Migration of Moroccan Jews to Israel

The migration of Moroccan Jews to Israel occurred predominately after the Holocaust of European Jewry. The spotlight was turned to the North African; and particularly; Moroccan Jewish communities, constituting the largest of the Jewish communities in North Africa at the time. Riots against Jews from the Arab population and fear that Morocco's eventual independence from France would lead to the persecution of the country's Jews, led to a large-scale emigration. Approximately 28,000 Jews immigrating to Israel between 1948 and 1951.

Upon the return of Mohammed V and the consequent declaration of Morocco as an independent state in 1956, the Jews received citizenship but with fewer freedoms than the dominant Muslim population, including restrictions on traveling abroad. However, following pressures exerted by the Arab league in 1959, Jewish emigration became prohibited if the destination for their immigration was Israel, and therefore the immigration for the most-part took place illegally by means of the underground Jewish organization in Morocco, via Spain and France. Mossad and HIAS made a deal with King Hassan II to covertly migrate Moroccan Jews to Israel in Operation Yachin, between 1961-1967.

By 1967 250,000 Jews had left Morocco, some fleeing to Europe and the USA whereas a large part of them immigrated to Israel. The Moroccan immigrants encountered many cross culture and integration difficulties that later became the characterizing features of this immigration. These cultural barriers and discrimination led to protestation and consequently a gradual change in Israel's political map.

Before the Establishment of the State of Israel

The rising French influence in Morocco at the beginning of the 20th century encouraged Moroccan Jews to enroll into French schools, receive a French education and integrate into French culture until 1940 when the Vichy laws came into effect and forbade Jewish attendance to French schools.
After the Second World War and the establishment of the state of Israel, the Jewish Zionist organizations encouraged many Jewish families to leave Morocco and migrated to Israel legally, with the approval of the French rule at the time. Following the war, many young Moroccan Jews migrated to Israel in a bold move and joined "Gahal" forces that were fighting the War of Independence.

Towards the end of the Turkish Ottoman Empire rule and prior to the signing of the Fez Treaty, which entailed French protection of Moroccan Jews, there was a mass escape of Jews from large cities such as Fez, Meknes, Rabat and Marrakech to the smaller towns and villages surrounding the cities.
The overcrowding, the decline in the financial circumstances and the need to pray in secret caused some young families to immigrate to Israel or move to Tunisia; which employed a more liberal policy for Jews. Rumors and letters which started arriving at synagogues told of Jews migrating to and settling in Israel, encouraging the Maghreb Jews. The first community to make the move were Fez Jews were living near the synagogue (the main synagogue) in Fez. About 60 to 80 young families migrated from 1908 to 1918, and settled mainly in Jerusalem and Tiberias. Amongst the first families to settle in Jerusalem were; Ohana, and Zana, Mimeran Turgeman, and Aifraga. The Aifragan brothers, who were bankers back in Fez, could not adapt to life in Israel; they bid their cousins, the Zane family, goodbye in 1918, and moved to France and subsequently to Canada. The David, Zane and Turgeman families lived in the Jewish Quarter whilst the rest of the families lived in Mishkanot (English: Residence) and Sukkot Shalom (English: Peace Tent).

The migration was carried out largely through Tunisia, using small boats to travel from there to Israel. In the summer of 1911, a baby boy; Moshe Vezana, was born, a son to Simcha (Pircha) and David, aboard the ship on their way to Israel. Upon their arrival at Yafo port, the baby's Brit Milah was celebrated. The boy, which was a son to a 'Mugrabi' family, was recorded at times as a Tunisian native and at other times, as an Israeli native. All other eight brothers were born in the Old City of Jerusalem. It was a large family of Mughrabi; the greatest living inside the walls of the Old City, until their escape to Katamon due to War of Independence.
The Maghreb Jewish community was small between the first and third migrations. Leading congregations in Jerusalem were primarily communities which immigrated from Iraq, Iran, Bukhara and Yemen.

After the establishment of the state of Israel

Upon the establishment of the State of Israel, the majority Moroccan Jewry, which held Zionist-religious values, awoke to the possibility of migration to Israel (similarly to other countries at the time). After the establishment of Israel, the conditions for Jews in Morocco worsened due to increasing terrorism in the country and the hostile attitude of the Jews by the local population. Morocco's worsening conditions for the Jews acted as a catalyst to encourage migration to Israel.

Riots in Oujda and Jerada

The 1948 UN declaration of the founding of the state of Israel worsened the situation in Morocco. The Moroccan nationalist movement, carrying the flag of the Arab League, incited against the Jews, and the Moroccan nationalist press (namely the newspaper "Al Alam") promoted hostility. A few days before pogroms broke out, death threats were made against Jews, and on the day of the June 7 massacre, no Arabs showed up to work for Jewish employers. Riots commenced in the city of Oujda at 9:30 in the morning. A mob armed with axes and knives gathered at the "shuk al Yahud" (Jewish market) in Oujda and killed five people, four Jewish and one French. Police eventually gained control and the crowd dispersed. In a nearby area, a group of Muslims gathered, armed with axes, picks and knives, and rode on buses towards the coal mining town of Jerada. In Jarada, this group spread a rumor that a Jew murdered a Muslim, triggering a massacre of 38 Jews, including the community's Rabbi (Rabbi Moshe Cohen), his wife, his mother and his three children. A total of 44 people were murdered that day, and another 55 were wounded by rioters in the cities of Jerada and Oujda. Additionally, shops and homes of Jews were looted. The French military court in Casablanca tried 35 rioters for the massacre. Two defendants were sentenced to death, two to hard labor for life, and the rest to a variety of different penalties.

The year 1954 saw additional pogroms against Moroccan Jews, considerable theft of property, and arson at "Kol Israel Haverim" schools. These incidents increased the emigration rate of Moroccan Jews.

Policy Instated by Mohammed V

With the return of Mohammed V from exile he decided he wanted the Jews to remain in Morocco after Morocco's acquisition of independence. In 1956 Morocco became an independent country and the Jewish citizens were given equal rights. King Mohammed V was willing to integrate the Jews in the parliament and position them in prominent roles.
The League of Arab states; which began operating in Morocco influenced Morocco's political parties and caused anti-Semitism as well as the Moroccan government's refusal to recognize the State of Israel, led the less financially capable Jewish population to request to leave Morocco as soon as possible. Following the mass exodus, which did not please the Moroccan government, Zionism was outlawed and defined as a serious crime in 1959, and immigration to Israel was banned, forcing Moroccan Jews to flee the country by sea only, towards Spain or France.
Following the immigration ban a large number of international organizations cooperated with the Israeli government to do everything in their capacity to persuade Moroccan authorities to allow Jewish citizens of Morocco to leave the country. Representatives of the various Jewish organizations succeeded in forming good relations with the Moroccan authorities, however they failed to convince them to allow the Jews to leave. Nevertheless, Israel had sent dozens of 'Mossad' officers to North Africa who carried out an operation ("operation frame") that entailed the illegal immigration of Moroccan Jews. Many local young folks joined the operation.
Between the years 1948 - 1955 around 70,000 Jews left Morocco
Between the years 1955 - 1961 around 60,000 Jews left Morocco

Emigration under Hassan II of Morocco

Policy changed with the accession of Hassan II of Morocco in 1961.  Hassan agreed to accept a large per-capita bounty from the international Jewish community for each Jew who emigrated from Morocco, and under this agreement Jews were allowed the freedom to emigrate.  Between the years 1961 - 1967 around 120,000 Jews left Morocco.
The Six-Day War in 1967 led to another wave of emigration of Jews from Morocco, primarily to France, but also to Canada, the United States, Israel and other countries.

The Disaster of "Egoz" (Nut) Ship

In 1961 the ship "Egoz" (nut) which held 44 illegal immigrants drowned in the sea on its way to Israel.
After the sinking of "Egoz" pressure was exerted on Morocco and a secret treaty was signed with King Hassan II and consequently a massive exodus of Jews from Casablanca port was carried out under the supervision of General Oufkir. Some Jews came to Israel and some migrated to France and other countries.

Integration of Moroccan Jews in Israel

Immigration of Moroccan Jews to Israel encountered many difficulties. The new immigrants who were housed in transit camps, brought different ways of life and thought with them, that were misunderstood to the most-part of European originated immigrants. Most notable was the complaint of the Moroccan hot temper, which clashed with the neighbors' culture and slower temper. This was the origin of stereotypical, derogatory nickname that stuck to these immigrants - Maroko Sakin / "Morocco knife."
The cultural gap and the overt and covert discrimination caused unrest fords across the Israel. Already in the early years of statehood, with the establishment of the policy of population dispersal, signs of a struggle against the settlement coordinators began, since those tried to halt the phenomenon of the abandoning of settlements on the borders of Israel. The transition of Moroccans from border lines villages to the city, and their rejection of an agricultural lifestyle, was assumed to indicate their refusal to participate in productive enterprises and the Judaization of the land that the state intended for them, and an active strategy of dealing with separation and socialization processes which the country was implementing in the fifties.
Discriminatory policies led to, among other things, an active protest whose two most prominent manifestations were in the "Wadi Salib events", led by David Ben-Arush against ongoing discrimination and the establishment of the "Black Panthers" movement. They set themselves a goal; to promote their social status and they fought passionately to earn their place in Israeli society. It took eighteen more years, after the events in 1977 in "Wadi Salib", for the North African immigrants to be heard clearly in national politics. In the 1977 revolution their demographic power became evident where they succeeded in bringing the "Likkud" national party to power, led by Menachem Begin, and overthrow the "Mapai" government. Due to this change in regime, many of the first and second generation of immigrants from Islamic countries (the "second Israel") felt that this would give them a voice, and influence over the leadership state, which was hitherto denied to them during Mapai's reign.

Nowadays, descendants of Moroccan immigration are found in the forefront in Israel in versatile and leading roles, in management, leading companies, in the command of the army, politics, sports and culture.
Descendants of the Moroccan community now constitute one of the pillars of Israeli culture in such areas as television, theater, literature, song, poetry, and film.

See also
Moroccan Jews
Moroccan Jews in Israel
Operation Yachin
Operation Mural

References

1. CBS; Statistical Abstract of Israel, 2009

Category:Jewish Moroccan history

Category:Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries


Nur ol Dinabad, West Azerbaijan

Nur ol Dinabad (, also Romanized as Nūr ol Dīnābād , Nūr ed Dīnābād, and Nūr od Dīnābād) is a village in Anzal-e Jonubi Rural District, Anzal District, Urmia County, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 140, in 25 families.

