G', 'F' and 'C') indicated a series of four succeeding tones. Rhythm signs, written above the letters, indicated the duration of each note. Roman art depicts various woodwinds, "brass", percussion and stringed instruments.  Roman-style instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate, and indicate that music was among the aspects of Roman culture that spread throughout the provinces.

Roman instruments include:
The Roman tuba was a long, straight bronze trumpet with a detachable, conical mouthpiece. Extant examples are about 1.3 metres long, and have a cylindrical bore from the mouthpiece to the point where the bell flares abruptly, similar to the modern straight trumpet seen in presentations of 'period music'. Since there were no valves, the tuba was capable only of a single overtone series. In the military, it was used for "bugle calls". The tuba is also depicted in art such as mosaics accompanying games (ludi) and spectacle events.
The cornu (Latin "horn") was a long tubular metal wind instrument that curved around the musician's body, shaped rather like an uppercase G.  It had a conical bore (again like a French horn) and a conical mouthpiece. It may be hard to distinguish from the buccina. The cornu was used for military signals and on parade. The cornicen was a military signal officer who translated orders into calls. Like the tuba, the cornu also appears as accompaniment for public events and spectacle entertainments.
The tibia (Greek aulos - αὐλός), usually double, had two double-reed (as in a modern oboe) pipes, not joined but generally played with a mouth-band capistrum to hold both pipes steadily between the player's lips.
The askaules — a bagpipe.
Versions of the modern flute and panpipes.
The lyre, borrowed from the Greeks, was not a harp, but instead had a sounding body of wood or a tortoise shell covered with skin, and arms of animal horn or wood, with strings stretched from a cross bar to the sounding body.
The cithara was the premier musical instrument of ancient Rome and was played both in popular and elevated forms of music. Larger and heavier than a lyre, the cithara was a loud, sweet and piercing instrument with precision tuning ability.
The lute (pandura or monochord) was known by several names among the Greeks and Romans. In construction, the lute differs from the lyre in having fewer strings stretched over a solid neck or fret-board, on which the strings can be stopped to produce graduated notes. Each lute string is thereby capable of producing a greater range of notes than a lyre string. Although long-necked lutes are depicted in art from Mesopotamia as early as 2340–2198 BC, and also occur in Egyptian iconography, the lute  in the Greco-Roman world was far less common than the lyre and cithara. The lute of the medieval West is thought to owe more to the Arab oud, from which its name derives (al ʿūd).
 The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis), which worked by water pressure, was "one of the most significant technical and musical achievements of antiquity". Essentially, the air to the pipes that produce the sound comes from a mechanism of a wind-chest connected by a pipe to a dome; air is pumped in to compress water, and the water rises in the dome, compressing the air and causing a steady supply to reach the pipes (also see Pipe organ#History). The hydraulis accompanied gladiator contests and events in the arena, as well as stage performances.
Variations of a hinged wooden or metal device, called a scabellum used to beat time. Also, there were various rattles, bells and tambourines.
Drum and percussion instruments like timpani and castanets, the Egyptian sistrum, and brazen pans, served various musical and other purposes in ancient Rome, including backgrounds for rhythmic dance, celebratory rites like those of the Bacchantes and military uses.
The sistrum was a rattle consisting of rings strung across the cross-bars of a metal frame, which was often used for ritual purposes.
Cymbala (Lat. plural of cymbalum, from the Greek kymbalon) were small cymbals: metal discs with concave centres and turned rims, used in pairs which were clashed together.

Islamic world

A number of musical instruments later used in medieval European music were influenced by Arabic musical instruments, including the rebec (an ancestor of the violin) from the rebab and the naker from naqareh. Many European instruments have roots in earlier Eastern instruments that were adopted from the Islamic world. The Arabic rabāb, also known as the spiked fiddle, is the earliest known bowed string instrument and the ancestor of all European bowed instruments, including the rebec, the Byzantine lyra, and the violin.

The plucked and bowed versions of the rebab existed alongside each other. The bowed instruments became the rebec or rabel and the plucked instruments became the gittern. Curt Sachs linked this instrument with the mandola, the kopuz and the gambus, and named the bowed version rabâb.

The Arabic oud in Islamic music was the direct ancestor of the European lute. The oud is also cited as a precursor to the modern guitar. The guitar has roots in the four-string oud, brought to Iberia by the Moors in the 8th century. A direct ancestor of the modern guitar is the  (Moorish guitar), which was in use in Spain by 1200. By the 14th century, it was simply referred to as a guitar.

The origin of automatic musical instruments dates back to the 9th century, when the Persian Banū Mūsā brothers invented a hydropowered organ using exchangeable cylinders with pins, and also an automatic flute playing machine using steam power. These were the earliest automated mechanical musical instruments. The Banu Musa brothers' automatic flute player was the first programmable musical device, the first music sequencer, and the first example of repetitive music technology, powered by hydraulics.

In 1206, the Arab engineer Al-Jazari invented a programmable humanoid automata band. According to Charles B. Fowler, the automata were a "robot band" which performed "more than fifty facial and body actions during each musical selection." It was also the first programmable drum machine. Among the four automaton musicians, two were drummers. It was a drum machine where pegs (cams) bump into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummers could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.

Middle Ages

During the medieval music era (476 to 1400) the plainchant tunes used for religious songs were primarily monophonic (a single line, unaccompanied melody). In the early centuries of the medieval era, these chants were taught and spread by oral tradition ("by ear"). The earliest Medieval music did not have any kind of notational system for writing down melodies. As Rome tried to standardize the various chants across vast distances of its empire, a form of music notation was needed to write down the melodies. Various signs written above the chant texts, called neumes were introduced. By the ninth century, it was firmly established as the primary method of musical notation. The next development in musical notation was "heighted neumes", in which neumes were carefully placed at different heights in relation to each other. This allowed the neumes to give a rough indication of the size of a given interval as well as the direction.

This quickly led to one or two lines, each representing a particular note, being placed on the music with all of the neumes relating back to them. The line or lines acted as a reference point to help the singer gauge which notes were higher or lower. At first, these lines had no particular meaning and instead had a letter placed at the beginning indicating which note was represented. However, the lines indicating middle C and the F a fifth below slowly became most common. The completion of the four-line staff is usually credited to Guido d' Arezzo (c. 1000-1050), one of the most important musical theorists of the Middle Ages. The neumatic notational system, even in its fully developed state, did not clearly define any kind of rhythm for the singing of notes or playing of melodies. The development of music notation made it faster and easier to teach melodies to new people, and facilitated the spread of music over long geographic distances.

Instruments used to perform medieval music include earlier, less mechanically sophisticated versions of a number of instruments that continue to be used in the 2010s. Medieval instruments include the flute, which was made of wood and could be made as a side-blown or end-blown instrument (it lacked the complex metal keys and airtight pads of 2010s-era metal flutes); the wooden recorder and the related instrument called the gemshorn; and the pan flute (a group of air columns attached together). Medieval music used many plucked string instruments like the lute, mandore, gittern and psaltery. The dulcimers, similar in structure to the psaltery and zither, were originally plucked, but became struck by hammers in the 14th century after the arrival of new technology that made metal strings possible.

