Geopolymer

Geopolymers are inorganic, typically ceramic, materials that form long-range, covalently bonded, non-crystalline (amorphous) networks. Obsidian (volcanic glass) fragments are a component of some geopolymer blends. Commercially produced geopolymers may be used for fire- and heat-resistant coatings and adhesives, medicinal applications, high-temperature ceramics, new binders for fire-resistant fiber composites, toxic and radioactive waste encapsulation and new cements for concrete. The properties and uses of geopolymers are being explored in many scientific and industrial disciplines: modern inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, colloid chemistry, mineralogy, geology, and in other types of engineering process technologies. Geopolymers are part of polymer science, chemistry and technology that forms one of the major areas of materials science. Polymers are either organic material, i.e. carbon-based, or inorganic polymer, for example silicon-based. The organic polymers comprise the classes of natural polymers (rubber, cellulose), synthetic organic polymers (textile fibers, plastics, films, elastomers, etc.) and natural biopolymers (biology, medicine, pharmacy). Raw materials used in the synthesis of silicon-based polymers are mainly rock-forming minerals of geological origin, hence the name: geopolymer. Joseph Davidovits coined the term in 1978 and created the non profit French scientific institution (Association Loi 1901) Institut Géopolymère (Geopolymer Institute).

According to T.F. Yen geopolymers can be classified into two major groups: pure inorganic geopolymers and organic containing geopolymers, synthetic analogues of naturally occurring macromolecules. In the following presentation, a geopolymer is essentially a mineral chemical compound or mixture of compounds consisting of repeating units, for example silico-oxide (-Si-O-Si-O-), silico-aluminate (-Si-O-Al-O-), ferro-silico-aluminate (-Fe-O-Si-O-Al-O-) or alumino-phosphate (-Al-O-P-O-), created through a process of geopolymerization. This mineral synthesis (geosynthesis) was first presented at an IUPAC symposium in 1976.

The microstructure of geopolymers is essentially temperature dependent:
It is X-ray amorphous at room temperature,
But evolves into a crystalline matrix at temperatures above 500 °C.

One can distinguish between two synthesis routes:
In alkaline medium (Na+, K+, Li+, Ca2+, Cs+ and the like);
In acidic medium with phosphoric acid, organic carboxylic acids from plant extracts (acetic, citric, oxalic, and humic acids).

The alkaline route is the most important in terms of research and development and commercial applications and is described below. The acidic route is discussed elsewhere.

What is a geopolymer?
In the 1950s, Viktor Glukovsky, of Kiev, USSR, developed concrete materials originally known under the names "soil silicate concretes" and "soil cements", but since the introduction of the geopolymer concept by Joseph Davidovits, the terminology and definitions of 'geopolymer' have become more diverse and often conflicting. The examples below were taken from 2011 scientific publications, written by scientists with different backgrounds.

Definitions of the term geopolymer

For chemists
'...Geopolymers consist of a polymeric Si–O–Al framework, similar to zeolites. The main difference to zeolite is geopolymers are amorphous instead of crystalline. The microstructure of geopolymers on a nanometer scale observed by TEM comprises small aluminosilicate clusters with pores dispersed within a highly porous network. The clusters sizes are between 5 and 10 nanometers.'

For geopolymer material chemists
'...The reaction produces SiO4 and AlO4, tetrahedral frameworks linked by shared oxygens as poly(sialates) or poly(sialate–siloxo) or poly(sialate–disiloxo) depending on the SiO2/Al2O3 ratio in the system. The connection of the tetrahedral frameworks is occurred via long-range covalent bonds. Thus, geopolymer structure is perceived as dense amorphous phase consisting of semi-crystalline 3-D alumino-silicate microstructure.'

For alkali-cement scientists
'... Geopolymers are framework structures produced by condensation of tetrahedral aluminosilicate units, with alkali metal ions balancing the charge associated with tetrahedral Al. Conventionally, geopolymers are synthesized from a two-part mix, consisting of an alkaline solution (often soluble silicate) and solid aluminosilicate materials. Geopolymerization occurs at ambient or slightly elevated temperature, where the leaching of solid aluminosilicate raw materials in alkaline solutions leads to the transfer of leached species from the solid surfaces into a growing gel phase, followed by nucleation and condensation of the gel phase to form a solid binder.'

For geopolymer ceramic chemists
'…Although geopolymer is generally X-ray amorphous if cured at standard pressures and temperatures, it will convert into crystalline ceramic phases like leucite or pollucite upon heating.'

For ceramic scientists
'...Geopolymers are a class of totally inorganic, alumino-silicate based ceramics that are charge balanced by group I oxides. They are rigid gels, which are made under relatively ambient conditions of temperature and pressure into near-net dimension bodies, and which can subsequently be converted to crystalline or glass-ceramic materials.'

Geopolymer synthesis

Ionic coordination or covalent bonding?

In 1937, W. L. Bragg published a method for classifying all kinds of silicates and their crystal structures based on the concept of the ionic theory by Linus Pauling. The fundamental unit is a tetrahedral complex consisting of a small cation such as Si4+, or Al3+ in tetrahedral coordination with four oxygens (Pauling's first rule). Many textbooks explain the geometry of the SiO44− tetrahedron and other mineral structures as determined by the relative sizes of the different ions.

This ionic coordination representation is no longer adapted to the requirements of geopolymer chemistry that is governed by covalent bonding mechanisms. The differences between the ionic concept (coordination) and the covalent bonding are profound. The double tetrahedron structure (coordination) is sharing one oxygen anion O2−, whereas in the Si-O-Si- molecular structure, the covalent bond is achieved through Si and O co-sharing only one electron. This results in stronger bond within the latter structure. The American mineralogist and geochemist G. V. Gibbs and his team studied the polymeric bond Si-O-Si-O and stated in 1982-2000: The successful modeling of the properties and structures of silica ... lends credence to the statement that a silica polymorph like quartz can be viewed as a giant molecule bound together by essentially the same forces that bind the atoms of the Si-O-Si skeleton into a small siloxane molecule. The term giant molecule used by G.V. Gibbs is equivalent to the definition of geopolymer and the wording small siloxane molecule describes the actual oligomers of organo-silicon compounds well known as silicone polymer. These siloxane oligomers have the same structure as the silico-aluminate oligomers described below in this article.

Geopolymerization starts with oligomers

Geopolymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as oligomers into a covalently bonded network. The geo-chemical syntheses are carried out through oligomers (dimer, trimer, tetramer, pentamer) which provide the actual unit structures of the three-dimensional macromolecular edifice. In 2000, T.W. Swaddle and his team proved the existence of soluble isolated alumino-silicate molecules in solution in relatively high concentrations and high pH. One major improvement in their research was that their study was carried out at very low temperatures, as low as −9 °C. Indeed, it was discovered that the polymerization at room temperature of oligo-sialates was taking place on a time scale of around 100 milliseconds, i.e. 100 to 1000 times faster than the polymerization of ortho-silicate, oligo-siloxo units. At room temperature or higher, the reaction is so fast that it cannot be detected with conventional analytical equipment.

The image shows 5 soluble oligomers of the K-poly(sialate) / poly(sialate-siloxo) species, which are the actual starting units of potassium-based alumino-silicate geopolymerization.

Example of (-Si-O-Al-O-) geopolymerization with metakaolin MK-750 in alkaline medium

It involves four main phases comprising seven chemical reaction steps:
Alkaline depolymerization of the poly(siloxo) layer of kaolinite;
Formation of monomeric and oligomeric species, including the "ortho-sialate" (OH)3-Si-O-Al-(OH)3 molecule  (#1 in the figure);
In the presence of waterglass (soluble K-polysiloxonate), one gets the creation of ortho-sialate-disiloxo cyclic structure (e.g. #5 in the figure), whereby the hydroxide is liberated by condensation reactions and can reacts again;
Geopolymerization (polycondensation) into higher oligomers and polymeric 3D-networks.

The geopolymerization kinetics for Na-poly(sialate-siloxo) and K-poly(sialate-siloxo) are slightly different respectively. This is probably due to the different dimensions of the Na+ and K+ cations, K+ being bigger than Na+.

Example of zeolitic (Si-O-Al-O-) geopolymerization with fly ash in alkaline medium

It involves 5 main phases
Nucleation stage in which the aluminosilicates from the fly ash particle dissolve in the alkaline medium (Na+), releasing aluminates and silicates, probably as monomers.
These monomers inter-react to form dimers, which in turn react with other monomers to form trimers, tetramers and so on.
When the solution reaches saturation, an aluminum-rich gel (denominated Gel 1) precipitates.
As the reaction progresses, more Si-O groups from the initial solid source dissolve, increasing the silicon concentration in the medium and gradually raising the proportion of silicon in the zeolite precursor gel (Gel 2).
Polycondensation into zeolite-like 3D-frameworks.

Geopolymer 3D-frameworks

Geopolymerization forms aluminosilicate frameworks that are similar to those of rock-forming minerals. Yet, there are major differences. In 1994, Davidovits presented a theoretical structure for K-poly(sialate-siloxo) (K)-(Si-O-Al-O-Si-O) that was consistent with the NMR spectra. It does not show the presence of water in the structure because he only focused on the relationship between Si, Al, Na, K, atoms. Water is present only at temperatures below 150 °C – 200 °C, essentially in the form of -OH groups, whereas numerous geopolymer industrial and commercial applications work at temperatures above 200 °C, up to 1400 °C, i.e. at temperatures above dehydroxylation. Nevertheless, scientists working on low temperature applications, such as cements and waste management, tried to pinpoint cation hydration and water molecules. This model shows an incompletely reacted geopolymer (left in the figure), which involves free Si-OH groups that will later with time or with temperature polycondense with opposed Al-O-K, into Si-O-Al-O sialate bonds. The water released by this reaction either remains in the pores, is associated with the framework similarly to zeolitic water, or can be released and removed. Several 3D-frameworks are described in the book 'Geopolymer Chemistry and Applications'. After dehydroxylation (and dehydration), generally above 250 °C, geopolymers become more and more crystalline (right in the picture) and above 500-1000 °C (depending on the nature of the alkali cation present) crystallise and have X-ray diffraction patterns and framework structures identical to their geological analogues.

