Willmer "Little Ax" Broadnax

Willmer M. Broadnax (December 28, 1916 – June 1, 1992), also known as "Wilbur", "Willie", and "Wilmer", was an American hard gospel quartet singer during the golden age of traditional black gospel. His most common nickname was "Little Axe," due to both his small stature and his brother William "Big Axe" Broadnax, who was a popular baritone.

Early life
Broadnax was born in Houston, Texas in 1916, to William Broadnax and Gussie Frazier. By 1930 he lived with his step-father Augustus Flowers, mother Gussie Frazier, younger brother William Broadnax, and younger step-sister Armatha Broadnax (presumably carrying her step-father's surname because she was born before her parents' marriage) in Houston.  Broadnax was born female; a fact which was only discovered upon his death and leads to confusion surrounding his early life.

Although Willmer was the oldest of the three Broadnax children, most sources state that Wilmer was the younger of the two brothers  . As Armatha Broadnax is unmentioned after the 1930 census, it is possible that she took on Wilmer's name after his death and truly was William's younger sibling. This would mean that Willmer Broadnax as known today was born in 1922 in Louisiana to Augustus Flowers and Gussie Frazier.  It is also possible that Willmer was in fact the older brother and had already started using male pronouns by age thirteen, and that later he was mistaken as the younger brother because of his high voice and short stature.

Career
Broadnax began his career as a gospel singer during his teenage years with his brother William as a member of the St. Paul Gospel Singers in Houston in the 1930s.  The two brothers moved to Los Angeles and joined Southern Gospel Singers, of which Wilmer was a member of from 1939-1940; the group only performed on weekends and did not tour.

The brothers eventually broke off to form their own quartet, Little Axe and the Golden Echoes. Although William eventually left for Atlanta, where he joined the Five Trumpets, Willmer stayed on as lead singer throughout the 1940s. In 1949 the group, augmented by future member of The Soul Stirrers Paul Foster (singer), recorded a single of "When the Saints Go Marching In" for Specialty Records. Label chief Art Rupe decided to drop them before they could record a follow-up, and shortly thereafter the Golden Echoes disbanded.

Pianist Willie Love said during this period that, "Little Axe couldn’t sing low, because he had a relatively high voice. It wasn’t falsetto, it was naturally high. So somebody had to sing the bottom."  His point is clear in the recordings of the Golden Echoes, where Paul Foster's rich baritone and Broadnax's clear tenor riff off each other to create the illusion of a multi-octave lead singer. As music critic Ray Funk points out, "Little Axe’s lead is absolutely distinctive on these cuts. He is the high lead that takes over from the baritone of Paul Foster. His voice is sweet but almost vicious, dripping with emotion, while Foster, in contrast, would offer almost a growl."

In 1950, Broadnax joined the Spirit of Memphis Quartet. Along with Broadnax, the group featured two other leads – Jethro "Jet" Bledsoe, a bluesy crooner, and Silas Steele, an overpowering baritone. The Spirit of Memphis Quartet recorded for King Records, and Broadnax appeared on their releases at least until 1952. Shortly after that, Broadnax moved on, working with The Fairfield Four, and in the early 1960s as one of the replacements for Archie Brownlee in the Five Blind Boys of Mississippi. Until 1965 Wilmer headed a quartet called "Little Axe and the Golden Echoes," which released some singles on Peacock Records. By then, quartet singing was fading in commercial viability, and Broadnax retired from touring.

In retirement, Broadnax continued to record new material occasionally with the Blind Boys into the 1970s and 1980s.

Later years and death
Broadnax was killed in 1992 by his lover Lavina Richardson (age 42 at the time), who was later found guilty of involuntary manslaughter on February 4, 1993. Leading up to the stabbing, Broadnax had allegedly been jealous of Richardson. Broadnax saw Richardson in a vehicle with another man, bumped his car into theirs, and dragged Richardson out. He then threatened her with a knife before he was disarmed by a bystander, whereupon Richardson picked up his knife and stabbed him three times. Broadnax died from his injuries several days later on June 1, 1992.

Upon Broadnax's death in 1992, it was discovered that Broadnax was a trans man.  This created a stir in the gospel community, with many prominent singers at the time insisting that they had suspected all along that his gender assigned at birth was female, including JoJo Wallace of the Sensational Nightingales who said, "I always wondered about Axe." However, this is likely all bravado and it is most likely that only his brother William "Big Axe" Broadnax and other close family members knew about his gender identity.

The intersection of Broadnax's gender and race created some issues for him on tour as public bathroom were segregated. It was not uncommon for many gospel singers to be unable to use public restrooms where they performed. Broadnax was forced to keep his gender identity a secret by using the restroom alone, which also provoked from retrospective suspicion by Claude Jeter who said, "Ax’d always go off by himself."

Legacy

On June 25, 2019, The New York Times Magazine listed Little Axe and the Golden Echoes among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.

Discography

Little Axe and the Golden Echoes
The Lord Is My Sunshine / Remember Me, Peacock Records, 1963
My Mind On Jesus / Jesus Loves Me, Peacock Records, 1963
My Life Is In His Hands / So Soon, Peacock Records, 1964
Lord Have Mercy / Swing Down Chariot, Peacock Records, 1965
Old Time Religion, Specialty Records / Ace Records (United States), 1992
American Pop / Gospel's Golden Age, Volume 3 (1945 - 1959), Collector Records, 2012

The Spirit of Memphis Quartet
Make More Room For Jesus / Calvary, King Records, 1950
How Far Am I From Canaan / I'll Never Forget, King Records, 1950
On The Battlefield / Jesus, Jesus, King Records, 1950
Days Past And Gone/Blessed Are The Dead, King Records, 1950
Tell Heaven I'm Coming / Ten Commandments, King Records, 1951
Sign Of The Judgement / Every Time I Feel The Spirit, King Records, 1951
The World Prayer / Every Day And Every Hour, King Records, 1951
Lord Jesus Part 1 / Lord Jesus Part 2, King Records, 1952

The Fairfield Four
 Come Over Here/Who Is That Knocking, Dot Records, 1953
 His Eye Is on the Sparrow/Every Day, Dot Records, 1953
 How I Got Over/This Evening Our Father, Dot Records, 1953
 Stand by Me/Hear Me When I Pray, Dot Records, 1953
 When The Battle Is Over/Standing on the Rock, Dot Records, 1953
 Somebody Touched Me/Mother Don't Worry, Dot Records, 1953

The Five Blind Boys of Mississippi
Precious Memories, Peacock Records, 1960
I Call On Jesus / Time To Think About The Lord, Peacock Records, 1960
I Never Heard A Man, Peacock Records, 1960
Sending Up My Timber, Peacock Records, 1961
Can't Serve The Lord / Constantly Abiding, Peacock Records, 1961
Five Blind Boys* / Spirit Of Memphis - Negro Spirituals, Peacock Records, 1961
Father I Stretched My Hands To Thee / Lord Remember Me, Peacock Records, 1962
I Got It Within Me / The Tide Of Life, Peacock Records, 1962
You Done What The Doctor Couldn't Do / Speak For Jesus, Peacock Records, 1963
Just A Little While / Servant's Prayer, Peacock Records, 1963
Something To Shout About / Leaning On Jesus, Peacock Records, 1964
Father I Stretch My Hand to Thee, Peacock Records, 1964
Lift The Savior Up / In The Hands Of The Lord, Peacock Records, 1965
My Soul Is A Witness / Love Lifted Me, Peacock Records, 1970
Oh Well, What Can You Do / I Have But One Desire, Peacock Records, 1974

Compilations
So Many Years, Jubilee Records, 1989

References

Category:1916 births
Category:1992 deaths
Category:American gospel singers
Category:American tenors
Category:LGBT African Americans
Category:LGBT musicians from the United States
Category:LGBT singers
Category:LGBT people from Texas
Category:Transgender and transsexual men
Category:Transgender and transsexual musicians
Category:Place of death missing
Category:20th-century American singers
Category:20th-century male singers


Margaret Fownes-Luttrell

Margaret Fownes-Luttrell (7 February 1726 – 13 August 1766) was an English artist and wife of Henry Fownes Luttrell. Two of her paintings are part of the Dunster Castle collection, now property of the National Trust. She was the heiress of Dunster Castle, under the stipulation in her father's will that her husband should take the additional surname of Luttrell. Four portraits of her exist in Dunster castle and a fifth at Bathealton Court.

Early life

Margaret Luttrell was born on 7 February 1726, the only child and sole heiress of Alexander Luttrell (1705–1737) of Dunster Castle by his wife Margaret Trevelyan (died 1764), daughter of Sir John Trevelyan, 2nd Baronet of Nettlecombe, Somerset, and an artist who made floral paintings. Margaret's father died on 4 June 1737 at Dunster, at which time he was in debt, "due in part to his personal extravagance and in part to the necessity imposed upon him by his parents of providing a fortune of £10,000 for Anne Luttrell," daughter of his deceased brother Francis Luttrell (1709–1732) of Venn, Somerset, and wife of Edward Pleydell.  As a result, Dunster Castle was thrown into Chancery and closed.

In 1741 Margaret's mother remarried to Edward Dyke of Pixton and Tetton in Somerset, and young Margaret was raised with two girls in her mother's care. One was her first cousin, Anne Luttrell, and the other was Elizabeth Dyke, Edward Dyke's cousin. The family lived at Edward Dyke's houses, Pixton and Tetton. A "moderate sum" was expended on her education, which included music lessons, and care.

Margaret Trevelyan died in 1764.

Marriage and progeny
On 16 February 1747, when she came of age, in Kingston St Mary Church she married her second cousin Henry Fownes (d.1780) of Nethway House, Kingswear (historically in Brixham), Devon. Both shared as a great-grandfather Edward Yard (1638–1703) of Churston Ferrers, MP for Ashburton in 1685, who himself was a grandson of Thomas Fownes (d.1635), Mayor of Plymouth in 1619. They thus also shared the same great-great-great grandfather as Thomas Fownes's great-grandson was John Fownes (1661–1731) of Kittery Court, Whitley, Devon, MP for Dartmouth 1713–14, grandfather of Henry Fownes (d.1780), husband of Margaret Luttrell. On their marriage Dunster Castle became the property of her husband (married women in England were legally incapable of owning property until 1882), who adopted the additional surname Luttrell after his own, and adopted the Luttrell arms (but continued to quarter Fownes), in accordance with a stipulation in Alexander Luttrell's will. They moved into Dunster Castle and updated the interior with Chinese painted wallpaper and new furniture in a Rococo style. New windows were installed in the stair hall and dining room. The marriage was a happy one and resulted in the birth of ten children, including:
John Fownes Luttrell (1752–1816), eldest son and heir, of Dunster Castle, MP for Minehead (1776–1816), the Luttrell pocket borough adjacent to Dunster Castle;
Lieutenant Henry Fownes-Luttrell (1753–1777), 2nd son, who died unmarried.
Rev. Alexander Fownes Luttrell (born 1754), 3rd son, Rector of East Quantoxhead, which manor had been held by the Luttrells since 1232, and Vicar of Minehead.
Francis Fownes Luttrell (1756–1823), 4th son, a barrister of the Middle Temple, a commissioner of customs and MP for Minehead 1780-3;
Lt-Col. Thomas Fownes Luttrell (1763–1811), 5th son;
Margaret Fownes-Luttrell (1747-1792), only daughter, whose three portraits are on display in Dunster Castle, one as an adult by Sir Joshua Reynolds (with a copy) and another as an infant by Phelps. She married John Henry Southcote (1747) on 24 May 1769. They had two daughters.
After her death John married Priscilla Aston and they had 3 sons and a daughter.
Josias Southcote (1798)
Henry Aston (born Southcote)(1804-1888). Note: He was baptised again in 1821 as Henry Aston.
Isabella Southcote (1809)
Thomas Southcote (1812)

Death and burial
Margaret Fownes-Luttrell died on 13 August 1766 and was buried at Dunster Castle.