Bowed strings were used as well. The bowed lyra of the Byzantine Empire was the first recorded European bowed string instrument. The Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih of the 9th century (d. 911) cited the Byzantine lyra as a bowed instrument equivalent to the Arab rabāb and typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre) and the salandj (probably a bagpipe). The hurdy-gurdy was a mechanical violin using a rosined wooden wheel attached to a crank to "bow" its strings. Instruments without sound boxes like the jaw harp were also popular in the time. Early versions of the organ, fiddle (or vielle), and trombone (called the sackbut) existed in the medieval era.

Renaissance
The Renaissance music era (c. 1400 to 1600) saw the development of many new technologies that affected the performance and distribution of songs and musical pieces. Around 1450, the printing press was invented, which made printed sheet music much less expensive and easier to mass-produce (prior to the invention of the printing press, all notated music was laboriously hand-copied). The increased availability of printed sheet music helped to spread musical styles more quickly and across a larger geographic area.

Many instruments originated during the Renaissance; others were variations of, or improvements upon, instruments that had existed previously in the medieval era. Brass instruments in the Renaissance were traditionally played by professionals. Some of the more common brass instruments that were played included:

Slide trumpet: Similar to the trombone of today except that instead of a section of the body sliding, only a small part of the body near the mouthpiece and the mouthpiece itself is stationary.
Cornett: Made of wood and was played like the recorder, but blown like a trumpet.
Trumpet: Early trumpets from the Renaissance era had no valves, and were limited to the tones present in the overtone series. They were also made in different sizes.
Sackbut: A different name for the trombone, which replaced the slide trumpet by the middle of the 15th century

Stringed instruments included:
Viol: This instrument, developed in the 15th century, commonly has six strings. It was usually played with a bow.
Lyre: Its construction is similar to a small harp, although instead of being plucked, it is strummed with a plectrum. Its strings varied in quantity from four, seven, and ten, depending on the era. It was played with the right hand, while the left hand silenced the notes that were not desired. Newer lyres were modified to be played with a bow.
Hurdy-gurdy: (Also known as the wheel fiddle), in which the strings are sounded by a wheel which the strings pass over. Its functionality can be compared to that of a mechanical violin, in that its bow (wheel) is turned by a crank. Its distinctive sound is mainly because of its "drone strings" which provide a constant pitch similar in their sound to that of bagpipes.
Gittern and mandore: these instruments were used throughout Europe. Forerunners of modern instruments including the mandolin and acoustic guitar.

Percussion instruments included:
Tambourine: The tambourine is a frame drum equipped with jingles that produce a sound when the drum is struck.
Jew's harp: An instrument that produces sound using shapes of the mouth and attempting to pronounce different vowels with ones mouth.

Woodwind instruments included:

Shawm: A typical shawm is keyless and is about a foot long with seven finger holes and a thumb hole. The pipes were also most commonly made of wood and many of them had carvings and decorations on them. It was the most popular double reed instrument of the Renaissance period; it was commonly used in the streets with drums and trumpets because of its brilliant, piercing, and often deafening sound. To play the shawm a person puts the entire reed in their mouth, puffs out their cheeks, and blows into the pipe whilst breathing through their nose.

Reed pipe: Made from a single short length of cane with a mouthpiece, four or five finger holes, and reed fashioned from it. The reed is made by cutting out a small tongue, but leaving the base attached. It is the predecessor of the saxophone and the clarinet.
Hornpipe: Same as reed pipe but with a bell at the end.
Bagpipe/Bladderpipe: It used a bag made out of sheep or goat skin that would provide air pressure for a pipe. When its player takes a breath, the player only needs to squeeze the bag tucked underneath their arm to continue the tone. The mouth pipe has a simple round piece of leather hinged on to the bag end of the pipe and acts like a non-return valve.  The reed is located inside the long metal mouthpiece, known as a bocal.
Panpipe: Designed to have sixteen wooden tubes with a stopper at one end and open on the other. Each tube is a different size (thereby producing a different tone), giving it a range of an octave and a half. The player can then place their lips against the desired tube and blow across it.
Transverse flute: The transverse flute is similar to the modern flute with a mouth hole near the stoppered end and finger holes along the body. The player blows in the side and holds the flute to the right side.
Recorder: It uses a whistle mouth piece, which is a beak shaped mouth piece, as its main source of sound production. It is usually made with seven finger holes and a thumb hole.

Baroque
During the Baroque era of music (ca. 1600-1750), technologies for keyboard instruments developed, which led to improvements in the designs of pipe organs and harpsichords, and to the development of the first pianos. During the Baroque period, organ builders developed new types of pipes and reeds that created new tonal colors. Organ builders fashioned new stops that imitated various instruments, such as the viola da gamba. The Baroque period is often thought of as organ building's "golden age," as virtually every important refinement to the instrument was brought to a peak. Builders such as Arp Schnitger, Jasper Johannsen, Zacharias Hildebrandt and Gottfried Silbermann constructed instruments that displayed both exquisite craftsmanship and beautiful sound. These organs featured well-balanced mechanical key actions, giving the organist precise control over the pipe speech. Schnitger's organs featured particularly distinctive reed timbres and large Pedal and Rückpositiv divisions.

Harpsichord builders in the Southern Netherlands built instruments with two keyboards which could be used for transposition. These Flemish instruments served as the model for Baroque-era harpsichord construction in other nations.  In France, the double keyboards were adapted to control different choirs of strings, making a more musically flexible instrument (e.g., the upper manual could be set to a quiet lute stop, while the lower manual could be set to a stop with multiple string choirs, for a louder sound).  Instruments from the peak of the French tradition, by makers such as the Blanchet family and Pascal Taskin, are among the most widely admired of all harpsichords, and are frequently used as models for the construction of modern instruments.  In England, the Kirkman and Shudi firms produced sophisticated harpsichords of great power and sonority.  German builders extended the sound repertoire of the instrument by adding sixteen foot choirs, adding to the lower register and two foot choirs, which added to the upper register.

The piano was invented during the Baroque era by the expert harpsichord maker Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731) of Padua, Italy, who was employed by Ferdinando de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany. Cristofori invented the piano at some point before 1700. While the clavichord allowed expressive control of volume, with harder or louder key presses creating  louder sound (and vice versa) and fairly sustained notes, it was too quiet for large performances. The harpsichord produced a sufficiently loud sound, but offered little expressive control over each note. Pressing a harpsichord key harder or softer had no effect on the instrument's loudness. The piano offered the best of both, combining loudness with dynamic control. Cristofori's great success was solving, with no prior example, the fundamental mechanical problem of piano design: the hammer must strike the string, but not remain in contact with it (as a tangent remains in contact with a clavichord string) because this would damp the sound. Moreover, the hammer must return to its rest position without bouncing violently, and it must be possible to repeat the same note rapidly. Cristofori's piano action was a model for the many approaches to piano actions that followed. Cristofori's early instruments were much louder and had more sustain than the clavichord. Even though the piano was invented in 1700, the harpsichord and pipe organ continued to be widely used in orchestra and chamber music concerts until the end of the 1700s. It took time for the new piano to gain in popularity. By 1800, though, the piano generally was used in place of the harpsichord (although pipe organ continued to be used in church music such as Masses).

