Culture of Thailand - history, people, clothing, traditions, women, beliefs, food, customs, family
Culture of Thailand
Siamese, Central Tai
Orientation
Identification. The name "Thailand" is associated with the dominant ethnic       group, Thai. Thailand was never under European colonial rule. It was an       absolute monarchy until 1932, when it became a constitutional monarchy. In       1939 the country's name was changed from Siam to Thailand. Military       dictators ruled the nation until the early 1970s; the military remained a       powerful force in national politics into the early 1990s. Since that time,       its role has diminished, and a new constitution was adopted in 1997. The       military governments after World War II promoted rapid economic       development and attempted to assimilate ethnic minorities. Rapid economic       growth continued until the late 1990s, when the economic boom of the early       part of the decade came to an abrupt end. As part of a trend toward       devolution of authority, the democratic governments of the 1990s adopted       more liberal policies with regard to ethnic minorities. However, members       of ethnic minorities continue to face many problems in regard to political       rights and economic security.
Location and Geography. The Kingdom of Thailand has an area of 198,114 square miles (513,115       square kilometers). The country is commonly divided into four main regions       and borders Burma, Laos, Cambodia, and Malaysia. The northern region is       hilly, with much of its population concentrated in upland valleys and the       flood plains of rivers; the dominant geographic feature is the Khorat       Plateau. The southern region is a narrow isthmus with hills running down       the center.
The Thai (also known as the Central Tai) live mainly in the central       region, with closely related groups of Tai-speaking peoples occupying most       of the remainder of the nation. Smaller ethnic groups are scattered       throughout the country, especially in the north and the northeast. Bangkok       has been the capital since the late eighteenth century, when it replaced       the earlier capital of Ayutthaya, which was sacked by Burmese invaders in       1767. With a population of almost 10 million, Bangkok is the most       important city politically and economically. About twenty smaller regional       cities have populations of two hundred to three hundred thousand.
Demography. The population estimate for 2000 is approximately 62 million. There are       about 75 ethnic groups, and approximately 84 percent of the population is       Thai, including people from other Tai-speaking ethnic groups; the Thai,       constitute about 36 percent of the population. The Thai-Lao account for       about 32 percent of the population; their territory formerly was part of       the Lao kingdom. The Lanna Thai account for about 8 percent of the       national population. The Pak Thai constitute about 8 percent of the       population. Other major ethnic groups include Chinese (about 12 percent of       the population), Malay-speaking Muslims (about 3 percent), and Khmer       (about 2 percent). The majority of the Chinese live in central Thailand,       especially in urban areas. The Malay-speaking Muslims live near to the       border with Malaysia. The Khmer live near the Cambodian border.
There are communities of Korean- and Urdu-speaking peoples in Bangkok, and       there is a small population of Mon in central Thailand. Various peoples,       commonly designated as hill tribes, inhabit the northern mountain areas.       The total hill tribe population is about 500,000, with the Karen being the       largest group (about 350,000). There are several settlements of Palaung       (about 5,000 people) near the Burmese border and several communities of       Khmu, Phai, Mal, and Mlabri (about 75,000 in
Thailand
total) near the border with Laos. Several small ethnic groups in the       northeast speak Mon-Khmer languages; the largest of these groups is the       Kuy (about 235,000). These groups have been largely assimilated into the       Tai-speaking populations. In the south, there are small groups of       so-called sea gypsies and aboriginal Malays (about 6,000 people). In the       isolated inland areas of the south, there are about 1,000 forest-dwelling       peoples referred to as Orang Asli in Malay.
Linguistic Affiliation. Thai is a Daic language in the southwestern Tai group. Other Thai groups       speak related southern and east-central Thai languages. Large-scale       Chinese migration took place in the nineteenth century. Most of the       Chinese in the country speak dialects of Min Nan Chinese. There are       twenty-four Mon-Khmer-speaking groups, whose languages can be subdivided       into four groups: Monic, Aslian, Eastern Mon-Khmer, and Northern       Mon-Khmer.
Seven Austronesian languages are spoken, all of which belong to the       Malayic Malayo-Polynesian group. The main Austronesian language is Pattani       Malay, which is spoken by about 2.5 million people in the southern region.       The Pattani Malay, Malay, and Kedah Malay populations live in an area       associated with the kingdom of Patani, which fell under Thai control in       1786.
The nineteen Tibeto-Burman-speaking groups include nine groups that speak       Karen languages. Three Hmong-Mien languages are spoken in the north.       Various migrant communities speak Korean, Japanese, Tamil, and Urdu.
Thai is the national language and the medium for education and mass       communication. It is widely used by speakers of other Tai languages and is       a second language for most other people.
Symbolism. The most potent national symbols are the king and images associated with       Buddhism. The monarch serves as the most important symbol of national       identity and unity. Images of the king appear frequently in public and in       people's homes, and he is featured often on television and the       other mass media. His image is on all banknotes and coins. Showing       disrespect for the king is a serious legal offense. Images of the Buddha       and shrines are found in public buildings (including schools and       government offices) and homes as well as temples. The promotion of       Buddhism as a symbol of national identity has met with opposition from the       Muslim minority.
History and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. Evidence of an agricultural civilization with metallurgical capabilities       has been found in northeastern Thailand; the earliest bronze artifacts       date back to approximately 3,000 years ago. In the eighth and ninth       centuries
C.E.