Artist
Two of her works are located at Dunster Castle, in the National Trust collection: View of an Imaginary Castle with a Round Tower and View of an Imaginary Castle with Two Towers.

Notes

References

External links

Category:English women painters
Category:1726 births
Category:1766 deaths
Category:18th-century English painters
Margaret
Category:18th-century women artists


Hridaynath Mangeshkar

Hridaynath Mangeshkar is an Indian music director  . He is the only son of noted musician Deenanath Mangeshkar and younger brother of Indian music legends Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle. He is popularly known as Balasaheb in the music and film industry.

Biography
Hridaynath Mangeshkar is the only son of Deenanath Mangeshkar while his mother belonged to the Gomantak Maratha Samaj. He is a brother to four sisters, Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Meena Khadikar and Usha Mangeshkar, and youngest among them. He is married to Bharati Malvankar Mangeshkar, daughter of Marathi comedian Damuanna Malvankar. They have two sons Aadinath and Vaijnath and a daughter Radha. In 2009, Radha launched her debut album Naav Maaza Shaami. She has been trained by Hridaynath and accompanies him in various stage shows.

Career
Hridaynath debuted his music career in 1955 with the Marathi film Akash Ganga. Since then, he has composed for various Marathi films such as Sansar, Chaani,  Ha Khel Savalyancha, Janaki, Jait Re Jait, Umbartha and Nivdung and a few Bollywood films; the most notable among them being Subah, Lekin... and Maya Memsaab.

He has been very selective with his work. He has composed songs in Marathi and Hindi. His songs often have complex meters and require singers of great range and depth for enjoyable renditions. His composition of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar's poem Saagara Pran Talamalala is a case in point. His 1982 album Dnyaneshwar Mauli, featuring compositions from Jñāneśvar, one of the most famous poets in Marathi literature, set the standard for modern devotional music in Marathi.

He also composed music for Doordarshan musical drama Phoolwanti.

He has also composed folk songs. Staying true to the spirit, his Koli Geets (fishermen songs) reflect the traditional rhythms of the fishermen of Konkan. His music to the critically acclaimed movie Jait Re Jait is another example of his prowess in this genre. One of his most popular works is the composition for the Marathi film Nivdung.

At one point, Hridaynath was a student of Ustad Amir Khan; however, he feels that his guru is not as timeless as his sister Lata.

He has been the recipient of several awards throughout his career, such as the prestigious National Award at the hands of the President of India, the Lata Mangeshkar Award of Maharashtra state, and seven Maharashtra State Awards for Best Vocalist and Music Director/Composer.

He was awarded the title pandit by the people of Maharashtra at the hands of Bhimsen Joshi and Jasraj. The Shankaracharya has conferred upon him the title Bhaav Gandharva.

He was awarded Padma Shri by the Government of India in 2009.

Some of his most memorable Hindi film scores are Harishchandra Taramati, Prarthana,  Chakra, Lekin..., Maya Memsaab, Lal Salaam, Yash Chopra's Mashaal, Dhanwan and Chaani, to name a few.

He is also the first Indian composer to compose and release two entire albums featuring the poems and songs of the poet-saint Meera, titled Chala Vahi Des and Meera Bhajans. He has recently also composed and released an album titled Meera Soor Kabeera, featuring the works of Meera, Kabir and Surdas. He produced an album featuring the ghazals of Ghalib, titled Ghalib and sung by Lata Mangeshkar. He has also composed many songs for Asha Bhosle. His collaborations with noted Marathi poets such as Shanta Shelke and Suresh Bhat have produced many Marathi classic songs of unmatched popularity.

He joined the political party Shiv Sena in 2009.

Awards
 1990 (38th National Film Awards) – National Film Award for Best Music Direction for Lekin...
Official citation: For using traditional tunes and instruments creatively, with lilting melody and haunting perfection.

 2009 – Padma Shri

See also
 Mangeshkar Family

References

External links

Category:Indian male film singers
Category:Singers from Mumbai
Category:Indian people of Goan descent
Category:Living people
Category:Marathi-language singers
Category:Marathi playback singers
Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in arts
Category:Shiv Sena politicians
Category:Best Music Direction National Film Award winners
Hridaynath
Category:1937 births


Hellions on Parade

"Hellions on Parade" is a song by American heavy metal band CKY. Written by Deron Miller and Chad I Ginsburg, it was featured on the band's 2009 fourth studio album, Carver City. "Hellions on Parade" is the third song in the band's "Hellview" song trilogy, succeeding "96 Quite Bitter Beings" and "Escape from Hellview". It was released as the first single from Carver City on April 20, 2009.

Recording and music
Vocalist, guitarist and primary songwriter Deron Miller has revealed that he recorded the vocals for "Hellions on Parade" alone in Santa Monica, California (at 4th Street Recording, according to the liner notes for Carver City), amid tensions between members of the band. Speaking about the musical style of the track, he noted that it contains "really cool keyboard lines ... and it turned out really heavy".

Lyrical content
"Hellions on Parade" was written as the third entry in the band's "Hellview" song trilogy, which started with "96 Quite Bitter Beings" (from 1999's Volume 1) and "Escape from Hellview" (from 2002's Infiltrate•Destroy•Rebuild). According to Miller, "Hellview" is a story "about a town that doesn't take kindly to outsiders", and the story of the third song in the trilogy "is about Hellview destroying its rival city".

Promotion and release
The opening track on Carver City, "Hellions on Parade" was released as a digital download single on April 20, 2009. In 2015, it was included on the reissue of the compilation album The Best of CKY.

Critical reception
In a review of the album Carver City for the website PopMatters, Lana Cooper praised "Hellions on Parade" for its "finely-tuned production and songwriting elements", highlighting the "chugging guitar riffs" and presence of keyboards, which she assured added to the song's "eerie atmosphere".

References

Category:2009 singles
Category:CKY (band) songs
Category:2009 songs
Category:Roadrunner Records singles


Breiðamerkursandur

Breiðamerkursandur is a glacial outwash plain in southeast Iceland. The area is mostly sand, although some vegetation is beginning to grow in the area.

Breiðamerkursandur is located in the municipality of Hornafjörður. It was formed by the glaciers Breiðamerkurjökull, Fjallsjökull and Hrútárjökull during the last few centuries. The lake Jökulsárlón is located on Breiðamerkursandur.

The glaciers that formed the sandur are a part of Vatnajökull, and therefore a part of Vatnajökull National Park. However, neither the plain itself nor the Jökulsárlón lake are a part of the park.

Breiðamerkursandur is an important breeding ground for birds, for example Arctic tern and great skua.

References

Category:Southern Region (Iceland)


Sanokos

Sanokos is a village in the northwest of the  Republic of Macedonia. It is a seat of the Vrapčište Municipality. The population consists of approximately 3,423 people, all of Albanian ethnicity.

Category:Villages in North Macedonia


1920 Assembly of Representatives election

The first elections to the Assembly of Representatives were held amongst members of the Jewish community in Mandatory Palestine on 19 April 1920, except in Jerusalem where voting took place on 3 May. Ahdut HaAvoda led by David Ben-Gurion emerged as the largest party, winning 70 of the 314 seats.

Background
Following the British conquest of Ottoman Palestine in 1917, Jewish leaders met in Petah Tikva on 17 November to discuss the formation of a representative convention. After Jerusalem fell to the British, another convention was held, this time in Jaffa, to discuss the establishment of an organisation for the Jews of Palestine. A committee was formed with the mandate to hold elections to a Constituent Assembly.

With northern Palestine still held by the Ottomans, a second convention was held in Jaffa in July 1918 and elections were scheduled to be held by the end of 1918. However, after the armistice was signed in November, delegates were required to represent Palestinian Jews at the peace conference. A third convention was held in Jaffa on 18 December, to which every settlement, community and political party were invited. Chaim Weizmann and Nahum Sokolow were chosen to represent the community at the peace conference.

The elections were then postponed several times, before they were fixed for 26 October 1919. However, they were postponed again as Weizmann was worried that internal divisions would weaken the Jewish negotiating position. The date was finally set for 19 April 1920 after it was confirmed that the British would have the Mandate for Palestine.

Electoral system
At the first meeting in Jaffa, it was decided that the election would be held using secret balloting, and would be direct. However, no agreement was made on women's suffrage. The second meeting confirmed that men and women over the age of 21 would be entitled to vote, although the issue of women candidates remained unresolved. The issue was raised at the third Jaffa convention, and despite opposition from Orthodox Jews, it was decided that women would be allowed to stand as candidates. However, ultimately the Orthodox held separate elections in Jerusalem on 3 May, from which women were banned from participating.

Voters elected one member for every 80 voters, except for the Orthodox, who elected one for every 40 voters on the basis that women were banned from their vote. A total of 263 delegates were elected in the general voting, and another 51 by Orthodox voters.

Results

Around 22,000 of the 26,000 registered voters participated in the election.

Aftermath
The Assembly met for the first time on 7 October 1920, and voted to admit the 51 Orthodox representatives. It also elected the Jewish National Council to serve as an executive committee.

References

Palestine
1920
Category:1920 in Mandatory Palestine
Category:April 1920 events


Nazar (1991 film)

Nazar (The Gaze) is a 1991 Hindi-language film based on Fyodor Dostoevsky's short story, The Meek One. The film produced by the National Film Development Corporation of India (NFDC) was directed by Mani Kaul and starred his daughter Shambhavi Kaul with Shekhar Kapur and Surekha Sikri.

The film travelled to international festivals like the Birmingham Film Festival in UK, Fribourg Film Festival in Germany, Hong Kong International Film Festival, Lisbon Film Festival in Portugal, Locarno Film Festival in Switzerland, London Film Festival in UK, Rotterdam Film Festival in Netherlands, Festival des 3 continent at Nantes in France and the Seattle Film Festival in United States.

Storyline
An antique dealer lives in a spacious flat in a multi-storied building in Mumbai with his aunt. Though middle-aged himself, he marries a 17-year-old orphan girl and brings her home. The film starts off with the young wife committing suicide. He recollects what went before that and what might have moved her to end her life.