Classicism

From about 1790 onward, the Mozart-era piano underwent tremendous changes that led to the modern form of the instrument. This revolution was in response to a preference by composers and pianists for a more powerful, sustained piano sound, and made possible by the ongoing Industrial Revolution with resources such as high-quality steel piano wire for strings, and precision casting for the production of iron frames. Over time, the tonal range of the piano was also increased from the five octaves of Mozart's day to the 7-plus range found on modern pianos.
Early technological progress owed much to the firm of Broadwood. John Broadwood joined with another Scot, Robert Stodart, and a Dutchman, Americus Backers, to design a piano in the harpsichord case—the origin of the "grand". They achieved this in about 1777. They quickly gained a reputation for the splendour and powerful tone of their instruments, with Broadwood constructing ones that were progressively larger, louder, and more robustly constructed.

They sent pianos to both Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven, and were the first firm to build pianos with a range of more than five octaves: five octaves and a fifth (interval) during the 1790s, six octaves by 1810 (Beethoven used the extra notes in his later works), and seven octaves by 1820. The Viennese makers similarly followed these trends; however the two schools used different piano actions: Broadwoods were more robust, Viennese instruments were more sensitive.

Beethoven's instrumentation for orchestra added piccolo, contrabassoon, and trombones  to the triumphal finale of his Symphony No. 5. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help deliver storm and sunshine in the Sixth. Beethoven's use of piccolo, contrabassoon, trombones, and untuned percussion in his Ninth Symphony expanded the sound of the orchestra.

Romanticism
During the Romantic music era (c. 1810 to 1900), one of the key ways that new compositions became known to the public was by the sales of sheet music, which amateur music lovers would perform at home on their piano or in chamber music groups, such as string quartets. Saxophones began to appear in some 19th-century orchestra scores. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example Maurice Ravel's orchestration of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition and Sergei Rachmaninoff's Symphonic Dances, the saxophone is included in other works, such as Ravel's Boléro, Sergei Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet Suites 1 and 2. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th-century works, usually playing parts marked "tenor tuba", including Gustav Holst's The Planets, and Richard Strauss's Ein Heldenleben. The Wagner tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears in Richard Wagner's cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and several other works by Strauss, Béla Bartók, and others; it has a prominent role in Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 in E Major. Cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debussy's La Mer, and several orchestral works by Hector Berlioz.

The piano continued to undergo technological developments in the Romantic era, up until the 1860s. By the 1820s, the center of piano building innovation had shifted to Paris, where the Pleyel firm manufactured pianos used by Frédéric Chopin and the Érard firm manufactured those used by Franz Liszt. In 1821, Sébastien Érard invented the double escapement action, which incorporated a repetition lever (also called the balancier) that permitted repeating a note even if the key had not yet risen to its maximum vertical position. This facilitated rapid playing of repeated notes, a musical device exploited by Liszt. When the invention became public, as revised by Henri Herz, the double escapement action gradually became standard in grand pianos, and is still incorporated into all grand pianos currently produced.
Other improvements of the mechanism included the use of felt hammer coverings instead of layered leather or cotton. Felt, which was first introduced by Jean-Henri Pape in 1826, was a more consistent material, permitting wider dynamic ranges as hammer weights and string tension increased. The sostenuto pedal, invented in 1844 by Jean-Louis Boisselot and copied by the Steinway firm in 1874, allowed a wider range of effects.

One innovation that helped create the sound of the modern piano was the use of a strong iron frame. Also called the "plate", the iron frame sits atop the soundboard, and serves as the primary bulwark against the force of string tension that can exceed 20 tons in a modern grand. The single piece cast iron frame was patented in 1825 in Boston by Alpheus Babcock, combining the metal hitch pin plate (1821, claimed by Broadwood on behalf of Samuel Hervé) and resisting bars (Thom and Allen, 1820, but also claimed by Broadwood and Érard). The increased structural integrity of the iron frame allowed the use of thicker, tenser, and more numerous strings. In 1834, the Webster & Horsfal firm of Birmingham brought out a form of piano wire made from cast steel; according to Dolge it was "so superior to the iron wire that the English firm soon had a monopoly."

Other important advances included changes to the way the piano is strung, such as the use of a "choir" of three strings rather than two for all but the lowest notes, and the implementation of an over-strung scale, in which the strings are placed in two separate planes, each with its own bridge height. The mechanical action structure of the upright piano was invented in London, England in 1826 by Robert Wornum, and upright models became the most popular model, also amplifying the sound.

20th- and 21st-century music

With 20th-century music, there was a vast increase in music listening, as the radio gained popularity and phonographs were used to replay and distribute music. The invention of sound recording and the ability to edit music gave rise to new subgenre of classical music, including the acousmatic and Musique concrète schools of electronic composition. Sound recording was also a major influence on the development of popular music genres, because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely distributed. The introduction of the multitrack recording system had a major influence on rock music, because it could do much more than record a band's performance. Using a multitrack system, a band and their music producer could overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals, creating new sounds that would not be possible in a live performance.

The 20th-century orchestra was far more flexible than its predecessors. In Beethoven's and Felix Mendelssohn's time, the orchestra was composed of a fairly standard core of instruments which was very rarely modified. As time progressed, and as the Romantic period saw changes in accepted modification with composers such as Berlioz and Mahler, the 20th century saw that instrumentation could practically be hand-picked by the composer. Saxophones were used in some 20th-century orchestra scores such as Vaughan Williams' Symphonies No.6 and 9 and William Walton's Belshazzar's Feast, and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. In the 2000s, the modern orchestra became standardized with the modern instrumentation that includes a string section, woodwinds, brass instruments, percussion, piano, celeste, and even, for some 20th century or 21st century works, electric instruments such as electric guitar, electric bass and/or electronic instruments such as the Theremin or synthesizer.

Electric and electro-mechanical

Electric music technology refers to musical instruments and recording devices that use electrical circuits, which are often combined with mechanical technologies. Examples of electric musical instruments include the electro-mechanical electric piano (invented in 1929), the electric guitar (invented in 1931), the electro-mechanical Hammond organ (developed in 1934) and the electric bass (invented in 1935). None of these electric instruments produce a sound that is audible by the performer or audience in a performance setting unless they are connected to instrument amplifiers and loudspeaker cabinets, which made them sound loud enough for performers and the audience to hear. Amplifiers and loudspeakers are separate from the instrument in the case of the electric guitar (which uses a guitar amplifier), electric bass (which uses a bass amplifier) and some electric organs (which use a Leslie speaker or similar cabinet) and electric pianos. Some electric organs and electric pianos include the amplifier and speaker cabinet within the main housing for the instrument.

Electric piano

An electric piano is an electric musical instrument which produces sounds when a performer presses the keys of the piano-style musical keyboard. Pressing keys causes mechanical hammers to strike metal strings or tines, leading to vibrations which are converted into electrical signals by magnetic pickups, which are then connected to an instrument amplifier and loudspeaker to make a sound loud enough for the performer and audience to hear. Unlike a synthesizer, the electric piano is not an electronic instrument. Instead, it is an electro-mechanical instrument. Some early electric pianos used lengths of wire to produce the tone, like a traditional piano. Smaller electric pianos used short slivers of steel, metal tines or short wires to produce the tone. The earliest electric pianos were invented in the late 1920s.