References

Category:Populated places in Urmia County


2014 Malawian general election

General elections were held in Malawi on 20 May 2014. They were Malawi's first tripartite elections, the first time the President, National Assembly and local councillors were elected on the same day. The presidential election was won by opposition candidate Peter Mutharika of the Democratic Progressive Party, who defeated incumbent President Joyce Banda.

Background
Malawi's CPI increased by 27.7% in 2013, but its GDP grew by only 5%. Malawi has maintained a polity score of 6 since 2005, designating it as a democracy. Malawi's previous presidential election in 2009 was only the fourth such election in the country's history following the end of Hastings Banda's period of one-man rule in 1994.

Bingu wa Mutharika, who had won the 2004 election, picked his Foreign Minister Joyce Banda to be Vice President after successfully contesting the 2009 election. She was expelled from the Democratic Progressive Party and formed the People's Party when she refused to endorse President Bingu wa Mutharika's younger brother Peter Mutharika for president in the 2014 general election.

Bingu wa Mutharika died of a heart attack on 5 April 2012, and Joyce Banda took the presidency two days later, in accordance with the constitution, despite protests from some ruling party officials that Banda's expulsion from the ruling party made her ineligible.

The People's Party entered the election with a sitting president, but little in the way of a grass-roots machine.

Presidential candidates
Twelve candidates were allowed to contest in the election by the Malawi Electoral Commission:

Opinion polls
The Malawi Electoral Commission cautions that opinion pollsters in Malawi often have questionable credentials and publish biased reports. Some opinion polls have been criticised for lacking credibility and using non-scientific methods.

Results
Amid a breakdown in electronic systems for relaying results back to IEC headquarters, Banda claimed fraud and attempted to cancel the election after only one third of the votes were counted, and Peter Mutharika, brother of the 2009 election winner, was well ahead. Banda said another vote should be held within 90 days, and she said she would not be standing, but opposition parties and the Malawi Law Society objected.

Court action ensued, but the IEC said the first count would be completed, and a recount started. The result would only be announced after the recount, estimated to take two months. On 30 May 2014, the High Court ruled that any recount must be done within eight days of the vote; since the allowed period had already ended, the court ruled that the electoral commission should announce the results. Accordingly, the electoral commission declared later in the day that Mutharika had won the presidential election with 36.4% of the vote. Another opposition candidate, Lazarus Chakwera of the MCP, received 27.8%, while Banda trailed in third place with 20.2%. The head of the commission, Maxon Mbendera, said that "the rule of law compels us to release the results", although he acknowledged that some of the commission's members had "reservations" about them. Banda quickly said that she accepted the outcome, although she continued to describe the vote as "fraudulent".

Mutharika was sworn in as President on the morning of 31 May 2014. Banda congratulated Mutharika and called for national unity, urging the people to support the new President and wishing him success. An inauguration ceremony for Mutharika was held in Blantyre on 2 June 2014. Banda was not present at the inauguration, held at Kamuzu Stadium, and her absence was viewed by some as a snub, given the history of bitter rivalry between the two. Mutharika said that he was offering an olive branch and wanted to "bury the past", expressing "regret" at Banda's absence. He said that he was not interested in "vengeance", although he added that "those who have broken the law will face the full course of justice".

President

National Assembly

Local government

References

Category:Presidential elections in Malawi
Category:Elections in Malawi
Category:2014 in Malawi
Malawi
Category:May 2014 events in Africa


HTP (album)

HTP is the debut album by Hughes Turner Project, a musical collaborators Glenn Hughes (Deep Purple / Black Sabbath, etc.) and Joe Lynn Turner (Rainbow / Yngwie Malmsteen's Rising Force, etc.); it was released in 2002 on MTM Music and Pony Canyon Records.

History
After a failed attempt in the late 80s to write an album together, Glenn Hughes and Joe Lynn Turner again joined forces in 2001 and started writing and recording an album. The album was released in February 2002 and focuses on the hard rock that both musicians are known for as well as a more AOR sound that is indicative of Turner's output and funk leanings, in a similar vein to Hughes’ solo albums.

Hughes’ regular guitarist JJ Marsh plays on the album and co-wrote the majority of the tracks. The album also features performances from drummer Shane Gaalaas and keyboardist Vince DiCola. Guest guitarists include former Whitesnake and Thin Lizzy man John Sykes, Mr Big and former Racer X member Paul Gilbert and Japanese player Akira Kajiyama.

Both Hughes and Turner have solo vocal showcases; Turner sings alone on the track Mystery of the Heart, while Hughes' takes centre stage on Heaven's Missing An Angel (which features John Sykes).

The Japanese version of the album includes the song Against The Wall.

A live album, entitled Live In Tokyo was recorded during the subsequent tour and was released later in 2002.

Track listing
"Devil's Road" – 5:45 (Hughes, Marsh, Turner)
"You Can't Stop Rock & Roll" – 4:45 (Hughes, Marsh, Turner)
"Missed Your Name" – 5:09 (Hughes, Marsh, Turner)
"Mystery of the Heart" – 5:57 (Hughes, Turner)
"Sister Midnight" – 5:03 (Hughes, Marsh, Turner)
"Better Man" – 5:28 (Hughes)
"Heaven's Missing an Angel" – 7:11 (Hughes, Marsh, Sykes)
"Fade Away" – 6:55 (Hughes, Marsh, Turner)
"Ride the Storm" – 3:53 (Hughes, Marsh, Turner)
"Run Run Run" – 3:54 (Hughes, Marsh, Turner)
"On the Ledge" – 7:12 (Hughes, DiCola, Turner)

Japan bonus track
"Against the Wall" – 4:36 (Hughes, Marsh, Turner)

Personnel
Glenn Hughes – vocals, bass
Joe Lynn Turner – vocals
JJ Marsh – guitars
Shane Gaalaas – drums
Vince DiCola – keyboards
Paul Gilbert – guitar solo (track: 2)
John Sykes – guitars, backing vocals (tracks: 7)
Akira Kajiyama – guitar (tracks: 9, 12)

References

Category:2002 debut albums
Category:Glenn Hughes albums
Category:Joe Lynn Turner albums
Category:Collaborative albums
Category:Vince DiCola albums


Yolande, Duchess of Lorraine

Yolande (2 November 1428, Nancy – 23 March 1483, Nancy), was Duchess of Lorraine (1473) and Bar (1480). She was the daughter of Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine, and René of Anjou (King of Naples, Duke of Anjou, Bar and Lorraine, Count of Provence). Though she was nominally in control of major territories, she ceded her power and titles to her husband and her son. In addition, her younger sister was Margaret of Anjou, Queen of England.

In the 19th century, a romanticised version of her early life was popularised by the play King René’s Daughter by Henrik Hertz, in which she is portrayed as a beautiful blind princess living in an isolated garden paradise. It was later adapted to Tchaikovsky's opera Iolanta. There is no evidence that she was ever blind.

Marriage and children
In 1445, she married her second cousin Frederick II, Count of Vaudémont (1420–1470), at Nancy. The marriage was a dynastic alliance, arranged to end the dispute which existed between René of Anjou and Frederick's father, Antoine of Vaudémont, regarding the succession to the Duchy of Lorraine.

Children
 René (future Duke of Lorraine) (1451–1508), Duke of Lorraine. On 1 September 1485 he married secondly, Philippa of Guelders
 Nicolas of Lorraine, Lord of Joinville and Bauffremont, died in 1476.
 Peter of Lorraine, died in 1451.
 Jeanne of Lorraine (1458 – Jan. 25, 1480), married in 1474 to Charles IV, Duke of Anjou
 Yolande of Lorraine, who died in 1500, married William II, Landgrave of Hesse, by whom she had issue.
 Marguerite of Lorraine (1463–1521), married René, Duke of Alençon (1454–1492)

Legacy
In 1473, on the death of her nephew Nicolas, she inherited the Duchy of Lorraine, but passed it immediately to her eldest son René II. In 1480, after the death of her father, she did the same with the Duchy of Bar. She died on 23 March 1483, which was the birthday of her sister Queen Margaret, who had died the previous summer. Yolande was 54 years old.

Cultural references

In 1845 the Danish poet Henrik Hertz wrote the poetic drama Kong Renés Datter (King René’s Daughter), a romanticised account of her life, in which she is depicted as a beautiful sixteen-year-old princess who lives in a protected garden paradise. Blinded in a childhood accident, her attendants must keep from her the knowledge that she is blind, while a Moorish physician conducts a long slow medical procedure to restore her sight. Once it is complete, she must be told of her blindness to awaken the desire to see. Count Vaudémont arrives for his arranged marriage, which he resents. He accidentally finds her secret garden, and falls in love with her without knowing who she is. He discovers she is blind, and tells her so, but she cannot understand him. However, the physician is now able to complete the treatment and she is cured.

The portrayal of Yolande as a saintly dreaming beauty (regularly placed in an entranced sleep by the physician) was immensely popular. The play was translated into numerous languages. The Russian translation by Fyodor Miller was adapted by Vladimir Zotov, whose version was used as the basis for the opera Iolanta, written by Tchaikovsky, with libretto by his brother Modest Ilyich Tchaikovsky. It received its premiere on 18 December 1892 in St. Petersburg.

The heroine's name was given as "Iolanthe" in the original Danish version and in the English translation by Theodore Martin, making this version of her name familiar in the 19th century.  In 1913 a silent film of Hertz's play was made by the Thanhouser Company, starring Maude Fealy as Yolande. It was also adapted in 1990 as the German film Das Licht der Liebe.

In the pseudohistorical book The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail Yolande de Bar was alleged to have been the tenth Grand Master of the Priory of Sion, succeeding her father, King René. The evidence for this claim was derived from the Dossiers Secrets d'Henri Lobineau, forged documents created in 1967.

Notes

Sources

|-
| width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:Nicholas I
| width="40%" align="center" | Duchess of Lorraine1473
| width="30%" align="center" rowspan="4" | Succeeded by:René II
|-
| width="30%" align="center" | Preceded by:Rene I of Anjou
| width="40%" align="center" | Duchess of Bar1480
|-

Category:1428 births
Category:1483 deaths
Category:Dukes of Bar
Category:Dukes of Lorraine
Category:15th-century women rulers


Farm to Market Road 109

Farm to Market Road 109 (FM 109) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Texas. The highway begins at Business State Highway 71 (SH 71) just north of Columbus in Colorado County. It winds its way to the northeast across Austin County, passing through the communities of New Ulm and Industry before ending at State Highway 36 (SH 36) in Brenham in Washington County.