, Mon states influenced by Indian civilization occupied portions of       central and northern Thailand, where they were referred to as Dvaravati.       In Thailand, the most important Mon center was Nakhon Pathom west of       Bangkok. Mon influence declined in the eleventh century as the Khmer       invaded the area from the east. The Khmer occupied not only the Mon areas,       but part of northeastern Thailand.
As early as the fifth or sixth century, Tai-speaking peoples began       migrating from northern Vietnam and southern Yunnan into areas adjacent to       the Mekong River. The Tai in northern Thailand came into contact with the       Mon, who converted many of them to Theravada Buddhism. Tai-speaking       peoples gradually migrated southward and by the early eleventh century had       moved into Mon territory. Tai peoples living in central Thailand came       under Khmer control as the Khmer empire expanded. The Khmer referred to       the Tai as Siams. The Tai in the vicinity of Sukhothai revolted against       the Khmer rulers in 1238 and established a kingdom that promoted a writing       system that formed the basis of modern Thai. In the wake of declining       Khmer power, the center of Thai power shifted south to Ayutthaya, which       was founded in 1351. In the north, the kingdom of Lan Na was founded in       1259. The Lao kingdom of Lan Sang was founded in 1353 and came to include       much of northeastern Thailand.
The founder of the kingdom of Ayutthaya, Rama Thibodi, promoted Theravada       Buddhism and compiled a legal code based on Hindu sources and Thai customs       that remained important until the late nineteenth century. Ayutthaya       pushed into Khmer territory and sacked the capital of Angkor. Both       Ayutthaya and Lan Na became strong and prosperous states during the latter       part of the fifteenth century. After the deaths of the two rulers both       kingdoms degenerated. Lan Na witnessed several civil wars and came under       Burmese control. Ayutthaya was attacked by the Khmer and Burmese in the       sixteenth century briefly came under Burmese control. In 1585, Ayutthaya       began a period of rejuvenation. Starting with the establishment of a       Portuguese embassy in 1511, there was a growing European presence in       Ayutthaya. In 1765, the kingdom was invaded again by the Burmese; in 1767,       the Burmese captured and destroyed the city.
Thailand is a major producer of agricultural products.
After pushing the Burmese back, the Thai established a new capital at       Thonburi. Chao Phraya Chakkri became king in 1782 and founded Bangkok. The       third Chakkri ruler established a system of royal titles, and named       himself Rama III. During his reign, treaties were signed with the United       States and some European countries, and Christian missionaries were       allowed into the kingdom. Rama V (ruled 1868–1910) successfully       resisted European colonization and introduced modernizing reforms.
A group of young Thais who had studied abroad staged a coup in 1932 and       transformed the country into a constitutional monarchy. From 1935 to 1945,       a military dictator, Phibun Song-khram (commonly known as Phibun), ruled       the country. Phibun changed the name of Siam to Thailand. In 1945, there       was a brief return to civilian government, and the country's name       was changed back to Siam. Between 1947 and 1973, the country was ruled by       military dictators. After the brutal suppression of antigovernment       demonstrators in 1973, military was forced out of office, but in 1976 it       again seized power.
In 1980, a more moderate government headed by Prem Tinsulanonda assumed       office. Prem is credited with achieving political and economic stability.       This period saw the end of a communist insurgency in the countryside, a       gradual transition to         democracy and economic growth. An election was held in 1988, but the       elected government was overthrown by a military coup in 1991. Those who       staged the coup appointed a civilian prime minister and a cabinet of       civilian technocrats. A new constitution was passed in 1991, and an       election was held in 1992, returning the country to civilian rule. After a       subsequent period of political and economic instability a far more       democratically reformist constitution was promulgated in late 1997.       National elections were held under this constitution in early 2001.
National Identity. In the twentieth century, the culture of the Central Tai came to dominate       the national culture. The military dictator, Phibun, passed a number of       Cultural Mandates that promoted a centralized national culture and       identity. Other mandates promoted the use of the national dress and the       national language.
The term "Thai identity" was coined in the late 1950s. The       Ministry of Education played an important role in expanding the national       culture. The military government that seized power in 1976 viewed the       national identity as something that had to be defended against Western       cultural influences. A National Culture Commission was established in 1979       to coordinate efforts to defend the national culture. Those efforts were       closely linked to national security and occurred against the backdrop of a       communist insurgency that involved members of ethnic minorities.
In the 1980s, a revival of regional and local identities began, especially       in the northern and northeastern regions where there was a resurgence of       local foods, celebrations, and styles of traditional dress. Democratic       reforms and moves to devolve power since the early 1990s have allowed this       process to accelerate. The sense of national identity is no longer viewed       as precluding local and regional identities.
Ethnic Relations. Thailand often is portrayed as a culturally homogeneous country, but       there are approximately seventy-five distinct ethnolinguistic groups. The       Central Tai is the dominant ethnic group and accounts for 36 percent of       the population. The Thai-Lao and Lanna Tai, who together account for about       40 percent of the population, were not assimilated into the national       culture until the twentieth century.
There have been Chinese in Thailand for centuries. In the nineteenth       century, their numbers more than doubled until they constituted about 10       percent of the population. Along with Westerners, the Chinese merchant       class dominated the economy in the nineteenth century, especially with the       exportation of rice. In the early twentieth century, the Chinese       established their own educational institutions, resulting in antipathy       toward them under the nationalistic Phibun regime, which blamed the       Chinese for the country's economic problems. In 1938, the Phibun       government taxed the Chinese, limited the use of their language in       schools, and closed most Chinese-language newspapers. Chinese immigration       came to a virtual halt. While anti-Chinese sentiment remained strong, by       the 1970s virtually all the Chinese had Thai citizenship. With the growth       of a more open and democratic society in the 1990s, the Chinese began to       express their culture openly.