Cast
 Shekhar Kapur
 Shambhavi Kaul
 Surekha Sikri
 Asha Dandavate
 Parvez Merchant
 A.A. Baig

References

External links

Category:1991 films
Category:Indian films
Category:Films directed by Mani Kaul
Category:1990s Hindi-language films
Category:Films based on short fiction
Category:Films based on works by Fyodor Dostoyevsky


Alexis Vázquez

Alexis Iván Vázquez (born 23 September 1996) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Nueva Chicago.

Career
Vázquez started out in the system of Nueva Chicago. A 2–1 loss at home to Estudiantes on 4 September 2016 saw Vázquez make his bow in professional football, with the midfielder going on to make thirty-six appearances across the 2016–17 and 2017–18 seasons in Primera B Nacional; he also netted two goals in that period, against Los Andes and Deportivo Morón respectively.

Career statistics
.

References

External links

Category:1996 births
Category:Living people
Category:Sportspeople from Buenos Aires Province
Category:Argentine footballers
Category:Association football midfielders
Category:Primera B Nacional players
Category:Nueva Chicago footballers


Gavirate

Gavirate is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Varese in the Italian region Lombardy, located about  northwest of Milan and about  northwest of Varese. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 9,438 and an area of .

The municipality of Gavirate contains the frazioni (hamlets) Oltrona al Lago, Voltorre and other mainly villages: Groppello, Le Vigne, Fignano, Forte di Orino, Fienile delle Pianezze, Armino, Pozzuolo, Cual, Ca'de Monti, Ronco, and Benedetto.

Gavirate borders the following municipalities: Barasso, Bardello, Besozzo, Biandronno, Casciago, Cocquio-Trevisago, Comerio, Cuvio, Varese.

Demographic evolution

References

External links
 www.comune.gavirate.va.it/

Category:Cities and towns in Lombardy


Johan Laidoner

Johan Laidoner ( – 13 March 1953) was an Estonian general and statesman. He served as Commander‑in‑Chief of the Estonian Armed Forces during the Estonian War of Independence and was among the most influential people in Estonian history between the world wars.

Born in Viiratsi, Governorate of Livonia, Laidoner joined the Imperial Russian Army in 1901 and fought in World War I. Following the October Revolution, he commanded the Estonian national units of the Russian army. In 1918, the Estonian Provisional Government appointed him commander-in-chief of the armed forces in the Estonian War of Independence.

After the war, he served as a member of the Riigikogu from 1920 to 1929. He was once again appointed commander-in-chief during the 1924 Communist coup attempt, and then again from 1934 to 1940, during the authoritarian regime of Konstantin Päts. After the Soviet occupation in 1940, he was arrested and deported to Russia, where he died in prison in 1953.

Early life and career
Johan Laidoner was born on Raja estate in Viiratsi, Governorate of Livonia, to a farmhand Jaak Laidoner and his wife Mari (née Saarsen) as the first of four sons. He studied at Viiratsi Elementary School and finished his basic education at Viljandi Town School in 1900. As Laidoner’s parents were poor, he could not continue his studies and voluntarily joined the Imperial Russian Army. From 1901 to 1902, he served in the 110th Kama Infantry Regiment, based in Kaunas, Lithuania, and went on to study at the Infantry Officer School in Vilnius from 1902 to 1905. He graduated top of his class in April 1905 and was promoted to the rank of sub-lieutenant. He was then sent to serve in the 13th Yerevan Grenadier Regiment, which was then stationed in Manglisi, Georgia. From 1905 to 1909, he held various positions in the regiment, eventually becoming company deputy commander. In 1908, he was promoted to lieutenant.

From 1909 to 1912, Laidoner studied at the Imperial Nicholas Military Academy in Saint Petersburg, graduating with a 1st grade diploma. On 30 October 1911, while studying in Saint Petersburg, Laidoner married Maria Skarbek-Kruszewska, a descendant of Polish nobility, whom he had met earlier in Vilnius. The couple had a son, Michael (1913–1928). After Michael’s death, the Laidoners adopted Maria's nephew, Aleksei Kruszewski.

Upon his graduation in 1912, Laidoner was promoted to the rank of staff captain and sent back to his regiment. In the following year, he was appointed to the General Staff and was dispatched to serve for one year as company commander in the 1st Caucasus Rifle Regiment. He then served at the Staff of the Caucasus Military District.

World War I
At the outbreak of World War I, Laidoner served as staff aide of the 3rd Caucasus Army Corps. On 26 November 1914, he was promoted to captain. In March 1915, Laidoner was appointed to the senior staff of the 21st Infantry Division of the same corps. In October 1915, he was made aide to the commander of the intelligence department of the Staff of the Western Front and on 15 August 1916, Laidoner was promoted to the rank of Podpolkovnik (lieutenant colonel). From March to September 1917, he served as staff commander of the 1st Caucasus Grenadier Division and from October to November 1917, as staff commander of the 62nd Infantry Division.

On 5 January 1918, Laidoner was appointed commander of the newly formed 1st Estonian Division. On 18 February 1918, the negotiations over the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk broke down and German forces, who had already captured Estonian islands, landed on the mainland. On the following day, Laidoner resigned from his post as division commander and left for Russia. On 24 February 1918, Estonia declared independence, but was subsequently occupied by Germany.

Estonian War of Independence

On 4 April 1918, the Estonian Provisional Government promoted Laidoner, then still residing in Petrograd, to the rank of Polkovnik (colonel). Following the German capitulation on 11 November 1918, the Soviet Red Army invaded Estonia on 28 November, marking the beginning of the Estonian War of Independence. On 30 November, Laidoner left Petrograd and arrived in Tallinn on 8 December. The provisional government first appointed him chief of staff on 14 December, and then on 23 December, commander-in-chief of the Estonian Armed Forces. On 1 January 1919, the Estonian Army had just over 13,000 men, with 5,700 of the them facing 8,000 Soviets on the Viru Front. In the first days of January, the Estonian forces managed to halt the Soviet advance at the Valkla-Kehra line and on 3 January, Laidoner launched a counter-offensive with 1st Division, supported by Finnish volunteers and armoured trains. Within 11 days, the 1st Division advanced 200 kilometres east, while the 2nd Division moved against the Soviet forces in Southern Estonia. Following the liberation of Tartu and Narva, he was promoted to the rank of major general on 20 January 1919. On Estonia's first independence day on 24 February 1919, Laidoner reported that the Soviet forces have been driven out of Estonia, as well as capturing over 6,000 men and 40 guns.

Laidoner had a crucial role in organizing and training the army in a very short time as well as establishing an effective command structure within the armed forces. Learning from his experience with trench warfare in World War I and due to the limited size of the forces available to him, Laidoner chose to achieve crucial victories – capturing strategically important roads and railway stations – with smaller and more mobile battalion- and company-sized units, supported by armoured trains and armoured cars. After the end of the war, Laidoner was promoted to lieutenant general on 21 March 1920, before resigning as commander‑in‑chief and retiring from active service on 26 March 1920.

Post-war career

After the war, Laidoner was a member of the Riigikogu (Parliament of Estonia) and from 1920 to 1929 as a member of the conservative Farmers' Assemblies. He served as the chairman of the Foreign Affairs Committee and was part of the Estonian delegation in the General Assembly of the League of Nations from 1922 to 1929, where he was known for his isolationist stance.

On 1 December 1924, the Estonian Communists, together with assault groups sent from the Soviet Union, attempted a coup d'etat. The government called an emergency meeting during which martial law was declared and Laidoner was appointed commander‑in‑chief of the armed forces. Although the actual coup attempt was over in five hours, the pursuit of coupists continued and the situation remained tense for several weeks. On 8 January 1925, after the martial law was abolished, Laidoner resigned as commander‑in‑chief and left military service once again.

In 1925, Laidoner was commissioned by the League of Nations to head a special mission to Iraq, investigating the allegations made against Turkey regarding the mistreatment and deportations of Christians in the Mosul region. The report Laidoner’s committee submitted played an important role in demarcating the border between Turkey and Iraq.

On 12 March 1934, the State Elder Konstantin Päts declared martial law and appointed Laidoner commander‑in‑chief of the armed forces. The aim of declaring martial law was to halt the political rise of the Vaps Movement and their potential success in the upcoming presidential elections. Together with Päts and Kaarel Eenpalu, the Minister of the Interior, Laidoner established an authoritarian rule, disbanding political parties and limiting free speech, the so-called "Era of Silence". Laidoner remained commander-in-chief of the armed forces and oversaw national defence politics. His reforms included a large-scale weapons and equipment modernization program, expanding the military via conscription, and introduction of military training in universities. On 1 January 1938, a new constitution was enacted, which saw the creation of a bicameral Rahvuskogu (National Assembly), consisting of the Chamber of Deputies and the National Council. As the commander‑in‑chief, Laidoner became an ex officio member of the National Council. On 24 February 1939, he was promoted to the rank of general.

Soviet occupation, arrest and death

On 17 June 1940, the Soviet Union occupied Estonia. Laidoner was officially removed from his position as the commander‑in‑chief on 22 June 1940. On 19 July, he and his wife were deported to Penza, Russia, where they lived in forced exile until the beginning of the war with Germany. On 23 June 1941, they were put under house arrest and then imprisoned on 28 June by the NKVD. In September 1942, the Laidoners were sent to the Butyrka prison in Moscow, along with Konstantin Päts and a number of former Latvian, Lithuanian and Polish statesmen and their families. From there, they were moved to a prison in Kirov, and then in Ivanovo. On 16 April 1952, Laidoner was sentenced to 25 years in prison. He was sent to Vladimir Central Prison, where he died on 13 March 1953. He was buried at the prison cemetery, but his remains have not been found.

Laidoner's adopted son Aleksei was also arrested by the NKVD. He died in Solikamsk labor camp on 26 November 1941 with chest trauma listed as the cause of death.

Maria Laidoner was released in 1954 and was allowed to return to Estonia. She died in 1978 in Jämejala, near Viljandi, and was buried in Tallinn at Siselinna Cemetery, next to her son Michael.

Legacy
Laidoner's reputation in Estonia has remained controversial. Hailed as a national hero for his leadership skills and success as a military commander in the War of Independence, he has been criticized for his support of Konstantin Päts and his involvement in the 1934 coup d'état as well as the surrender to the Soviet Union in 1940.

Laidoner has a number of monuments, memorials and places named after him.

 Laidoner's memorial in his birthplace in Vardja was destroyed after the Soviet occupation in 1940 and restored in 1990.
 In 2001, the Estonian War Museum named in his honour was opened in Laidoner's former residence in Viimsi Manor.
 In 2004, an equestrian statue of General Laidoner was unveiled next to the ruins of the Viljandi Castle.
 In Viljandi, a square and a park are named after him.
 In 2009, Eesti Post released a commemorative stamp to honour Laidoner's 125th anniversary.
 Laidoner has a plaque dedicated to him in Vilnius Military Academy.