Commercial applications

There exist a wide variety of potential and existing applications. Some of the geopolymer applications are still in development whereas others are already industrialized and commercialized. See the incomplete list provided by the Geopolymer Institute. They are listed in three major categories:

Geopolymer resins and binders
Fire-resistant materials, thermal insulation, foams;
Low-energy ceramic tiles, refractory items, thermal shock refractories;
High-tech resin systems, paints, binders and grouts;
Bio-technologies (materials for medicinal applications);
Foundry industry (resins), tooling for the manufacture of organic fiber composites;
Composites for infrastructures repair and strengthening, fire-resistant and heat-resistant high-tech carbon-fiber composites for aircraft interior and automobile;
Radioactive and toxic waste containment;

Geopolymer cements and concretes
Low-tech building materials (clay bricks),
Low-CO2 cements and concretes;

Arts and archaeology
Decorative stone artifacts, arts and decoration;
Cultural heritage, archaeology and history of sciences.

Geopolymer resins and binders
The class of geopolymer materials is described by Davidovits to comprise:
Metakaolin MK-750-based geopolymer binder
chemical formula (Na,K)-(Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-), ratio Si:Al=2 (range 1.5 to 2.5)
Silica-based geopolymer binder
chemical formula (Na,K)-n(Si-O-)-(Si-O-Al-), ratio Si:Al>20 (range 15 to 40).
Sol-gel-based geopolymer binder (synthetic MK-750)
chemical formula (Na,K)-(Si-O-Al-O-Si-O-), ratio Si:Al=2

The first geopolymer resin was described in a French patent application filed by J. Davidovits in 1979. The American patent, US 4,349,386, was granted on Sept. 14, 1982 with the title Mineral Polymers and methods of making them. It essentially involved the geopolymerization of alkaline soluble silicate [waterglass or (Na,K)-polysiloxonate] with calcined kaolinitic clay (later coined metakaolin MK-750 to highlight the importance of the temperature of calcination, namely 750 °C in this case). In 1985, Kenneth MacKenzie and his team from New-Zealand, discovered the Al(V) coordination of calcined kaolinite (MK-750), describing a "chemical shift intermediate between tetrahedral and octahedral." This had a great input towards a better understanding of its geopolymeric reactivity.

Since 1979, a variety of resins, binders and grouts were developed by the chemical industry, worldwide.

Potential utilization for geopolymer composites materials
Metakaolin MK-750-based and silica-based geopolymer resins are used to impregnate fibers and fabrics to obtain geopolymer matrix-based fiber composites. These products are fire-resistant; they release no smoke and no toxic fumes. They were tested and recommended by major international institutions such as the American Federal Aviation Administration FAA. FAA selected the carbon-geopolymer composite as the best candidate for the fire-resistant cabin program (1994-1997). Geopolymers are attractive host materials to immobilise nuclear waste due to their high environmental durability and flexibility to compositional changes of waste. They are already used on industrial scale to immobilise difficult radioactive waste streams in Czech Republic and Slovkia  and.

Fire-resistant material

Flashover is a phenomenon unique to compartment fires where incomplete combustion products accumulate at the ceiling and ignite causing total involvement of the compartment materials and signaling the end to human survivability. Consequently, in a compartment fire the time to flashover is the time available for escape and this is the single most important factor in determining the fire hazard of a material or set of materials in a compartment fire. The Federal Aviation Administration has used the time-to-flashover of materials in aircraft cabin tests as the basis for a heat release and heat release rate acceptance criteria for cabin materials for commercial aircraft. The figure shows how the best organic-matrix made of engineering thermoplastics reaches flashover after the 20 minute ignition period and generates appreciable smoke, while the geopolymer-matrix composite will never ignite, reach flashover, or generate any smoke in a compartment fire.

Carbon-geopolymer composite is applied on racing cars around exhaust parts. This technology could be transferred and applied for the mass production of regular automobile parts (corrosion-resistant exhaust pipes and the like) as well as heat shields. A well-known motorcar manufacturer already developed a geopolymer-composite exhaust pipe system.

Geopolymer cements

Production of geopolymer cement requires an aluminosilicate precursor material such as metakaolin or fly ash, a user-friendly alkaline reagent (for example, sodium or potassium soluble silicates with a molar ratio MR SiO2:M2O ≥ 1.65, M being Na or K) and water (See the definition for "user-friendly" reagent below). Room temperature hardening is more readily achieved with the addition of a source of calcium cations, often blast furnace slag.

Portland cement chemistry vs geopolymer chemistry

Left: hardening of Portland cement (P.C.) through hydration of calcium silicate into calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and portlandite, Ca(OH)2.

Right: hardening (setting) of geopolymer cement (GP) through poly-condensation of potassium oligo-(sialate-siloxo) into potassium poly(sialate-siloxo) cross linked network.

Geopolymer cement categories
The categories comprise:
Slag-based geopolymer cement.
Rock-based geopolymer cement.
Fly ash-based geopolymer cement
Type 1: alkali-activated fly ash geopolymer.
Type 2: slag/fly ash-based geopolymer cement.
Ferro-sialate-based geopolymer cement.

Slag-based geopolymer cement
Components: metakaolin (MK-750) + blast furnace slag + alkali silicate (user-friendly).

Geopolymeric make-up: Si:Al = 2 in fact solid solution of Si:Al=1, Ca-poly(di-sialate) (anorthite type) + Si:Al = 3 , K-poly(sialate-disiloxo) (orthoclase type) and C-S-H Ca-silicate hydrate.

The first geopolymer cement developed in the 1980s was of the type (K,Na,Ca)-poly(sialate) (or slag-based geopolymer cement) and resulted from the research developments carried out by Joseph Davidovits and J.L. Sawyer at Lone Star Industries, USA and yielded the invention of Pyrament® cement. The American patent application was filed in 1984 and the patent US 4,509,985 was granted on April 9, 1985 with the title 'Early high-strength mineral polymer'.

Rock-based geopolymer cement
The replacement of a certain amount of MK-750 with selected volcanic tuffs yields geopolymer cement with better properties and less CO2 emission than the simple slag-based geopolymer cement.

Manufacture components: metakaolin MK-750, blast furnace slag, volcanic tuffs (calcined or not calcined), mine tailings and alkali silicate (user-friendly).

Geopolymeric make-up: Si:Al = 3, in fact solid solution of Si:Al=1  Ca-poly(di-sialate) (anorthite type) + Si:Al = 3-5 (Na,K)-poly(silate-multisiloxo) and C-S-H Ca-silicate hydrate.

Fly ash-based geopolymer cements
Later on, in 1997, building on the works conducted on slag-based geopolymeric cements, on the one hand and on the synthesis of zeolites from fly ashes on the other hand, Silverstrim et al. and van Jaarsveld and van Deventer developed geopolymeric fly ash-based cements. Silverstrim et al. US Patent 5,601,643 was titled 'Fly ash cementitious material and method of making a product'.

CO2 emissions during manufacture
According to the Australian concrete expert B. V. Rangan, the growing worldwide demand for concrete is a great opportunity for the development of geopolymer cements of all types, with their much lower tally of carbon dioxide CO2.

The need for standards
In June 2012, the institution ASTM International organized a symposium on Geopolymer Binder Systems. The introduction to the symposium states: When performance specifications for Portland cement were written, non-portland binders were uncommon...New binders such as geopolymers are being increasingly researched, marketed as specialty products, and explored for use in structural concrete. This symposium is intended to provide an opportunity for ASTM to consider whether the existing cement standards provide, on the one hand, an effective framework for further exploration of geopolymer binders and, on the other hand, reliable protection for users of these materials.

The existing Portland cement standards are not adapted to geopolymer cements. They must be created by an ad hoc committee. Yet, to do so, requires also the presence of standard geopolymer cements. Presently, every expert is presenting his own recipe based on local raw materials (wastes, by-products or extracted). There is a need for selecting the right geopolymer cement category. The 2012 State of the Geopolymer R&D, suggested to select two categories, namely:
Type 2 slag/fly ash-based geopolymer cement: fly ashes are available in the major emerging countries;
and
Ferro-sialate-based geopolymer cement: this geological iron rich raw material is present in all countries throughout the globe.
and
the appropriate user-friendly geopolymeric reagent.

Geopolymer applications to arts and archaeology
Because geopolymer artifacts look like natural stone, several artists started to cast in silicone rubber molds replications of their sculptures. For example, in the 1980s, the French artist Georges Grimal worked on several geopolymer castable stone formulations.

Egyptian pyramid stones

With respect to archaeological applications, in the mid-1980s, Joseph Davidovits  presented his first analytical results carried out on genuine pyramid stones. He claimed that the ancient Egyptians knew how to generate a geopolymeric reaction in the making of a re-agglomerated limestone blocks. The Ukrainian scientist G.V. Glukhovsky endorsed Davidovits' research in his keynote paper to the First Intern. Conf. on Alkaline Cements and Concretes, Kiev, Ukraine, 1994. Later on, several materials scientists and physicists took over these archaeological studies and are publishing their results, essentially on pyramid stones.

Roman cements
From the digging of ancient Roman ruins, one knows that approximately 95% of the concretes and mortars constituting the Roman buildings consist of a very simple lime cement, which hardened slowly through the precipitating action of carbon dioxide CO2, from the atmosphere and formation of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). This is a very weak to medium good material that was used essentially in the making of foundations and in buildings for the populace.

But for the building of their "ouvrages d’art", especially works related to water storage (cisterns, aqueducts), the Roman architects did not hesitate to use more sophisticated and expensive ingredients. These outstanding Roman cements are based on the calcic activation of ceramic aggregates (in Latin testa, analogue to our modern metakaolin MK-750) and alkali rich volcanic tuffs (cretoni, zeolitic pozzolan), respectively with lime. MAS-NMR Spectroscopy investigations were carried out on these high-tech Roman cements dating to the 2nd century AD. They show their geopolymeric make-up.

Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple
The 7th century Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple from the Pallava period is built using a geopolymer that looks like sandstone.

See also
Zeolite

References

Bibliography
Geopolymer Chemistry and Applications, Joseph Davidovits, Institut Géopolymère, Saint-Quentin, France, 2008,  (3rd ed., 2011). In Chinese: National Defense Industry Press, Beijing, , 2012.
Geopolymers Structure, processing, properties and industrial applications, John L. Provis and Jannie S. J. van Deventer, Woodhead Publishing, 2009, .