Since it came under Thai control in 1786, the Malay Muslim population has       posed difficulties for the Thai state. This region has mounted numerous       rebellions against central authority over the past two centuries. In 1948,       the Phibun regime banned Malay and Islamic organizations, sparking a       rebellion that was violently crushed. Education has been a point of       conflict between Thai authorities and the Malay Muslims since the       government introduced compulsory education in 1921. As a result, many       Muslims sent their children to Malaysia and other Muslim countries to be       educated. In the 1960s, returning students joined various independence       movements. Guerrilla activities in the south reached their height between       1970 and 1975. Counterinsurgency operations failed to end support for the       separatists. In the late 1980s, the national political environment changed       with greater sensitivity to the Muslim religion and culture. The civilian       government elected in 1992 initiated reforms to ease tension in the Muslim       south.
The Thai government treats the Khmer as part of a generic northeastern       Thai ethnic category called Isan. Efforts to assimilate the Khmer into the       national culture in the 1960s and 1970s were spurred by concern over their       support for communist insurgents in the northeast. In the 1990s there was       a cultural revival among the Khmer in the northeast that included the       formation of dance and music groups to promote Khmer culture. The hill       tribes in the north, with the exception of the Lawa and Karen, are       relatively recent immigrants. The majority of hill tribe members did not       become citizens until recently and lacked political rights. These hill       tribes have faced economic difficulties related to their lack of land       rights. The authorities generally have viewed them as primitive peoples.       In the 1980s and 1990s, there was encroachment on their land by       lowlanders, who believed that their presence was         a key factor in environmental degradation in highland areas. Proponents       of rights for the tribes in the 1990s led to the granting of citizenship       for the hill tribes. Nevertheless, there are many conflicts, including       those involving corrupt government officials and business interests that       are attempting to exploit highland resources.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
A little over 20 percent of the population lives in urban areas, including       about ten million residents of the Bangkok metropolitan area. Over the       last decade, regional towns have undergone rapid growth. Thailand's       second largest city, with a population of around 300,000, is Nakon       Ratchasima (also known as Korat). Until the early 1980s it was a       relatively small country town, but industrialization has resulted in rapid       growth. Other northeastern towns also have experienced rapid growth.       Economic growth in the southern region (in part associated with the       rubber, shrimp, and fishing industries) in the late 1980s and 1990s also       resulted in sharp population increases.
In the past, towns were centers of government administration, Chinese       business, and the Buddhist religion, featuring government offices and       housing for civil servants, Chinese shops and storage facilities, and       Buddhist temples. The growth of the cities is reflected in a lack of       planning and growing congestion, but the core features of the cities have       not changed. Wood has given way to cement as the main building material,       and new forms of architecture include high-rise buildings for offices and       residences, and air-conditioned shopping malls. The 1980s witnessed the       emergence of suburban housing developments and shopping complexes. There       are few public parks, and urban planning is focused on building roads. The       use of waterways for transportation is waning.
Modern government offices are highly standardized to instill a sense of       national unity, and even Buddhist religious architecture has become       uniform. There were regional differences in houses, especially in rural       areas, but these differences are disappearing. The traditional house is       raised on a framework of wooden posts to provide protection from floods       and intruders, and to create a multipurpose space under the house. This       underpart served as a place for women to work, a place to sleep during the       hot season, a storage space, and a place to keep domestic animals. The       size and complexity of the raised area varied with the wealth and status       of the family. The house is constructed of prefabricated units that fit       together with wooden pegs. The raised part can be divided into an open       area and an enclosed area. The open area includes a front veranda that is       partially shaded. People usually sit on mats on the veranda. The rear of       the house has an open balcony for washing clothes, doing laundry, and       performing other domestic chores. This area also is used to lie out food       to dry, and for spinning and sewing. The interior includes a living room       and a sleeping space. People usually sit on mats, and there is little       furniture. There may be a cooking area in the living room in smaller       houses, but usually there is a separate space for cooking. In larger       houses, there is a separate kitchen and granary.
Food and Economy
Food in Daily Life. Rice is the staple food at every meal for most people. All food is       brought to the table at once rather than being served in courses. A meal       will include rice, dishes with gravy, side dishes, soup, and a salad.       Whereas in central and southern Thailand polished white rice is eaten, in       the north and northeast people eat glutinous or sticky rice. Fish and       shellfish are popular. Curries are eaten throughout the country, but there       are regional varieties. Northern and northeastern food is similar to that       of Laos and consists of more meat, including meat served as sausages, or       as larb (a salad is usually made of raw meat). Chinese food has influenced the       national cuisine, especially in regard to noodle dishes. Sweets are eaten       as snacks. A popular snack is green papaya salad. In the past, there were       marked differences between the food of the common people and that of the       nobility. Women in noble households were proficient at decorative carving       of vegetables and fruits. In recent decades, this practice has become       popular among the middle classes. Whereas commercial alcoholic drinks are       common throughout the country, non-commercial alcohol made from rice is       still drunk.
Basic Economy. Thailand has a relatively diversified export-oriented economy that grew       rapidly in the latter part of the twentieth century until the crash of       1997. Manufacturing and tourism led its growth, but agriculture continued       to play an important role—employing over 60 percent of the       workforce. The country remains a major producer and exporter of       agricultural products, including rice, rubber, and tapioca.       Thailand's currency is called the baht .