Route description
FM 109 begins at an intersection with Business SH 71 about  northwest of the bridge over the Colorado River. This location is just north of Columbus in Colorado County. After going north for , the highway crosses Cummins Creek and heads northeast for a short distance before turning back to the north again. From its start to Frelsburg is . At Frelsburg, FM 109 comes to a crossroads at Heinsohn's Country Store, with FM 1291 coming from the west and McElroy Lane coming from the north. At the intersection, FM 109 turns sharply to the east. The highway gradually swings to the east-northeast for  before entering New Ulm in Austin County. FM 109 is also called Ernst Parkway in this area. At New Ulm, the highway crosses the BNSF Railway tracks and intersects with FM 1094 from the east. FM 109 leaves New Ulm heading north and continues for  to Industry. At this place, the highway intersects with SH 159, which goes east and west. From Industry, FM 109 heads north-northeast for  until crossing FM 2502 near the community of Welcome. From this point, the highway heads to the northeast  until its end. Just inside the southern city limits of Brenham, FM 109 crosses the BNSF Railway tracks and ends at a traffic signal on SH 36.

History
FM 109 was originally designated on August 1, 1944, to go from Industry to New Ulm and from Frelsburg to SH 71 near Columbus. On June 13 and 16, 1945, the two separate sections were linked when a new section between New Ulm and Frelburg was added. On December 16, 1948, FM 109 was extended from Industry to SH 36 south of Brenham, replacing FM 388, which went from the Colorado County Line to SH 36. The new segment went through the communities of Welcome and Muellersville.

Major intersections

See also

References

0109
Category:Transportation in Austin County, Texas
Category:Transportation in Colorado County, Texas
Category:Transportation in Washington County, Texas


Troy Bourke

Troy Bourke (born March 30, 1994) is a Canadian professional ice hockey center who is currently playing for the Schwenninger Wild Wings in the Deutsche Eishockey Liga (DEL). He was selected 72nd overall, by the Colorado Avalanche, in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft.

Playing career
Bourke was raised in Onoway, Alberta, and was first selected by the Prince George Cougars 26th overall in the 2009 Western Hockey League bantam draft after a bantam career with the PAC Timberwolves in the AMBHL. In the 2009–10 season, he first played midget hockey in the Alberta Midget Hockey League with the St. Albert Raiders and was selected as the AMHL top player before joining the Cougars at the completion of his midget season to begin his major junior hockey career.

With increasing his production in each of his first two full WHL seasons, Bourke as a then diminutive sized forward was selected 72nd overall in the 2012 NHL Entry Draft by the Colorado Avalanche. As the Cougars Captain in his final junior season, Bourke led the team with 56 assists and finished second with 85 points, however was unable to help Prince George qualify for the playoffs in the 2013–14 season. Bourke was then signed to an amateur try-out contract with the Avalanche's AHL affiliate, the Lake Erie Monsters on March 19, 2014. Two days later, Bourke made an impact in his professional debut  in scoring a goal and two assists, in a 5-0 victory over the Rochester Americans. With the Monsters also out of playoff contention, Bourke finished the season with 7 points in 15 games.

On May 29, 2014, Bourke was signed to a three-year entry level contract with the Avalanche. Upon attending Colorado's NHL training camp, Bourke was reassigned to Lake Erie to begin his first full professional season in 2014–15.

On June 26, 2017, Bourke as a restricted free agent, was not tendered a qualifying contract by the Colorado Avalanche, thus ending his three-year tenure within the organization in releasing him to free agency. With no NHL contract offers over the summer, Bourke signed a one-year AHL contract with the Syracuse Crunch on September 26, 2017.

Bourke remained within the Crunch organization for two seasons, splitting the 2018–19 season, between the AHL and ECHL with affiliate, the Orlando Solar Bears.

As a free agent with his career prospects stalling, Bourke opted to pursue a European career, agreeing to a one-year contract with German club, Schwenninger Wild Wings of the DEL, on May 16, 2019.

Career statistics

Regular season and playoffs

International

Awards and honours

References

External links

Category:1994 births
Category:Living people
Category:Adirondack Thunder players
Category:Colorado Avalanche draft picks
Category:Fort Wayne Komets players
Category:Ice hockey people from Alberta
Category:Lake Erie Monsters players
Category:Orlando Solar Bears (ECHL) players
Category:Prince George Cougars players
Category:San Antonio Rampage players
Category:Sportspeople from Edmonton
Category:Syracuse Crunch players
Category:Canadian ice hockey centres


Trichaetoides divisura

Trichaetoides divisura is a moth in the family Erebidae first described by Francis Walker in 1862. It is found on Borneo and Sumatra.

References

Category:Syntomini
Category:Moths described in 1862


Hans Voss

Rear-Admiral Hans Voss (28 April 1894 – 29 May 1973) was a German naval officer. He entered the German Imperial Navy on 6 August 1914.

World War I
By January 1918 he was serving on the , ex-, when it sortied into the Aegean Sea to attack British troop transports. Shortly after taking part in the sinking of the British monitors  and  the Midilli struck five mines and sank with the loss of 331 Turkish and German members of her crew. The surviving 162 crewmembers, including trainee naval engineer Hans Voss, were rescued by a British destroyer and became prisoners of war. Voss was able to return to Germany in September 1919. Voss remained as a naval engineer, based on Germany's Baltic coast.

World War II
From October 1938 to July 1943 Voss was a consultant in the Operations Department of the Seekriegsleitung (Sea Combat Command or Naval General Staff). From August 1943 to October 1944 Voss was Chief of the Higher Shipyard Staff Ostland (the German name for the Baltic states of Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and portions of Northern Russia). From October 1944 to March 1945 he was Higher Commander of the Warship Construction Training Department and from April–May 1945 he was Chief of the Higher Shipyard Staff, Navy High Command, Norway. It was in Oslo, Norway that he was captured by the British in May 1945 and became a prisoner of war.

Post-WWII

Voss subsequently spent time in the British prisoner of war camp at Island Farm, Wales, and also Grizedale Hall, in the Lake District. In February 1948 he was transferred to London Cage for Germany, in US custody, to be a witness, and was then released. (From Island Farm website).

Voss married twice, and had three children with his first wife, and two stepchildren from his second marriage.

After the war, Voss lived in the market town of Eutin, Schleswig-Holstein. He was a lifelong Anglophile who enjoyed reading Shakespeare and spoke good English. He enjoyed the company of his second wife, Irmgard, and the visits of his 13 grandchildren, until his death in 1973.

External links
http://www.specialcamp11.co.uk/Konteradmiral_Hans_Voss.htm

Category:1894 births
Category:1973 deaths
Category:Counter admirals of the Kriegsmarine
Category:Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 2nd class
Category:Reichsmarine personnel
Category:Imperial German Navy personnel
Category:German prisoners of war in World War I
Category:German prisoners of war in World War II held by the United Kingdom
Category:People from Plön (district)
Category:People from the Province of Schleswig-Holstein
Category:Recipients of the Iron Cross (1939), 1st class
Category:20th-century Freikorps personnel
Category:World War I prisoners of war held by the United Kingdom


Brett Booth

Brett Booth is an American comic book artist. He is best known for his work on Backlash, a character he co-created with Jim Lee at the Wildstorm Studios.

Biography
Following his Wildstorm work, Booth has also illustrated the exploits of some of Marvel Comics' best known characters such as Spider-Man, the Fantastic Four, and the X-Men.

The artist then expanded his career when he contributed illustrations for the Anthropomorphic How-To book: 'Freaks! How To Draw Fantastic Fantasy Creatures.

He is currently active as a paleoartist drawing dinosaurs for various publications and websites as well as continuing to draw comic books. Booth designed the cover of the Dynamite Entertainment horror comic Vampire Huntress Neteru. He illustrated DC Comics' Justice League of America, with author James Robinson (comics), series from issue #54 until #60, the title's final issue.

On July 6, 2011 it was announced that Booth will be handling the pencilling duties on the new Teen Titans #1 that comes out as part of The New 52. Booth also drew for Kyle Higgin's Nightwing Booth stated to Newsarama that he had been pushing for Wally West to enter the New 52 for a while, and became the artist for Flash Annual 3, the first New 52 appearance of Wally.

Booth is married to fellow comic artist Jessica Ruffner.

Notes

References

External links
Brett & Jess Booth's blog

Category:American atheists
Category:Living people
Category:Year of birth missing (living people)
Category:Place of birth missing (living people)
Category:American comics artists


Shimamatsu Station

is a railway station of the Chitose Line located in Eniwa, Hokkaidō, Japan.

Category:Railway stations in Hokkaido Prefecture
Category:Eniwa, Hokkaido
Category:Railway stations opened in 1926


Newhouse, Minnesota

Newhouse is an unincorporated community in Spring Grove, Houston County, Minnesota, United States.

Notes

Category:Unincorporated communities in Houston County, Minnesota
Category:Unincorporated communities in Minnesota


Nelson Javier

Nelson Javier Ozuna (born 19 January 1985) is a Dominican Republic badminton player.

Career
In 2013, he became the runner-up of the Guatemala International tournament in mixed doubles event. In 2015, he won bronze medal at the XVII Pan American Games in men's doubles event.

Achievements

Pan American Games
Men's doubles

Pan Am Championships
Men's doubles

Central American and Caribbean Games
Mixed doubles

BWF International Challenge/Series
Men's singles

Men's doubles

Mixed doubles

  BWF International Challenge tournament
  BWF International Series tournament
  BWF Future Series tournament

References

External links

Category:1985 births
Category:Living people
Category:Dominican Republic male badminton players
Category:Badminton players at the 2003 Pan American Games
Category:Badminton players at the 2011 Pan American Games
Category:Badminton players at the 2015 Pan American Games
Category:Badminton players at the 2019 Pan American Games
Category:Pan American Games bronze medalists for the Dominican Republic
Category:Pan American Games medalists in badminton
Category:Competitors at the 2002 Central American and Caribbean Games
Category:Competitors at the 2006 Central American and Caribbean Games
Category:Competitors at the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games
Category:Competitors at the 2014 Central American and Caribbean Games
Category:Competitors at the 2018 Central American and Caribbean Games
Category:Central American and Caribbean Games bronze medalists for the Dominican Republic


Liisa Pulk

Liisa Pulk (born 12 June 1985) is an Estonian stage, television, voice, and film actress whose career began in 2010.

Early life and education
Liisa Pulk was born in Pärnu, where she attended primary and secondary schools. She is a 2004 graduate of the Pärnu Sütevaka Humanitarian Gymnasium private school. Afterwards, she enrolled at the University of Tartu, studying semiotics and cultural studies, until 2006, when she enrolled in the Performing Arts Department of the Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre in Tallinn to study acting under actor and instructor Hendrik Toompere Jr. Among her graduating classmates were Mikk Jürjens, Liis Haab, Lauri Kaldoja, Sandra Üksküla-Uusberg, Marta Laan, Kristjan Üksküla, Roland Laos, and Hendrik Toompere Junior Junior.