External links
Geopolymer Institute: https://www.geopolymer.org/
Geopolymer Alliance: https://web.archive.org/web/20130409024601/http://geopolymers.com.au/

Category:Aluminosilicates
Category:Building materials
Category:Cement
Category:Ceramic materials
Category:Geochemistry
Category:Geopolymers
Category:Inorganic chemistry
Category:Inorganic polymers
Category:Polymers
Category:Resins
Category:Silicates


Delakota

Delakota were an English alternative dance band from the late 1990s. The band mixed elements of Madchester, retro-rock, and modern dance music to produce a sound which was often compared to Primal Scream.

The band were formed by ex members of the Senseless Things, Cass Browne and Morgan Nicholls with Des Murphy (ex-Wasteland, Los Bastardos and Genius Freak) in 1997. The band's first product was a white label demo single, "C'mon Cincinnati". A remix for David Holmes and their next single "The Rock" bought them to the attention of the British music press. The band were also noted for an unusual gig in a cave and for an appearance on BBC Two's Newsnight.

The band played some support slots including a tour with Embrace, and a place on the NME new bands tour in 1998. Their debut album, One Love, was released in 1998 to generally positive reviews. After the release of the album the band went quiet and have not been heard from since, save for one further single, "Got It Like That". It is presumed that the band has split up. As of 2004 Nicholls was playing keyboards in The Streets and Browne was playing drums for Gorillaz.

In 2008, Coldplay frontman Chris Martin claimed that Delakota's "The Rock" gave them inspiration for "Strawberry Swing".

Personnel
 Cass Browne
 Morgan Nicholls
 Des Murphy
 Brian Pearce

Discography

Albums
 One Love (21 September 1998) UK #58

Singles
 "The Rock" (July 1998) UK #60
 "C'mon Cincinnati" - featuring Rose Smith (September 1998) UK #55
 "555" (February 1999) UK #42
 "Got It Like That" (August 2000) UK #111

References

Category:English rock music groups
Category:Musical groups established in 1997
Category:Dance musical groups


List of Muisca research institutes

This is a list of institutes providing research into the Muisca. The three most important universities in Bogotá have a department of anthropology to study the indigenous cultures of Colombia. While international research compared to the Inca, Aztec and Maya is quite limited, various other universities have provided knowledge about the Muisca and their culture.

List Muisca research institutes

See also

List of Muisca museum collections, Muisca scholars, Muisca sites
List of flora and fauna named after the Muisca
Muisca Confederation
Muysccubun

References

Research
Muisca
Muisca
Muisca


Tehreek Labbaik Ya Rasool Allah

Tehreek Labbaik Ya Rasool Allah (TLYRA)  may refer to:

Political parties
 Tehreek Labbaik Pakistan
 Tehreek-e-Labbaik Islam

References


Derek Boogaard

Derek Leendert Boogaard
( ; later  ; June 23, 1982 – May 13, 2011) was a Canadian professional ice hockey left winger who played for the Minnesota Wild and the New York Rangers of the National Hockey League (NHL).

A native of Saskatchewan, where he grew up in several different communities as the son of a Mountie, he was known primarily as a fighter and enforcer throughout his career, from junior hockey to the pros. His fighting prowess earned him the nicknames of "Boogeyman" and "The Mountie", and made him a favourite with fans. In 2007, he was voted as the second most intimidating player in the NHL, behind Georges Laraque, who attributed his retirement in part to a desire to avoid the serious injury Boogaard could inflict, such as the cheekbone fracture Todd Fedoruk suffered that had to be repaired with metal plates.

Boogaard died at 28 from an accidental drug and alcohol overdose while recovering from a concussion. A posthumous examination of his brain found he had suffered from chronic traumatic encephalopathy more advanced than that seen in some former enforcers who had died in middle age. That disclosure came shortly after the deaths of two other hockey enforcers, both of whom were also under 40 and had similar health issues. The three deaths triggered a debate in the hockey community about the issues faced by enforcers and their place in the game. His parents unsuccessfully sued the NHL and its players' union over his death.

Childhood and family
Boogaard was born in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, the first of four children of Len Boogaard, an officer with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) and his wife Joanne, who were living in Hanley at the time. Derek had two younger brothers, Ryan and Aaron, and a sister, Krysten. The family moved every few years due to the transfers required by the RCMP. While they lived for a time near Toronto, most of Len Boogaard's postings were in Saskatchewan.

Derek grew up in Herbert, a predominantly Mennonite community. He was taller than most children his age, reaching  in height and  by the age of 15. His adolescent growth spurt led to chronic pain in his knees. In school he struggled, especially with reading—his father believes Derek had "cognitive and behavioral issues", in particular impulsivity.

He was a frequent target of bullying, due to his size, shyness, and being the son of a police officer. When challenged to fights, he often won them decisively, though friends and family say he did not seek them out. "Derek would certainly stick up for the team, he would stick up for his teammates," recalled one of his youth hockey coaches, "but wasn't mean at all."

His family encouraged him to play hockey as an outlet, and his father would often drive him to distant games in his police car, an experience Boogaard was to recall fondly later in his life. He quit hockey briefly at the age of 12, but his family talked him into returning. In his early teens he stated that his goal in life was to play in the NHL, and idolized Wendel Clark, another Saskatchewan native who was at the time the captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs.

The Boogaards later moved to Melfort. Len would often drive his sons to Saskatoon for additional training in skating and boxing. In youth hockey Derek, because of his size, often got penalties that, his coach says, were not his fault. Parents of both teammates and opposing players complained that he was too large to be playing with children his age.

Playing career
One night, while playing for the Melfort Mustangs, an unspecified incident led Boogaard to jump into the opposing bench and attempt to fight with opposing players, whose team was leading by a wide margin. "He had gone ballistic," said his father, who was in attendance. "It was something I hadn't seen before." Boogaard was ejected from the game, and after changing out of his uniform went to sit next to his father in the stands. Later they were approached by scouts from the Regina Pats of the Western Hockey League. They were impressed by Boogaard's boldness and offered him the chance to play junior hockey with the team, a first stop toward reaching the NHL.

Western Hockey League
By the time he began his junior hockey career, Boogaard had realized that if he wanted to make it to the NHL, he would only be able to do so as an enforcer, since fighting was his strongest skill. In his first scrimmage with the Caps, he was challenged by another large player on the team. Boogaard broke the other player's nose with his first punch.

Regina Pats
His parents divorced but both moved to Regina to be close to him. Boogaard's career there did not get off to a good start when he backed out of his first fight in a game against the Moose Jaw Warriors. As a result, he was reassigned to the lower-division Regina Pats of the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League. He played there for most of the 1998–99 season, scoring two goals and five points in 35 games, with 166 penalty minutes (PIM).

The season was not a happy one for Boogaard. At one point he begged the coach to let him play during a tournament in Calgary, but was unsuccessful. He quit after the game and, his mother recalled, cried all the way home when she came to pick him up. That summer he got into a bar fight with some friends one night, during which, he wrote later, they beat up seven men around the age of 30.

By the next season he had reached his full adult height of 6 feet 7 inches (). The Pats called him back to training camp, and he got into 12 fights during the four scrimmages. He played in five games with the team, earning no points and 17 PIM. Early in his rookie season, he was traded to the Prince George Cougars after losing a fight in a game against the Kelowna Rockets.

Prince George Cougars
During his first season he suited up for 20 games, registering no points and had the third-highest penalty minutes total on the team with 149. He lost his first fight, against Eric Godard, a future NHL enforcer with the New York Islanders. "It was a very long year for me," he wrote later. "I struggled with everything it seemed." He had difficulty following rules and failed classes at school. Late in the season he suffered a broken jaw in a game against the Tri-City Americans, and was sent home to Regina to heal. He was expected to lose weight due to the liquid diet forced on him by having his jaw wired shut, but actually gained it when he found ways to get food through gaps in the wiring.

After considering quitting hockey again during training camp, he returned to the Cougars for a second season in 2000–01. He finally found a host family he could get along with, and began winning his fights on the ice. He avenged losses from previous seasons, including the one in which he had been injured. Prince George fans began chanting his name at games, and one poll named him the toughest player in the WHL's Western Conference.

In 61 games he scored a goal and nine points. His team-leading 245 PIM was the eighth highest total in the league. In the playoffs, Boogaard scored a goal in six games, while accumulating 30 PIM. "I don't think I ever saw our rink, or Derek, that happy as the time he scored that goal [in the playoffs]", said one of his assistant coaches. Boogaard agreed, writing "It was the best feeling I had the last 2 years." After the season, the Minnesota Wild drafted Boogaard in the seventh round, 202nd overall, in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft.

Boogaard began the 2001–02 season with the Cougars, appearing in two games, recording no points and 16 PIM. He was then traded to the Medicine Hat Tigers.

Medicine Hat Tigers
Boogaard finished the 2001–02 season with the Medicine Hat Tigers, as he appeared in 46 games with the team, scoring a goal and nine points, while having 178 PIM, third highest on the team.

He spent part of the 2002–03 with Medicine Hat, as he played in 27 games, getting a goal and three points, while registering 65 PIM.

National Hockey League

Minnesota Wild
Boogaard signed a professional contract with the Minnesota Wild, and they placed Boogaard with the Louisiana IceGators of the ECHL to finish the 2002–03 season. His coaches were told to develop him as an enforcer. They did not foresee him making it to the NHL, but his work ethic impressed them. "Give him credit", one later told The New York Times. "This guy willed his way to the NHL."

In 33 games with Louisiana, Boogaard had a goal and three points, along with a team high 240 PIM. In two playoff games, Boogaard had no points and no penalty minutes. He continued his skating and boxing lessons off the rink. He worked out by running up hills and practised his skills, both with coaches and on his own.

Chronic pain from older injuries grew during his time in the minors. His shoulder ached from an old collarbone fracture. One morning his back pain was so intense he could not lace his own skates. The team doctors frequently dispensed various medications to players so they could cope with such pain and the stressful schedule. Boogaard is said to have taken advantage of this.

The next season he was assigned to the Houston Aeros of the AHL, where he had no goals and four points in 53 games. His 207 PIM led the Aeros. In the playoffs, appeared in two games, earning an assist, while posting 16 PIM.

With the 2004–05 NHL lock-out cancelling the NHL season, Boogaard returned to the Aeros for the 2004–05 season, as he scored a goal and five points in 56 games, as well as leading the team with 259 PIM. In five playoff games, Boogaard had no points, and put up 38 PIM.