People observe a vegetarian festival. Eighty-five percent of Thais             are Theravada Buddhists.
Land Tenure and Property. In the past, all land was owned by the crown in theory, but individuals       had use rights if they paid taxes on the land that they occupied. Because       of the low population density, land ownership in rural areas was not a       matter of concern. Large agricultural estates were rare. The commercial       buying and selling of land took place in the main towns, where commercial       life was concentrated. Urban land was often owned by Sino-Thais. In the       1950s, around 90 percent of farmers owned their own land. Strong       nationalist sentiments influenced the 1941 Land Act, which made it       difficult for non-Thais to own land. Informal means of circumventing these       restrictions on land ownership helped create a chaotic system in which the       title to land was difficult to determine. Under the new constitution and       after the economic collapse, efforts were made to reform land ownership.       Many restrictions on foreign ownership were removed, including those       placed on Thais married to foreigners and their children.
Commercial Activities. Thailand has a large and relatively modern commercial sector, with       domestic and foreign commercial banks and a stock exchange. The 1997 crash       resulted in the closing of some financial institutions and the       consolidation of others. Producers of agricultural products traditionally       sold their products through local brokers, but since the 1980s there has       been a trend toward contract production for sale to large firms. Most       towns and cities have small shops and traditional markets with small-scale       traders who sell food, consumer goods, hardware, and medicines. In larger       towns, shopping malls and large multipurpose stores have assumed a       significant role since the 1980s.
Major Industries. Major manufacturing industries include motor vehicle and motorcycle units       and parts, computers, garments and footwear, electrical appliances, and       plastic products. There also are large commercial farming and fishing       industries. The main agricultural products are rice, tapioca, sugar, corn,       and fruits. In addition to fresh and frozen agricultural products,       food-processing industries produce canned and frozen products. Thailand       has a large fishing industry and is a major producer of farmed shrimp. The       country is one of the world's leading producers of rubber. Cement       production is also important. Mining has declined in recent decades. The       country produces some oil and natural gas but must import gas and       petroleum products to meet domestic demand. It is a major center for       cutting and selling gems. Thailand is Southeast Asia's top tourist       destination, and that industry is the largest earner of foreign exchange.         Japan is the largest foreign investor; the United States is also a major       source of foreign investment.
Trade. In the mid-1990s, exports were equal in value to about 25 percent of the       gross domestic product. The most important exports are computers,       integrated circuits, and related parts. Other major exports include       electric appliances, garments, rubber, plastic products, shrimp, footwear,       gems and jewelry, rice, and canned seafood. Major imports include       nonelectric machinery and parts, electrical machinery and parts,       chemicals, vehicle parts, iron and steel, crude oil, computers and parts,       metal products, and integrated circuits. After the 1997 crash, the       manufacturing sector declined sharply, especially the sectors that were       highly dependent on imports, such as garments. By late 1998, however,       manufacturing had begun to recover. The United States and Japan are the       largest markets for the country's exports and suppliers of its       imports. Neighboring countries, especially China, have become increasingly       trading important partners.
Division of Labor. The division of labor in the agricultural sector is based on gender, with       little specialization by ethnicity. Ethnic Chinese have long played a       major role in commerce and industry, but few jobs or professions are the       monopoly of a single ethnic group. Traditional craft specialization is       sometimes associated with specific villages or communities. Primarily       ethnic minorities produce hand-woven textiles. Positions in modern       technical professions such as medicine and engineering are related to       education and specialized training and thus exclude members of the smaller       rural ethnic minorities.
Social Stratification
Classes and Castes. In the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the social strata       included an elite of Thai nobles, a small commercial middle class of       Chinese and Europeans, and a lower class that included mostly rural       farmers. With the development of a more modern economy, the structure of       social stratification has become more complex. Noble birth continues to       have some bearing on status, but the modern class system is based       primarily on wealth. There now is a much larger middle class. The growth       of towns and cities has given rise to a class of urban poor in addition to       the traditional rural poor. In addition to regional differences in income,       there are regional differences in income distribution: Income is       distributed more equally in the center and south than it is in the north       and northeast.
Political Life
Government. Thailand is a constitutional monarchy. The king, on occasion, involves       himself directly in political affairs when national stability is       threatened. Between 1932 and the early 1990s, the government was dominated       by a military and bureaucratic elite. After the elections in 1992,       political parties opposed to military intervention formed a coalition       government, with the leader of the Democratic Party becoming prime       minister. Parliament was dissolved in 1995, and the Democratic Party lost       to the Thai Nation Party. That government lasted only until 1996, when a       former military commander formed a coalition government and became prime       minister. The economic collapse of 1997 led to the fall of that government       and the eventual assumption of power by a coalition government led by the       Democratic Party with its leader, Chuan Leekpai, as prime minister.
A reformist constitution was promulgated in late 1997 with the intent to       enhance participatory democracy. Attention has focused on eliminating       corrupt political practices and devolving power. Devolution has included       holding elections to a wider range of local offices. A National       Counter-Corruption Commission was formed and given some powers to monitor       electoral fraud.
Thailand held its first national election under the 1997 constitution in       January 2001. The newly formed Thai Rak Thai party led by Taksin       Shinawatra, one of Thailand's richest men, defeated the Democrats       and won 248 of parliament's 500 seats. The Thai Rak Thai party was       joined by the smaller New Aspiration party to form a coalition with 325       seats. Voters appeared to have grown tired of Chuan Leekpai's       six-party coalition government. They were lured by Taksin       Shinawatra's promises of expansive economic policies, including his       pledge to give every one of the country's 70,000 villages 1 million baht (about U.S. $25,000) in development funds. The election was fraught with       corruption, which the National Counter-Corruption Commission proved to       have only limited influence in curtailing.
