Tigris-Euphrates river system | river system, Asia | Britannica.com
Tigris-Euphrates river system
Iraq
Tigris-Euphrates river system, great river system of southwestern Asia . It comprises the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which follow roughly parallel courses through the heart of the Middle East . The lower portion of the region that they define, known as Mesopotamia (Greek: “Land Between the Rivers”), was one of the cradles of civilization.
The Tigris and Euphrates river basin and its drainage network.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The two rivers have their sources within 50 miles (80 km) of each other in eastern Turkey and travel southeast through northern Syria and Iraq to the head of the Persian Gulf . The total length of the Euphrates (Sumerian: Buranun; Akkadian: Purattu; biblical: Perath; Arabic: Al-Furāt; Turkish: Fırat) is about 1,740 miles (2,800 km). The Tigris (Sumerian: Idigna; Akkadian: Idiklat; biblical: Hiddekel; Arabic: Dijlah; Turkish: Dicle) is about 1,180 miles (1,900 km) in length.
The rivers usually are discussed in three parts: their upper, middle, and lower courses. The upper courses are restricted to the valleys and gorges of eastern Anatolia , through which the rivers descend from their sources, lying 6,000 to 10,000 feet (1,800 to 3,000 metres) above sea level. Their middle courses traverse the uplands of northern Syria and Iraq, at elevations varying from 1,200 feet (370 metres) at the foot of the so-called Kurdish Escarpment to 170 feet (50 metres) where the rivers empty onto the plain of central Iraq. Finally, their lower courses meander across that alluvial plain , which both rivers have created jointly. At Al-Qurnah the rivers join to form the Shatt al-Arab in the southeastern corner of Iraq, which empties into the sea.
Physical features
General considerations
Having risen in close proximity, the Tigris and Euphrates diverge sharply in their upper courses, to a maximum distance of some 250 miles (400 km) apart near the Turkish-Syrian border. Their middle courses gradually approach each other, bounding a triangle of mainly barren limestone desert known as Al-Jazīrah (Arabic: “The Island”) in eastern Turkey, northern Iraq, and extreme northeastern Syria. There the rivers have cut deep and permanent beds in the rock, so that their courses have undergone only minor changes since prehistoric times. Along the northeastern edge of Al-Jazīrah, the Tigris drains the rain-fed heart of ancient Assyria , while along the southwestern limit the Euphrates crosses true desert.
The Euphrates River at Khān al-Baghdādī, on the edge of Al-Jazīrah plateau …
© Nik Wheeler
Eyjafjallajökull volcano
Because the lower Shatt al-Arab forms a portion of the Iraq-Iran border, Iraq’s dependence on the river as its only access to the sea has been an issue of strategic importance to both countries. The vulnerability of the minor Iraqi port at Al-Fāw, at the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab, was made clear by Iran’s capture of the city during the Iran-Iraq War. After that war, Iraq began cutting a channel to the gulf from Al-Zubayr, west of the main port of Baṣrah . It has been argued that the Persian Gulf War was brought on partly by Iraq’s desire to use the Kuwaiti islands of Būbiyān and Al-Warbah in the gulf as the off-loading points for that new channel.
Hydrology
The regime of the Tigris and Euphrates depends heavily on winter rains and spring snowmelt in the Taurus and Zagros mountains. The Euphrates traverses a considerably greater distance than the Tigris from its mountain basin to the point where it meets the Mesopotamian alluvial plain at Al-Ramādī in Iraq. On its long, gently sloping route through Syria and northern Iraq, the Euphrates loses much of its velocity and receives only two tributaries, the Balīkh and the (western) Khābūr, both of them spring-fed and entering from the left. The rate of evaporation on the river has increased to as much as 50 percent with the creation of large reservoirs and related irrigation areas behind a number of dams. The Tigris, in contrast, flows down the edge of a long, multichanneled catchment basin and is fed by four strong tributaries, the Great Zab, Little Zab, ʿUẓaym , and Diyālā rivers, all of which derive their water mainly from snowmelt in Turkish, Iranian, and Iraqi Kurdistan . The precipitous flow of its tributaries makes the Tigris more susceptible than the Euphrates to short-term flooding, and its short length brings its annual flood period a month earlier.
Khābūr River, a major tributary of the Tigris River, near Tall Ḥalaf, Syria.
Bertramz
As it reaches the Mesopotamian alluvial plain above Sāmarrāʾ, the Tigris is a bigger, faster, more silt-laden, and more unpredictable river than the Euphrates at the corresponding point, Al-Fallūjah. That character is expressed in the Arabic name Dijlah, meaning “Arrow.” The mean annual discharge of the Tigris, before control by modern dams, was estimated at 43,800 cubic feet (1,240 cubic metres) per second, and the silt load at approximately one ton per second. Those estimates are roughly twice the values calculated for the Euphrates. In flood time the two rivers together carry as much as three million tons of eroded material from the highlands in a single day. Some 90 percent of the water and silt that pass Baghdad and Al-Ramādī, however, never reaches the gulf; the water either evaporates or is absorbed in the extensive irrigated areas and marshes, and the silt settles upstream from the Shatt al-Arab. The water and sediments in the Shatt al-Arab derive mainly from the left-bank tributaries, the Karkheh and Kārūn, which rise in Iran.