In Houston his fame as an enforcer began to grow, as he was winning his fights. The team ran replays of his fights on the arena's video board, calling it the "Boogeyman Cam". They gave out a bobblehead of Boogaard, complete with bobbling fists. An opposing coach told his Aeros counterparts that Boogaard was their team's most valuable player due to his intimidating presence.

Boogaard made his NHL debut in the 2005–06 season. He made the Wild roster coming out of training camp when coach Jacques Lemaire saw the same intimidating effect on other teams his opposing coaches had, as well as the young player's propensity for winning fights.

The rookie first skated on October 5, 2005, getting no points in 3:58 of ice time in a 6–3 win over the Calgary Flames. Within the season's second week he would have his first assist, fight and goal. The assist came on a goal by Wes Walz on October 14, 2005 in a 5–3 loss to the Vancouver Canucks. Two days later, he had his first fight, knocking the Anaheim Ducks' Kip Brennan to the ice. He then scored his first NHL goal on October 19, 2005, beating San Jose Sharks goaltender Evgeni Nabokov in a 6–1 win over the San Jose Sharks. Boogaard finished his rookie season in the NHL with two goals, six points, while leading the Wild with 158 PIM in 65 games.

In 2006–07, Boogaard appeared in 48 games with the Wild, earning an assist, and leading the club with 120 PIM. Early that season, in another game against Anaheim, he broke Todd Fedoruk's cheekbone so severely in a fight that it had to be surgically rebuilt, with metal plates and mesh, adversely affecting Fedoruk's career. He made his NHL playoff debut on April 11, 2007, getting no points in a 2–1 loss to the Anaheim Ducks. Boogaard earned his first playoff point, earning an assist on April 17, 2007 in a 4–1 win over the Ducks. He finished the playoffs with four games played, one assist, and 20 PIM.

Near the end of one of the games in the Ducks series, with Minnesota leading, the two teams were bickering and taunting each other. During a timeout, the fans chanted Boogaard's name. He had not played at all in that game, and Lemaire sent him in. He simply skated in front of the Anaheim bench, and smiled. The crowd roared its applause. "If the roof wasn't screwed down, it would have flew off," his mother recalled. "He didn't have to fight, he didn't have to get hurt, he didn't have to hurt anybody. That was the best. He could just go out there and skate around." A video clip of the incident is a favourite of Boogaard's family and friends.

Boogaard played in 34 games with the Wild in the 2007–08 season, getting no points, while registering 74 PIM, the fourth highest total on the team. Fedoruk, who he had so severely injured the season before, signed with the Wild, becoming a teammate and friend. Boogaard himself became a popular player off the ice, his No. 24 jersey becoming one of the team's bestsellers. "It was the fierceness of his brand and the gentleness of his character" commented a team executive. In the playoffs, Boogaard went pointless in six games, while putting up 24 PIM, second highest total on the club.

He played in 51 games with Minnesota in 2008–09, getting three assists, and leading the team with 87 PIM. He earned an assist on October 16, 2008 against the Florida Panthers, which was his first point since getting an assist on February 8, 2007, also against the Florida Panthers. That represented a 49-game pointless drought.

During the season he had begun taking prescription pain relief medicine for back pain. After two surgeries later in the season, he was also prescribed Percocet. His brother Aaron says that due to his size Boogaard usually had to take extra amounts of the pills for them to have any effect. "He'd go through 30 pills in a couple of days. He'd need 8 to 10 at a time to feel OK.

He found that the Wild's team doctors did not keep track of who had prescribed what, and eventually secured from eight of them prescriptions for 11 different drugs, most of them containing hydrocodone, such as Vicodin. He also frequented a downtown Minneapolis sports bar where patrons who recognized him bought him drinks. He bought thousands of dollars' worth of additional prescription pills from another acquaintance. Often he would take eight OxyContin tablets at once, chewing them to offset the drug's time-release formula. His brother, Aaron, who lived with Boogaard during the off-season, often would hide the pills.

He developed an addiction, and missed training camp prior to the 2009–10 season. The team said he was recovering from a concussion, but he was actually at a drug rehabilitation centre in Southern California. He returned five games into the season, defeating David Koci of the Colorado Avalanche in his first fight.

Friends, teammates, coaches and family said that while Boogaard's play had not changed, his personality had. "He just was kind of—a blank face," recalled John Scott. He fell asleep at odd times and was late for meetings and workouts. The team warned other players not to share their own prescription medicines with him.

That season, Boogaard appeared in 57 games, his highest total since his rookie season in 2005–06. Boogaard had four points, and a team high 105 PIM. On March 7, 2010, Boogaard was suspended for two games after a knee-on-knee hit against Edmonton Oilers forward Ryan Jones.

After the season, the Wild discreetly offered to trade him to other teams. Boogaard became an unrestricted free agent. The Wild offered to double his salary, but other teams could offer more. The Oilers and New York Rangers each offered $1.5 million a year. His family wanted him to sign with Edmonton so he could be closer to them, but he decided to play in New York instead. "It's one of the great cities to be at and you're always on center stage when you're out there, so I'm excited," Boogaard told the Minneapolis Star Tribune. The four-year, $6.5 million contract he signed with his new team was a lucrative deal for an enforcer.

New York Rangers
Boogaard reported to his new team at , 40 pounds () over his official weight. The Rangers feared his effectiveness might be diminished, and that he could be seriously injured in fights. But within a month of the new season, he had put those concerns to rest, scoring his first goal since his rookie season and winning fights.

He made his Rangers debut on October 9, 2010, earning no points in a 6–3 win over the Buffalo Sabres. Six days later he assisted on a Brian Boyle goal in a 4–3 loss to the Toronto Maple Leafs, his first point as a Ranger. In early November he defeated the Philadelphia Flyers's Jody Shelley in a fight, and scored on Michal Neuvirth of the Washington Capitals in a 5–3 loss, ending a 234-game scoring drought. Rangers' fans chanted his name in the next home game as he defeated Edmonton's Steve MacIntyre. In a second fight during that game, MacIntyre broke his nose, probably causing Boogaard another concussion.

A month later, Boogaard suffered a season-ending concussion in a fight with Matt Carkner of the Ottawa Senators. Carkner struck first and Boogaard, instead of retaliating with blows of his own, held on and looked away. "I noticed he kind of stopped fighting and I took him down and landed on top," Carkner said after the game. "It feels good to take down a big man like that."

Overall, Boogaard appeared in 22 games with the Rangers, scoring a goal and two points, while registering 45 PIM. The team attributed his absence to a shoulder injury, later adding that he was experiencing headaches. Placed on injured reserve for the remainder of the season, he became a recluse in his midtown Manhattan apartment, suffering from post-concussion syndrome.

He was told to avoid the rink because the sight could induce nausea. The Rangers sent over a balanced meal every day, but Boogaard often discarded it in favour of fast food. Once a week he drove to the Long Island suburb of Huntington to illicitly buy thousands of dollars' worth of the same prescription medicines he was addicted to from a dealer there. When his father visited him in January, Boogaard cried in his arms several times.

Other visitors, old friends who had come to see him play and sightsee earlier in the season, no longer did. He grew lonely in his apartment, and ran up high phone bills contacting people, some of whom he had not talked to in years. His 222-page cell-phone bill for February 2011 listed 13,724 separate text messages.

Those who did come noticed more striking changes in his personality. He was darker, going from mania to depression, and took little care of himself. The likeable qualities that had endeared him to fans in Minneapolis were less in evidence. He joked that his increasing memory lapses were the result of all the past punches he had taken.

He returned to the ice for light workouts in March, but collapsed while skating within days. The Rangers sent him back to California for rehab. Aaron Boogaard, who visited his brother there, said the two often exercised and relaxed on the beach while Derek skipped meetings or therapy sessions. Credit card records show that Boogaard spent $32,000 in two weeks there, including $1,200 on dinner one night and $5,000 renting a Porsche. Friends he contacted during this time thought he was just on vacation. During a recess, he flew to New York, bought more pills and drove them to his apartment in Minnesota.

Death
In May, Boogaard was granted another recess to attend his sister's graduation from the University of Kansas. He and brother Aaron went from California back to Minneapolis, planning to spend a few days together with Ryan, the other Boogaard brother. On the night of May 12, Derek went out with friends. Before they left the apartment, Aaron gave Derek what he said later was a 30-mg Percocet tablet he had been holding for his brother.

Boogaard and his friends went to a steakhouse for dinner, where he consumed some mixed drinks along with his steak. They then circulated among four different bars, drinking more as they did.

On his return home, Derek went to the bathroom, then the bedroom, several times before his friends left. At 3 am, he called Aaron from the kitchen, where he had been making pancakes, several times, complaining that the bed was spinning. "He was miserable", Aaron recalled. Derek finally stopped, apparently asleep, and Aaron went to a girlfriend's house and did not return until the afternoon.

When he did, Derek was still in bed. Assuming his brother was still hung over from alcohol use, Aaron said that he was going to pick Ryan up at the airport. When he returned, Ryan, who had like his father become an RCMP officer, saw that Derek's body was not moving and that rigor mortis had set in. The two called 9-1-1 and their parents.

Firefighters who responded first declared him dead at the scene.  He was a month and ten days short of his 29th birthday. An autopsy found that the cause of Boogaard's death was an accidental overdose of alcohol and oxycodone. "The coroner said with that mixture, he probably died as soon as he closed his eyes," said Aaron.

His family subsequently agreed to donate his brain to the Sports Legacy Institute at Boston University Medical School which studies the brains of athletes in high-contact sports. The SLI is especially interested in the degenerative brain condition chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), which can only be diagnosed after death.

Two months later, SLI doctor Ann McKee told the family in a conference call that Boogaard had indeed suffered from the ailment, with significant damage to his brain tissue. His CTE was more advanced than that of another former NHL player, Bob Probert, an enforcer who had recently died at the age of 45, and likely would have led to middle-age dementia had he lived.

On July 22, 2011, Aaron was charged with unlawful distribution of a controlled substance. The charge was dismissed in October 2011, at the same time he pleaded guilty to tampering with the scene of a death, a misdemeanor, since he had admitted to police that he had flushed the remaining pills down the toilet before they arrived. He was sentenced to probation and 80 hours of community service.