Electric guitar

An electric guitar is a guitar that uses a pickup to convert the vibration of its strings into electrical impulses. The most common guitar pickup uses the principle of direct electromagnetic induction. The signal generated by an electric guitar is too weak to drive a loudspeaker, so it is amplified before being sent to a loudspeaker. The output of an electric guitar is an electric signal, and the signal can easily be altered by electronic circuits to add "color" to the sound. Often the signal is modified using electronic effects such as reverb and distortion. Invented in 1931, the electric guitar became a necessity as jazz guitarists sought to amplify their sound in the big band format.

Hammond organ

The Hammond organ is an electric organ, invented by Laurens Hammond and John M. Hanert and first manufactured in 1935. Various models have been produced, most of which use sliding drawbars to create a variety of sounds. Until 1975, Hammond organs generated sound by creating an electric current from rotating a metal tonewheel near an electromagnetic pickup. Around two million Hammond organs have been manufactured, and it has been described as one of the most successful organs. The organ is commonly used with, and associated with, the Leslie speaker. The organ was originally marketed and sold by the Hammond Organ Company to churches as a lower-cost alternative to the wind-driven pipe organ, or instead of a piano. It quickly became popular with professional jazz bandleaders, who found that the room-filling sound of a Hammond organ could form small bands such as organ trios which were less costly than paying an entire big band.

Electric bass
The electric bass (or bass guitar) was invented in the 1930s, but it did not become commercially successful or widely used until the 1950s. It is a stringed instrument played primarily with the fingers or thumb, by plucking, slapping, popping, strumming, tapping, thumping, or picking with a plectrum, often known as a pick. The bass guitar is similar in appearance and construction to an electric guitar, but with a longer neck and scale length, and four to six strings or courses. The electric bass usually uses metal strings and an electromagnetic pickup which senses the vibrations in the strings. Like the electric guitar, the bass guitar is plugged into an amplifier and speaker for live performances.

Electronic or digital

Electronic or digital music technology is any device, such as a computer, an electronic effects unit or software, that is used by a musician or composer to help make or perform music. The term usually refers to the use of electronic devices, computer hardware and computer software that is used in the performance, playback, recording, composition, sound recording and reproduction, mixing, analysis and editing of music. Electronic or digital music technology is connected to both artistic and technological creativity. Musicians and music technology experts are constantly striving to devise new forms of expression through music, and they are physically creating new devices and software to enable them to do so. Although in the 2010s, the term is most commonly used in reference to modern electronic devices and computer software such as digital audio workstations and Pro Tools digital sound recording software, electronic and digital musical technologies have precursors in the electric music technologies of the early 20th century, such as the electromechanical Hammond organ, which was invented in 1929. In the 2010s, the ontological range of music technology has greatly increased, and it may now be electronic, digital, software-based or indeed even purely conceptual.

A synthesizer is an electronic musical instrument that generates electric signals that are converted to sound through instrument amplifiers and loudspeakers or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate existing sounds (instruments, vocal, natural sounds, etc.), or generate new electronic timbres or sounds that did not exist before. They are often played with an electronic musical keyboard, but they can be controlled via a variety of other input devices, including music sequencers, instrument controllers, fingerboards, guitar synthesizers, wind controllers, and electronic drums. Synthesizers without built-in controllers are often called sound modules, and are controlled using a controller device.

References

Category:Sound recording
Category:Audio electronics
Category:Music history
Category:Musical instruments


Rob Muzzio

Robert ("Rob") Muzzio (born 25 June 1964, in Würzburg, West Germany to American parents) is a retired male decathlete from the United States, who represented Team USA at the 1992 Summer Olympics. He retired in 1996 after fifteen years of competition. His personal best was 8237 points, achieved at the World Championships in 1993. Muzzio attended George Mason University in Fairfax, VA and was the first decathlete in NCAA Division I history to win back-to-back NCAA decathlon titles in 1984 & 85.

Currently, he is the pole vaulting coach for the Track and Field team at Robinson Secondary School in Fairfax, where he attended high school. Rob has a wife, Natalie, and two children, Joey and Maria.

Achievements

References
IAAF Profile

Category:1964 births
Category:Living people
Category:American male decathletes
Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 1992 Summer Olympics
Category:Olympic track and field athletes of the United States
Category:George Mason University alumni


Fourier–Bessel series

In mathematics, Fourier–Bessel series is a particular kind of generalized Fourier series (an infinite series expansion on a finite interval) based on Bessel functions.

Fourier–Bessel series are used in the solution to partial differential equations, particularly in cylindrical coordinate systems. The series formed by the Bessel function of the first kind is known as the Schlömilch's Series.

Definition

The Fourier–Bessel series of a function f(x) with a domain of [0,b] satisfying f(b)=0

is the representation of that function as a linear combination of many orthogonal versions of the same Bessel function of the first kind Jα, where the argument to each version n is differently scaled, according to

where uα,n is a root, numbered n associated with the Bessel function Jα and cn are the assigned coefficients:

Interpretation

The Fourier–Bessel series may be thought of as a Fourier expansion in the ρ coordinate of cylindrical coordinates. Just as the Fourier series is defined for a finite interval and has a counterpart, the continuous Fourier transform over an infinite interval, so the Fourier–Bessel series has a counterpart over an infinite interval, namely the Hankel transform.

Calculating the coefficients

As said, differently scaled Bessel Functions are orthogonal with respect to the inner product

according to

,

(where:  is the Kronecker delta). The coefficients can be obtained from projecting the function f(x) onto the respective Bessel functions:

where the plus or minus sign is equally valid.

Application

The Fourier–Bessel series expansion employs aperiodic and decaying Bessel functions as the basis. The Fourier–Bessel series expansion has been successfully applied in diversified areas such as Gear fault diagnosis, discrimination of odorants in a turbulent ambient, postural stability analysis, detection of voice onset time, glottal closure instants (epoch) detection, separation of speech formants, EEG signal segmentation, speech enhancement, and speaker identification. The Fourier–Bessel series expansion has also been used to reduce cross terms in the Wigner–Ville distribution.

Dini series

A second Fourier–Bessel series, also known as Dini series, is associated with the Robin boundary condition
, where  is an arbitrary constant.
The Dini series can be defined by
,

where  is the nth zero of .