Awards and decorations

References

Bibliography

External links

 General Johan Laidoner — Estonian War Museum
 Johan Laidoneri Selts
 Johan Laidoner at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs
 Johan Laidoner at Estonica
 Johan Laidoner at the International Encyclopedia of the First World War

Category:1884 births
Category:1953 deaths
Category:People from Viljandi Parish
Category:People from the Governorate of Livonia
Category:Farmers' Assemblies politicians
Category:Members of the Riigikogu
Category:Members of the Riiginõukogu
Category:Estonian Army generals
Category:Imperial Russian military personnel
Category:Russian military personnel of World War I
Category:Estonian military personnel of the Estonian War of Independence
Category:Estonian people of World War II
Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Star, 1st Class
Category:Recipients of the Military Order of the Cross of the Eagle, Class I
Category:Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Category:Recipients of the Order of Lāčplēsis, 1st class
Category:Recipients of the Order of Lāčplēsis, 2nd class
Category:Recipients of the Order of Lāčplēsis, 3rd class
Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Vytautas the Great
Category:Recipients of the Silver Cross of the Virtuti Militari
Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Polonia Restituta
Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 4th class
Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 2nd class
Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 4th class
Category:Recipients of the Order of Saint Stanislaus, 2nd class
Category:Recipients of the Gold Sword for Bravery
Category:Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of the Sword
Category:Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Category:Estonian people who died in prison custody
Category:Estonian people who died in Soviet detention
Category:Independence activists
Category:Estonian anti-communists


Morgram

Morgram (also spelled Moregram) is a village and gram panchayat under Sagardighi community development block and police station in Jangipur subdivision of Murshidabad district in the Indian state of West Bengal.

Geography
Villages in Morgram gram panchayat are: Morgram, Dumaipur, Gangadda, Udaynagar, Sitalpara, Kharugram, Buzrak Fatepur, Pauli, Thakurpara, Ekrakhi, Bhola, Kaiar, Saorail, Gokulta, Chak Mathurpur, Surjyapur, Bhurkunda, and Nachna.

Demographics
Morgram had a population of 3,454 out of which 1,971 belonged to scheduled castes.

Transport
Morgam is an important 3 way Intersection (road) or roadways junction of Murshidabad district. It is on NH 12 (old numbering NH 34). Morgram is one end terminus for NH 14, (old numbering NH 60), of which Panagarh–Morgram Highway is a part. The State Highway 7 (West Bengal) passes through Morgram.

References

Category:Villages in Murshidabad district


Jagdstaffel 42

Royal Prussian Jagdstaffel 42, commonly abbreviated to Jasta 42, was a "hunting group" (i.e., fighter squadron) of the Luftstreitkräfte, the air arm of the Imperial German Army during World War I. The unit would score over 30 aerial victories during the war. The squadron's victories came at the expense of four killed in action, one wounded in action, and one taken prisoner of war.

History
Jasta 42 was founded in September 1917 at Flieger-Abteilung (Flier Detachment) 3, Gotha, Germany. The squadron became operational on 18 December 1917. On 17 April 1918, it was consolidated into Jagdgruppe 12, which was commanded by Heinrich Kroll.

Commanding officer (Staffelführer)
 Karl Odebrett (on leave during July 1918)

Duty stations
 Gotha, Germany: September 1917
 Mars-la-Tour, France: 20 December 1917
 Froidmont: 26 March 1918
 Ercheu, France: 17 April 1918
 Grécourt, France: late May 1918
 Clastres, France: 15 August 1918
 Parpeville, France
 Le Brule
 Bois Saint Denis
 Thuilles

Operations
Beginning 20 December 1917, Jasta 42 flew aerial support for Armee-Abteilung B. On 26 March 1918, they moved to support 7 Armee. In late May 1918, they were reassigned to support of 18 Armee; they remained in this role until war's end.

References

Bibliography

42
Category:Military units and formations established in 1917
Category:1917 establishments in Germany
Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1918


Operation Dryad

Operation Dryad was a raid on the Casquets lighthouse in the Channel Islands by British Commandos during World War II. The Commandos captured the lighthouse and its occupants and departed leaving no trace that anyone had ever been there.

Background
The Casquets Lighthouse was built in 1724, and is located  west of the island of Alderney in the Channel islands. It is located amongst some of the fastest ocean currents in the English Channel. The Lighthouse consists of a  tower and two shorter towers on a barren rock. After the German occupation of the Channel Islands in 1940, they decided to man the lighthouse and set up an observation post with a naval radio station so that anything seen could be reported and when it was necessary to turn the light on, for a passing German convoy. The crew being rotated every 3 months.

Its isolated location made it a perfect objective for a commando raid, in fact there had been seven previous attempts to undertake this raid, all of which were abandoned, due to weather conditions. The commandos selected to carry out the raid belonged to No. 62 Commando also known as the Small Scale Raiding Force (SSRF). The planned date would be the night of 2/3 September 1942 with the objective of capturing prisoners.

The raiding party consisted of 12 men from the SSRF, the commanding officer Major Gus March-Phillipps, his second in command Captain Geoffrey Appleyard, some of the others involved were Captain Graham Hayes, Sergeant Winter, Private Anders Lassen and Dutch Lieutenant Henk Brinkgreve, and Sergeant Geoffrey Spencer.

Mission
Sailing from Portland aboard HM MTB 344, a motor torpedo boat nicknamed The Little Pisser because of its outstanding turn of speed at 21.00 hrs arriving close to Les Casquets at 22.45 hrs. After anchoring, the landing party rowed ashore, arriving  just after midnight,  Appleyard was the first to leap ashore and tied their boat forward and Hayes was in control of the stern-line, which had been attached to the kedge-anchor that had been dropped on approach to prevent the boat from being smashed against the rocks. All the landing party made it safely ashore without any damage to the boat. Appleyard handed the bowline to another and Hayes remained in control of the stern-line as the raiding party departed.

The Commandos made their way through barbed wire up the steep rocky surface to the lighthouse courtyard unchallenged. Once in the courtyard the group dispersed to their prearranged objectives. Appleyard and Sergeant Winter dashed up the spiral staircase to the tower light only to find it unoccupied. The garrison was totally surprised.  Appleyard said, "I have never seen men so amazed and terrified at the same time." Three were sleeping, two were just turning in and two others were on duty. the seven Germans were taken prisoner without a shot being fired. One German, who was in charge of the lighthouse operation, fainted at the sight of the commandos. Another was initially thought to be a woman because he was wearing a hairnet.

Weapons found included an Oerlikon 20 mm cannon, rifles and stick grenades, which were all dumped in the sea. The radio was smashed with an axe. The boat they had arrived in was designed to take a maximum of 10, now with 19, it was difficult, but they managed. Appleyard suffered an accident and fractured his tibia as he re-boarded their boat.

Setting sail at 01.35 hrs, the seven prisoners, some still in their pyjamas, were taken to England, arriving at Portland at 04.00 hrs.  Several codebooks, logs, diaries and letters were found and taken back for analysis.

Aftermath
It was a few days before the Germans were aware of a problem. When a boat arrived, they found the lighthouse deserted. An order to remove all lighthouse crews did not last long when it was realised the benefits outweighed the risks. The Casquets lighthouse was re-armed with a 2.5cm Pak, five machine guns and had a larger crew of 24 installed.

The next raid for the SSRF was 12/13 September Operation Aquatint. The raiding party led by March-Phillipps would all be killed or captured. Winter and Hayes were captured, Hayes after having succeeded in crossing the French–Spanish border was later executed in Fresnes prison.

In October 1942 Appleyard now in command of the SSRF was in charge of a raid on Sark Operation Basalt where four German prisoners who had been tied up were shot and killed as they tried to escape. Adolf Hitler incensed with the Commando raids, issued the Commando Order which ordered that all captured commandos in or out of uniform were to be shot. He also protested the binding and killing of German prisoners, and gave orders to shackle British prisoners of war who were captured during the Dieppe raid. Appleyard later joined the Special Air Service (SAS), he was posted missing believed killed when returning from a SAS mission the plane he was travelling on was lost over the Mediterranean. Private Anders Lassen would be commissioned and win a posthumous Victoria Cross while serving with the Special Boat Squadron of the SAS in Italy 1945.

Notes

Bibliography

 Forty, George, Channel Islands at War: A German Perspective , (2005), Ian Allan Publishing,

Category:Conflicts in 1942
Category:World War II British Commando raids
Category:Military history of the Channel Islands during World War II
Category:1942 in Europe
D
Category:September 1942 events
Category:Amphibious operations involving the United Kingdom


Robert Baldick

Robert André Edouard Baldick, FRSL (9 November 1927 – April 1972), was a British scholar of French literature, writer, joint editor of the Penguin Classics series with Betty Radice, and a well-known translator. He was a Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford.

He wrote eight books including biographies of Joris-Karl Huysmans, Frédérick Lemaître and Henry Murger and a history of the Siege of Paris. In addition he edited and translated The Goncourt Journals and a number of the classics of French literature including works by Gustave Flaubert, Chateaubriand, Jean-Paul Sartre, Jules Verne, and Henri Barbusse, as well as a number of novels by Georges Simenon.

His son is English academic Chris Baldick.

Bibliography
 The Life of Joris Karl Huysmans. (Published originally by Oxford University Press, 1955. New edition revised by Brendan King, Dedalus Books 2006)
 Dinner at Magny's (Published by Victor Gollancz, London)
 The Life and Times of Frederick Lemaitre (Published by Hamish Hamilton)
 The Goncourts (Published by Bowes and Bowes)
 The First Bohemian: The Life of Henry Murger (Published by Hamish Hamilton)
 The Siege of Paris (Published by Batsford)
 The Duel: A History of Duelling (Published by Chapman and Hall)
 The Memoirs of Chateaubriand  (Edited, translated and published by Hamish Hamilton)
 Pages from the Goncourt Journal (Edited and translated by Oxford University Press)
 Memoirs (Chateaubriand - Translator from French to English)
 Nausea (Sartre - Translator from French to English)
 Pages from The Goncourt Journal (Translator from French to English)
 Sentimental Education (Flaubert - Translator from French to English)
 Against Nature (Huysmans - Translator from French to English)
 Hell (Barbusse - Translator from French to English)
 Aphrodite (1972) from Aphrodite: mœurs antiques by Pierre Louÿs (Translator from French to English)

See also
Translated Penguin Book - at  Penguin First Editions reference site of early first edition Penguin Books.
 Robert Baldock (disambiguation)

Footnotes

Category:1927 births
Category:1972 deaths
Category:English translators
Category:Fellows of Pembroke College, Oxford
Category:Jules Verne
Category:20th-century translators
Category:20th-century French novelists
Category:20th-century male writers
Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
Category:Penguin Books people
Category:British speculative fiction translators


UNESCO Confucius Prize for Literacy

The UNESCO Confucius Prize for Literacy recognizes the activities of outstanding individuals, governments or governmental agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) working in literacy serving rural adults and out-of-school youth, particularly women and girls. The Prize  was established in 2005 through the support of the Government of the People's Republic of China in honour of the great Chinese scholar Confucius. It is part of the International Literacy Prizes, which UNESCO awards every year in recognition of excellence and inspiring experiences in the field of literacy throughout the world. The Confucius Prize offers two awards of US$20,000 each, a medal and a diploma, as well as a study visit to literacy project sites in China.