Career

Stage
In 2010, Shortly after graduating from the Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre, Pulk began an engagement at the Vanemuine theatre in Tartu which lasted until she chose to depart and become a freelance actress in 2013. Among her more memorable roles at the Vanemuine were as Zara in Sofi Oksanen's Purge (2010), Liesl in Richard Rodgers' The Sound of Music (2010), Nurse Gunn, Waitress, and Reidun Nordsletten in Ingvar Ambjørnsen's Elling tetralogy (2011), Juta Laurits in Eduard Vilde's The Elusive Miracle (2011), Virginie in Yves Jamiaque's Monsieur Amilcar (2011), and Nancy Rimmington in Ray Cooney's Chase Me, Comrade! (2013).

Since her departure from the Vanemuine, Pulk has performed at theatres throughout Estonia, including the Theatre NO99, the Von Krahl, the VAT Teater, the MTÜ R.A.A.A.M., and the Estonian Drama Theatre in Tallinn, the Ugala theatre in Viljandi, and the Tartu New Theatre in Tartu. Notable roles have been in productions of works by such varied authors and playwrights as Nikolai Evreinov, Molière, Henrik Ibsen, Tim Firth, Harper Lee, Mati Unt, Mikhail Bulgakov, William Shakespeare, Andrus Kivirähk, Tom Stoppard, and August Kitzberg.

Television
Liisa Pulk made her television debut as an actress in a 2009 episode of the Kanal 2 drama series Saladused. She has since appeared in roles in a number of Estonian television series, including several roles in the long-running TV3 comedy-crime series Kättemaksukontor between 2010 and 2016. In 2012, she appeared on the Kanal 2 horror-mystery series Süvahavva. Other roles have included small roles or guest appearances in the Kanal 2 comedy series Takso in 2015, the Eesti Televisioon (ETV) drama series Mustad lesed in 2015, and the Kanal 2 crime series Viimane võmm, also in 2015. Pulk is perhaps possibly best known to television viewers for her role as Pille Kadak, a central character in the ETV comedy series ENSV, which reflects on the lives of a number of individuals in the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic during the 1980s. Pulk's role as Pille Kadak began during the series' first broadcast in 2010 and she remained with the series until it ended in 2019.

Film
Pulk's first substantial film role was that of a teacher in the 2018 period drama Seltsimees laps, directed by Moonika Siimets. This was followed the same year by a small role as a doctor in the Maria Advjuško-directed mystery-drama Tuliliilia, starring  Ingrid Isotamm and Johann Urb. In 2019, she had a starring role as Õie opposite actor Henrik Kalmet in the Rain Rannu-directed comedy Ükssarvik about a young couple who create a startup company in their garage.

Voice
Since 2010, Pulk has also worked extensively as a voice actress in both Estonian and foreign animated films and videos. She has provided the Estonian language dubbing for the character of Astrid Hofferson in the 2010 American computer-animated action fantasy film How to Train Your Dragon and the two subsequent sequels, How to Train Your Dragon 2 in 2014, and How to Train Your Dragon: The Hidden World in 2019. Other roles in foreign animated films that have been voiced by Pulk include:

Rise of the Guardians (2013) – The Tooth Fairy
Superbook (2013) – various
Superbook 2 (2014) – various
The Good Dinosaur (2015) – Ramsey
Gnome Alone (2017) – Tiffany
Finding Dory (2016) – various
Ralph Breaks the Internet (2018) – Yesss
Charming (2018) – various
Racetime (2018) – various
Wonder Park (2019) – Mother

Personal life
Liisa Pulk is in a long-term relationship with entrepreneur Erki Kukk. On 23 June 2019 Pulk gave birth to her first child, a daughter named Mona. The family reside in Tallinn.

References

External links

Category:1985 births
Category:Living people
Category:Estonian stage actresses
Category:Estonian film actresses
Category:Estonian television actresses
Category:Estonian voice actresses
Category:People from Pärnu
Category:Estonian Academy of Music and Theatre alumni
Category:University of Tartu alumni
Category:21st-century Estonian actresses


Whitsunday Miners FC

Whitsunday Miners Football Club were an Australian association football club based in Mackay, Queensland. They played in the Queensland State League and were founded in 2008.

History
Since being founded in 2008, the Whitsunday Miners have played in the Queensland State League, although success hasn't been strong for them, having two shaky seasons since their foundation. In the 2008 QSL competition, The Miners finished 9th out of 10 teams, finishing one point behind Logan United and just above Bundaberg Spirit. In the 2009 season they once more failed to make an impact on a longer season, finishing 10th out of 11, with Bundaberg Spirit finishing below them once more.

In the 2011 QSL season, the Miners have progressed to Round 2 of the QSL Finals after finishing third overall behind Sunshine Coast and Brisbane Strikers. The Whitsunday Miners knocked out Gold Coast Stars in 3–1 win at the new Mackay Stadium and now look to the Far North Queensland Bulls to play for a spot in the final.

Current squad

References

External links
 Home Page & Squad Profile

Category:Soccer clubs in Queensland
Category:Queensland State League soccer teams
Category:2008 establishments in Australia
Category:Mining association football teams
Category:Mackay, Queensland


Kirbys Mills

Kirbys Mills may refer to:

Kirbys Mills, New Jersey
Kirby's Mill in Medford, New Jersey


Viking expansion

Viking expansion is the process by which Norse explorers, traders and warriors, the latter known in modern scholarship as Vikings, sailed most of the North Atlantic, reaching south to North Africa and east to Russia, Constantinople and the Middle East as looters, traders, colonists and mercenaries. Vikings under Leif Erikson, the heir to Erik the Red, reached North America and set up a short-lived settlement in present-day L'Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland, Canada. Longer lasting and more established settlements were formed in Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Great Britain, Ireland and Normandy.

It is debated whether the term Viking represented all Norse settlers or just those who raided.

Motivation for expansion
There is much debate among historians about what drove the Viking expansion.

Researchers have suggested that Vikings may have originally started sailing and raiding due to a need to seek out women from foreign lands. The concept was expressed in the 11th century by historian Dudo of Saint-Quentin in his semi-imaginary History of The Normans. Rich and powerful Viking men tended to have many wives and concubines, these polygynous relationships may have led to a shortage of eligible women for the average Viking male. Due to this, the average Viking man could have been forced to perform riskier actions to gain wealth and power to be able to find suitable women. Viking men would often buy or capture women and make them into their wives or concubines. Polygynous marriage increases male-male competition in society because it creates a pool of unmarried men who are willing to engage in risky status-elevating and sex seeking behaviors.  The Annals of Ulster states that in 821 the Vikings plundered an Irish village and "carried off a great number of women into captivity".

One common theory is that it was a quest for retaliation against continental Europeans for their previous invasions of Viking homelands, such as Charlemagne's campaign to force Scandinavian pagans to convert to Christianity by killing any who refused to become baptized. Those who favor this explanation point out that the penetration of Christianity into Scandinavia caused serious conflict and divided Norway for almost a century. However, the first target of Viking raids was not the Frankish Kingdom, but Christian monasteries in England. According to the historian Peter Sawyer, these were raided because they were centers of wealth and their farms well-stocked, not because of any religious reasons.

Another idea is that the Viking population had exceeded the agricultural potential of their homeland. This may have been true of western Norway, where there were few reserves of land, but it is unlikely the rest of Scandinavia was experiencing famine.

Alternatively, some scholars propose that the Viking expansion was driven by a youth bulge effect: since the eldest son of a family customarily inherited the family's entire estate, younger sons had to seek their fortune by emigrating or engaging in raids. Peter Sawyer suggests that most Vikings emigrated due the attractiveness of owning more land rather than the necessity of having it.

However, no rise in population, youth bulge, or decline in agricultural production during this period has been definitively demonstrated. Nor is it clear why such pressures would have prompted expansion overseas rather than into the vast, uncultivated forest areas in the interior of the Scandinavian Peninsula, although perhaps emigration or sea raids may have been easier or more profitable than clearing large areas of forest for farm and pasture in a region with a limited growing season.

It is also possible that a decline in the profitability of old trade routes drove the Vikings to seek out new, more profitable ones. Trade between western Europe and the rest of Eurasia may have suffered after the Roman Empire lost its western provinces in the 5th century, and the expansion of Islam in the 7th century may have reduced trade opportunities within western Europe by redirecting resources along the Silk Road. Trade in the Mediterranean was at its lowest level in history when the Vikings began their expansion. The Viking expansion opened new trade routes in Arab and Frankish lands, and took control of trade markets previously dominated by the Frisians after the Franks destroyed the Frisian fleet.

Settlement demographics

Viking settlements in Ireland and Great Britain are thought to have been primarily male enterprises; however, some graves show nearly equal male/female distribution. Disagreement is partly due to method of classification; previous archaeology often guessed biological sex from burial artifacts, whereas modern archaeology may use osteology to find biological sex, and isotope analysis to find origin (DNA sampling is usually not possible). The males buried during that period in a cemetery on the Isle of Man had mainly names of Norse origin, while the females there had names of indigenous origin. Irish and British women are mentioned in old texts on the founding of Iceland, indicating that the Viking explorers were accompanied there by women from the British Isles who either came along voluntarily or were taken along by force. Genetic studies of the population in the Western Isles and Isle of Skye also show that Viking settlements were established mainly by male Vikings who mated with women from the local populations of those places.

However, not all Viking settlements were primarily male. Genetic studies of the Shetland population suggest that family units consisting of Viking women as well as men were the norm among the migrants to these areas.

This may be because areas like the Shetland Islands, being closer to Scandinavia, were more suitable targets for family migrations, while frontier settlements further north and west were more suitable for groups of unattached male colonizers.

Britain and Ireland

England

During the reign of King Beorhtric of Wessex (786–802) three ships of "Northmen" landed at Portland Bay in Dorset. The local reeve mistook the Vikings for merchants and directed them to the nearby royal estate, but the visitors killed him and his men. The earliest recorded planned Viking raid, on 6 January 793, targeted the monastery on the island of Lindisfarne, off the north-east coast of Northumbria. According to the 12th-century Anglo-Norman chronicler Symeon of Durham, the raiders killed the resident monks or threw them into the sea to drown or carried them away as slavesalong with some of the church treasures.  In 875, after enduring eight decades of repeated Viking raids, the monks fled Lindisfarne, carrying the relics of Saint Cuthbert with them.