Leadership and Political Officials. The kings of the Chakri dynasty had numerous wives and concubines,       resulting in the existence of a large number of nobles who were related to       the king; in addition, some commoners were given high positions. In       central Thailand, administration was directly linked to Bangkok and the       king; in more remote areas, there were vassal princes. Below the       government officials were freemen and slaves. The system was stratified,       but social mobility was possible.
People harvesting garlic in Mae Hong Song. Thailand has a largely             export-based economy.
After the advent of military rule and the end of the absolute monarchy in       the 1930s, the state remained highly centralized, with government       officials being appointed by those in power in Bangkok, primarily military       officers and former officers. In the new system, power was gained through       factional struggles within the military. The 1980s and 1990s witnessed the       rise of "money politics," as wealthy civilians came to play       an increasingly important role in politics. Increased democratization in       the 1990s resulted in a much more complex political system. While wealth       continued to be important, many major political figures claimed to speak       for the poor, especially the rural poor. The newly formed government of       Taksin Shinawatra is seen by some observers as a return to the old       politics of wealth and patronage. Taksin is one of the country's       wealthiest men and his party is held together mainly through an extensive       patronage network. In the 1990s, a growing number of Muslims from the       south attained elected political positions. Similar political gains have       not occurred among the smaller ethnic minorities.
Social Problems and Control. The government generally respects the human rights of its citizens. There       is considerable freedom of expression, but there are laws that prohibit       criticism of the royal family, threats to national security, and speech       that may incite disturbances or insult Buddhism. The constitution makes it       unlawful for the government to censor, ban, license, or restrict print or       broadcast media except in times of crisis. While newspapers and       periodicals practice some self-censorship, media criticism of public       figures, political parties, and the government is widespread. Freedom of       religion is protected by law.
Thailand is no longer a significant producer of narcotics, but is still an       important route for international heroin trafficking, and domestic       consumption of narcotics has increased dramatically. Social problems       associated with narcotics trafficking include money laundering, police and       military corruption, and criminal activity by addicts. Political       corruption is widely viewed as a serious problem.
The National Police Department, with over one-hundred thousand personnel,       includes the provincial police, metropolitan police, Border Patrol Police       (BPP), and Central Investigation Bureau. The police force has a culture of       corruption, and demands for bribes are routine. This corruption encourages       illegal activities such as income tax evasion, gambling, drug trafficking,       smuggling, and prostitution. Enforcement of the law is lax, but in many       respects the police force works well. In general, the law requires that       police officers making an arrest have warrants, and it is rare for police       officers to be         tried for extrajudicial killings or the use of excessive force.
The legal system blends principles of traditional Thai and Western laws.       In the Muslim south, Koranic law is applied. There are courts of the first       instance, courts of appeal, and the supreme court, along with a separate       military court. A constitutional court was created in 1998 to interpret       the new constitution. There is no trial by jury. Career civil service       judges preside over the courts, and supreme court judges are appointed by       the king. Judicial appointments and structures are not subject to       parliamentary review, and judges have a reputation for venality.
Conditions in prisons are poor because of overcrowding, and medical care       in prisons does not meet minimum international standards. Access to       prisons is not restricted, and the government permits visits by human       rights monitors and the Thai International Red Cross.
Military Activity. Since 1992, the military's role in political affairs has been       reduced. Responsibility for internal security and law enforcement is       mainly in the hands of the police. The military's primary role is       national defense, especially problems along the border with Burma.       However, former senior military officers still account for a large       percentage of the elected members of parliament and the military retains       wide-ranging legal powers.
The total strength of the military is around 270,000, including the army,       navy, and the air force. In addition, there are about five-hundred       thousand reserves. Male citizens between ages twenty-one and thirty are       required to serve in the military for two years. Under civilian       governments, defense spending has declined. Although there is a domestic       arms industry, most military supplies are provided by the United States       and Great Britain.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
Local, domestic, and international nongovernmental organizations are       active in social welfare, heath, political reform, the status of women,       the environment, religion, and business. Those organizations face few       restrictions and are relatively free to publish their findings. Government       officials generally are cooperative with such organizations.
There continues to be discrimination against the hill tribes, which are       widely viewed as being involved in narcotics trafficking. The Tribal       Assembly of Thailand has lobbied the government for greater transparency       in decisions affecting those tribes, especially in regard to the granting       of citizenship and land issues.
Gender Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender. Both men and women do agricultural work, and although some tasks tend to       be assigned mainly to men or women, that division of labor is not adhered       to rigidly. There is also some variation in the allotment of tasks       according to region. In the north it is traditional for men alone to       prepare land for planting and sow seeds, but in central Thailand, women       sometimes perform those tasks. Women transplant rice seedlings in all       areas, but sometimes men do that job as well. Harvesting is done by both       men and women. Domestic work is done mostly by women. Weaving usually is       done by women. Pottery, basketry, plaiting, making lacquerware, and making       umbrellas can be done by men or women. Small-scale market selling and       itinerant trading are conducted by both men and women. Transportation of       goods and people by animal, carts, boats, and motor vehicles is done       mainly by men. Religious specialists and traditional healers generally are       male. Traditional theatrical and musical performances involve both       genders. In the modern professions, women work mainly in teaching and       nursing.