The Prize is open to institutions, organizations or individuals displaying outstanding merit in literacy, achieving particularly effective results and promoting innovative approaches. The selection of prizewinners is made by an International Jury appointed by UNESCO’s Director-General, which meets in Paris once a year. The Prize is awarded at an official ceremony held for that purpose at UNESCO Headquarters in Paris on the occasion of International Literacy Day (8 September).

Recipients of the Prize by year
2017
AdulTICoProgram (Columbia) for teaching digital competencies to seniors
The Citizens Foundation (Pakistan) for its Aagahi Literacy Programme for Women and Out-of-School Girls
FunDza (South Africa) for its readers and writers project to develop a culture of reading and writing for pleasure through an online platform
2016
 The South African department of Basic Education's Kha Ri Gude Mass Literacy Campaign
 The Jan Shikshan Sansthan organization in Kerala, India for its programme, Vocational and Skill Development for Sustainable Development
 The Directorate of Literacy and National Languages in Senegal for its ‘National Education Programme for Illiterate Youth and Adults through ICTs
2015
 Sonia Álvarez, Juan Luis Vives School of Valparaiso, a school  in Chile, is recognized for its programme "Literacy for People Deprived of Liberty''
 Svatobor an Association, in Slovakia, is honoured for its ‘Romano Barardo’ programme, which helps the Roma overcome social exclusion and enjoy their basic human rights.
 Platform of Associations in Charge of ASAMA and Post-ASAMA, an NGO in Madagascar that developed a comprehensive approach to achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
2012
Department of Continuing and Adults Education – Programme of Non-Formal and Continuing Education – (Bhutan)
Transformemos Foundation Directors María Aurora Carrillo Rodolfo Ardila – Interactive System Transformemos Educando – (Colombia)
(Honourable Mention) Illiteracy Eradication Directorate of the Ministry of Education – Literacy and Post-literacy programme: Means of empowerment and socio-economic integration of women in Morocco – (Morocco)
2011:
Room to Read – (United States)
Collectif Alpha Ujuvi – (Democratic Republic of Congo)
 (Honourable Mention) Dr. Allah Bakhsh Malik, Punjab, (Pakistan)
2010:
Governorate of Ismailia – (Egypt)
Coalition of Women Farmers (COWFA) – (Malawi)
 Non-Formal Education Centre – (Nepal)
2009:
SERVE Afghanistan – (Afghanistan)
Municipal Literacy Coordinating Council – (Philippines)
2008:
Adult and Non-Formal Education Association (ANFEAE) (Ethiopia)
Operation Upgrade (South Africa)
2007:
Family Re-orientation Education and Empowerment (FREE) (Nigeria)
Reach Out and Read (United States of America)
2006:
Ministry of National Education of the Kingdom of Morocco, for its innovative national literacy initiative
Directorate of Literacy and Continuing Education of Rajasthan, for its Useful Learning through Literacy and Continuing Education Programme in Rajasthan (India)

See also
International Literacy Day
List of international literacy prizes
Noma Literacy Prize
UNESCO King Sejong Literacy Prize
UNESCO Nadezhda K. Krupskaya literacy prize
United Nations Literacy Decade

References

External links

Category:Literacy-related awards
Category:UNESCO
Category:UNESCO awards
Category:Confucius


Johann Kaspar Bluntschli

Johann Caspar (also Kaspar) Bluntschli (7 March 1808 – 21 October 1881) was a Swiss jurist and politician. Together with fellow liberals Francis Lieber and Édouard René de Laboulaye, he developed one of the first codes of international law and war.

Biography
He was born in Zürich to a soap and candle manufacturer. From school he passed into the Politische Institut (a seminary of law and political science) in his native town, and proceeding thence to the universities of Berlin and Bonn, took the degree of doctor juris in the latter in 1829.

Returning to Zürich in 1830, he threw himself with ardour into the political strife which was at the time unsettling all the cantons of the Confederation, and in this year published Über die Verfassung der Stadt Zürich (On the Constitution of the City of Zürich). This was followed by Das Volk und der Souverän (1830), a work in which, while pleading for constitutional government, he showed his bitter repugnance of the growing Swiss radicalism. Elected in 1837 a member of the Great Council (), he became the champion of the moderate conservative party.

Fascinated by the metaphysical views of the philosopher Friedrich Rohmer (1814–1856), a man who attracted little other attention, he endeavoured in Psychologische Studien über Staat und Kirche (1844) to apply them to political science generally, and in particular as a panacea for the constitutional troubles of Switzerland. Bluntschli, shortly before his death, remarked, "I have gained renown as a jurist, but my greatest desert is to have comprehended Rohmer." This philosophical essay, however, coupled with his uncompromising attitude towards both radicalism and ultramontanism, brought him many enemies, and rendered his continuance in the council, of which he had been elected president, impossible. He resigned his seat, and on the overthrow of the Sonderbund in 1847, perceiving that all hope of power for his party was lost, took leave of Switzerland with the pamphlet Stimme eines Schweizers über die Bundesreform (1847), and settled at Munich, where he became professor of constitutional law in 1848 at the Ludwig Maximilian University.

Upon resettling in Germany, Bluntschli's stance became more liberal and he elaborated an ethical Hegelian theory of the state which was highly influential among both German and American liberals. At Munich he devoted himself with energy to the special work of his chair, and published Allgemeines Staatsrecht (1851–1852); Lehre vom modernen Staat (1875–1876); and, in conjunction with Karl Ludwig Theodor Brater (1819–1869), Deutsches Staatswörterbuch (11 vols, 1857–1870; abridged by Edgar Loening in 3 vols., 1869–1875). Meanwhile, he had assiduously worked at his code for the canton of Zürich, Privatrechtliches Gesetzbuch für den Kanton Zürich (1854–1856), a work which was much praised at the time, and which, particularly the section devoted to contracts, served as a model for codes both in Switzerland and other countries.

In 1861 Bluntschli received a call to Heidelberg as professor of constitutional law (Staatsrecht), where he again entered the political arena, endeavouring in his Geschichte des allgemeinen Staatsrechts und der Politik (1864) to stimulate, as he said, the political consciousness of the German people, to cleanse it of prejudices and to further it intellectually. He was a Freemason and was Master of Lodge Ruprecht zu den fünf Rosen and in 1865 published a public letter against Pope Pius IX's apostolic exhortation Multiplices inter. In his new home, Baden, he devoted his energies and political influence, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, towards keeping the country neutral. From this time Bluntschli became active in the field of international law, and his fame as a jurist belongs rather to this province than to that of constitutional law. His Das moderne Kriegsrecht (1866); Das moderne Völkerrecht der zivilisierten Staaten, als Rechtsbuch dargestellt (1868), and Das Beuterecht im Krieg (1878) are likely to remain invaluable text-books in this branch of the science of jurisprudence. He also wrote a pamphlet on the Alabama case.  His work on the laws of war and public international law were influenced by a long correspondence with Francis Lieber, a German émigré to the United States.

Bluntschli was one of the founders, at Ghent in 1873, of the Institute of International Law, and was the representative of the German emperor at the conference on the international laws of war at Brussels. During the latter years of his life he took a lively interest in the Protestantenverein, a society formed to combat reactionary and ultramontane views of theology.

He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1875.

He died suddenly at Karlsruhe on October 21, 1881. His library was acquired by Johns Hopkins University.

Among his works, other than those before mentioned, may be cited Deutsches Privatrecht (1853–1854); Deutsche Slaatslehre für Gebildete (1874); and Deutsche Staatslehre und die heutige Staatenwelt (1880).

References

 Gabor Hamza, "Entstehung und Entwicklung der modernen Privatrechtsordnungen und die römischrechtliche Tradition" (Budapest 2009) pp. 246–249.

External links

Category:1808 births
Category:1881 deaths
Category:International law scholars
Category:Members of the Institut de Droit International
Category:People from Zürich
Category:Heidelberg University faculty
Category:Members of the Bavarian Maximilian Order for Science and Art
Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences


Ilishan-Remo

Ilishan Remo is a town located within Irepodun district in Ikenne Local Government Area of Ogun State, South Western Nigeria.
Its ZIP code is 121103.

It's located within Latitude: 6.8932 East and Longitude: 3.7105 North in the Rainforest climatic region of the country.
Babcock University is situated in this town.
Yoruba language is spoken at Ilishan-Remo, specifically the Ijebu dialect.

References

Category:Populated places in Ogun State


Kotlasy

Kotlasy is a village and municipality (obec) in Žďár nad Sázavou District in the Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic.

The municipality covers an area of , and has a population of 124 (as at 28 August 2006).

Kotlasy lies approximately  south of Žďár nad Sázavou,  east of Jihlava, and  south-east of Prague.

References
Czech Statistical Office: Municipalities of Žďár nad Sázavou District

Category:Villages in Žďár nad Sázavou District


Dress (film)

Dress is an award winning short film shot in Hawaii and directed by Henry Ian Cusick who also plays the lead role of Ben Granger.

Synopsis
Ben’s Hawaiian wife Maile has just died and he is struggling to cope with his own grief let alone that of his two sons.  Amid a refuge of alcohol and pills, Ben finds comfort in wearing Maile’s dress. Jonas, his 4-year-old son is delighted with his new “Mommy” around the house and joins in with Ben’s antics, which with the arrival of a wig at the home are getting out of control.  Frowned upon by their Hawaiian “Auntie” and the cause of huge embarrassment for his teenage son Koa, Bens extreme behavior creates more problems when Koa believes the woman in the dress to be his Dad’s new girlfriend. The family discord escalates until the father and son relationship reaches a climax. Attempting a fresh start, they decide to donate Maile’s dresses to a second hand shop. This is extremely hard for Ben and the very next morning he returns to the shop to get that one special dress back. The boys accept this with a lighter heart and they embrace their dads grieving process. The “Dress” becomes a part of family life in remembering Mom.

Awards
Best Short Narrative at Chicago’s 2014 Peace on Earth Film Festival
USA Film Festival
Hawaii International Film Festival Best Film Audience Award

References

External links
Production Company
IMDB

Category:2014 short films


Ash Lake (Timberlea)

Ash Lake is a lake of Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia, Canada.