After his brain was removed for the SLI study, Boogaard's body was cremated. His mother keeps the ashes in an informal shrine to her son in her home in Regina. The next season, the Wild paid tribute to Boogaard with a highlight video and moment of silence. His family was presented with flowers, a painting of Boogaard and a framed jersey at centre ice.

Issues raised
While the circumstances of Boogaard's death were not in doubt, it raised some questions about how it might have been prevented. Two similar deaths led to a debate over the issues faced by hockey enforcers and even their continuing role in the game, as well as the NHL's attitude toward the health problems resulting from concussions. Boogaard's father has also expressed concern over the way his son's drug abuse was handled and possibly enabled by the teams he played for.

Four months after Boogaard's death, two enforcers, Rick Rypien and the retired Wade Belak, died as well. Rypien, who was also in his late 20s, committed suicide. The 35-year-old Belak's death was described initially as a suicide but family and friends say it was accidental. Both had also suffered from depression, like Boogaard.

The deaths led some former enforcers and sportswriters to question whether the league was doing enough to deal with the effects of the many concussions enforcers suffered and the stress of their role. Georges Laraque, a successful enforcer who had retired recently, said he had never liked being one despite the long career and adulation it brought him. Many other enforcers drank heavily to deal with the anxiety of knowing that they would have to fight every game. Don Cherry, a former Boston Bruins coach now a popular and controversial television commentator, responded by calling second-guessers such as Laraque "pukes" and "hypocrites". In December The New York Times devoted a lengthy three-part series to Boogaard's life and death that addressed many of the issues.

While the league has taken some steps to address the concussion problem, most recently in banning blindside hits to the head and requiring that players suffering head injuries be examined in a quiet room away from the bench, it is still not convinced that the CTE found in Boogaard and other players posthumously is a direct result of their hockey careers. "There isn't a lot of data, and the experts who we talked to, who consult with us, think that it's way premature to be drawing any conclusions at this point," says commissioner Gary Bettman. In its announcement of its findings, the SLI said:

Len Boogaard, now in a desk job with the RCMP, has been investigating his son's drug use when he can, trying to see which of Derek's many prescriptions were justified, and finding out what his contacts knew. When he visited Derek in New York a few months before his death, he was astounded to find out that his son was still getting prescriptions from team doctors despite his recent history of abuse and treatment. At one point, he alleges, Derek received a four-day advance notice of his next drug test. "We worked very closely with Derek on and off the ice to provide him with the very best possible care," said general manager Glen Sather in a statement.

Litigation by parents
In September 2012, the Boogaards filed a lawsuit against the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA), in Los Angeles seeking $9.8 million in damages. They alleged that the union was negligent in failing to file a grievance against the Rangers, as they advised the Boogaards they would, after their son's death for the balance of the money on his contract. While it only named the NHLPA as a defendant, there was speculation that it would raise issues about the culpability of both teams, the league and the drug treatment facility that Boogaard attended. The Boogaards' lawyer declined to say whether additional suits were being planned; the union said the suit was without merit. Early in 2013 it was dismissed; the judge ruled that the Boogaards had waited too long to make their claim.

Shortly afterwards, the Boogaards filed a new suit, this time against the NHL. In a case brought in an Illinois state court by the firm representing former NFL players in their lawsuit against their league over concussion injuries, they alleged wrongful death against the league. The suit claimed that indiscriminate prescriptions for painkillers issued to Boogaard by Wild and Rangers' team physicians had led to his addiction, and that the drug treatment programs Boogaard had been sent to took any action to discipline him despite being aware of multiple rule violations and failed drug tests. Lastly, the Boogaards said the league should have been aware of the increased risks of concussions faced by enforcers. They did not name a specific amount of damages sought, instead asking that it be left to a jury to determine.

The NHL successfully moved to have the case removed to federal court in Chicago, which dismissed the suit in 2017 on procedural  grounds. Judge Gary Feinerman held that under Minnesota law, a wrongful-death action could only be filed by a court-appointed trustee, which the Boogaards were not, and that deadline had passed before the suit was filed. The Boogaards had also failed to state a claim, and failed to respond in substance to the NHL's arguments that they had. The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed that dismissal in May 2018.

Suspect arrest
On September 9, 2014, The New York Times reported that Jordan Hart, a former player of the Utah Grizzlies and the son of former Islander Gerry Hart, was arrested for selling Boogaard the Percocet pills that eventually led to his death. The painkillers were obtained through illegal prescriptions issued to Hart by Oscar Johnson, a medical contact from Hart's career with the Grizzlies. Hart faced up to twenty years in prison if found guilty and Johnson's court hearing was scheduled for late September 2014 for "26 counts of distributing and possessing with intent to distribute the drug.". Hart was sentenced on October 6, 2016 to one year of probation and 100 hours of community service.

Role as an enforcer
Boogaard's knockout of fellow enforcer Todd Fedoruk in a fight during a game against the Anaheim Ducks helped spark debate over increasing the punishment for fighting in the NHL. During this fight, Boogaard landed a brutal punch to the cheek sending Fedoruk to the ice. As a result, Fedoruk had to undergo surgery to reconstruct his shattered cheek using titanium plates. Fedoruk and Boogaard would later become teammates in Minnesota during the 2007–08 season. On November 6, 2005, Boogaard knocked out the Ducks' enforcer Trevor Gillies with an uppercut to the jaw.

Anxiety over having to face Boogaard, even occasionally, and the possibility the younger man might inflict similar injuries on him, led Georges Laraque to retire. "I knew sooner or later he would get the better of me," he said after Boogaard's death. "And I just—I like my face, and I just didn't want to have it broken."

Boogaard and his brother Aaron, who played hockey for the Rio Grande Valley Killer Bees of the Central Hockey League, ran the Derek and Aaron Boogaard Fighting Camp in Regina, Saskatchewan, for children aged 12 to 18. This sparked some controversy, with some people siding with the Boogaards, saying that they are teaching children how to not get hurt in a fight, and others opposing them, with the position that the Boogaards' camp encourages children to fight.

Career statistics

See also

 List of deaths from drug overdose and intoxication
 List of ice hockey players who died during their playing career
 List of Minnesota Wild players
 List of New York Rangers players

Notes

References

External links

 Derek Boogaard profile at Yahoo! Sports

Category:1982 births
Category:2011 deaths
Category:Accidental deaths in Minnesota
Category:Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Category:Drug-related deaths in Minnesota
Category:Houston Aeros (1994–2013) players
Category:Ice hockey people from Saskatchewan
Category:Louisiana IceGators (ECHL) players
Category:Medicine Hat Tigers players
Category:Minnesota Wild draft picks
Category:Minnesota Wild players
Category:New York Rangers players
Category:Prince George Cougars players
Category:Regina Pats players
Category:Sportspeople from Saskatoon
Category:Ice hockey controversies


Margahovit

Margahovit (, formerly  Hamzachiman), is a major village in the Lori Province of Armenia.

References

World Gazeteer: Armenia – World-Gazetteer.com

Category:Populated places in Lori Province


Discidae

Discidae is a taxonomic family of small air-breathing land snails, terrestrial gastropod mollusks in the superfamily Punctoidea.

Genera
The family Discidae has no subfamilies. Genera within the family Discidae include:
 Atlantica Ancey, 1887
 subgenus Canaridiscus Alonso & Ibáñez, 2011
 Discus Fitzinger, 1833
 Anguispira Morse, 1864
 Speleodiscoides  Smith, 1957
 Zonodiscus Pilsbry, 1948   - or as a subgenus of Anguispira

References

External links


Aeschylus

Aeschylus (, ;  Aiskhylos, ; c. 525/524 – c. 456/455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian. He is often described as the father of tragedy. Academics' knowledge of the genre begins with his work, and understanding of earlier tragedies is largely based on inferences from his surviving plays. According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in the theatre and allowed conflict among them; characters previously had interacted only with the chorus.

Only seven of his estimated seventy to ninety plays have survived, and there is a long-standing debate regarding his authorship of one of these plays, Prometheus Bound, which some believe his son Euphorion actually wrote. Fragments of some other plays have survived in quotations and more continue to be discovered on Egyptian papyrus, often giving further insights into his work. He was probably the first dramatist to present plays as a trilogy; his Oresteia is the only ancient example of the form to have survived. At least one of his plays was influenced by the Persians' second invasion of Greece (480–479 BC). This work, The Persians, is one of very few classical Greek tragedies concerned with contemporary events and the only one to survive to the present, as well as a useful source of information about its period. The significance of the war against Persia was so great to Aeschylus and the Greeks that Aeschylus' epitaph commemorates his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon while making no mention of his success as a playwright. Despite this, Aeschylus's work – particularly the Oresteia – is generally acclaimed by modern critics and scholars.

Life

Aeschylus was born in c. 525 BC in Eleusis, a small town about 27 kilometers northwest of Athens, which is nestled in the fertile valleys of western Attica, though the date is most likely based on counting back forty years from his first victory in the Great Dionysia. His family was wealthy and well established; his father, Euphorion, was a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attica, though this might be a fiction that the ancients invented to account for the grandeur of his plays.

As a youth, he worked at a vineyard until, according to the 2nd-century AD geographer Pausanias, the god Dionysus visited him in his sleep and commanded him to turn his attention to the nascent art of tragedy. As soon as he woke from the dream, the young Aeschylus began to write a tragedy, and his first performance took place in 499 BC, when he was only 26 years old. He won his first victory at the City Dionysia in 484 BC.

In 510 BC, when Aeschylus was 15 years old, Cleomenes I expelled the sons of Peisistratus from Athens, and Cleisthenes came to power. Cleisthenes' reforms included a system of registration that emphasized the importance of the deme over family tradition. In the last decade of the 6th century, Aeschylus and his family were living in the deme of Eleusis.

The Persian Wars played a large role in the playwright's life and career. In 490 BC, Aeschylus and his brother Cynegeirus fought to defend Athens against the invading army of Darius I of Persia at the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians emerged triumphant, a victory celebrated across the city-states of Greece. Cynegeirus, however, died in the battle, receiving a mortal wound while trying to prevent a Persian ship retreating from the shore, for which his countrymen extolled him as a hero.

In 480 BC, Aeschylus was called into military service again, this time against Xerxes I's invading forces at the Battle of Salamis together with his younger brother Ameinias; he also fought, later, at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. Ion of Chios was a witness for Aeschylus's war record and his contribution in Salamis. Salamis holds a prominent place in The Persians, his oldest surviving play, which was performed in 472 BC and won first prize at the Dionysia.