The Relative Status of Women and Men. Gender inequality is manifest in violence against women, societal       discrimination against women, and trafficking in women for prostitution.       Efforts to improve the status of women have increased, and the 1997       constitution provides women with equal rights and protections, although,       some inequalities in the law remain. Domestic abuse affects women in all       social classes. Specific laws concerning domestic violence have not been       enacted, and the rules of evidence make prosecuting such cases difficult.       Domestic violence often is not reported, since many victims and the police       view it as a private matter. Sexual harassment in the workplace was made       illegal in 1998, but only in the private sector, and no cases have been       prosecuted. Thailand serves as a source, place of transit, and destination       for trafficking in women for prostitution. Prosecutions for such       activities are rare.
Women constitute forty-four percent of the labor force. Laws require       employers to give women equal wages and benefits for equal work, and there       are no legal restrictions on women owning and managing businesses. An       increasing number of women hold professional positions, and women's
An Akha woman hand spinning wool. Though women have made many             advancements in Thailand, they are concentrated in lower-paying             jobs.
access to higher education has grown. More than half the university       graduates are women. Police and military academies do not accept female       students. There is still a gap between the average salaries of men and       women since women are concentrated in lower-paying jobs. There are no       legal restrictions on women's participation in politics. While       there have been improvements at the lower levels, women remain       underrepresented in national politics.
Marriage, Family, and Kinship
Marriage. In general, individuals find their own marriage partners, although the       choice of a spouse may be influenced by one's family among the       wealthy. The value of goods provided to the couple and elaborateness of       the wedding ceremony vary with the wealth of the families of the couple.       Polygyny was common among the elite in the past but is now rare, although       wealthy and powerful men often have a de facto second wife known as a       minor wife. Divorce is not difficult and is usually a matter of a couple       ceasing to live together and dividing their property.
Domestic Unit. The ideal is for a married couple to establish its own household as soon       as possible. However, especially among poorer couples, residence with the       parents of the husband or wife is common. The nuclear family is the core       of the domestic unit, but it often includes members of the extended       family. Including unmarried siblings, widowed parents, and more distant       unmarried or widowed male and female relatives. The husband is nominally       the head of the household, but the wife has considerable authority. Female       members of the household are responsible for most domestic chores.
Inheritance. Property generally is divided equally among the children after the       parents die. However, it is common practice for one child, usually the       youngest daughter, to assume primary responsibility for looking after the       parents in their old age, and this person inherits the family home.
Kin Groups. The Central Tai reckon descent bilaterally. Various forms of kin groups       may be formed. The most common type is formed by siblings, married       children, and sometimes more distant relatives living in a multihousehold       compound. Members of these groups may share domestic and other tasks.       Sometimes larger kin groups encompass several compounds to form a hamlet       cluster. In some instances, a hamlet cluster forms around a wealthy and       powerful individual.
Footwear is removed when attending a ceremony near the Mae Nam Noi             River, Thailand.
Socialization
Infant Care. Adults take a great deal of interest in children, including the children       of other people. A mother keeps her baby with her whenever she leaves the       house. Young children are pampered and given considerable freedom of       movement and are allowed to handle almost anything that catches their       attention. Weaning usually takes place when a child is two or three years       old.
Child Rearing and Education. Children in rural areas grow up surrounded by the implements that they       will later use and see adults performing domestic, agricultural, and       artisanal tasks. In the past, young boys attended school in a nearby       Buddhist monastery, where they would be taught to read and write.       Girl's education took place mainly at home as they learned to       perform domestic tasks. After 1932, the government secularized the public       school system by replacing monks with trained teachers. In the late 1990s,       eighty-eight percent of children of primary school age were enrolled in       schools and ninety-three percent of the adult population was literate.       However, the economic crisis of the late 1990s resulted in an increase in       the number of children leaving school. The government raised compulsory       education requirements from six to nine years in 1999 and is attempting to       improve educational standards.
Higher Education. Institutes of higher education include comprehensive universities,       technical institutes, and religious universities. Traditionally, education       was handled by religious bodies. In the nineteenth and early twentieth       centuries, a growing number of people went abroad for higher education.       The first university, Chulalongkorn University, was founded in 1916. That       university initially served mainly to train civil servants. An Arts and       Crafts School was established in the 1920s. After the 1932 revolution,       Thammasat University was founded. This was an open university with       unrestricted admission and an emphasis on legal training. Chulalongkorn       University tended to cater to the elite, while Thammasat University was       more populist. In 1942, the Arts and Crafts School attained the status of       a university, Silpakorn University. All three of these institutes are in       Bangkok. A fourth institute was added in 1948 after the reorganization of       advanced military education at the Chulalongkorn Royal Military Academy,       whose graduates came to dominate not only the military but also politics.       Admission to the military academy was restricted to "native       Thai" until 1973, mainly to keep out ethnic Chinese.
In 1960, less than one percent of the population had completed a higher       education. In the 1960s and 1970s, new universities were founded,       including the first regional university and a number of technical colleges       and teacher training colleges.
Buddhist educational bodies continue to play a role in education, offering       not only religious education but a wide range of other subjects. There are       also private universities which tend to focus on business education. There       has been a boom in the growth of private higher educational institutes       since the early 1990s, and plans are in place for the privatization of       public universities.
Etiquette
The Thai and other Buddhists follow the widespread Buddhist custom of not       touching a person on the head, which is considered the highest part of the       body. Patting a child on the head is thought to be dangerous to the       well-being of the child. A person should not point the feet at anyone or       at an image of Buddha. Footwear is removed when entering temple complexes,       and it is polite to remove footwear when entering a house. Buddhist monks       are not supposed to come into contact with women. It is traditional to       greet a person with a prayerlike gesture called a wai . It is considered improper to lose one's temper or show too much       emotion in public.