See also
List of lakes in Nova Scotia

References
 National Resources Canada

Category:Lakes of Nova Scotia


List of largest civil only pharmaceutical settlements

The following is a list of the 21 largest civil settlements, reached between the United States Department of Justice and pharmaceutical companies from 2001 to 2017, ordered by the size of the total civil settlement. Some of these matters also resolved criminal fines and penalties, listed in parentheses, but these amounts are not considered when ranking these settlements as some of the settlements listed did not have a criminal component. Thus, this article provides the most accurate list of the largest civil-only portion of settlements between pharmaceutical companies and the Department of Justice. Because this article focuses on civil portions of settlements, some of the larger total settlements do not make the list.  For example, Purdue Pharmaceuticals entered an agreement with the United States, pleading guilty to felony misbranding of OxyContin with intent to defraud and mislead under sections 33 1(a) and 333(a)(2) of the FD&C Act and agreed to pay more than $600 million, but only $160 million was allocated to resolve civil claims under the False Claims Act, while the remainder was allocated to resolve criminal claims and private claims.

Legal claims against the pharmaceutical industry have varied widely over the past two decades, including Medicare and Medicaid fraud driven by off-label promotion, and inadequate manufacturing practices. With respect to off-label promotion, specifically, a federal court recognized that bills submitted to Medicare or Medicaid driven by off-label promotion as a violation of the False Claims Act for the first time in Franklin v. Parke-Davis, leading to a $430 million settlement. The civil portion of this settlement was $190 million, and it is the last settlement included in the below table.

See also
Pharmaceutical fraud
List of off-label promotion pharmaceutical settlements

References

Category:Lists of lawsuits
Category:Pharmaceutical industry in the United States
Category:Product liability
Category:Medical controversies
Category:Drug advertising


House of Travel New Zealand

House of Travel is the largest privately owned travel company in New Zealand and the third largest travel organisation in the Asia Pacific region.

The House of Travel Group employs close to 2,000 staff operating in a number of different brands and businesses, including:

 75 House of Travel retail travel stores throughout New Zealand
 Orbit World Travel, a specialist business travel service in both New Zealand and Australia
 HOT Events, a conference and incentive management company in New Zealand and Australia.
 Mix and Match, the online branch of House of Travel in New Zealand
 TravelManagers Australia
 HOOT Holidays Australia

House of Travel was the official agent for travel from New Zealand for the 2014 Commonwealth Games,  2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro and is the official travel partner of Netball New Zealand and the Silver Ferns.

History
Founded by Chris Paulsen, who remains the Executive Chairman of House of Travel today, the first House of Travel store was established in Timaru in 1987. Each store is run on a joint ownership model – half-owned by a local owner operator, and half-owned by House of Travel Holdings. Local store owners use their regional knowledge and entrepreneurial skill and are supported by House of Travel Holdings (based in Auckland and Christchurch) in areas such as IT, product, marketing and HR.

By 1990, House of Travel had opened 20 stores across the North and South Islands. In 1998, there were 50 House of Travel stores in New Zealand. In 2001, House of Travel identified the growing market segment of corporate travel, resulting in a number of existing locations being rebranded as Orbit Travel to focus almost exclusively on business travel. Orbit is now the largest corporate travel company in New Zealand.

House of Travel launched the first online booking solution in New Zealand in 2004, offering full flight aggregation. House of Travel Online was branded mixandmatch in 2009 and is now the largest online travel agency for flight bookings in New Zealand.
Today there are more than 75 House of Travel stores across New Zealand, from Kerikeri in the north to Invercargill in the South.

Awards
2006: New Zealand Entrepreneur of the Year, Ernst & Young Awards – Chris Paulsen, Chairman and Founder of House of Travel

2007: Prime Minister's Social Hero Award – for work with Hospice New Zealand

2013: Chairman's Circle Honour from the US Travel Association – House of Travel.

2013: Australian Federation of Travel Agents (AFTA) Award for Best Travel Agency Retail, Multi Location.

2013: Australian Federation of Travel Agents (AFTA) Award for Best Travel Agency Corporate, Multi Location.

Travel Agents’ Association of NZ (TAANZ) Award for Best Travel Agency Brand: 2013, 2014, 2015.

References

External links
 Official website

Category:Travel agencies
Category:Travel and holiday companies of New Zealand
Category:Travel and holiday companies of Australia
Category:Companies based in Auckland
Category:Companies established in 1987
Category:1987 establishments in New Zealand


Mirpur Lakha

Mirpur Lakha is a village in Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district of Punjab State, India. It is located  away from Banga,  from Nawanshahr,  from district headquarter Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar and  from state capital Chandigarh. The village is administrated by Sarpanch an elected representative of the village.

Demography
As of 2011, Mirpur Lakha has a total number of 241 houses and population of 1097 of which 552 include are males while 545 are females according to the report published by Census India in 2011. The literacy rate of Mirpur Lakha is 82.05% higher than the state average of 75.84%. The population of children under the age of 6 years is 122 which is 11.12% of total population of Mirpur Lakha, and child sex ratio is approximately 848 as compared to Punjab state average of 846.

Most of the people are from Schedule Caste which constitutes 41.20% of total population in Mirpur Lakha. The town does not have any Schedule Tribe population so far.

As per the report published by Census India in 2011, 289 people were engaged in work activities out of the total population of Mirpur Lakha which includes 268 males and 21 females. According to census survey report 2011, 97.92% workers describe their work as main work and 2.08% workers are involved in Marginal activity providing livelihood for less than 6 months.

Education
The village has a Punjabi medium, co-ed upper primary school established in 1987. The school provide mid-day meal as per Indian Midday Meal Scheme. As per Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act the school provide free education to children between the ages of 6 and 14.

KC Engineering College and Doaba Khalsa Trust Group Of Institutions are the nearest colleges. Industrial Training Institute for women (ITI Nawanshahr) is . The village is  away from Chandigarh University,  from Indian Institute of Technology and  away from Lovely Professional University.

List of schools nearby:
Dashmesh Model School, Kahma
Govt Primary School, Kahlon
Govt High School, Garcha

Transport
Nawanshahr train station is the nearest train station however, Garhshankar Junction railway station is  away from the village. Sahnewal Airport is the nearest domestic airport which located  away in Ludhiana and the nearest international airport is located in Chandigarh also Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport is the second nearest airport which is  away in Amritsar.

See also
List of villages in India

References

External links
 Tourism of Punjab
 Census of Punjab
 Locality Based PINCode

Category:Villages in Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district


Keith Browner Jr.

Keith Browner Jr. (born April 7, 1988) is an American football defensive end who is currently a free agent. He signed with Houston Texans in 2012 and Chicago Bears in 2016. He played college football at University of California, Berkeley.

High school years
Browner Jr. attended Dorsey High School in Los Angeles, California. Browner Jr. was selected to the SuperPrep All-Far West team. Browner Jr. was ranked as the No. 22 prospect among defensive ends and also was ranked as the 78th prospect among defensive ends in the state of California according to Rivals.com. He was ranked as the 44th defensive end by scout.com.

College career
He played college football at California. He finished college with 37 tackles, 4 Sacks, 4 pass deflection and 2 forced fumbles.

Professional career

Houston Texans
In 2012, Browner Jr. signed with the Houston Texans. On August 31, he was released. On October 29, 2012, he was signed to the practice squad. He was signed to the 53-man active squad of the Houston Texans on December 12, 2014. He was released from the Houston Texans on May 15, 2015.

Chicago Bears
Browner signed a futures contract with the Chicago Bears on January 11, 2016. On August 28, 2016, Browner was waived by the Bears.

Personal life
He is the son of former NFL linebacker Keith Browner and the nephew of former NFL defensive end Ross Browner and former six time Pro Bowl safety Joey Browner who played for the Minnesota Vikings from 1983-1991 and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in 1992. He is the cousin of Pittsburgh Steelers Offensive tackle Max Starks. Keith founded a nonprofit organization, Kreating the Dream Living Beyond Foundation that is geared towards mentoring minority youth males being raised in a female head-of-household environment.

References

External links
 California Golden Bears bio
 Houston Texans bio

Category:1988 births
Category:Living people
Category:American football defensive ends
Category:California Golden Bears football players
Category:Houston Texans players
Category:Chicago Bears players
Category:Sportspeople from Los Angeles
Category:Sportspeople from Tampa, Florida
Category:Players of American football from California
Category:Susan Miller Dorsey High School alumni


Clifford Earp

Walter Thomas Clifford Earp (1879–1921) was a British pioneer racing motorist.

He was born in 1879, in Lambeth, Surrey, England. His parents were Arthur Clifford Earp (1855–1886), a sculptor, and Emily Wood. He attended Ardingly College, Sussex.  His surname was often spelled Clifford-Earp. He had a brother, also Arthur Clifford Earp, born 1 January 1883, who was also a racing motorist, and on occasion acted as his riding mechanic. He was a protégé of S. F. Edge and sometimes faced adversity, being considered a 'trade' professional in an age of amateurs.

During the eliminating trials for the Gordon Bennett Cup at Douglas, Isle of Man, in 1904 Clifford Earp, with brother Arthur acting as riding mechanic, crashed into a stone wall on the promenade, both being hospitalised.

In July 1905 Earp on a hp Napier finished eighth in The Gordon Bennett Cup on the Auvergne circuit in France.

In July 1905 Earp, on a 90-horsepower Napier, completed the flying-start kilometre in 23 seconds at the inaugural Brighton Speed Trials.

On 27 January 1906 he broke the world record for 100 miles' distance in a race for the Minneapolis Automobile Club trophy at Ormond-Daytona Beach, Florida on a 90 hp Napier in a time of 1 hour, 15 minutes and 40.4 seconds, with riding-mechanic H. H. Baker. At about the 35-mile mark he shed his rear tyre and completed the rest of the race on the rim.

In 1907 he drove his 60 hp Thames car at Brooklands to four new world records:

The Thames motor car was manufactured by the Thames Ironworks, Shipbuilding, and Engineering Company Ltd., of Greenwich.

Footnotes

Category:1879 births
Category:1921 deaths
Category:People educated at Ardingly College
Category:Brighton Speed Trials people
Category:English racing drivers


Acanthemblemaria atrata

The Cocos barnacle blenny (Acanthemblemaria strata) is a species of chaenopsid blenny native to the Pacific Ocean waters around Cocos Island, Costa Rica.  This species reaches a standard length of .

References

atrata
Category:Fish of Costa Rica
Cocos barnacle blenny


Pinnacles National Park

Pinnacles National Park is an American national park protecting a mountainous area located east of the Salinas Valley in Central California, about  east of Soledad and  southeast of San Jose. The park's namesakes are the eroded leftovers of the western half of an extinct volcano that has moved  from its original location on the San Andreas Fault, embedded in a portion of the California Pacific Coast Ranges. Pinnacles is managed by the National Park Service and the majority of the park is protected as wilderness.

The national park is divided by the rock formations into East and West Divisions, connected only by foot trails. The east side has shade and water, the west has high walls. The rock formations provide for spectacular pinnacles that attract rock climbers. The park features unusual talus caves that house at least 13 species of bats. Pinnacles is most often visited in spring or fall because of the intense heat during the summer. Park lands are prime habitat for prairie falcons, and are a release site for California condors that have been hatched in captivity.

Pinnacles was originally established as a national monument in 1908 by President Theodore Roosevelt, and was redesignated as a national park by Congressional legislation in 2012 that was then signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 10, 2013.