Aeschylus was one of many Greeks who were initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, an ancient cult of Demeter based in his home town of Eleusis. Initiates gained secret knowledge through these rites, likely concerning the afterlife. Firm details of specific rites are sparse, as members were sworn under the penalty of death not to reveal anything about the Mysteries to non-initiates. Nevertheless, according to Aristotle, Aeschylus was accused of revealing some of the cult's secrets on stage.

Other sources claim that an angry mob tried to kill Aeschylus on the spot, but he fled the scene. Heracleides of Pontus asserts that the audience tried to stone Aeschylus. He then took refuge at the altar in the orchestra of the Theater of Dionysus. At his trial, he pleaded ignorance. He was acquitted, with the jury sympathetic to the military service of Aeschylus and his brothers during the Persian Wars. According to the 2nd-century AD author Aelian, Aeschylus's younger brother Ameinias helped to acquit Aeschylus by showing the jury the stump of the hand that he lost at Salamis, where he was voted bravest warrior. The truth is that the award for bravery at Salamis went not to Aeschylus' brother but to Ameinias of Pallene.

Aeschylus travelled to Sicily once or twice in the 470s BC, having been invited by Hiero I of Syracuse, a major Greek city on the eastern side of the island; during one of these trips he produced The Women of Aetna (in honor of the city founded by Hieron) and restaged his Persians. By 473 BC, after the death of Phrynichus, one of his chief rivals, Aeschylus was the yearly favorite in the Dionysia, winning first prize in nearly every competition. In 472 BC, Aeschylus staged the production that included the Persians, with Pericles serving as choregos.

Death

In 458 BC, he returned to Sicily for the last time, visiting the city of Gela where he died in 456 or 455 BC. Valerius Maximus wrote that he was killed outside the city by a tortoise dropped by an eagle (possibly a lammergeier or Cinereous vulture, which do feed on tortoises by dropping them on hard objects) which had mistaken his bald head for a rock suitable for shattering the shell of the reptile. Pliny, in his Naturalis Historiæ, adds that Aeschylus had been staying outdoors to avoid a prophecy that he would be killed by a falling object. But this story may be legendary and due to a misunderstanding of the iconography on Aeschylus's tomb. Aeschylus's work was so respected by the Athenians that after his death, his were the only tragedies allowed to be restaged in subsequent competitions. His sons Euphorion and Euæon and his nephew Philocles also became playwrights.

The inscription on Aeschylus's gravestone makes no mention of his theatrical renown, commemorating only his military achievements:

According to Castoriadis, the inscription on his grave signifies the primary importance of "belonging to the City" (polis), of the solidarity that existed within the collective body of citizen-soldiers.

Personal life
Aeschylus married and had two sons, Euphorion and Euaeon, both of whom became tragic poets. Euphorion won first prize in 431 BC in competition against both Sophocles and Euripides.  His nephew, Philocles (his sister's son), was also a tragic poet, and won first prize in the competition against Sophocles' Oedipus Rex. Aeschylus had at least two brothers, Cynegeirus and Ameinias.

Works

The roots of Greek drama are in religious festivals for the gods, chiefly Dionysus, the god of wine. During Aeschylus's lifetime, dramatic competitions became part of the City Dionysia in the spring. The festival opened with a procession, followed with a competition of boys singing dithyrambs and culminated in a pair of dramatic competitions. The first competition Aeschylus would have participated in, consisted of three playwrights each presenting three tragic plays followed by a shorter comedic satyr play. Such format is called a continuous tragic tetralogy. It allowed Aeschylus to explore the human, theological, and cosmic dimensions of one or another mythic sequence, developing it in successive phases.  A second competition of five comedic playwrights followed, and the winners of both competitions were chosen by a panel of judges.

Aeschylus entered many of these competitions in his lifetime, and various ancient sources attribute between seventy and ninety plays to him. Only seven tragedies have survived intact: The Persians, Seven against Thebes, The Suppliants, the trilogy known as The Oresteia, consisting of the three tragedies Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers and The Eumenides, together with Prometheus Bound (whose authorship is disputed). With the exception of this last play – the success of which is uncertain – all of Aeschylus's extant tragedies are known to have won first prize at the City Dionysia.

The Alexandrian Life of Aeschylus claims that he won the first prize at the City Dionysia thirteen times. This compares favorably with Sophocles' reported eighteen victories (with a substantially larger catalogue, at an estimated 120 plays), and dwarfs the five victories of Euripides, who is thought to have written roughly 90 plays.

Trilogies
One hallmark of Aeschylean dramaturgy appears to have been his tendency to write connected trilogies, in which each play serves as a chapter in a continuous dramatic narrative. The Oresteia is the only extant example of this type of connected trilogy, but there is evidence that Aeschylus often wrote such trilogies. The comic satyr plays that follow his trilogies also drew upon stories derived from myths.

For example, the Oresteias satyr play Proteus treated the story of Menelaus'  detour in Egypt on his way home from the Trojan War. Based on the evidence provided by a catalogue of Aeschylean play titles, scholia, and play fragments recorded by later authors, it is assumed that three other of his extant plays were components of connected trilogies: Seven against Thebes being the final play in an Oedipus trilogy, and The Suppliants and Prometheus Bound each being the first play in a Danaid trilogy and Prometheus trilogy, respectively (see below). Scholars have moreover suggested several completely lost trilogies derived from known play titles. A number of these trilogies treated myths surrounding the Trojan War. One, collectively called the Achilleis, comprised the titles Myrmidons, Nereids and Phrygians (alternately, The Ransoming of Hector).

Another trilogy apparently recounts the entry of the Trojan ally Memnon into the war, and his death at the hands of Achilles (Memnon and The Weighing of Souls being two components of the trilogy); The Award of the Arms, The Phrygian Women, and The Salaminian Women suggest a trilogy about the madness and subsequent suicide of the Greek hero Ajax; Aeschylus also seems to have written about Odysseus' return to Ithaca after the war (including his killing of his wife Penelope's suitors and its consequences) in a trilogy consisting of The Soul-raisers, Penelope and The Bone-gatherers. Other suggested trilogies touched on the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (Argô, Lemnian Women, Hypsipylê); the life of Perseus (The Net-draggers, Polydektês, Phorkides); the birth and exploits of Dionysus (Semele, Bacchae, Pentheus); and the aftermath of the war portrayed in Seven against Thebes (Eleusinians, Argives (or Argive Women), Sons of the Seven).

Surviving plays

The Persians

The earliest of his plays to survive is The Persians (Persai), performed in 472 BC and based on experiences in Aeschylus's own life, specifically the Battle of Salamis. It is unique among surviving Greek tragedies in that it describes a recent historical event. The Persians focuses on the popular Greek theme of hubris by blaming Persia's loss on the pride of its king.

It opens with the arrival of a messenger in Susa, the Persian capital, bearing news of the catastrophic Persian defeat at Salamis to Atossa, the mother of the Persian King Xerxes. Atossa then travels to the tomb of Darius, her husband, where his ghost appears to explain the cause of the defeat. It is, he says, the result of Xerxes' hubris in building a bridge across the Hellespont, an action which angered the gods. Xerxes appears at the end of the play, not realizing the cause of his defeat, and the play closes to lamentations by Xerxes and the chorus.

Seven against Thebes

Seven against Thebes (Hepta epi Thebas), which was performed in 467 BC, has the contrasting theme of the interference of the gods in human affairs. It also marks the first known appearance in Aeschylus's work of a theme which would continue through his plays, that of the polis (the city) being a key development of human civilization.

The play tells the story of Eteocles and Polynices, the sons of the shamed King of Thebes, Oedipus. The sons agree to alternate in the throne of the city, but after the first year Eteocles refuses to step down, and Polynices wages war to claim his crown. The brothers kill each other in single combat, and the original ending of the play consisted of lamentations for the dead brothers.

A new ending was added to the play some fifty years later: Antigone and Ismene mourn their dead brothers, a messenger enters announcing an edict prohibiting the burial of Polynices; and finally, Antigone declares her intention to defy this edict. The play was the third in a connected Oedipus trilogy; the first two plays were Laius and Oedipus. The concluding satyr play was The Sphinx.

The Suppliants

Aeschylus continued his emphasis on the polis with The Suppliants in 463 BC (Hiketides), which pays tribute to the democratic undercurrents running through Athens in advance of the establishment of a democratic government in 461. In the play, the Danaids, the fifty daughters of Danaus, founder of Argos, flee a forced marriage to their cousins in Egypt. They turn to King Pelasgus of Argos for protection, but Pelasgus refuses until the people of Argos weigh in on the decision, a distinctly democratic move on the part of the king. The people decide that the Danaids deserve protection, and they are allowed within the walls of Argos despite Egyptian protests.

The 1952 publication of Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2256 fr. 3 confirmed a long-assumed (because of The Suppliants''' cliffhanger ending) Danaid trilogy, whose constituent plays are generally agreed to be The Suppliants, The Egyptians and The Danaids. A plausible reconstruction of the trilogy's last two-thirds runs thus: In The Egyptians, the Argive-Egyptian war threatened in the first play has transpired. During the course of the war, King Pelasgus has been killed, and Danaus rules Argos. He negotiates a peace settlement with Aegyptus, as a condition of which, his fifty daughters will marry the fifty sons of Aegyptus. Danaus secretly informs his daughters of an oracle predicting that one of his sons-in-law would kill him; he therefore orders the Danaids to murder their husbands on their wedding night. His daughters agree. The Danaids would open the day after the wedding.

In short order, it is revealed that forty-nine of the Danaids killed their husbands as ordered; Hypermnestra, however, loved her husband Lynceus, and thus spared his life and helped him to escape. Angered by his daughter's disobedience, Danaus orders her imprisonment and, possibly, her execution. In the trilogy's climax and dénouement, Lynceus reveals himself to Danaus, and kills him (thus fulfilling the oracle). He and Hypermnestra will establish a ruling dynasty in Argos. The other forty-nine Danaids are absolved of their murderous crime, and married off to unspecified Argive men. The satyr play following this trilogy was titled Amymone, after one of the Danaids.