The coefficients  are given by

See also
Orthogonality
Generalized Fourier series
Hankel transform
Neumann polynomial

References

 R.B. Pachori and P. Sircar, Non-stationary signal analysis: Methods based on Fourier-Bessel representation, LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing, Saarbrucken, Germany, 2010, .
 J. Schroeder, Signal processing via Fourier–Bessel series expansion, Digital Signal Process. 3 (1993), 112–124.
 G. D’Elia, S. Delvecchio and G. Dalpiaz, On the use of Fourier–Bessel series expansion for gear diagnostics, Proc. of the Second Int. Conf. Condition Monitoring of Machinery in Non-Stationary Operations (2012), 267-275.
 A. Vergaraa, E. Martinelli, R. Huerta, A. D’Amico and C. Di Natale, Orthogonal decomposition of chemo-sensory signals: Discriminating odorants in a turbulent ambient, Procedia Engineering 25 (2011), 491–494.
 F.S. Gurgen and C. S. Chen, Speech enhancement by Fourier–Bessel coefficients of speech and noise, IEE Proc. Comm. Speech Vis. 137 (1990), 290–294.
 K. Gopalan, T. R. Anderson and E. J. Cupples, A comparison of speaker identification results using features based on cepstrum and Fourier–Bessel expansion, IEEE Trans. Speech Audio Process. 7 (1999), 289–294.
 R.B. Pachori and P. Sircar, Analysis of multicomponent AM-FM signals using FB-DESA method, Digital Signal Processing, vol. 20, pp. 42-62, January 2010.
 R.B. Pachori and P. Sircar, EEG signal analysis using FB expansion and second-order linear TVAR process, Signal Processing, vol. 88, no. 2, pp. 415-420, February 2008.
 R.B. Pachori and P. Sircar, A new technique to reduce cross terms in the Wigner distribution, Digital Signal Processing, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 466-474, March 2007.
 A. Bhattacharyya, L. Singh, and R.B. Pachori, Fourier-Bessel series expansion based empirical wavelet transform for analysis of non-stationary signals, Digital Signal Processing, vol. 78, pp. 185-196, July 2018.
 P. Jain and R.B. Pachori, Event-based method for instantaneous fundamental frequency estimation from voiced speech based on eigenvalue decomposition of Hankel matrix, IEEE/ACM Transactions on Audio, Speech and Language Processing, vol. 22. issue 10, pp. 1467-1482, October 2014.
R.K. Tripathy, A. Bhattacharyya, and R.B. Pachori, A novel approach for detection of myocardial infarction from ECG signals of multiple electrodes, IEEE Sensors Journal, DOI: 10.1109/JSEN.2019.2896308, 2019.
V. Gupta and R.B. Pachori, Epileptic seizure identification using entropy of FBSE based EEG rhythms, Biomedical Signal Processing and Control, DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2019.101569, 2019.
R. Katiyar, V. Gupta, and R.B. Pachori, FBSE-EWT based approach for the determination of respiratory rate from PPG signals, IEEE Sensors Letters, DOI: 10.1109/LSENS.2019.2926834, 2019.
R.K. Tripathy, A. Bhattacharyya, and R.B. Pachori, Localization of myocardial infarction from multi lead electrocardiogram signals using multiscale convolution neural network, IEEE Sensors Journal, DOI: 10.1109/JSEN.2019.2935552, 2019.
P. Gajbhiye, R.K. Tripathy, and R.B. Pachori, Elimination of ocular artifacts from single channel EEG signals using FBSE-EWT based rhythms, IEEE Sensors Journal, 2019.
A.S. Hood, R.B. Pachori, V.K. Reddy, and P. Sircar, Parametric representation of speech employing multi-component AFM signal model, International Journal of Speech Technology, vol. 18, issue 03, pp. 287-303, September 2015.
A. Anuragi, D. Sisodia, and RB Pachori, Automated alcoholism detection using Fourier-Bessel series expansion based empirical wavelet transform, IEEE Sensors Journal, DOI: 10.1109/JSEN.2020.2966766, 2020.

External links

 Fourier–Bessel series applied to Acoustic Field analysis on Trinnov Audio's research page

Category:Fourier series


Globus (hypermarket)

Globus Hypermarket Holding (Globus SB-Warenhaus Holding GmbH & Co. KG) branded as Globus  is a German retail chain of hypermarkets, DIY stores and electronics stores.

History

In 1828 Franz Bruch (1801–1865) opened a grocery store under his own name in Sankt Wendel, a town in northeastern Saarland, Germany. Management of the company passed to his son Joseph Adam Bruch (1837–1905) in 1865. Joseph Karl Bruch (1873–1949), the founder's grandson, took over from his father in 1905. Since then the company has developed from being a retailer only and expanded into wholesale. On 1 February 1949 Joseph died and his two sons, Franz-Josef and Dr Walter Bruch (1913–1999), took over the company, now converted to a limited-liability company. In 1953 the company opened its first self-service grocery at its  headquarters under the name "A. Backhaus KG".

Globus around the world

Gallery

External links
 Globus official website (Germany)
 Globus official website (Czech Republic)
 Globus official website (Russia)

Category:Companies based in Saarland
Category:German brands
Category:Supermarkets of Germany
Category:Supermarkets of Russia
Category:Supermarkets of the Czech Republic


Burleigh Hall

Burleigh Hall was a country house situated near Loughborough in the county of Leicestershire. Its land now forms part of the campus of Loughborough University.

History
An early reference to the Burleigh estate describes how during the March 1644 Battle of Cotes Bridge in the Civil War, Parliamentary forces chased Royalists back to their garrison at Burleigh House at which time it was in the possession of the Hastings family. Following these events it was the third William Jesson (1650–1711), grandson of William Jesson (1580–1651) the Coventry dyer, Mayor and MP, who established a family seat at Burleigh Hall. He married Penelope Villiers of the influential Villiers family of Brooksby on 23 January 1669, he having been knighted the previous year.

However this was short-lived as in 1700 the estate was taken over by the Tate family, in 1711 it was held by Henry Tate and stayed directly in the family until the death of George Tate on 18 April 1822. George Tate appears to have died with no close relatives, the following is an extract from Bulletins and Other State Intelligence for the year 1849:

Whitehall, July 17, 1849
The Queen as been pleased to grant unto Louisa Pinfold, of Wimpole-street, in the parish of Saint Mary-le-bone, in the county of Middlesex, and of Burleigh-hall, in the parish of Loughborough, in the county of Leicester, Spinster, Her royal licence and authority that, in compliance with an earnest wish expressed in the last will and testament of her cousin, George Tate, late of Langdown, in the county of Southampton, Esq. deceased, she may henceforth take and use the surname of Tate, in addition to and after her present surname of Pinfold, and may also bear the arms of Tate quarterly with those of Pinfold; such arms being first duly exemplified according to the laws of arms, and recorded in the Herald’s Office, otherwise the said licence to be void and of none effect

Miss Louisa Pinfold Tate died on 21 July at her residence in Wimpole Street, Marylebone, London, her death being reported in The Gentleman's Magazine July–December, 1861 The next reference to the Hall's ownership comes in 1847 when there is again an end to the lineage of the owning family, Miss Julia Tate is described as being wealthy and without a known living relative, with the author of an 1847 Tourist Guide describing how Miss Tate ...is not only a musician, but a linguist; has travelled on the continent, and was desirous of visiting the United States, and seeing a country of which she has read, and heard so much, both for and against.

In 1958 the then owner of the Burleigh Estate agreed to sell the whole of his land to Loughborough College of Technology, at which time it was around , this included Burleigh Hall which the College had intended to use as its administrative centre but its fabric had deteriorated to such an extent that it was decided that demolition was the best option.

The House
In 1847 Burleigh Hall was described as being a mile from Garendon Park, and located in the middle of parkland containing deer. At this time the hall was owned by Miss Julia Tate who John Sherburne described as having selected a collection of paintings with much taste and placed her mark upon the property with it showing the handiwork and judicious mind of woman.

The Hall was probably constructed in the second half of the seventeenth century, likely to be linked to the arrival of the Jesson family. Given a Georgian appearance around a century later, it was described as having an ornate pedimented facade faced eastwards towards the town, and [a] plainer one, westwards towards Charnwood Forest at the time of its demolition.