Climate
The Tigris and Euphrates make habitable and productive one of the harshest environments in the world. The region has a continental subtropical climate, with average temperatures greater than 90 °F (32 °C) in summer and less than 50 °F (10 °C) in winter, as well as great diurnal variations. Precipitation is light in the lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates but increases considerably at higher elevations in their source areas. In the higher elevations, where the rivers have their upper courses, winter winds are light and variable. Much of the precipitation falls as snow, which can lie in some places for half the year. During winter, the mean temperature in the mountains is well below freezing, so that agriculture comes to a halt and communications are restricted. With the melting of the snow in spring, the rivers’ volume increases. The mounting flow is augmented in their middle courses by seasonal rainfall, which reaches its peak between March and May. In the lower courses of the rivers in the alluvial plain, rain can be torrential in winter but usually does not exceed 8 inches (200 mm) per year. Rain is a welcome supplement to irrigation, which since ancient times has made possible the region’s legendary agricultural richness.
On the Mesopotamian plain, the most characteristic climatic feature is the extreme heat of the summer, with daytime temperatures sometimes exceeding 120 °F (49 °C). Often, there are drops of 40 °F (22 °C) from day to night. Humidity in most areas is as low as 15 percent. Dust storms, which occur throughout the year, are especially frequent in the summer. Most wind-borne dust consists of particles of clay and silt mixed with minute fragments of shell, which are from a remnant dune belt that has been formed from abandoned irrigated fields and dried-up marshes in the area between the two rivers. Only occasionally are there true sandstorms, bearing material from the western desert.
Plant life
In ancient times, oak, pistachio, and ash forests covered the mountains and foothills through which the upper Tigris and Euphrates pass. New plantings, particularly in Turkey, supplement the scattered remnants of those forests today. In the steppe zone to the south of the mountains, some vegetation can flourish year-round, but the growing season in most nonirrigated areas is quite brief; the wildflowers and other plants that appear in spring die off in the heat of May and June. In the driest zones, camel thorn and prosopis are the dominant shrubs. The densest communities of plants exist along the rivers and in the marshes. Various reeds and the narrow-leaved cattail are abundant, and the giant mardi reed , which reaches a height of up to 25 feet (8 metres), has been used as a versatile construction material since antiquity. The Euphrates poplar and a species of willow grow in small belts beside the rivers and canals; the poplar provides strong timber for construction and boat building, as well as handles for tools. The date palm is indigenous to the region. Five-stamen tamarisk and mesquite form thickets along the lower and middle courses of the Tigris and its tributaries, up to an elevation of about 3,300 feet (1,000 metres). Licorice is sufficiently plentiful to allow exports.
Animal life
Wild pigs are common in the marshes and have spread into newly planted eucalyptus groves in other parts of the alluvial plain. Jackals, hyenas, and mongooses are found along the rivers in southern Iraq, and a large variety of Indian jungle cat reportedly still inhabits remote tamarisk thickets. Lions were last sighted along the Tigris in 1926. Foxes, wolves, and gazelles are common in the alluvial plain, and some of those animals range as far north as central Anatolia. Among the smaller animals are species of gerbils, jerboas (desert rats), hares, shrews, bats, hedgehogs, river otters, and the Buxton’s mole rat, which covers the entrance of its riverbank burrow with a mound of clay.
Wild pigs (foreground) and traditional housing (background) in the marshland between the Tigris and …
© Nik Wheeler
Locally resident birds include babblers, bulbuls, scrub warblers, sand grouse, crows and owls, and a variety of hawks, falcons, eagles, and vultures. In spring and fall, many birds migrating between Europe and Asia—such as pelicans, storks, and various geese—fly along the rivers’ courses, and the marshes provide a breeding ground for some migratory species.
There are several kinds of viper and a small cobra, as well as a variety of nonvenomous snakes. Lizards can reach lengths of nearly 2 feet (0.6 metre). Frogs, toads, and turtles abound in the rivers and marshes. Members of the carp family are the dominant freshwater fish of the Tigris-Euphrates system. Barbels weighing as much as 300 pounds (135 kg) have been recorded. There are several varieties of catfish, as well as spiny eels. Some saltwater species—including anchovy, gar, and sea bream—range upriver at least as far as Baṣrah, and the Ganges shark has been known to reach Baghdad.
People
The lower courses of the Tigris and Euphrates are populated mainly by Arabs , while Kurds and Turks dominate the rivers’ upper basins. The regional population consists of both Sunni and Shīʿite Muslims, with the concentrations of each group varying with location in southern Iraq, as well as decreasing populations of Christians, Jews, and others.
The Tigris River flowing through Baghdad.
Robert Harding Picture Library/SuperStock
Outside the cities and towns, the Arab population on the rivers’ banks practice stock breeding or agriculture. The way of life varies from the nomadism of the small remaining numbers of desert Bedouin to the settled condition of the villagers ( fellahin ) in the agricultural districts. The traditional pattern of village life among the fellahin in Iraq suffered severe disruptions, from both general societal forces and protracted warfare, during the second half of the 20th century. Even the formerly isolated Maʿdan , or Marsh Arabs, who long occupied the vast palustral triangle between Al-Nāṣiriyyah, Al-ʿAmārah, and Baṣrah, increasingly have been displaced by war and other disruptions, as well as by upstream damming that has diminished the marshlands.
North of Al-Fatḥah Gorge, the Tigris and its tributaries pass through country in which Arabs are a minority. For centuries, the plains of northern Iraq furnished winter pasture for Kurdish and Arab tribes. In the early 17th century, the Ottoman sultan Murad IV settled Turkmen in the region in an effort to secure his communications with Baghdad. The majority of Kurds receded into the Assyrian plain and the mountains of northern Iraq, western Iran, and eastern Anatolia. The Kurds now comprise settled, seminomadic, and fully nomadic groups, often with members of the same tribe carrying on each of the subsistence strategies. Both rivers in their upper courses run through areas that are predominantly Kurdish.
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