History

Native Americans in the Pinnacles region comprised the Chalon and Mutsun groups of the Ohlone people, who left stone artifacts in the park. These native people declined with the arrival of the Spanish in the 18th century, who brought novel diseases and changes to the natives' way of life. The establishment of a Spanish mission at Soledad hastened the area's native depopulation through disease and dispersion. Archaeological surveys have found 13 sites inhabited by Native Americans, 12 of which antedate the establishment of the missions. One site is believed to be about 2000 years old. The last Chalon had died or departed from the area by 1810. From 1810 to 1865, when the first Anglo-American settlers arrived, the Pinnacles region was a wilderness without human use or habitation.

By the 1880s the Pinnacles, then known as the Palisades, were visited by picnickers from the surrounding communities who would explore the caves and camp. The first account of the Pinnacles region appeared in print in 1881, describing the Balconies area. Between 1889 and 1891, newspaper articles shifted from describing excursions to the "Palisades" to calling them the "Pinnacles". Interest in the area rose to the point that the Hollister Free Lance sent a reporter to the Pinnacles, followed two months later by a party of local officials. Investors came from San Francisco to consider placing a resort hotel there, but the speculation came to nothing. In 1894, a post office was established in Bear Valley. Schuyler Hain was the postmaster. Since at least one other Bear Valley was in California, the post office was named "Cook" after Mrs. Hain's maiden name. In 1924, the post office was renamed "Pinnacles".

Schuyler Hain was a homesteader who arrived in the Pinnacles area in 1891 from Michigan, following his parents and eight siblings to Bear Valley. His cousin, A.W. White, was a student at Stanford University, and White brought G.K. Gilbert, one of his professors, to see the Pinnacles in 1893. Dr. Gilbert was impressed by the scenery, and his comments inspired Hain to publicize the region. Hain led tours to Bear Valley and through the caves, advocating the preservation of the Pinnacles. Hain's efforts resulted in a 1904 visit by Stanford president David Starr Jordan, who contacted Fresno Congressman James C. Needham. Jordan and Needham, in turn, influenced Gifford Pinchot to advocate the establishment of the Pinnacles Forest Reserve to President Theodore Roosevelt, who proclaimed the establishment on July 8, 1906. Pinchot, who was primarily interested in the management of forests for productive use rather than for preservation, advocated the use of the recently passed Antiquities Act to designate the scenic core of the area as Pinnacles National Monument, which was done by Roosevelt on January 16, 1908. This designation nominally passed control of the Pinnacles from the Department of Agriculture to the Department of the Interior, but the U.S. Forest Service retained effective control of the area until circa 1911.

In his efforts to promote the Pinnacles, Hain became convinced that the Pinnacles were an "extraordinary mountain" described by Captain George Vancouver and pictured by John Sykes in his book Voyage of Discovery, which documented the Vancouver Expedition. Hain began to refer to the mountain as "Vancouver's Pinnacles", a term that was picked up by Sunset in a 1903 article. References to "Vancouver's Pinnacles" persisted until 1955, when analysis of the Sykes picture indicated that the mountain described by Vancouver was actually located near Fort Ord, within easy reach of the day trip described by Vancouver.

National monument
First set aside as part of the Pinnacles Forest Reserve in 1906, Pinnacles has had several different federal management agencies, ranging from the U.S. Forest Service to the General Land Office and ultimately to the National Park Service. In 1908 President Theodore Roosevelt created Pinnacles National Monument with the power given him in the Antiquities Act of 1906. The initial area designated under the Antiquities Act was . The Forest Service relinquished control of the monument circa 1911, but no operating agency yet existed to receive it. No drivable roads existed into the park from communities like Hollister. Hollister boosters campaigned for federal funds for road-building. Congressman Everis A. Hayes made a trip into the Pinnacles in 1913 as part of the campaign for road funds. By 1914, primitive roads extended to Bear Valley.

The National Park Service was finally established in 1916, but Pinnacles was not considered significant enough to command any Park Service resources at that time. In the meantime, a mining claim disrupted access to the traditional picnic grounds. In 1922, following repeated pleas from local residents for Park Service action, W.B. Lewis, superintendent of Yosemite National Park, was directed to visit Pinnacles and report on the circumstances to Park Service director Stephen Mather. Lewis had a difficult trip and stayed only 45 minutes, and his report included a recommendation that the monument be abandoned, since the most scenic sections were in private hands. The General Land Office, which administered lands surrounding the national monument and what was then known as Monterey National Forest, also received complaints, and in December 1922, J.H. Favorite of the GLO made a thorough report which was copied to Mather. Favorite recommended that public-domain lands be consolidated into the monument, and that a caretaker be appointed from a local homestead. In 1923, Herman Hermansen was appointed caretaker, and on May 7, 1923, the monument was enlarged by proclamation of President Warren G. Harding.

Mather finally visited the monument on March 28, 1924. A further proclamation, this time by Calvin Coolidge, enlarged the monument on July 2, 1924, securing water sources and campsites, was followed by a directive for a complete survey of the now- monument. Following a visit by NPS assistant director Horace M. Albright, money was appropriated to build a ranger's cabin, completed in 1929, while facilities within the caves were improved. Frank A. Kittredge, the Park Service chief of engineering, and Thomas Chalmers Vint, Park Service landscape architect, conducted a survey for a five-year improvement plan in 1927. In 1929, condemnation proceedings were filed against private landowners in and around the park, including the mining company, seeking . An expansion proclamation by President Herbert Hoover in 1931 added  of land donated by San Benito County. Trail building was expanded in the early 1930s, including a tunnel for the High Peaks Trail.

In 1933, a Civilian Conservation Corps camp was established for about 200 men who worked on additions to the trail network. After lengthy legal proceedings, the old mining claims were incorporated into the monument in 1958. CCC laborers improved the road in Bear Gulch, built tourist cabins, and constructed the dam at the Bear Gulch reservoir. A fire lookout was built by the CCC on Chalone Peak in 1935, but was destroyed by fire in 1951 and replaced by a frame structure the following year. The park's visitor center and headquarters were built in 1936–37 from local stone. A superintendent's residence was started in 1941 and completed in 1949. The Mission 66 project added lands and new projects, with an emphasis on development of the previously undeveloped west side of the park.

In 1975, the park comprised , growing to the present  through a series of additions including the  Pinnacles Ranch.  The most recent addition to the Pinnacles National Monument was president Bill Clinton's Proclamation 7266 that increased the size of the monument by  and to include more caves.

National park status
Legislation authored by Rep. Sam Farr (D-California) to make Pinnacles National Monument a national park passed the United States Senate on December 30, 2012, having passed the House on July 31, 2012. The bill also designates the present Pinnacles Wilderness as the Hain Wilderness in commemoration of Schuyler Hain's efforts to establish the national monument. The legislation was signed by President Barack Obama on January 10, 2013. The change in designation does not change the park's status, management, or purpose. Congress specified in the 1970 General Authorities Act and the 1978 Redwood Act that all units of the National Park System are to be treated on equal status, regardless of title. Pinnacles is the ninth unit in the National Park System in California to be named a national park.

Geography

Pinnacles National Park lies about  inland from the Pacific Ocean and about  south of the San Francisco Bay Area. The park is in the southern portion of the Gabilan Range, part of California's Coast Ranges.

Elevation within the boundaries range from  at the peak of North Chalone Peak.

Climate

According to the Köppen climate classification system, Pinnacles National Park has a Hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa). According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Plant Hardiness zone at the Painted Desert Visitor Center (1056 ft / 322 m) is 8b with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of 19.3 °F (-7.1 °C).

The Santa Lucia Mountains lie between the park and Pacific Ocean, blocking the ocean’s moderating influence on diurnal temperature swings. In comparison to the nearby coast, temperatures have a much larger daily range of  depending on season. The typical rainfall is about  per year. Snow can fall in small amounts at higher elevations between mid-December and January.

The National Weather Service has a cooperative weather station at the park headquarters. January temperatures are a maximum of  and a minimum of .  July temperatures are a maximum of  and a minimum of . The record high temperature was  on July 15, 1972. The record low temperature was  on January 2, 1960, and December 22, 1990. Average annual precipitation is . The wettest calendar year was 1983 with  and the driest 1947 with . The most precipitation in one month was  in March 1983. The most precipitation in 24 hours was  on February 3, 1998. The most snowfall in one month was  in January 1962.

Geology

The park is located near the San Andreas fault, which had a hand in creating the unique formations the park protects.  The Pinnacles are part of the Neenach Volcano which erupted 23 million years ago near present-day Lancaster.  The movement of the Pacific Plate along the San Andreas fault split a section of rock off from the main body of the volcano and moved it  to the northwest. It is believed that the pinnacles came from this particular volcano because of the unique breccias that are only found elsewhere in the Neenach Volcano formations.  Differential erosion and weathering of the exposed rock created the Pinnacles that are seen today. The rock formations are andesite and rhyolite, forming a dropped fault block embedded in the Gabilan Range.

Large-scale earth movement also created the talus caves that can be found in the park.  Deep, narrow gorges and shear fractures were transformed into caves by large chunks of rock falling from above and wedging into the cracks, leaving an open area below.

Since the Pinnacles were moved to this area, the San Andreas fault has shifted  to the east of the park.  The original location of the San Andreas can be seen in the Chalone Creek fault.  Two other large faults are known to run through the park, the Miner's Gulch and Pinnacles faults.  These faults parallel the San Andreas and were most likely caused by major movements of the main fault. The establishment of the relative movement between the Pinnacles and the Neenach rocks was a significant factor in the acceptance of plate tectonics in geology.

Seismic activity is frequent in the park, and United States Geological Survey maintains two seismometers within the boundaries. Evidence of past and ongoing seismic activity can be seen in offset streams where they cross faults.  Valley bottoms and terraces show signs of uplift.

Ecology

Wildlife

Prairie falcons breed in this area in some of the highest densities of anywhere in North America.  Peregrine falcons have recently returned to the park to breed, also, but in far fewer numbers. A California condor re-establishment program has been in place since 2003. The first nest since reintroduction was built in 2010, and Pinnacles now manages a population of 25 free-flying condors. Mammals and birds that inhabit this park include prairie falcon, coyote, skunk,  great horned owl, bobcat, California quail, raccoon, wild turkey, gray fox, golden eagle, and cougar.

Formerly native animals, now vanished from most of central California, included tule elk and pronghorn. Grizzly and black bears were in the area until the end of the 19th century.

Like many parks in central California, Pinnacles has had a small problem with wild pigs (a mix of feral domestic pigs and imported wild boars) disturbing the landscape on a regular basis.  As of spring 2006, the core of the park was pig-free.  The culmination of a twenty-year, $1.6 million effort had succeeded in eradicating pigs from the main area of the park. National Park Service personnel along with IWS worked to remove pigs from inside the park, and establish and monitor an exclusionary pig fence that runs for approximately  around the center core of the park. Outside this fence, however, wild pigs still roam in regular abundance. Current monitoring for potential breaks and breaches in the fence is needed to ensure that the pigs do not return to devastate the park.