Religion
Religious Beliefs. About eighty-five percent of the people are Theravada Buddhists, and the       monarch must be a Buddhist. Virtually all Tai-speaking peoples are       Theravada Buddhists, as are members of many of the ethnic minorities. The       Buddhism of Central Tais often is referred to as Lankavamsa, reflecting       its origins in Sri Lanka. Thai Buddhism, however, is a syncretic religion       that borrows from earlier animistic beliefs, Hinduism, and Christianity. A       noticeable manifestation of animism in Thai Buddhism are the spirit houses       associated with almost all houses and buildings. These usually are small       model houses placed on a pedestal, that serve as a home for the spirits       associated with the site. These houses are decorated and presented with       daily offerings. Many large trees also are considered to serve as the home       of spirits and are decorated and given offerings.
Approximately ten percent of the population is Muslim, primarily ethnic       Malays in the south. Although Christian missionaries have been active in       the country since the nineteenth century, only about one percent of the       population is Christian. The Christian population consists primarily of       non-Tai ethnic minorities in the north and ethnic Vietnamese and Chinese.       There are small numbers of animists, Confucianists, Taoists, Mahayana       Buddhists, and Hindus.
Religious Practitioners. The majority of religious practitioners are Buddhist monks. Most young       men become Buddhist novices and go to live in a monastery. While most       young men remain at the monastery for a short time before returning to the       secular life, some become ordained monks. A person who wants to become a       monk is expected to be free of debt and certain diseases, have the       permission of his parents or spouse, to agree to follow the disciplinary       rules of the monkhood, and not become involved in secular life. Monks are       expected to lead a life of aestheticism but commonly perform important       functions in the community, especially as counselors. A variety of       religious practitioners are associated with the animistic side of the       religious beliefs of most Buddhists, including exorcists, spirit doctors,       astrologers, and diviners.
Rituals and Holy Places. A number of Buddhist religious festivals are held throughout of the       country, and there are local events related to particular places and       individuals. The Buddhist religious calendar begins with Songkran, in       mid-April when images of Buddha are washed and monks are offered special       alms. This celebration is marked by dousing people with water and festive       behavior including dancing, singing, and theatrical performances. Visakha       Puja in May celebrates Buddha's birth, enlightenment, and entrance       into nirvana. The day includes the ceremonial watering of the banyan trees       that represent the tree under which Buddha sat when he attained       enlightenment. Asanha Puja celebrates a sermon given by Buddha. Khao       Phansaa in July marks the start of the three-month lenten period. It is at       this time that young males become novices. Lent is considered a period of       spiritual retreat for monks, who are expected to remain in the       monasteries. Thawt Kathin from mid-October to mid-November marks the end       of lent. During this period, monastic robes and other paraphernalia are       given to monks. In some communities, there is a celebration to produce new       garments for monks and images of Buddha in which members of the community       work together to produce the cloth in a single day. Magha Puja in February       commemorates Buddha's preaching to enlightened monks. It culminates       in a candlelit procession at temples.
Death and the Afterlife. Buddhists believe that those who die are reborn in a form that is       appropriate to the amount of merit they accumulated while alive. The cycle       of death and rebirth is believed to continue as long as ignorance and       craving remain. The cycle can be broken only through enhanced personal       wisdom and the elimination of desire. Funerals involve either burial or       cremation. The funeral ceremony includes a procession of monks and       mourners who accompany the coffin to the cemetery or crematorium, with       monks chanting and performing rites along the way. Funerals for monks tend       to be very elaborate, while people who have died a violent death are       buried quickly, with very little ceremony, since their spirits are       believed to linger after death as malevolent ghosts.
Medicine and Health Care
The health of the population has improved over the last few decades, with       increased life expectancy and lower rates of major diseases. An exception       to this trend is the AIDS epidemic. The spread of AIDS is related to both       sexual practices and narcotics use. The government has devoted substantial       resources toward AIDS education and awareness programs and AIDS-related       research.
Buddhist monks walk down a street in Thailand. Most young men become             Buddhist novices.
The health infrastructure includes facilities and programs provided by the       public sector, nongovernmental organizations, and the private sector. The       majority of health resources are concentrated in urban areas, where a       marked difference in access to health facilities depends on wealth.       Private sector facilities exist almost exclusively in urban areas. Public       health facilities in rural areas include district hospitals and community       health centers. In small towns and villages, health care is provided       mainly by village health communicators and village health volunteers who       receive little training. In urban areas, private hospitals are becoming       important providers for the wealthy and the middle class. In the 1990s,       the government adopted a policy of self-reliance that included greater       attention to classical traditional medicine and herbal folk medicine. A       government sponsored, codified system of traditional medicine draws on       elements of Chinese and Indian medicine. Many unlicensed healers practice       folk medicine.
Secular Celebrations
Most celebrations are associated with the Buddhism or other religions. The       most important secular holidays are related to the monarchy. Celebrations       include Chakkri Day (6 April), commemorating Rama I, the founder of the       Chakri Dynasty; Coronation Day (5 May), commemorating the coronation of       the current king; the Royal Plowing Ceremony (second week in May), an       ancient ritual held near the Royal Palace in Bangkok to start the       rice-planting season; the queen's birthday (12 August);       Chulalongkorn Day (23 October), held in commemoration of King       Chulalongkorn (Rama V); and the current king's birthday (5       December). Other secular celebrations include Constitution Day (10       December) and New Year's Day.