Having been an estate of around  in 1831 it had fallen to around  in 1958 when it was sold to the College, being then added to the Campus forming the area west of the existing playing field site.

Today

Following the demolition of the main house there are a few remnants of the estate which can be seen around the University campus today:
Cedar of Lebanon tree believed to be between 250 and 300 years old, it now forms the centrepiece of a new court flanked by the University's Manzoni, Edward Herbet and Admin 1 buildings, having been retained by the Architects when this area of the campus was constructed.
Gardeners Cottage originally a farmhouse it is reputedly the oldest complete dwelling in Loughborough. Its listing describes its left hand parts timber framed with brick nogging on stone plinth, right hand part rubble stone, Concrete pantile roofs, an external stone stack heightened in brick at right hand end with a Brick bread oven roofed in Swithland slates.
Moat from the Civil War era, dug as a defensive measure to the south-west of the house, a section remains in the garden of the University Guest House.
Walled Garden and Summer House which are immediately next to the site of the Hall, described in their listing as being red brick walls with central recess entered through segmental rusticated stone arch with carved head keystone [with] pediment incorporating coat-of-arms above. Today used as a garden, occasionally for functions, with the Garden of Remembrance immediately behind.

See also
Charnwood Forest
English country house
English Civil War
Loughborough
Loughborough University

References

External links
Photo of Burleigh Hall taken before demolition

Category:British country houses destroyed in the 20th century
Category:Country houses in Leicestershire
Category:Loughborough University
Category:Wikipedia requested photographs in Leicestershire


Mikawa-Kamigō Station

is a railway station in the city of Toyota], Aichi Prefecture, Japan, operated by the third sector Aichi Loop Railway Company.

Lines
Mikawa-Kamigō Station is served by the Aichi Loop Line, and is located 10.7 kilometers from the starting point of the line at

Station layout
The station has two elevated side platforms, with the station building located underneath. However, the platforms are not matched. Platform 1 can handle a full train of 10 carriages, but Platform 2 is short and can accommodate only four carriages in length. The station building has automated ticket machines, TOICA automated turnstiles and is staffed.

Platforms

Adjacent stations

Station history
Mikawa-Kamigō Station was opened on April 26, 1976 as a passenger station on the Japan National Railways (JNR) Okata Line connecting  with . At the time, the station had a single side platform. With the privatization of the JNR on April 1, 1987, the station came under control of the JR-Tokai. The station was transferred to the third sector Aichi Loop Railway Company on January 31, 1988.

Passenger statistics
In fiscal 2017, the station was used by an average of 1875 passengers daily.

Surrounding area
 Kamigō Community Center
 Toyota Technical High School

See also
 List of Railway Stations in Japan

References

External links

Official home page

Category:Railway stations opened in 1976
Category:Railway stations in Aichi Prefecture
Category:1976 establishments in Japan
Category:Toyota, Aichi


USS Plymouth

USS Plymouth may refer to:

 , a sloop-of-war, was part of Commodore Matthew Perry's Black Fleet
 , a wooden-hulled, screw sloop-of-war, was commissioned as Kenosha and served just after the American Civil War
 , a screw steamer, transported materiel to France during World War I
 , a patrol gunboat, was lost during World War II.

See also

Category:United States Navy ship names


Little Susitna River

Little Susitna River heads at Mint Glacier on Montana Peak, in Talkeetna Mountains at , flows southwest to Cook Inlet,  west of Anchorage, Alaska Cook Inlet Low.

History
Local name published in 1898 by USC&GS.

Location
(1334) Little Susitna River,  West of Point MacKenzie,
is said to be navigable for landing craft and skiffs at high water for about .

(1335) Caution:
the depths offshore and in the approach to Little Susitna River are subject to drastic and continual change.

The Little Susitna River is a river in Alaska. It originates in Hatcher Pass, at , in the Talkeetna Mountains which form the northern boundary of the Matanuska-Susitna Valley. It flows a few dozen miles to the Cook Inlet. It contains a variety of hydrology ranging from flat water near the inlet to class 5 water in Hatcher Pass. It is bridged by Fishook Road in Hatcher Pass, Edgerton Parks Road, Welch Road, George Parks Highway, Sushanna Road, and Schrock Road. It flooded in 1972 and again in August 2006, and September 2012 reaching a volume of over , causing minor damage to homes and infrastructure. It is fed by the mint glacier, Archangel Creek, Fishhook Creek, Government Creek, Nurse Creek, Mary Creek, Swiftwater creek, and numerous other unnamed streams.  Popular activities along the river include camping, fishing, wildlife viewing and photography, and hunting.

Access

The river begins in Hatcher Pass, a state recreation area that was originally opened by hard rock mining.  This area still has active gold mines and is also open for recreational mining.  Much of the land between Hatcher Pass and the George Parks Highway bridge is privately owned, while most of the land below the George Parks Highway Bridge is owned by the state.  The George Parks Highway crosses the river at RM 69.5 and parallels the river for about a mile (1.6 km). 42 river miles down stream there is the Little Susitna Public Use Facility, which offers camping and boating access approximately  south of Wasilla. This campground/boat launch lies within the Susitna Flats State Game Refuge on the pristine Little Susitna River.

There are 3 major whitewater runs on the Su.  Upper little su (above motherlode) is class 4+, Lower su Motherlode to fishhook bridge is class 4+, and Baby Su (Fishhook bridge to edgerton park bridge) is 3-.  Mostly characterized by clear cold water flowing over rounded granite boulders and drops of moderate size.  Normally ran at flows of 350-900 cfs on the little su gauge. Below the Carneyville bridge to the inlet is all class 1 floating.  Normal summer flows can range from 80-1200 cfs.  Floods can bring 4500 cfs of water or more.

Fishing

The Alaska Department of Fish and Game operates a weir to count King, Red, Coho, and Chum salmon in the river.  The Little Susitna River weir is located a short distance upstream from the Public Use Area off Burma Road. Salmon fishing is closed upstream of the George Parks Highway. The Little Susitna River provides a multitude of sport angling opportunities. King, silver, chum, red, and pink salmon are available, as well as some Dolly Varden and rainbow trout. Several other less targeted species such as Arctic grayling, burbot, round whitefish and northern pike also call the Little Susitna River home.

See also

List of rivers of Alaska
Nancy Lake State Recreation Area, which the Little Sustina flows through

References

External links

Category:Rivers of Matanuska-Susitna Borough, Alaska
Category:Rivers of Alaska


Ideen

Ideen may refer to:

Ideen I, a 1913 philosophical work by Edmund Husserl
Ideen II, a posthumous philosophical work by Edmund Husserl withheld until 1952
Ideen & Argumente, series edited by Lutz Wingert
Deutschland – Land der Ideen, a German national marketing initiative (German Wikipedia)

See also
Idea
Ide (disambiguation)
Ides (disambiguation)
Idee (disambiguation)


1917 Oglethorpe Stormy Petrels football team

The 1917 Oglethorpe Stormy Petrels football team represented Oglethorpe University in the sport of American football during the 1917 college football season. In October 1917, Coach Frank B. Anderson held a meeting at Oglethorpe concerning the possibility of football team. Approximately 70 boys were enrolled at the newly re-founded Oglethorpe—20 of which were ready to begin Oglethorpe's inaugural season.