In 794, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a small Viking fleet attacked a rich monastery at Jarrow. The Vikings met with stronger resistance than they had expected: their leaders were killed. The raiders escaped, only to have their ships beached at Tynemouth and the crews killed by locals. This represented one of the last raids on England for about 40 years. The Vikings focused instead on Ireland and Scotland.

In 865 a group of hitherto uncoordinated bands of predominantly Danish Vikings joined together to form a large army and landed in East Anglia. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described this force as the mycel hæþen here (Great Heathen Army) and went on to say that it was led by Ivar the Boneless and Halfdan Ragnarsson.

The army crossed the Midlands into Northumbria and captured York (Jorvik). In 871 the Great Heathen army was reinforced by what was known as the Great Summer Army, one of its leaders was Guthrum. In 875 the Great Heathen Army split into two bands, with Guthrum leading one back to Wessex, and Halfdan taking his followers north. Then in 876, Halfdan shared out Northumbrian land amongst his men, who "ploughed the land and supported themselves"; this land was part of what became known as the Danelaw.

Most of the English kingdoms, being in turmoil, could not stand against the Vikings, but King Alfred of Wessex defeated Guthrum's army at the Battle of Edington in 878. There followed the Treaty of Wedmore the same year and the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum in 886. These treaties formalised the boundaries of the English kingdoms and the Viking Danelaw territory, with provisions for peaceful relations between the English and the Vikings. Despite these treaties, conflict continued on and off. However, Alfred and his successors eventually drove back the Viking frontier and retook York.

A new wave of Vikings appeared in England in 947, when Erik Bloodaxe captured York. The Viking presence continued through the reign of the Danish prince Cnut the Great (reigned as King of England: 1016–1035), after which a series of inheritance arguments weakened the hold on power of Cnut's heirs.

When King Edward the Confessor died in 1066, the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada challenged his successor as King of England, Harold Godwinson. Hardrada was killed, and his Norwegian army defeated, by Harold Godwinson on 25 September 1066 at the Battle of Stamford Bridge. Harold Godwinson himself died when William the Conqueror defeated the English army at the Battle of Hastings in October 1066. William was crowned king of England on 25 December 1066; however, it was several years before he was able to bring the kingdom under his complete control. In 1070 the Danish king Sweyn Estridsson sailed up the Humber with an army in support of Edgar the Ætheling, the last surviving male member of the English royal family. However, after capturing York, Sweyn accepted a payment from William to desert Edgar. Five years later one of Sweyn's sons set sail for England to support another English rebellion, but it had been crushed before the expedition arrived, so they settled for plundering the city of York and the surrounding area before returning home.

In 1085 Sweyn's son, now Canute IV of Denmark planned a major invasion against England but the assembled fleet never sailed. No further serious Danish invasions on England occurred after this. Although, some raiding occurred during the troubles of Stephen's reign, when King Eystein II of Norway took advantage of the civil war to plunder the east coast of England, sacking Hartlepool and Whitby, as well as raiding the Yorkshire coast. However, the intention was to raid not to conquer, and the conclusion of these raids, marked the end of the English Viking age.

Scotland

The monastery at Iona on the west coast was first raided in 794, and had to be abandoned some fifty years later after several devastating attacks. While there are few records from the earliest period, it is believed that Scandinavian presence in Scotland increased in the 830s.

The isles to the north and west of Scotland were heavily colonised by Norwegian Vikings. Shetland, Orkney and the Hebrides came under Norse control, sometimes as fiefs under the King of Norway, and at other times as separate entities under variously the Kings of the Isles, the Earldom of Orkney and the later Kings of Mann and the Isles. Shetland and Orkney were the last of these to be incorporated into Scotland in as late as 1468.

Wales
Wales was not colonized by the Vikings significantly as in eastern England. The Vikings did, however, settle in small numbers in the south around St Davids, Haverfordwest, and the Gower. Place names such as Skokholm, Skomer, and Swansea remain as evidence of the Norse settlement. The Vikings, however, were not able to set up a Viking state or control Wales, owing to the powerful forces of Welsh kings, and, unlike in Scotland, the aristocracy was relatively unharmed.

Nevertheless, following the successful Viking alliance with Britanny in 865, the Britons made their peace with the Danes, and a Viking/Welsh alliance in 878 defeated an Anglo-Saxon army from Mercia. Although the Welsh had been longtime enemies of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Mercia, their relationship with the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex was somewhat warmer. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle of 893, for example, refers to Vikings being pursued by a combined force of West Saxons and north Welsh along the River Severn. The combined Anglo-Saxon and Welsh army eventually overtook the Vikings before defeating them at the Battle of Buttington.

The city of Swansea was founded by Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark, who by 1013 was King of the Danes, Anglo-Saxons and Norwegians. The English name for the town derives from , meaning either "Sweyn's island" or "Sweyn's inlet" (see Swansea). The neighboring Gower Peninsula has some place names of Norse origin. For example, Worm's Head is from , the word for snake or dragon, as the Vikings believed that the serpent-shaped island was a sleeping dragon. Some  west of Cardiff on the Vale of Glamorgan coast is the semi-flooded island of Tusker Rock, which takes its name from Tuska, the Viking who established a settlement in the area.

Cornwall

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle reported that heathen men (the Danes) raided Charmouth, Dorset in 833 AD, then in 997 AD they destroyed the Dartmoor town of Lydford, and from 1001 AD to 1003 AD they occupied the old Roman city of Exeter.

The Cornish were subjugated by King Æthelstan, of England, in 936 and the border finally set at the River Tamar. However, the Cornish remained semi-autonomous until their annexation into England after the Norman Conquest.

Ireland

The Vikings conducted extensive raids in Ireland and founded many towns, including Dublin, Limerick, Wexford, Waterford, Wicklow, Arklow and Leixlip. Literature, crafts, and decorative styles in Ireland and Britain reflected Scandinavian culture. Vikings traded at Irish markets in Dublin. Excavations found imported fabrics from England, Byzantium, Persia, and central Asia. Dublin became so crowded by the 11th century that houses were built outside the town walls.

The Vikings pillaged monasteries on Ireland's west coast in 795, and then spread out to cover the rest of the coastline. The north and east of the island were most affected. During the first 40 years, the raids were conducted by small, mobile Viking groups. From 830 on, the groups consisted of large fleets of Viking ships. From 840, the Vikings began establishing permanent bases at the coasts. Dublin was the most significant settlement in the long term. The Irish became accustomed to the Viking presence and culture. In some cases they became allies and also intermarried.

In 832, a Viking fleet of about 120 ships under Turgesius invaded kingdoms on Ireland's northern and eastern coasts. Some believe that the increased number of invaders coincided with Scandinavian leaders' desires to control the profitable raids on the western shores of Ireland. During the mid-830s, raids began to push deeper into Ireland. Navigable waterways made this deeper penetration possible. After 840, the Vikings had several bases in strategic locations throughout Ireland.

In 838, a small Viking fleet entered the River Liffey in eastern Ireland, probably led by the chieftain Saxolb (Soxulfr) who was killed later that year. The Vikings set up a base, which the Irish called longphorts. This longphort would eventually become Dublin. After this interaction, the Irish experienced Viking forces for about 40 years. The Vikings also established longphorts in Cork, Limerick, Waterford, and Wexford. The Vikings were driven out of Ireland for a short period in 902, but returned to Waterford in 914 to found what would become Ireland's first city. The other longphorts were soon re-occupied and developed into cities and towns.

The last major Irish battle involving Vikings was the Battle of Clontarf in 1014, in which a large force from the pan-Viking world and their Irish allies opposed Brian Boru, then the High King of Ireland and his forces, a small contingent of which were Viking defectors. The battle was fought in what is the now Dublin suburb of Clontarf on Good Friday of that year. Boru, the Irish High King had allowed the Viking King of Dublin, Sigtrygg Silkbeard, one year to prepare for his coming assault. Silkbeard responded by offering the bed of his mother to several Viking lords from Scandinavia, Ireland and Britain. The savage mêlée between the heavily mailed Norse and the unarmoured, yet undaunted Gaels ended in a rout of the Vikings and their Irish allies. Careful accounts were taken by both sides during the battle, and thus many famous warriors sought each other out for personal combat and glory. High King Brian, who was nearly eighty, did not personally engage in the battle but retired to his tent where he spent the day in quiet prayer. The Viking Brodir of Man chanced upon Brian's tent as he fled the field. He and a few followers seized the opportunity, and surprised the High King, killing the aged Brian before being captured. Brian's foster son Wolf the Quarrelsome later tracked down and dispatched Brodir by disembowelment, with Wolf watching as Brodir marched and wound his own innards around the trunk of a large tree. The battle was fairly matched for most of the day and each side had great respect for the prowess of the other; however, in the end, the Irish forced the Norse to return to the sea. Many of the fleeing Vikings were drowned in the surf due to their heavy mail coats as they struggled for the safety of their longships; others were pursued and slain further inland. After the battle, Viking power was broken in Ireland forever, though many settled Norse remained in the cities and prospered greatly with the Irish through trade. With Brian dead, Ireland returned to the fractured kingdom it had once been, but was now cleared of further Viking predation.

European mainland

Normandy
The name of Normandy itself denotes the Viking origin. After their settlement when it became known as "Northmannia" or Land of The Norsemen.

The Viking presence in Normandy began with raids into the territory of the Frankish Empire, from the middle of 9th century. Viking raids extended deep into the Frankish territory, and included the sacking of many prominent towns such as Rouen, Paris and the abbey at Jumieges. The inability of the Frankish king Charles the Bald, and later Charles the Simple, to prevent these Viking incursions forced them to offer vast payments of silver and gold to prevent any further pillage. These pay-offs were short lived and the Danish raiders would always return for more.

The Duchy of Normandy was created for the Viking leader Rollo after he had besieged Paris. In 911, Rollo entered vassalage to the king of the West Franks Charles the Simple through the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. This treaty made of Rollo the first Norman Count of Rouen. In addition, Rollo was to be baptized and marry Gisele, the illegitimate daughter of Charles. In exchange for his homage and fealty, Rollo legally gained the territory which he and his Viking allies had previously conquered.

The descendants of Rollo and his followers adopted the local Gallo-Romance languages and intermarried with the area's original inhabitants. They became the Normans – a Norman French-speaking mixture of Scandinavians and indigenous Franks and Gauls. The language of Normandy heavily reflected the Danish influence, as many words (especially ones pertaining to seafaring) were borrowed from Old Norse or Old Danish. More than the language itself, the Norman toponymy retains a strong Nordic influence. Nevertheless, only a few archaeological traces have been found: swords dredged out of the Seine river between its estuary and Rouen, the tomb of a female Viking at Pîtres, the two Thor's hammers at Saint-Pierre-de-Varengeville and Sahurs and more recently the horde of Viking coins at Saint-Pierre-des-Fleurs.