The Oresteia

The only complete trilogy of Greek plays by any playwright still extant (save a few missing lines in several spots) is the Oresteia (458 BC), although the satyr play that originally followed it, Proteus, is lost except for some fragments. The trilogy consists of Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers (Choephoroi), and The Eumenides. Together, these plays tell the bloody story of the family of Agamemnon, King of Argos.

Agamemnon

Aeschylus begins in Greece describing the return of King Agamemnon from his victory in the Trojan War, from the perspective of the towns people (the Chorus) and his wife, Clytemnestra. However, dark foreshadowings build to the death of the king at the hands of his wife, who was angry at his sacrifice of their daughter Iphigenia, who was killed so that the gods would restore the winds and allow the Greek fleet to sail to Troy. She was also unhappy at his keeping of the Trojan prophetess Cassandra as a concubine. Cassandra foretells of the murder of Agamemnon, and of herself, to the assembled townsfolk, who are horrified. She then enters the palace knowing that she cannot avoid her fate. The ending of the play includes a prediction of the return of Orestes, son of Agamemnon, who will seek to avenge his father.

The Libation Bearers
The Libation Bearers continues the tale, opening with Orestes's arrival at Agamemnon's tomb. At the tomb, Electra meets Orestes, who has returned from exile in Phocis, and they plan revenge upon Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus.  Clytemnestra's account of a nightmare in which she gives birth to a snake is recounted by the chorus; and this leads her to order Electra, her daughter, to pour libations on Agamemnon's tomb (with the assistance of libation bearers) in hope of making amends. Orestes enters the palace pretending to bear news of his own death, and when Clytemnestra calls in Aegisthus to share in the news, Orestes kills them both. Orestes is then beset by the Furies, who avenge the murders of kin in Greek mythology.

The Eumenides
The final play of The Oresteia addresses the question of Orestes' guilt. The Furies drive Orestes from Argos and into the wilderness. He makes his way to the temple of Apollo and begs him to drive the Furies away. Apollo had encouraged Orestes to kill Clytemnestra, and so bears some of the guilt for the murder. The Furies are a more ancient race of the gods, and Apollo sends Orestes to the temple of Athena, with Hermes as a guide.

The Furies track him down, and the goddess Athena, patron of Athens, steps in and declares that a trial is necessary. Apollo argues Orestes' case, and after the judges (including Athena) deliver a tie vote, Athena announces that Orestes is acquitted. She renames the Furies  The Eumenides (The Good-spirited, or Kindly Ones), and extols the importance of reason in the development of laws, and, as in The Suppliants, the ideals of a democratic Athens are praised.

Prometheus Bound

In addition to these six works, a seventh tragedy, Prometheus Bound, is attributed to Aeschylus by ancient authorities. Since the late 19th century, however, scholars have increasingly doubted this ascription, largely on stylistic grounds. Its production date is also in dispute, with theories ranging from the 480s BC to as late as the 410s.

The play consists mostly of static dialogue, as throughout the play the Titan Prometheus is bound to a rock as punishment from the Olympian Zeus for providing fire to humans. The god Hephaestus, the Titan Oceanus, and the chorus of Oceanids all express sympathy for Prometheus' plight. Prometheus meets Io, a fellow victim of Zeus' cruelty; and prophesies her future travels, revealing that one of her descendants will free Prometheus. The play closes with Zeus sending Prometheus into the abyss because Prometheus refuses to divulge the secret of a potential marriage that could prove Zeus' downfall.

Prometheus Bound appears to have been the first play in a trilogy called the Prometheia. In the second play, Prometheus Unbound, Heracles frees Prometheus from his chains and kills the eagle that had been sent daily to eat Prometheus' perpetually regenerating liver. Perhaps foreshadowing his eventual reconciliation with Prometheus, we learn that Zeus has released the other Titans whom he imprisoned at the conclusion of the Titanomachy.

In the trilogy's conclusion, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer, it appears that the Titan finally warns Zeus not to sleep with the sea nymph Thetis, for she is fated to give birth to a son greater than the father. Not wishing to be overthrown, Zeus marries Thetis off to the mortal Peleus; the product of that union is Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. After reconciling with Prometheus, Zeus probably inaugurates a festival in his honor at Athens.

Lost plays
Only the titles and assorted fragments of Aeschylus's other plays have come down to us.  We have enough fragments of some plays (along with comments made by later authors and scholiasts) to produce rough synopses of their plots.

Myrmidons
This play was based on books 9 and 16 in Homer's Iliad. Achilles sits in silent indignation over his humiliation at Agamemnon's hands for most of the play. Envoys from the Greek army attempt to reconcile him to Agamemnon, but he yields only to his friend Patroclus, who then battles the Trojans in Achilles' armour. The bravery and death of Patroclus are reported in a messenger's speech, which is followed by mourning.

Nereids
This play was based on books 18, 19, and 22 of the Iliad; it follows the Daughters of Nereus, the sea god, who lament Patroclus' death. In the play, a messenger tells how Achilles, perhaps reconciled to Agamemnon and the Greeks, slew Hector.

Phrygians, or Hector's Ransom
In this play, Achilles sits in silent mourning over Patroclus, after a brief discussion with Hermes. Hermes then brings in King Priam of Troy, who wins over Achilles and ransoms his son's body in a spectacular coup de théâtre. A scale is brought on stage and Hector's body is placed in one scale and gold in the other. The dynamic dancing of the chorus of Trojans when they enter with Priam is reported by Aristophanes.

Niobe
The children of Niobe, the heroine, have been slain by Apollo and Artemis because Niobe had gloated that she had more children than their mother, Leto. Niobe sits in silent mourning on stage during most of the play. In the Republic, Plato quotes the line "God plants a fault in mortals when he wills to destroy a house utterly."

These are the remaining 71 plays ascribed to Aeschylus which are known to us:

Alcmene
Amymone
The Archer-Women
The Argivian WomenThe Argo, also titled The RowersAtalantaAthamasAttendants of the Bridal ChamberAward of the ArmsThe BacchaeThe BassaraeThe Bone-GatherersThe CabeiroiCallistoThe Carians, also titled EuropaCercyonChildren of HerculesCirceThe Cretan WomenCycnusThe DanaidsDaughters of HeliosDaughters of PhorcysThe DescendantsThe EdoniansThe EgyptiansThe EscortsGlaucus of PontusGlaucus of PotniaeHypsipyleIphigeniaIxionLaiusThe Lemnian WomenThe LionLycurgusMemnonThe Men of EleusisThe MessengersThe MyrmidonsThe MysiansNemeaThe Net-DraggersThe Nurses of DionysusOrethyiaPalamedesPenelopePentheusPerrhaibidesPhiloctetesPhineusThe Phrygian WomenPolydectesThe PriestessesPrometheus the Fire-BearerPrometheus the Fire-KindlerPrometheus UnboundProteusSemele, also titled The Water-BearersSisyphus the RunawaySisyphus the Stone-RollerThe Spectators, also titled Athletes of the Isthmian GamesThe SphinxThe Spirit-RaisersTelephusThe Thracian WomenWeighing of SoulsWomen of Aetna (two versions)Women of SalamisXantriaeThe YouthsInfluence
Influence on Greek drama and culture

When Aeschylus first began writing, the theatre had only just begun to evolve, although earlier playwrights like Thespis had already expanded the cast to include an actor who was able to interact with the chorus. Aeschylus added a second actor, allowing for greater dramatic variety, while the chorus played a less important role. He is sometimes credited with introducing skenographia, or scene-decoration, though Aristotle gives this distinction to Sophocles. Aeschylus is also said to have made the costumes more elaborate and dramatic, and having his actors wear platform boots (cothurni) to make them more visible to the audience. According to a later account of Aeschylus's life, as they walked on stage in the first performance of the Eumenides, the chorus of Furies were so frightening in appearance that they caused young children to faint, patriarchs to urinate, and pregnant women to go into labour.

His plays were written in verse. No violence is performed on stage, and the plays have a remoteness from daily life in Athens, either by relating stories about the gods or by being set, like The Persians, in far-away locales. Aeschylus's work has a strong moral and religious emphasis. The Oresteia trilogy concentrated on man's position in the cosmos in relation to the gods, divine law, and divine punishment.

Aeschylus's popularity is evident in the praise the comic playwright Aristophanes gives him in The Frogs, produced some half-century after Aeschylus's death. Appearing as a character in the play, Aeschylus claims at line 1022 that his Seven against Thebes "made everyone watching it to love being warlike"; with his Persians, Aeschylus claims at lines 1026–7 that he "taught the Athenians to desire always to defeat their enemies." Aeschylus goes on to say at lines 1039ff. that his plays inspired the Athenians to be brave and virtuous.

Influence outside Greek culture
Aeschylus's works were influential beyond his own time. Hugh Lloyd-Jones draws attention to Richard Wagner's reverence of Aeschylus. Michael Ewans argues in his Wagner and Aeschylus. The Ring and the Oresteia (London: Faber. 1982) that the influence was so great as to merit a direct character by character comparison between Wagner's Ring and Aeschylus's Oresteia. A critic of his book however, while not denying that Wagner read and respected Aeschylus, has described his arguments as unreasonable and forced.

Sir J. T. Sheppard argues in the second half of his Aeschylus and Sophocles: Their Work and Influence that Aeschylus, along with Sophocles, have played a major part in the formation of dramatic literature from the Renaissance to the present, specifically in French and Elizabethan drama. He also claims that their influence went beyond just drama and applies to literature in general, citing Milton and the Romantics.

Eugene O'Neill's Mourning Becomes Electra (1931), a trilogy of three plays set in America after the Civil War, is modeled after the Oresteia. Prior to writing his acclaimed trilogy, O'Neill had been developing a play about Aeschylus himself, and he noted that Aeschylus "so changed the system of the tragic stage that he has more claim than anyone else to be regarded as the founder (Father) of Tragedy."

During his presidential campaign in 1968, Senator Robert F. Kennedy quoted the Edith Hamilton translation of Aeschylus on the night of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Kennedy was notified of King's murder before a campaign stop in Indianapolis, Indiana and was warned not to attend the event due to fears of rioting from the mostly African-American crowd. Kennedy insisted on attending and delivered an impromptu speech that delivered news of King's death to the crowd.