Schedule

References

Category:Oglethorpe Stormy Petrels football seasons
Oglethorpe
Oglethorpe Stormy Petrels football


North American hundred-year floods of 2011

Several hundred-year flooding events occurred in 2011. In North America, the following events occurred on separate rivers and tributaries:

2011 Mississippi River floods
2011 Assiniboine River flood
2011 Lake Champlain and Richelieu River Floods
2011 Missouri River floods
2011 Souris River flood

See also
Arctic oscillation
El Niño-Southern Oscillation
Great Mississippi and Missouri Rivers Flood of 1993
Morganza Spillway
Project design flood

References

Category:2011 floods
Category:Floods in North America


Plečnik

#REDIRECT Jože Plečnik


Atom (video game)

Atom is an action game published by Tandy in 1983 for the TRS-80 Color Computer. The game educates the player about the elements of the periodic table from Hydrogen through Xenon.

Gameplay
The player takes command of a ship (presumably a graviton) on an x axis plane to collect and shoot electrons at a spinning atom to obtain a new atom. For example, if the player has one electron circling, he or she would shoot another electron in place to make a hydrogen element. If the electron misses the target and hits the nucleus, the atom becomes unstable and blows apart, sending electrons flying around the game screen, and the ship needs to find safety behind barriers located in three of the four corners of the arena.

Atom is a timed game with a countdown timer in the upper left corner of the arena timed in nanoseconds (actually tenths). Once the timer reaches zero, the atom destabilizes and explodes.

References

Category:1983 video games
Category:TRS-80 Color Computer games
Category:TRS-80 Color Computer-only games
Category:Science educational video games
Category:Video games developed in the United States


Tom Whalen

Tom Whalen (born October 28, 1948) is an American writer and scholar.

Education and career
Whalen graduated from the University of Arkansas (Fayetteville) in 1970 with a B.A. in English, and earned a M.A. in Writing from Hollins College (Virginia) in 1971.

He attended Tulane University in 1974 and the University of California, Berkeley, in 1981. In 2008 he received a Ph.D. in American Literature from Freiburg University, Germany where he was a Visiting Professor in North American Studies. Whalen also was a Visiting Professor in American Film and Literature 2006-09 at the University of Stuttgart.

In 2008, he taught a film class at the Staatliche Akademie der Künste Stuttgart.

Honors and distinctions
 Caketrain Chapbook Competition, 2006.
 Texas Review Press Novella Award, 1996.
 The Missouri Review Editor's Prize (Essay), 1993.
 Distinguished Teacher, Presidential Scholars Commission, 1984, 1994.
 Pro Helvetia (Switzerland) Research Grants Summer 1988 and Summer 1990.
 Louisiana Artist Fellowship in Literature, 1985.
 New Orleans Public Schools Teacher of the Year, 1984.
 National Endowment for the Humanities Grant, SUNY-Buffalo, Summer 1984.
 Outstanding Arts Teacher, Rockefeller Brothers Fund, 1984.
 McNeese State University Research Grant, 1976.
 Hollins College Fellowship, 1970-71.

Works

Novels
 The Camel's Back. With Michael Presti. New Orleans and Tuscaloosa: Portals Press, 1993.
 Roithamer's Universe. New Orleans: Portals Press, 1996.
 A Newcomer's Guide to the Afterlife: On the Other Side Known Commonly As "The Little Book." With Daniel Quinn. New York: Bantam Books, 1997.
 The President in Her Towers. New York: Ellipsis Press, 2012.
 The Straw That Broke. San Francisco: Black Scat Books, 2014.

Short fiction
 The Eustachia Stories: An Astroromance. Illustrations by Linda Francis. California: Velocities. 1985.
 Elongated Figures. New York: Red Dust, 1991.
 The Baby. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2001.
 Report from the Dump. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2001.
 The Internecine Wars: from THE PRESIDENT IN HER TOWERS: Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2001.
 Concerning the Vampire. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2001.
 Twenty-Six Novels. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2001.
 The Cosmic Messenger: from TALES FROM THE HYBRID POOL. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2002.
 Memoirs from a Mousehole: from THE STRAW THAT BROKE. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2002.
 Quantum Surge in O Central. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2003.
 An Exchange of Letters. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Parsifal Press, 2007.

Poetry
The Spare Key. Seventeen Poems. Nacogdoches, Texas: The Seven Deadly Sins Press, 1977.
The Lonely Person's Garden. Prose Poetry. Nacogdoches, Texas: The Seven Deadly Sins Press, 1980.
Winter Coat. New York: Red Dust, 1998.
The Wrong Mistake. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2001.
Strange Alleys: Prose Poems. Illustrations by Nick Wadley. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2004.IV.
Green Man and the Priests. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2007.
Dolls: Prose Poems. Pittsburgh, PA: Caketrain Press, 2007.

Criticism
"What an Edifice of Artifice!": Russell H. Greenan's It Happened in Boston?. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2008.
It's What We Do Best: Essays on War Films by Godard, Malick, and Carpenter. Black River Falls, WI: Obscure Publications, 2009.
A Bucket of Maggots, A Can of Worms: Methods of Order in Greenan’s Macabre Collage. College Hill Review No. 7, Spring 2011.
The Birth of Death and Other Comedies: The Novels of Russell H. Greenan. Normal, IL: Dalkey Archive, Spring 2011.

References

External links

Category:1948 births
Category:Living people
Category:American male writers
Category:University of Arkansas alumni
Category:Hollins University alumni
Category:University of Freiburg alumni


Jim Laslavic

Jim "Laz" Laslavic ( ; born October 24, 1951) is a former American Football linebacker who played ten seasons in the National Football League. He is a retired sportscaster for KNSD in San Diego and a former Radio announcer for KIOZ. He lives in Coronado, California with his wife, Susan. Together, they raised two kids, Hayley (born 1986) and James (born 1988). Laslavic is a member of Phi Gamma Delta fraternity.

References

Category:American football linebackers
Category:Players of American football from Pennsylvania
Category:Detroit Lions players
Category:San Diego Chargers players
Category:Green Bay Packers players
Category:National Football League announcers
Category:Penn State Nittany Lions football players
Category:San Diego Chargers broadcasters
Category:Television anchors from San Diego
Category:1951 births
Category:Living people


The Fosters (season 1)

The first season of The Fosters premiered on June 3, 2013 and ended on March 24, 2014. The season consisted of 21 episodes and stars Teri Polo and Sherri Saum as Stef Foster and Lena Adams, an interracial lesbian couple, who foster a girl (Maia Mitchell) and her younger brother (Hayden Byerly) while also trying to juggle raising Latinx twin teenagers, (Cierra Ramirez and Jake T. Austin), and Stef's biological son (David Lambert).