Rollo's descendant William, Duke of Normandy (the Conqueror) became King of England after he defeated Harold Godwinson and his army at the Battle of Hastings in October 1066. As king of England, he retained the fiefdom of Normandy for himself and his descendants. The kings of England made claim to Normandy, as well as their other possessions in France, which led to various disputes with the French. This culminated in the French confiscation of Gascony that precipitated what became known as the Hundred Years' War, in 1337.

West Francia and Middle Francia

West Francia and Middle Francia suffered more severely than East Francia during the Viking raids of the 9th century. The reign of Charles the Bald coincided with some of the worst of these raids, though he did take action by the Edict of Pistres of 864 to secure a standing army of cavalry under royal control to be called upon at all times when necessary to fend off the invaders. He also ordered the building of fortified bridges to prevent inland raids.

Nonetheless, the Bretons allied with the Vikings and Robert, the margrave of Neustria, (a march created for defence against the Vikings sailing up the Loire), and Ranulf of Aquitaine died in the Battle of Brissarthe in 865. The Vikings also took advantage of the civil wars which ravaged the Duchy of Aquitaine in the early years of Charles' reign. In the 840s, Pepin II called in the Vikings to aid him against Charles and they settled at the mouth of the Garonne as they did by the Loire. Two dukes of Gascony, Seguin II and William I, died defending Bordeaux from Viking assaults. A later duke, Sancho Mitarra, even settled some at the mouth of the Adour near Bayonne in an act presaging that of Charles the Simple and the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte by which the Vikings were settled in Rouen, creating Normandy as a bulwark against other Vikings.

In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Vikings raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the coast and along the rivers of the Low Countries. Although Vikings never settled in large numbers in those areas, they did set up long-term bases and were even acknowledged as lords in a few cases. They set up bases in Saint-Florent-le-Vieil at the mouth of the Loire, in Taillebourg on the mid Charente, also around Bayonne on the banks of the Adour, in Noirmoutier and obviously on the River Seine (Rouen) in what would become Normandy.

Antwerp was raided in 836. Later there were raids of Ghent, Kortrijk, Tournai, Leuven and the areas around the Meuse river, the Rhine, the Rupel river and the tributaries of those rivers. Raids were conducted from bases established in Asselt, Walcheren, Wieringen and Elterberg (or Eltenberg, a small hill near Elten). In Dutch and Frisian historical tradition, the trading centre of Dorestad declined after Viking raids from 834 to 863; however, since no convincing Viking archaeological evidence has been found at the site (), doubts about this have grown in recent years.

One of the most important Viking families in the Low Countries was that of Rorik of Dorestad (based in Wieringen) and his brother Harald (based in Walcheren). Around 850, Lothair I acknowledged Rorik as ruler of most of Friesland. And again in 870 Rorik was received by Charles the Bald in Nijmegen, to whom he became a vassal. Viking raids continued during this period. Harald's son Rodulf and his men were killed by the people of Oostergo in 873. Rorik died sometime before 882.

Buried Viking treasures consisting mainly of silver have been found in the Low Countries. Two such treasures have been found in Wieringen. A large treasure found in Wieringen in 1996 dates from around 850 and is thought perhaps to have been connected to Rorik. The burial of such a valuable treasure is seen as an indication that there was a permanent settlement in Wieringen.

Around 879, Godfrid arrived in Frisian lands as the head of a large force that terrorised the Low Countries. Using Ghent as his base, they ravaged Ghent, Maastricht, Liège, Stavelot, Prüm, Cologne, and Koblenz. Controlling most of Frisia between 882 and his death in 885, Godfrid became known to history as Godfrid, Duke of Frisia. His lordship over Frisia was acknowledged by Charles the Fat, to whom he became a vassal. In the siege of Asselt in 882, the Franks sieged a Viking camp at Asselt in Frisia. Although the Vikings were not forced by arms to abandon their camp, they were compelled to come to terms in which their leader, Godfrid, was converted to Christianity. Godfrid was assassinated in 885, after which Gerolf of Holland assumed lordship and Viking rule of Frisia came to an end.

Viking raids of the Low Countries continued for over a century. Remains of Viking attacks dating from 880 to 890 have been found in Zutphen and Deventer. The last attacks took place in Tiel in 1006 and Utrecht in 1007.

Iberian Peninsula

Compared with the rest of Western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula seems to have been little affected by Viking activity, either in the Christian north or the Muslim south. In some of their raids on Spain, the Vikings were crushed either by the Kingdom of Asturias or the Emirate armies.

Our knowledge of Vikings in Iberia is mainly based on written accounts, many of which are much later than the events they purport to describe, and often also ambiguous about the origins or ethnicity of the raiders they mention. A little possible archaeological evidence has come to light, but research in this area is ongoing. Viking activity in the Iberian peninsula seems to have begun around the mid-ninth century as an extension of their raids on and establishment of bases in Frankia in the earlier ninth century, but although Vikings may have over-wintered there, there is as yet no evidence for trading or settlement.

The most prominent and probably most significant event was a raid in 844, when Vikings entered the Garonne and attacked Galicia and Asturias. When the Vikings attacked A Coruña they were met by the army of King Ramiro I and were heavily defeated. Many of the Vikings' casualties were caused by the Galicians' ballistas – powerful torsion-powered projectile weapons that looked rather like giant crossbows. 70 of the Vikings' longships were captured on the beach and burned.

They then proceeded south, raiding Lisbon and Seville. This Viking raid on Seville seems to have constituted a significant attack.

859–861 saw another spate of Viking raids, apparently by a single group. Despite some elaborate tales in late sources, little is known for sure about these attacks. After unsuccessful raids on both northern Iberia and al-Andalus, the Vikings seem also to have raided other Mediterranean targetspossibly but not certainly including Italy, Alexandria and Constantinople−and perhaps over-wintering in Francia.

Evidence for Viking activity in Iberia vanishes after the 860s, until the 960s–70s, when a range of sources including Dudo of Saint-Quentin, Ibn Ḥayyān, and Ibn Idhārī, along with a number of charters from Christian Iberia, while individually unreliable, together afford convincing evidence for Viking raids on Iberia in the 960s and 970s.

Tenth- or eleventh-century fragments of mouse bone found in Madeira, along with mitocondrial DNA of Madeiran mice, suggests that Vikings also came to Madeira (bringing mice with them), long before the island was colonised by Portugal.

Quite extensive evidence for minor Viking raids in Iberia continues for the early eleventh century in later narratives (including some Icelandic sagas) and in northern Iberian charters. As the Viking Age drew to a close, Scandinavians and Normans continued to have opportunities to visit and raid Iberia while on their way to the Holy Land for pilgrimage or crusade, or in connection with Norman conquests in the Mediterranean. Key examples in the saga literature are Sigurðr Jórsalafari (king of Norway 1103–1130) and Røgnvaldr kali Kolsson (d. 1158).

Italy and Sicily

Around 860, Ermentarius of Noirmoutier and the Annals of St-Bertin provide contemporary evidence for Vikings based in Frankia proceeding to Iberia and thence to Italy.

Three or four eleventh-century Swedish Runestones mention Italy, memorialising warriors who died in 'Langbarðaland', the Old Norse name for southern Italy (Langobardia Minor). It seems clear that rather than being Normans, these men were Varangian mercenaries fighting for Byzantium. Varangians may first have been deployed as mercenaries in Italy against the Arabs as early as 936.

Later, several Anglo-Danish and Norwegian nobles participated in the Norman conquest of southern Italy. Harald Hardrada, who later became king of Norway, seems to have been involved in the Norman conquest of Sicily between 1038 and 1040, under William de Hauteville, who won his nickname Iron Arm by defeating the emir of Syracuse in single combat, and a Lombard contingent, led by Arduin. Edgar the Ætheling, who left England in 1086, went there, Jarl Erling Skakke won his nickname after a battle against Arabs in Sicily. On the other hand, many Anglo-Danish rebels fleeing William the Conqueror, joined the Byzantines in their struggle against Robert Guiscard, duke of Apulia, in Southern Italy.

Islamic Levant

The well-known Harald Hardrada would also serve the Byzantine emperor in Palestine as well as raiding North Africa, the Middle East as far east as Armenia, and the island of Sicily in the 11th century, as recounted in his saga in Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla.

Evidence for Norse ventures into Arabia and Central Asia can be found in runestones erected in Scandinavia by the relatives of fallen Viking adventurers. Several of these refer to men who died in "Serkland" (possibly Arabia).

Meanwhile, in the Eastern Mediterranean the Norse (referred to as Rus') were viewed more as "merchant-warriors" who were primarily associated with trade and business.
Indeed, one of the only detailed accounts of a Viking burial come from Ibn-Fadlan's account. At times this trading relationship would break down into violence – Rus' armadas raided in the Caspian on at least three occasions, in 910, 912 and 943.

Eastern Europe

The Vikings settled coastal areas along the Baltic Sea, and along inland rivers in Russian territories such as Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod and along major waterways to the Byzantine Empire.

The Varangians or Varyags (Russian, Ukrainian: Варяги, Varyagi) sometimes referred to as Variagians were Scandinavians who migrated eastwards and southwards through what is now Russia, Belarus and Ukraine mainly in the 9th and 10th centuries. Engaging in trade, colonization, piracy and mercenary activities, they roamed the river systems and portages of Garðaríki, reaching and settling at the Caspian Sea and in Constantinople.

The real involvement of the Varangians is said to have come after they were asked by the Slavic tribes of the region to come and establish order, as those tribes were in constant warfare among each other ("Our country is rich and immense, but it is rent by disorder. Come and govern us and reign over us."). The tribes were united and ruled under the leadership of Rurik, a leader of a group of Varangians. Rurik had successfully been able to establish a set of trading towns and posts along the Volga and Dnieper Rivers, which were perfect for trade with the Byzantine Empire. Rurik's successors were able to conquer and unite the towns along the banks of the Volga and Dnieper Rivers, and establish the Rus' Khaganate. Despite the distinction of the Varangians from the local Slavic tribes at the beginning, by the 10th century, the Varangians began to integrate with the local community, and by the end of 12th century, a new people – the Russians, had emerged.

Georgia

Around 1036, Varangians appeared near the village of Bashi on the Rioni River, to establish a permanent settlement of Vikings in Georgia. The Georgian Chronicles described them as 3,000 men who had traveled from Scandinavia through present-day Russia, rowing down the Dnieper River and across the Black Sea. King Bagrat IV welcomed them to Georgia and accepted some of them into the Georgian army; several hundred Vikings fought on Bagrat's side at the Battle of Sasireti in 1047.