The Arts and Humanities
Support for the Arts. Support for the arts comes from both the public and private sectors. The       Department of Fine Arts underwrites programs throughout the country, and       there a national theater. Silpakorn University is the main public       educational institution for the arts, and there is a national College of       Dance and Music. The Foundation for the Promotion of Supplementary       Occupational and Supplementary Techniques, founded in 1976, is associated       with the queen and runs projects throughout the country for traditional       artisans. There are private art galleries, mainly in Bangkok, and private       auction houses have become a commercial outlet for paintings.
Muslim fishing village on Koh Pannyi in southern Thailand.
Literature. Written literature dates back to the Sukhothai period (1250–1350),       and earlier traditions. The oldest known poem, the Suphasit Phra Ruong, was written in the late 1200s. The Traiphum Khatha (1345), is a treatise       on Buddhist cosmology.
Poetry from the fifteenth century includes epics, poems based on the life       of Buddha, and the Lilit Phra Lo, Thailand's first love story. The reign of King Narai in the       seventeenth century is considered the golden age of Thai literature. Most       of this literary work consisted of epics and love stories written in       poetic form. Cau Fa Thamathibet (1715–1755) is famous for so-called       boat songs, which abound in mythical allusions. The eighteenth century saw       the emergence of a new genre of poetry, lakhon. This was a type of theatrical poetry in which players positioned       themselves before an audience and recited texts derived from the Ramakien (the Thai version of the Ramayana ), Inau (an epic of Javanese origin), and Anirut tales (which were more local in origin).
King Rama II was a poet, and during his reign epics expanded in scale and       in performance. There were some famous female poets during this period,       including Khun Phum, who wrote a poetic eulogy for Rama IV. During the       reign of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), prose writing emerged and poetry       became more realistic. Prince Damrong Ratchanuphap (1861–1947)       compiled histories of Thai literature.
The modern period has witnessed the emergence of many new forms of poetry       and popular fiction. This fiction is realistic, often portraying the lives       of common people and the underclass in the face of adversity. While most       of the stories are set in central Thailand, there has also been regional       literature, such as the novels of Khamphun Bunthami, which are set in the       northeast. Since the 1970s a good deal of fiction and poetry has focused       on social criticism.
Graphic Arts. The graphic arts include art forms associated with Buddhist temples such       as sculpture in wood, stucco, and stone; mural painting; and bronze       castings of images of Buddha. Other forms of graphic arts include       lacquerware, mother-of-pearl inlay, gold work, nielloware, silverware,       wood carving, ceramics, basketry and plaiting, weaving, and painting on       paper or canvas.
In the Ayutthaya and Bangkok periods, there were distinct royal and common       textile traditions. The nobility imported textiles from China, India, and       Persia and received special textiles as tribute from neighboring regions.       Commoners produced clothing for themselves until the nineteenth century,       when imported cloth became widely available. There are still distinct       regional styles of weaving that include the production of special       hand-woven cloth for sale to elite customers in urban areas. There are       many local, regional, and national weaving competitions and fairs to       promote textiles.
Painting traditionally was done in tempera in the form of murals on temple       walls as well as on cloth and paper. While Buddhist themes were       predominant, temple murals often included depictions of secular objects.       Artistic styles initially were influenced by Sri Lanka and southern India       and later         were influenced by China and the West. King Chulalongkorn (Rama V)       imported Western works of art and Western artists. Especially noteworthy       were realistic painted portraits and statues of prominent individuals. In       1910, King Vajiravudh tried to revive traditional art, by creating the       Department of Fine Arts in 1912 and the Arts and Crafts School in 1913.       The Italian-born sculpture Corrado Feroci became a central figure in       creating modern art in Thailand. As director of the Fine Arts University       (Silpakorn University), he is widely viewed as the father of modern art in       the country. The university held the first National Exhibition of Art in       1949, and this annual event became central in defining the state of       contemporary art.
Much of the work of modern Thai artists has mirrored trends in Europe and       North America, but many artists have mixed imported styles with subjects       associated with the national culture.
Performance Arts. Classical dance developed from folk dances and incorporated elaborate       Indian hand gestures and arm and leg movements, probably through the Mon       and Khmer cultures. Various forms of dance, including masked dance dramas,       are shown on Sukhôtâi stone inscriptions. The eighteenth century       is considered the golden age of classical dance and dance drama. Although       many musicians and dancers of Ayutthaya were taken by force to the Burmese       royal court in 1767, those who remained behind taught their traditions to       others during the early Bangkok period.
Classical dance and drama were attacked by leftists in the 1970s because       of their links to the aristocracy. When the military returned to power in       1976, it promoted classical art forms. In 1977, the military regime held a       national festival of dance and drama that included classical forms and       patriotic plays glorifying the country's past. In recent years,       classical, folk, and modern dance and drama have been popular. Folk dances       are regional in character. Each dance style is accompanied by different       musical instruments. Dances in the central region have been influenced by       courtly traditions. Southern dances have been influenced by Sri Lankan and       southern Indian styles. Individual dance styles are associated with many       of the ethnic minorities.
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
Teaching, training, research, and publishing in the physical and social       sciences are well developed. Most higher educational institutions offer       courses in the physical and social sciences, and a number of government       and government-sponsored institutes and agencies work in those fields.       However, an insufficient number of university students are pursuing       degrees in the physical sciences. The government has launched a number of       programs to encourage students to go into the physical sciences.
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