Thirteen species of bats have been documented at Pinnacles, with a further three species considered likely. The park's talus caves provide roosting and breeding habitat for the bats.

In the 1990s, a student biologist, Olivia Messinger, did a census of bees at Pinnacles.  She found that the park has more bees per unit area than known anywhere else on earth, around 400 species.  Most of these bees are solitary bees, not living in colonies like European honeybees, and most live for only three to four weeks, and since flowers bloom here throughout the growing season,  many niches are available for all the bee species.

The diversity of intersecting ecosystems and altitude has led to great number of animal species that call the park home.

Vegetation

According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Pinnacles National Park has a Chaparral (33) potential vegetation type with a California chaparral and woodlands (6) vegetation form. The vegetation is about 80% chaparral with woodlands, riparian, and grasslands merged into the chaparral.

In the warmer portions of the park, large areas of greasewood cover slopes, along with manzanita, gray pine, canyon live oak, and blue oak. Cooler portions of the park have higher proportions of pines and oaks, together with California buckeye, hollyleaf cherry, and coffeeberry. Willows and elderberries are found along the intermittent streams. Fire has been a dominant influence on the region's flora, both from natural causes and from intentional intervention by people. When the region was inhabited by Native Americans, they used fire as a tool to encourage the growth of preferred food sources, and to herd small game during hunting.  Since the disappearance of native peoples, the hills have become brushier.

Hain Wilderness
More than 80% () of the park is designated as the Hain Wilderness (known until 2013 as the Pinnacles Wilderness). Wilderness designation provides even higher protection for the rock spires that give Pinnacles its name, as well as South Chalone Peak, the second-highest peak in the park. The wilderness includes the creeks and canyons that are habitat for the endangered California red-legged frog.  The United States Congress in 1976 enacted Public Law 94-567, adding Pinnacles Wilderness and several others to the National Wilderness Preservation System.

Activities

Although roads approach the park from the west through Soledad and from the east through empty lands south of Hollister, the roads do not connect in the park. Most of the developed areas are on the east side of the park.

Several trails have been developed for day hikers, some of which are strenuous. Primarily in March and April, a wide variety of wildflowers is on display, except in years of extreme drought. The trails provide views of the surrounding hills and valleys on clear days. The San Andreas Fault is visible from some vantages along the trails. The park includes a well-known hiking portion known among enthusiasts simply as "The Pig Fence". This portion of South Wilderness Trail is a challenging stretch of strenuous hiking that at times requires use of the fence, erected to prevent feral pigs from entering the park, to help oneself to climb the steeply pitched trail. Other trails include lush wildflower-accented views along flat stream beds, trails that bring one into beautiful caves, and trails that involve high vistas of the Pinnacle formations. The park is popular with advanced rock climbers due to the many difficult and challenging climbs.

The caves at Pinnacles are talus caves, formed when steep, narrow canyons were filled with boulders, leaving passages between the larger rocks.  Bear Gulch Cave on the east side of the park and Balconies Cave on the west side are seasonally open to visitors. Trails lead to and through both caves.  These caves house breeding colonies for Townsend's big-eared bat and are closed during pupping season. The caves may be flooded at times of high water.  The National Park Service maintains a webpage showing the status of the caves.

Camping facilities are available on the east side in the Pinnacles Campground.

See also
 List of national parks of the United States
 State Route 25
 State Route 146
 Tres Pinos, California
 Trona Pinnacles — in southern California near Ridgecrest and Trona
 Neenach Volcano

References

Further reading
 Oberg, Reta R. (1979), Administrative History of Pinnacles National Monument, National Park Service

External links

  of the National Park Service
 Pinnacles National Park at San Francisco Bay Area National Parks Science and Learning
 Condor Watch The Condor Watch crowdsourcing project, started April 2014.
 NASA Earth Observatory: Satellite images
 California-birding: Bird Watching at Pinnacles National Park
 Pinnacles photoblog from bRaNdSboRg.CoM

Category:National parks in California
Category:Parks in Monterey County, California
Category:Parks in San Benito County, California
Category:Gabilan Range
Category:Rock formations of California
Category:Volcanoes of California
Category:Natural history of Monterey County, California
Category:Natural history of San Benito County, California
Category:Protected areas established in 1908
Category:1908 establishments in California
Category:Climbing areas of California
Category:Badlands of the United States


Umberto Calcinai

Umberto Primo Calcinai (2 February 1892 – 26 July 1963) was a New Zealand rugby union player. Of Italian descent, Calcinai represented Wellington at a provincial level, and was a member of the New Zealand national side, the All Blacks, on their 1922 tour of New South Wales. His preferred playing position was wing-forward, but all five of his matches for the All Blacks on the 1922 tour were as a hooker. Calcinai did not appear in any Test matches.

References

Category:1892 births
Category:1963 deaths
Category:New Zealand people of Italian descent
Category:Rugby union players from Wellington City
Category:New Zealand rugby union players
Category:New Zealand international rugby union players
Category:Wellington rugby union players
Category:Rugby union hookers
Category:Rugby union wing-forwards


Włodzimierz Trzebiatowski Institute of Low Temperature and Structure Research

The Włodzimierz Trzebiatowski Institute of Low Temperature and Structure Research is a scientific institute in Wrocław, Poland. It is named after Włodzimierz Trzebiatowski, the Polish chemist, physicist and mathematician.

Localization
Until 1993 the Institute was placed at Gajowicka street and the Bishop Palace, that after the II World War was requisitioned by the  Polish People's Republic government. Currently the Institute is placed at Okólna street in Wrocław.

External links
Institute webpage

Category:Scientific organisations based in Poland
Category:Buildings and structures in Wrocław
Category:Physics institutes


The Pioneer Sessions

The Pioneer Sessions is a compilation album by William Beckett containing acoustic versions of songs from his previous three EPs.  It was released on January 22, 2013, under YIKE Records.

Track listing

Category:2013 compilation albums
Category:William Beckett (singer) albums


Mishui

Mishui Town () is a town and the seat of Hengdong County in Hunan, China. The town has an area of  with a household population of 150,000 (as of 2017). The town of Mishui has 20 villages and 8 communities under its jurisdiction, its seat is Yinbin Community ().

History
The town of Mishui was organized through the merger of the former Chengguan Town, Tazhuang Township and Zhenzhu Township and named after the river of Mishui on November 18 2015.

Chengguan Town
Chengguan Town () was reorganized in 1984 from the former Chenguan Commune formed in 1966, it is the southwestern part of the present Mishui Town. The town had an area of  with a population of 55,556 (as of 2010 census), it was divided into 6 communities of Binjiang (滨江), Dutou (渡头), Jiantou (枧头), Xingdong (兴东), Yangshan (杨山) and Yingbin (迎宾), and 9 villages of Dadian (大甸), Dutouping (渡头坪), Jin'e (金鹅), Jinhua (金花), Jinyan (金堰), Queqiao (鹤桥), Xinhe (新鹤), Yuetang (月塘) and Yuexiao (岳宵).

Tazhuang Township
Tazhuang Township () was formed in 1956 and it is the southeastern part of the present Mishui Town. It had an area of  with a population of 13,959 (as of 2010 census), it was divided into 16 villages of Datang (大塘村), Datuo (大托村), Fenglin (丰林村), Fenglong (丰垅村), Huayuan (花园村), Jingming (荆茗村), Langshan (朗山村), Minggang (茗岗村), Mulin (木林村), Shanglang (上朗村), Tazhuang (踏庄村), Tongxiao (桐宵村), Xiannan (仙南村), Zhengping (正坪村), Zhonglang (中朗村) and Zhongsen (中森村).

Zhenzhu Township
Zhenzhu Township () was a part of Bailian Township in 1950 and formed in 1956, it is the northern part of the present Mishui Town. The township had an area of  with a population of 16,906 (as of 2010 census), it was divided into 18 villages of Beichong (北冲村)
Dajiang (大江村), Danantang (大南塘村), Dawu (大乌村), Futong (富塘村), Huangzitang (黄梓堂村), Lingyan (岭岩村), Shanchong (山冲村), Shijiang (石江村), Shitou (石头村), Shuangfeng (双凤村), Tongsheng (同升村), Xiaojiang (小江村), Xiaoshan (小山村), Xiaowu (小乌村), Xinkai (新开村), Yinxiang (印湘村) and Zhenzhu (珍珠村).

Geography
The town of Mishui is located in the northern middle part of Hengdong County. It is bordered by towns of Bailian and Yangqiao to the northeast, Ganxi Town to the southeast, Wuji Town to the south and southwest, Xintang Town to the northwest, Shiwan Town to the north. It covers an area of .

Subdivisions
Through the amalgamation of village-level divisions in 2016, its divisions was reduced to 28 from 49. the town of Mishui has 8 communities and 20 villages under its jurisdiction.

8 communities
 Binjiang Community ()
 Jiaxing Community ()
 Jinyan Community ()
 Mijiang Community ()
 Xingdong Community ()
 Yangshan Community ()
 Yanwan Community ()
 Yingbin community ()

20 villages
 Beichong Village ()
 Caixia Village ()
 Dadian Village ()
 Dashan Village ()
 Datang Village ()
 Datuo Village ()
 Daxing Village ()
 Hexiang Village ()
 Jin'e Village ()
 Jingming Village ()
 Jinhua Village ()
 Langshan Village ()
 Nantang Village ()
 Shijiang Village ()
 Tazhuang Village ()
 Xianlin Village ()
 Xiannan Village ()
 Yuexiao Village ()
 Zhenzhu Village ()
 Zhuangyuan Village ()

Notable people
 Wang Guangze (; 19031934), the Divisional Commander (师长) of Red Army Qiandong Independent Division (黔东独立师) and one of Revolutionary Martyrs. Wang was arrested by the enemy on November 28, 1934 in Xiushan County, Sichuan (modern Chongqing). Chiang Kai-shek ordered Liu Xiang to execute him and Wang was secretly killed in Youyang County on December 21, 1934 when Wang was at his age of 31 years old. Since 1949, the government of Youyang County has been searching for his remains. In April 1982, his remains were found in Yanjiapo (邬家坡), two kilometers from the seat of Longtan Town (龙潭镇). The iron shovel was still on the cheekbones of the martyr, and its appearance was appalling. In November 1983, the government of Youyang County buried Wang's remains in the Martyrs’ Cemetery of Longtan Town to build a monument to commemorate forever.

External links
 Official Website (中文 / Chinese)

References

Category:Hengdong County
Category:County seats in Hunan


Lubcz Mały

Lubcz Mały  () is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Krzyż Wielkopolski, within Czarnków-Trzcianka County, Greater Poland Voivodeship, in west-central Poland. It lies approximately  north-east of Krzyż Wielkopolski,  west of Czarnków, and  north-west of the regional capital Poznań.

References

Category:Villages in Czarnków-Trzcianka County