Other Vikings continued westward, thereafter disappearing from history. Swedish researchers recently suggested that the story in the Georgian chronicle was about the Swedish expedition by the Viking chieftain Ingvar den Vittfarne (Ingvar the Far-Traveled), which features in many rune stones in mid-Sweden.

North Atlantic

Iceland

Iceland was discovered by Naddodd, one of the first settlers on the Faroe Islands, who was sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands but got lost and drifted to the east coast of Iceland. Naddoddr named the country Snæland (Snowland). Swedish sailor Garðar Svavarsson also accidentally drifted to the coast of Iceland. He discovered that the country was an island and named it Garðarshólmi (literally Garðar's Islet) and stayed for the winter at Húsavík. The first Scandinavian who deliberately sailed to Garðarshólmi was Flóki Vilgerðarson, also known as Hrafna-Flóki (Raven-Flóki). Flóki settled for one winter at Barðaströnd. It was a cold winter, and when he spotted some drift ice in the fjords he gave the island its current name, Ísland (Iceland).

Iceland was first settled around 870. The first permanent settler in Iceland is usually considered to have been a Norwegian chieftain named Ingólfr Arnarson. According to the story, he threw two carved pillars overboard as he neared land, vowing to settle wherever they landed. He then sailed along the coast until the pillars were found in the southwestern peninsula, now known as Reykjanesskagi. There he settled with his family around 874, in a place he named Reykjavík (Bay of Smokes) due to the geothermal steam rising from the earth. It is recognized, however, that Ingólfur Arnarson may not have been the first one to settle permanently in Iceland – that may have been Náttfari, a slave of Garðar Svavarsson who stayed behind when his master returned to Scandinavia.

Greenland

In the year 985, Erik the Red was believed to have discovered Greenland after being exiled from Iceland for murder in 982. Three years later in 986, Erik the Red returned with 14 surviving ships (as 25 set out on the expedition).Two areas along Greenland's southwest coast were colonized by Norse settlers, including Erik the Red, around 986. The land was at best marginal for Norse pastoral farming. The settlers arrived during a warm phase, when short-season crops such as rye and barley could be grown. Sheep and hardy cattle were also raised for food, wool, and hides. Their main export was walrus ivory, which was traded for iron and other goods which could not be produced locally. Greenland became a dependency of the king of Norway in 1261. During the 13th century, the population may have reached as high as 5,000, divided between the two main settlements of Eystribygð (Eastern Settlement) and Vestribygð (Western Settlement). The organization of these settlements revolved mainly around religion, and they consisted of around 250 farms, which were split into approximately fourteen communities that were centered around fourteen churches, one of which was a cathedral at Garðar. The Catholic diocese of Greenland was subject to the archdiocese of Nidaros. However, many bishops chose to exercise this office from afar. As the years wore on, the climate shifted (see Little Ice Age). In 1379, the northernmost settlement was attacked by the Skrælings (Norse word for Inuit). Crops failed and trade declined. The Greenland colony gradually faded away. By 1450, it had lost contact with Norway and Iceland and disappeared from all but a few Scandinavian legends.

North America

A Norwegian ship's captain named Bjarni Herjólfsson first came across a part of the North American continent ca. 985 when he was blown off course sailing to Greenland from Iceland.  Subsequent expeditions from Greenland (some led by Leif Erikson) explored the areas to the west, seeking large timbers for building in particular (Greenland had only small trees and brush).  Regular activity from Greenland extended to Ellesmere Island, Skraeling Island and Ruin Island for hunting and trading with Inuit groups. A short-lived settlement was established at L'Anse aux Meadows, located on the Great Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland, Canada. Since 2012, five other potential settlements have been discovered ranging from Tanfield Valley in the north to Point Rosee in the south.

There is also evidence for Viking contact with Native Americans. The Vikings referred to them as Skraelings or ’uglies’. Fighting between the Natives and the Vikings did take place with the natives having the advanced weaponry of bows and arrows. However trade by barter did also take place between them. This contact led to a mutual amazement of two peoples toward each other. However, the conflict between these two groups led to the Vikings eventual evacuation of the area.

The Greenlanders called the new-found territory Vinland.  It is unclear whether Vinland referred to in the traditionally thinking as Vínland (wine-land) or more recently as Vinland (meadow- or pasture-land). In any case, without any official backing, attempts at colonization by the Norse proved failures.  There were simply too many natives for the Greenlanders to conquer or withstand and they withdrew to Greenland.

Svalbard

Vikings may have discovered Svalbard as early as the 12th century. Traditional Norse accounts exist of a land known as Svalbarð – literally "cold shores". (But this land might also have been Jan Mayen, or a part of eastern Greenland.) The Dutchman Willem Barents made the first indisputable discovery of Svalbard in 1596.

Genetic evidence and implications
Studies of genetic diversity have provided scientific confirmation to accompany archaeological evidence of Viking expansion. They additionally indicate patterns of ancestry, imply new migrations, and show the actual flow of individuals between disparate regions. However, attempts to determine historical population genetics are complicated by subsequent migrations and demographic fluctuations. In particular, the rapid migrations of the 20th century have made it difficult to assess what prior genetic states were.

Genetic evidence contradicts the common perception that Vikings were primarily pillagers and raiders. A news article by Roger Highfield summarizes recent research and concludes that, as both male and female genetic markers are present, the evidence is indicative of colonization instead of raiding and occupying. However, this is also disputed by unequal ratios of male and female haplotypes (see below) which indicate that more men settled than women, an element of a raiding or occupying population.

Mitochondrial and Y-chromosome Haplotypes
Y-chromosome haplotypes serve as markers of paternal lineage much the same as mDNA represents the maternal lineage. Together, these two methods provide an option for tracing back a people's genetic history and charting the historical migrations of both males and females.

Often considered the purest remnants of ancient Nordic genetics, Icelanders trace 75–80% of their patrilineal ancestry to Scandinavia and 20–25% to Scotland and Ireland. On the maternal side, only 37% is from Scandinavia and the remaining 63% is mostly Scottish and Irish. Iceland also holds one of the most well-documented lineage records which, in many cases, go back fifteen generations and at least 300 years. These are accompanied by one of the largest genetic records which have been collected by deCODE genetics. Together, these two records allow for a mostly reliable view of historical Scandinavian genetic structure although the genetics of Iceland are influenced by Norse-British migration as well as that directly from Scandinavia.

Common Y-Haplogroups
Haplogroup I-M253, also known as haplogroup I1, is the most common haplotype among Scandinavian males. It is present in 35% of males in Norway, Denmark and Sweden; 40% of males within Western Finland. It is also prominent on the Baltic and North Sea coasts, but decreases further south.

Haplogroup R1b is another very common haplotype in all of Western Europe. However, it is not distinctly linked to Vikings or their expansion. There are indications that a mutant strand, R-L165, may have been carried to Great Britain by the Vikings, but the topic is currently inconclusive.

C1
The mitochondrial C1 haplotype is primarily an East Asia-American haplotype that developed just prior to migration across the Bering sea. This maternal haplotype, however, was found in several Icelandic samples. While originally considered to be a 20th-century immigrant, a more complete analysis has shown that this haplotype has been present in Iceland for at least 300 years and is distinct from other C1 lineages. This evidence indicates a likely genetic exchange back and forth between Iceland, Greenland, and Vinland.

Surname Histories and the Y-Haplotype
There is evidence suggesting Y-Haplotypes may be combined with surname histories to better represent historical populations and prevent recent migrations from obscuring the historical record.

Cys282Tyr
Cys282Tyr (or C282Y) is a mutation in the HFE gene that has been linked to most cases of hereditary hemochromatosis. Genetic techniques indicate that this mutation occurred roughly 60–70 generations ago or between 600 and 800 CE, assuming a generation length of 20 years. The regional distribution of this mutation among European populations indicates that it originated in Southern Scandinavia and spread with Viking expansion. Due to the timing of the mutation and subsequent population movements, C282Y is very prominent in Great Britain, Normandy, and Southern Scandinavia although C282Y has been found in almost every population that has been in contact with the Vikings.

See also
 The Exploration Museum

Notes

References

Expansion
Category:Anglo-Norse England
Category:Scandinavian Scotland
America
Category:Migration Period
Category:Historical migrations
Category:Norse people


Packwood Creek

Packwood Creek is one of the four main creeks that flow through the city of Visalia and the surrounding communities. It is a distributary of the Kaweah River.

History
Packwood Creek was named after Elisa Packwood.

See also
Cameron Creek
Mill Creek (Tulare County)
St. John's River (California)

References

Category:Rivers of Tulare County, California
Category:Geography of Visalia, California
Category:Rivers of Northern California


North Sea Germanic

North Sea Germanic, also known as Ingvaeonic , is a postulated grouping of the northern West Germanic languages that consists of Old Frisian, Old English and Old Saxon and their descendants.

Ingvaeonic is named after the Ingaevones, a West Germanic cultural group or proto-tribe along the North Sea coast that was mentioned by both Tacitus and Pliny the Elder (the latter also mentioned that tribes in the group included the Cimbri, the Teutoni and the Chauci). It is thought of as not a monolithic proto-language but as a group of closely related dialects that underwent several areal changes in relative unison.

The grouping was first proposed in Nordgermanen und Alemannen (1942) by German linguist and philologist Friedrich Maurer as an alternative to the strict tree diagrams, which had become popular following the work of 19th-century linguist August Schleicher and assumed the existence of a special Anglo-Frisian group. The other groupings are Istvaeonic, from the Istvaeones, including Dutch, Afrikaans and related languages; and Irminonic, from the Irminones, including the High German languages.

Characteristics
Linguistic evidence for Ingvaeonic is a series of common innovations observed in Old Frisian, Old English and Old Saxon such as the following:

The so-called Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law: converted *munþ "mouth" into *mų̄þ (compare Old English mūþ).
Loss of the third-person reflexive pronouns
The loss of person distinctions in plural forms of verbs, which reduced three forms into one form: merged *habjum "we have" and *habēþ "you (plural) have" with *habją̄þ "they have"
The development of Class III weak verbs into a relic class consisting of four verbs (*sagjan "to say", *hugjan "to think", *habjan "to have", *libjan "to live")
The split of the Class II weak verb ending *-ōn into *-ōjan: converted *makōn "to make" into *makōjan
Development of a plural ending *-ōs in a-stem nouns
Development of numerous new words, such as the replacement of *newun "nine" with *nigun and *minni "less" (adverb) with *laisi

Several, but not all, characteristics are also found in Dutch, which did not generally undergo the nasal spirant law (except for a few words), retains the three distinct plural endings, and lacks the -s plural. However, it lost the reflexive pronoun (even if it later regained it by borrowing) and had the same four relic weak verbs in Class III.