Cast

Main cast
 Teri Polo as Stef Foster
 Sherri Saum as Lena Adams
 Jake T. Austin as Jesus Foster
 Hayden Byerly as Jude Jacob
 David Lambert as Brandon Foster
 Maia Mitchell as Callie Jacob
 Cierra Ramirez as Mariana Foster
 Danny Nucci as Mike Foster

Recurring cast
 Madisen Beaty as Talya Banks
 Bianca A. Santos as Lexi Rivera
 Alex Saxon as Wyatt
 Jay Ali as Mr. Timothy
 Daffany Clark as Daphne Keene
 Amanda Leighton as Emma
 Alexandra Barreto as Ana Gutierrez
 Julian de la Celle as Zac Rogers
 April Parker Jones as Captain Roberts
 Reiley McClendon as Vico Cerar
 Cherinda Kincherlow as Kiara
 Gavin MacIntosh as Connor Stevens
 Tom Phelan as Cole
 Marla Sokoloff as Dani Kirkland
 Hayley Kiyoko as Gabi
 Norma Maldonado as Karina Sánchez
 Alicia Sixtos as Carmen
 Brandon W. Jones as Liam Olmstead
 Garrett Clayton as Chase Dillon
 Lorraine Toussaint as Dana Adams
 Sam McMurray as Frank Cooper
 Annie Potts as Sharon Elkin
 Romy Rosemont as Amanda Rogers
 Rosie O'Donnell as Rita Hendricks

Guest cast
 Stephen Collins as Stewart Adams
 Jamie McShane as Donald Jacob
 Suzanne Cryer as Jenna Paul

Episodes

Production

Conception
The Fosters was originally conceived by openly gay creators Bradley Bredeweg and Peter Paige who wanted to write a drama that reflected the "modern American family". After originally considering a story about two gay fathers, the pair decided the subject of two men raising a family had already been done on television and began to instead consider a story about two women. When asked about the concept of two lesbian mothers raising a blended family, Bredeweg stated, "We realized that there was a kind of a vacuum when it came to stories about women raising families. So we set off in that direction. Many of our own friends are moms raising biological kids. Some of them have fostered and adopted. Suddenly, we realized that we had a story here that hadn't been told on television before." Additionally, certain elements of the series which deal with the foster care system are said to have been inspired by a troubled childhood friend of Bredeweg, who struggled in the foster system before eventually being adopted in her senior year of high school.

Development

When developing the concept, Bredeweg and Paige were initially met with some resistance from Hollywood, with Bredeweg recounting, "[T]here were some people around us, some people in town who said, 'You know, it is just not going to happen. You are never going to sell this show.'" After completing the first draft of the pilot script, the team was introduced to Jennifer Lopez through a friend who worked at her production company Nuyorican Productions, which was looking to branch out into scripted television. When describing their initial pitch to Lopez, Bredeweg stated, "When we met with Jennifer, she really fell in love with it. The moment we had her, we knew that we had a force behind us."

Lopez's decision to become involved in the project is said to have been largely inspired by her late Aunt Marisa, Lopez's mother's gay elder sister who had faced discrimination during her lifetime due to her sexual orientation and was unable to have a family of her own. When discussing the show's concept, Lopez stated, "Although [the script] was about a non-traditional family and had some newer themes, it had some really basic themes as well about family and love and what's really important. And life can be complicated and messy sometimes and not simple. It gives a really good depiction of family in this day and age."

With Lopez on board, the team took the concept to several networks, including ABC Family, with Bredeweg recalling, "ABC Family was really receptive from the very beginning. Strangely, it felt a little like a match made in heaven. I mean, their slogan is 'A new kind of family.' We had a new kind of modern family, and it took off from there." On July 6, 2012, The Hollywood Reporter, among other sources, reported that Jennifer Lopez and her production company, Nuyorican Productions, were developing the yet-to-be-titled hour-long drama for ABC Family, with Lopez set to executive produce alongside Simon Fields and Greg Gugliotta, as well as showrunners and head writers Peter Paige and Brad Bredeweg.

Finally, the first televised promo appeared on ABC Family on April 19, 2013.

Casting
On August 23, 2012, sources reported that ABC Family had ordered a pilot for The Fosters, a series which would tell the story of a lesbian couple raising a "21st-century" multi-ethnic mix of foster and biological children. On September 24, 2012, it was reported that Teri Polo and Sherri Saum had been cast to star in the pilot as the two leads, Stef Adams Foster and Lena Adams Foster respectively.

On February 6, 2013, it was reported that ABC Family had picked up the show, with production set to begin that spring for a summer 2013 premiere. The rest of the principal cast was also announced at that time, including Danny Nucci as Stef's ex-husband Mike Foster, David Lambert as their biological son Brandon Foster, Jake T. Austin and Cierra Ramirez as Stef and Lena's adopted twins Jesus and Mariana Foster, and Maia Mitchell and Hayden Byerly as their foster children Callie and Jude Jacob.

When recounting the casting process, Bredeweg explained, "[W]e spent tireless hours trying to find the right person for each role. Then they all began to line up—it was like dominos—the moment we found our Lena, the moment we found our Callie, the moment we found our Stef, it sort of all started to line up perfectly for us." On April 11, 2013, TV Guide unveiled the first official cast photo of The Fosters.

References

Category:2013 American television seasons
Category:2014 American television seasons
Category:The Fosters (2013 TV series)


Castanellidae

Castanellidae is a family of cercozoans in the order Phaeocalpida.

References

 Report on the Radiolaria. E Haeckel, 1887
 Report on the scientific results of the voyage of the HMS Challenger during the years 1873-1876. E Haeckel, Zoology series, 1887

External links

 Castanellidae at the World Register of Marine Spacies (WoRMS)

Category:Phaeodaria
Category:Cercozoa families


Yusuke Sato

is a former Japanese football player.

Playing career
Sato was born in Kitamoto on November 2, 1977. After graduating from high school, he joined J1 League club Nagoya Grampus Eight in 1996. However he could not play at all in the match until 1997. In 1998, he moved to Vissel Kobe. Although he played several matches as offensive midfielder, he could not play many matches. In 2000, he moved to J2 League club Omiya Ardija based in his local Saitama Prefecture. In 2001, he moved to Montedio Yamagata. He became a regular player and he played many matches in 2 seasons. In 2003, he moved to Cerezo Osaka. In 2005, he moved to Shonan Bellmare. He was converted to defensive midfielder by manager Eiji Ueda and he played as regular player in 2 seasons. In 2007, he moved to Tokyo Verdy. Although the club won the 2nd place and was promoted to J1, he could not become a regular player. In 2008, he moved to Japan Football League club Tochigi SC. He played in all matches as captain and the club was promoted to J2 from 2009 season. However his opportunity to play decreased for injury from 2009 season and he retired end of 2010 season.

Club statistics

References

External links

Category:1977 births
Category:Living people
Category:Association football people from Saitama Prefecture
Category:Japanese footballers
Category:J1 League players
Category:J2 League players
Category:Japan Football League players
Category:Nagoya Grampus players
Category:Vissel Kobe players
Category:Omiya Ardija players
Category:Montedio Yamagata players
Category:Cerezo Osaka players
Category:Shonan Bellmare players
Category:Tokyo Verdy players
Category:Tochigi SC players
Category:Association football midfielders


Fourpeaked Glacier

Fourpeaked Glacier is a calving glacier covering much of Fourpeaked Mountain, also known as Fourpeaked Volcano.

See also
Fourpeaked Mountain

Category:Glaciers of Alaska
Category:Glaciers of Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska
Category:Glaciers of Kodiak Island Borough, Alaska
Category:Katmai National Park and Preserve