Acknowledging the audience's emotions, Kennedy referred to his own grief at the murder of Martin Luther King and, quoting a passage from the play Agamemnon (in translation), said: "My favorite poet was Aeschylus. And he once wrote: 'Even in our sleep, pain which cannot forget falls drop by drop upon the heart, until in our own despair, against our will, comes wisdom through the awful grace of God.' What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness; but is love and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black ... Let us dedicate ourselves to what the Greeks wrote so many years ago: to tame the savageness of man and make gentle the life of this world." The quotation from Aeschylus was later inscribed on a memorial at the gravesite of Robert Kennedy following his own assassination.

Editions
Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Aeschyli Tragoediae. Editio maior, Berlin 1914.
Gilbert Murray, Aeschyli Septem Quae Supersunt Tragoediae. Editio Altera, Oxford 1955.
Denys Page, Aeschyli Septem Quae Supersunt Tragoediae, Oxford 1972.
Martin L. West, Aeschyli Tragoediae cum incerti poetae Prometheo, 2nd ed., Stuttgart/Leipzig 1998.
The first translation of the seven plays into English was by Robert Potter in 1779, using blank verse for the iambic trimeters and rhymed verse for the choruses, a convention adopted by most translators for the next century.
Anna Swanwick produced a verse translation in English of all seven surviving plays as The Dramas of Aeschylus in 1886 full text
Stefan Radt (ed.), Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. III: Aeschylus (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009) (Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, 3).
Alan H. Sommerstein (ed.), Aeschylus, Volume II, Oresteia: Agamemnon. Libation-bearers. Eumenides. 146 (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Loeb Classical Library, 2009); Volume III, Fragments. 505 (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Loeb Classical Library, 2008).

 See also
2876 Aeschylus, an asteroid named for him
Theatre of ancient Greece
Live by the sword, die by the sword

Notes

Citations

References

Bierl, A. Die Orestie des Aischylos auf der modernen Bühne: Theoretische Konzeptionen und ihre szenische Realizierung (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1997)
Cairns, D., V. Liapis, Dionysalexandros: Essays on Aeschylus and His Fellow Tragedians in Honour of Alexander F. Garvie (Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales, 2006)

Deforge, B. Une vie avec Eschyle. Vérité des mythes (Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2010)

Lefkowitz, Mary (1981). The Lives of the Greek Poets. University of North Carolina Press

— (2002). Greek Drama and Dramatists. London: Routledge Press.

Summers, David (2007). Vision, Reflection, and Desire in Western Painting. University of North Carolina Press
Thomson, George (1973) Aeschylus and Athens: A Study in the Social Origin of Drama. London: Lawrence and Wishart (4th edition)

Vellacott, Philip, (1961). Prometheus Bound and Other Plays: Prometheus Bound, Seven Against Thebes, and The Persians. New York: Penguin Classics.

Zeitlin, Froma (1982). Under the sign of the shield: semiotics and Aeschylus' Seven against Thebes. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2nd ed. 2009 (Greek studies: interdisciplinary approaches)
Zetlin, Froma (1996). "The dynamics of misogyny: myth and mythmaking in Aeschylus's Oresteia", in Froma Zeitlin, Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 87–119.
Zeitlin, Froma (1996). "The politics of Eros in the Danaid trilogy of Aeschylus", in Froma Zeitlin, Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Literature''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 123–171.

External links

Selected Poems of Aeschylus
Aeschylus-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library
Complete syntax diagrams at Alpheios
Online English Translations of Aeschylus
Photo of a fragment of The Net-pullers

"Aeschylus, I: Persians" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press
"Aeschylus, II: The Oresteia" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press
"Aeschylus, III: Fragments" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press

Category:5th-century BC Greek people
Category:5th-century BC writers
Category:520s BC births
Category:450s BC deaths
Category:Tragic poets
Category:Ancient Greeks accused of sacrilege
Category:Greek people of the Greco-Persian Wars
Category:Battle of Marathon
Category:Accidental deaths
Category:Deaths due to bird attacks


1975 North American Soccer League season

Statistics of North American Soccer League in season 1975. This was the 8th season of the NASL.

Overview
The league comprised 20 teams with the Tampa Bay Rowdies winning the championship.

Pelé joined the New York Cosmos in 1975.

1975 was the first year the league used the term Soccer Bowl for their championship game.

Changes from the previous season

Rules changes
The 1975 season saw the removal of tie games. Matches that were level after 90 minutes would go to 15 minutes of sudden death overtime, and then onto penalty kicks if needed. It would not be until 2000 that a top-tier American soccer league would again allow matches to end in a draw.

New teams
Chicago Sting
Hartford Bicentennials
Portland Timbers
San Antonio Thunder
Tampa Bay Rowdies

Teams folding
None

Teams moving
None

Name changes
Toronto Metros to Toronto Metros-Croatia*
*after merger with Toronto Croatia of National Soccer League

Regular season
W = Wins, L = Losses, GF = Goals For, GA = Goals Against, PT= point system

6 points for a win,
1 point for a shootout win,
0 points for a loss,
1 point for each regulation goal scored up to three per game.
-Premiers (most points). -Other playoff teams.

NASL League Leaders

Scoring

*(2 points per goal, 1 per assist)

Goalkeeping

*(1,260 minutes minimum)

NASL All-Stars

Playoffs
All playoff games in all rounds including Soccer Bowl '75 were single game elimination match ups.

Bracket

Quarterfinals

Semifinals

Soccer Bowl '75

1975 NASL Champions: Tampa Bay Rowdies

Post season awards
Most Valuable Player: Steve David, Miami
Coach of the year: John Sewell, St. Louis
Rookie of the year: Chris Bahr, Philadelphia

References

External links
Complete Results and Standings

Category:North American Soccer League (1968–1984) seasons
Category:1975 in American soccer leagues


Seale

Seale may refer to:

Seale, Alabama, an unincorporated community in the United States
Seale, Surrey, a village in England
Seale Hayne College, military hospital in Ivybridge, Devon, UK

Seale is also a surname:
Seale Baronets (since 1838), a heraldry family of noble deed to the British monarchy
Charles Seale-Hayne (1833-1903), British member of Parliament from 1885 to 1903
Alvin Seale (1871–1958), an American ichthyologist
Arthur Seale (born 1946), a convicted murderer
Bobby Seale (born 1937), an American civil rights activist
Clive Seale (born 1955), a British medical sociologist
Douglas Seale (1913–1999), a British actor
James Ford Seale (born 1936), a former Ku Klux Klan member
John Seale (born 1942), an Australian cinematographer
Patrick Seale, a British journalist

See also
 Seal (disambiguation)
 Seales
 Seals (disambiguation)
 Searles


Laura M. Labovich

Laura M. Labovich (born 1972) is an author, national job search expert, speaker and chief executive officer of a boutique outplacement firm in Washington D.C. She is the co-author of 100 Conversations for Career Success(2012), and the author of the Pearson Workforce Education online course, the Ultimate job Search Course(2014).

Early life
Labovich was born in Royal Oak, Michigan and raised in Farmington Hills, Michigan.

Education
Labovich graduated from Michigan State University in 1994 with a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Employment Relations, with majors in Economics, Psychology and Sociology, and a Masters in Labor Relations and Human Resources from Michigan State University in 1999.

Career
Labovich started her career as a receptionist at Walt Disney World in the Casting Department. Labovich was promoted to casting representative where she recruited nationwide for the highly competitive Walt Disney World College Program, led the recreation recruiting and staffing efforts for both Disney’s Typhoon Lagoon and Disney’s Blizzard Beach water parks, and staffed up Disney’s Animal Kingdom for its inaugural launch.
Labovich went on to America Online, where she developed and launched AOL’s college internship program, hiring more than 100 MBA interns in its first year, and coached hundreds of employees from entry-level to executive on how to fit in, stand out, and move up in the company and in their careers.

In 2006, Labovich founded The Career Strategy Group, through which she offers career coaching, social media training and help with resumes.

Selected publications
She co-authored 100 Conversations for Career Success. The book has been listed as top career book in 2013 in Forbes online.

Awards and distinctions
Labovich was awarded CDI Innovator Award in 2012. She has also been featured in various television programs, industry trade journals, magazines, newspapers and radio programs.

References

External links
How to Be a Better Networker(An Interview With Laura)
Internship Tips from Career Expert Laura Labovich (FOX5)
Laura Labovich offering internship seekers' parents professional advice (NBC 6 South Florida)
A Job Seeker's Best Friend, Career Strategist Laura Labovich Offers "New Year's, New Job" Advice

Category:1972 births
Category:Michigan State University alumni
Category:Living people
Category:Writers from Washington, D.C.


Derrick Creek

Derrick Creek is a stream in the U.S. state of West Virginia.

Derrick Creek has the name of a pioneer who settled there.

See also
List of rivers of West Virginia

References

Category:Rivers of Kanawha County, West Virginia
Category:Rivers of West Virginia


Alyssa Gagliardi

Alyssa Marie Gagliardi (born April 2, 1992) is an American-born women's professional ice hockey player. Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and raised in Raleigh, North Carolina, Gagliardi is one of the first women from Raleigh to become a professional ice hockey player.

Playing career
Gagliardi played NCAA college hockey at Cornell University. During her four years with the team, she accumulated 89 points with the Cornell Big Red women's ice hockey program. Gagliardi was a member of four ECAC championship teams with Cornell.

Professional
After graduation, Gagliardi turned professional with the Boston Blades of the CWHL in 2014. During the 2014-15 season, Gagliardi helped the club capture the 2015 Clarkson Cup. Of note, she participated in the 1st Canadian Women's Hockey League All-Star Game.

In 2015, Gagliardi joined the Boston Pride of the new National Women's Hockey League. Gagliardi was selected to participate in the 1st NWHL All-Star Game, which took place on January 24, 2016 at Harbor Center in Buffalo, New York. The Pride would win the inaugural Isobel Cup, the championship of the NWHL.

She participated in the 3rd NWHL All-Star Game.

Worked at Eversound.

International
In 2014 and 2015, Gagliardi played for the US National Women's Ice Hockey Team in the Four Nations Cup tournament, winning the gold in 2014 and the silver in 2015.

Awards and honors
NWHL Player of the Week, Awarded December 4, 2017

References

External links

 Alyssa Gagliardi at Cornell Big Red

Category:1992 births
Category:Living people
Category:American women's ice hockey defensemen
Category:Boston Blades players
Category:Boston Pride players
Category:Cornell Big Red women's ice hockey players
Category:Isobel Cup champions
Category:National Women's Hockey League (2015–) players
Category:Place of birth missing (living people)