References

Further reading
 Bremmer, Rolf H. (2009). An Introduction to Old Frisian. Amsterdam: John Benjamins B.V. .
 Euler, Wolfram (2013). Das Westgermanische - von der Herausbildung im 3. bis zur Aufgliederung im 7. Jahrhundert - Analyse und Rekonstruktion (West Germanic: from its Emergence in the 3rd up until its Dissolution in the 7th Century CE: Analyses and Reconstruction). 244 p., in German with English summary, London/Berlin 2013, .
  Maurer, Friedrich (1942) Nordgermanen und Alemannen:  Studien zur germanischen und frühdeutschen Sprachgeschichte, Stammes- und Volkskunde, Strasbourg:  Hüneburg.
 Ringe, Donald R. and Taylor, Ann (2014). The Development of Old English - A Linguistic History of English, vol. II, 632p. . Oxford.
  Sonderegger, Stefan (1979). Grundzüge deutscher Sprachgeschichte. Diachronie des Sprachsystems. Band I: Einführung – Genealogie – Konstanten. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter. .
 Voyles, Joseph B. (1992). Early Germanic Grammar: Pre-, Proto-, and Post-Germanic. San Diego: Academic Press. .

Category:1942 introductions
Category:Archaeological terminology (Germanic)
Category:Linguistic theories and hypotheses
Category:West Germanic languages


Content-first marketing

Content-first marketing aligns series-based video storytelling, focused on specific audience behaviors, with the mission of a brand. Content-first marketing is not to be confused with product placement or the more modern native advertising.

Content-first marketing's primary goal is to engage with audiences around specific behaviors. These behaviors are then linked to specific businesses, products, services or brands "outside" the experience of the narrative. The key is that the content, the "programming" that the audience experiences and enjoys, does not directly or indirectly sell to them. The philosophy of content-first marketing is that audiences naturally gravitate to content that interests them. They form intellectual and emotional bonds with the content and seek it out. This interest is associated with specific behaviors that the audience either actively engages in or aspires to engage in.

The structure of content-first marketing requires that the content or story be "fresh water" or totally devoid of sales or marketing influence ("saltwater"). This doesn't mean that content-first marketing programs do not have brands, products or services in them - it simply means that they are used for their associative narrative function.

In contrast, native advertising is the practice of taking traditional advertising or marketing messages and clothing them in the style, form or format of the communication platform in which it is placed. Native advertising placed in magazines or newspapers will duplicate the typeface, font size, and layout parameters of the magazine so the reader assumes the advertising material is part of the editorial of the publication. Native advertising can sometimes weaken the integrity of the message.

Product placement inserts brands into the editorial of various entertainment forms (television shows, movies, photography, books, etc.). Product placement takes advantage of the relaxed mental state of consumers when they are experiencing entertainment. Well executed product placement leads audiences to believe that the inserted brand is a natural part of the story. It is hoped that the goodwill garnered by the entertainment will transfer to the brand causing the audience to inquire into or purchase the branded goods or services. Programming that employs product placement is seen by audiences as a form of extended advertising and can lead to brand rejection by the audience.

See also

 brand
 mass media
 marketing strategy
 narrative
 native advertising
 product placement
 storytelling
 strategy

Category:Promotion and marketing communications


Sympetrum illotum

Sympetrum illotum, the cardinal meadowhawk, is a species of skimmer in the dragonfly family Libellulidae. It is found in the Caribbean Sea, Central America, North America, and South America.

The IUCN conservation status of Sympetrum illotum is "LC", least concern, with no immediate threat to the species' survival. The population is stable. The IUCN status was reviewed in 2017.

Subspecies
These three subspecies belong to the species Sympetrum illotum:
 Sympetrum illotum gilvum Brauer, 1868
 Sympetrum illotum illotum (Hagen, 1861)
 Sympetrum illotum virgulum (Selys, 1884)

References

Further reading

External links

Category:Libellulidae
Category:Articles created by Qbugbot
Category:Insects described in 1861


Chinatown Kid

Chinatown Kid () is a 1977 Shaw Brothers kung fu film directed by Chang Cheh, with action choreography by Robert Tai Chi Hsien and Lee Ka Ting, and starring Alexander Fu Sheng and the Venom Mob.

The film deals with drugs, police corruption and gang warfare in San Francisco's Chinatown district.

Plot
Struggling to survive the murderous gang wars of Hong Kong, Tan Tung (Alexander Fu Sheng), a young martial arts street fighter, successfully takes on all challengers—until he runs up against the savage underworld empire of Hong Kong's Triad mafia. Escaping to San Francisco, he again tangles with criminal gangs, but this time fights his way to the top of the city's most feared gangster organization led by the White Dragon boss (Kuo Chui). At last, his rise to power leads to a final, murderous, gang-land war for control of all Chinatown. And in the end, Tan Tung must decide whether he will use his awesome skills to fight for evil ... or for to help his best friend Yang Ching.

Cast
Fu Sheng as Tan Dong

Sun Jian as Yang Jianwen

Zhen Ni as Li Huafeng

Guo Zhui as Xiaobailong

Luo Mang as Huang Qinghu

Yu Shali as Lianna

Shao Yinyin as Xianwa

Wang Longwei as Xu Hao

External links
 IMDb entry
 Chinatown Kid at Hong Kong Cinemagic

 Chinatown Lost Detailed breakdown of the Chinese vs English release

Category:1977 films
Category:1977 martial arts films
Category:1970s martial arts films
Category:1970s action films
Category:Hong Kong films
Category:Shaw Brothers Studio films
Category:Kung fu films
Category:Films directed by Chang Cheh
Category:Films set in San Francisco
Category:Films shot in San Francisco
Category:Chinatown, San Francisco


John Tahourdin White

John Tahourdin White (1809–1893) was an English classical scholar.

Life
He was the second son of John White of Selborne in Hampshire. He matriculated at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, on 28 January 1830, was elected an exhibitioner in the same year, and graduated B.A. in 1834, M.A. in 1839, and B.D. and D.D. in 1866. He was ordained deacon in 1834 as curate at Swynnerton in Staffordshire.

White was appointed reader at St. Stephen Walbrook in 1836, and acted as assistant master at Christ's Hospital from 1836 to 1869. In 1837 he became curate at St. Ann, Blackfriars, was ordained priest in 1839, and in 1841 was appointed curate at St. Martin Ludgate, serving until 1868, when he was instituted rector.

White died at 17 Cambridge Road, Brighton, on 17 December 1893.

Works
White published editions of Greek and Latin authors, including the Grammar School Texts. With Joseph Esmond Riddle he brought out in 1862 A Latin-English Dictionary, London, based on Ethan Allen Andrews's translation of Wilhelm Freund's Wörterbuch der lateinischen Sprache. Freund's Wörterbuch was published at Leipzig between 1834 and 1845, and Andrews's translation at New York in 1852. White and Riddle's Dictionary was later largely superseded by that of Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short (1879). A College Latin-English Dictionary of intermediate size appeared in 1865, and a Junior Student's Complete Latin-English and English-Latin Dictionary in 1869.

White also edited Robert Lynam's History of the Roman Emperors (London, 1850, 2 vols.).

Notes

Attribution

Category:1809 births
Category:1893 deaths
Category:19th-century English Anglican priests
Category:English lexicographers
Category:English classical scholars


2010 Challenger DCNS de Cherbourg – Doubles

Arnaud Clément and Édouard Roger-Vasselin were the defending champions, but they elected to defend their title with different partners.Clément partnered up with David Guez, but they withdrew before their quarterfinal match against Harsh Mankad and Adil Shamasdin.Roger-Vasselin partnered up with Nicolas Mahut and they won in the final 6–2, 6–4, over Mankad and Shamasdin.

Seeds

Draw

Draw

External links
 Main Draw

Challenger DCNS de Cherbourg - Doubles
2010 Doubles


Woodwardella

Woodwardella is an extinct genus of prehistoric bony fish that lived during the lower Eocene.

See also

 Prehistoric fish
 List of prehistoric bony fish

References

Category:Eocene fish
Category:Eocene fish of Europe


Emily Perry (politician)

Emily Perry was a Democratic member of the Kansas House of Representatives, representing the 24th district. Perry opposed a Kansas law passed in 2013 that attempted to nullify federal gun laws, on the grounds that it was unconstitutional. Perry did not seek re-election in 2014.

References

External links

Legislative page

Category:Kansas Democrats
Category:Living people
Category:Members of the Kansas House of Representatives
Category:People from Mission, Kansas
Category:Women state legislators in Kansas
Category:Miami University alumni
Category:University of Kansas alumni
Category:Year of birth missing (living people)


Fliegerstaffel 9

The Fliegerstaffel 9  of the  Swiss Air Force was in its  end equipped with de Havilland Venom Combat Aircraft. Their home base at the dissolution was the Sion Airport. The Fliegerstaffel 9 carried as coat of arms the side view of a red witch riding on a red broom. On a rectangular dark blue background. The witch and the broom were drawn without curves (apart from the black / white eye of the witch). Beneath the witch stands a flight of fliers with white writing. In the upper right corner is a white square 9.

History
The  Fliegerkompanie 9  was founded in 1925 and equipped with Fokker CV until 1936. These were replaced by the Dewoitine D-27, which were in service with this unit until 1940. 1940 followed the Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Morane D-3801. In 1945, the flying staff was assigned to the 9th Airborne Squadron. The propeller planes were delivered at the Fliegerstaffel 9 from 1947 onwards. From 1950, the squadron was equipped with the jet aircraft De Havilland D.H. 100 Vampires. De Havilland D.H. 100 Vampires was replaced  in 1967 by De Havilland D.H. 112 Venoms. The Fliegerstaffel  9 flew the DH-112 Venom until its deactivation in November 1982. Their task consisted from the 70-years in the ground combat training of young pilots, before they passed to the Hunter frontstaffel.
Formally, the Fliegerstaffel 9 was disestablished in 1994.

Airplanes
 Fokker CV
 Dewoitine D.27
 Morane D-3801
 Messerschmitt Bf 109
 de Havilland Vampire
 de Havilland Venom

References

 Hermann Keist FlSt9
 Christophe Donnet: Hunter fascination. Schück, Adliswil 1995,
Farbgebung und Kennzeichen der Schweizer Militäraviatik 1914-1950 (Georg Hoch)
Flieger-Flab-Museum

Category:Squadrons of the Swiss Air Force
Category:Military units and formations established in 1925
Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1994
Category:1994 disestablishments in Switzerland