Moscow | national capital, Russia | Britannica.com
national capital, Russia
Nikon
Moscow, Russian Moskva,  city, capital of Russia , in the far western part of the country. Since it was first mentioned in the chronicles of 1147, Moscow has played a vital role in Russian history. It became the capital of Muscovy ( the Grand Principality of Moscow ) in the late 13th century; hence, the people of Moscow are known as Muscovites . Today Moscow is not only the political centre of Russia but also the country’s most populous city and its industrial, cultural, scientific, and educational capital. For more than 600 years Moscow also has been the spiritual centre of the Russian Orthodox Church .
Time-lapse video of Moscow.
Video by Florian Kriechbaumer (A Britannica Publishing Partner)
Moscow.
Moscow.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The capital of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) until the union dissolved in 1991, Moscow attracted world attention as a centre of communist power; indeed, the name of the seat of the former Soviet government and the successor Russian government, the Kremlin (Russian: Kreml), was a synonym for Soviet authority. The dissolution of the U.S.S.R. brought tremendous economic and political change, along with a significant concentration of Russia’s wealth, into Moscow. Area 414 square miles (1,035 square km). Pop. (2010) city, 11,738,547; (2013 est.) city, 11,979,529.
Character of the city
If St. Petersburg is Russia’s “window on Europe,” Moscow is Russia’s heart. It is an upbeat, vibrant, and sometimes wearisome city. Much of Moscow was reconstructed after it was occupied by the French under Napoleon I in 1812 and almost entirely destroyed by fire. Moscow has not stopped being refurbished and modernized and continues to experience rapid social change. Russia’s Soviet past collides with its capitalist present everywhere in the country, but nowhere is this contrast more visible than in Moscow. Vladimir Ilich Lenin ’s Mausoleum remains intact, as do many dreary five-story apartment buildings from the era of Nikita Khrushchev ’s rule (the mid-1950s to the mid-1960s), yet glitzy automobiles and Western-style supermarkets, casinos, and nightclubs are equally visible. Many Orthodox churches, as well as some synagogues and mosques, have been restored, Moscow’s novel theatres have reclaimed leadership in the dramatic arts, and traditional markets have been revived and expanded. These markets, which under the Soviets were known as kolkhoz (collective-farm) markets and sold mainly crafts and produce, are now more sophisticated retail establishments.
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It has become habitual to compare Moscow with St. Petersburg , its rival and the former (1712–1918) capital of Russia. While St. Petersburg has absorbed western European influences, Moscow is viewed as a traditional Russian city. Unlike its rival, Moscow has a well-defined city centre marked by the Kremlin . Other characteristics of Moscow are its physical layout in radial spokes and rings that have been extended over time, its hodgepodge of architectural styles, and its historical buildings that were mainly built by Russian architects. Moscow’s buildings were predominantly wooden until the 1920s, when brick and stone came into use.
The Kremlin, as seen from the Moscow River.
© Lloid/Shutterstock.com
Landscape
City site
Moscow is located in western Russia about 400 miles (640 km) southeast of St. Petersburg and 300 miles (480 km) east of the border with Belarus . It stands on the Moscow River , a tributary of the Oka and thus of the Volga , in the centre of the vast plain of European Russia. The city and its surrounding area, the Moscow oblast (province), lie in the northwest corner of the most highly developed and densely populated part of Russia. Moscow is situated in the broad, extremely shallow valley of the Moscow River and its tributaries.
The advances and retreats of glaciers during the Pleistocene Epoch (about 2,600,000 to 11,700 years ago) deposited a thick mantle of boulder clays and morainic sands and gravels into which the sinuous Moscow River cut its wide valley in successive stages, marked by four corresponding levels. Geologically recent alluvial deposits cover their surfaces. Beside the river itself is a narrow belt of floodplain; a few feet above this is the first terrace, which yields to the successively higher second and third levels. The last of these terraces, rising up to 100–115 feet (30–35 metres) above the river, is the most extensive, and much of Moscow is built on it. Northward the third terrace merges imperceptibly with a plain of clays and sands, which slopes up very gradually to the Klin-Dmitrov morainic ridge some 40 miles (60 km) north of the city. Similarly, eastward and southeastward the surface gradually merges into the vast, almost completely flat, and very swampy clay plain of the Meshchera Lowland , which extends far beyond the city limits.
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Almost everywhere, surface relief is minor. The legend that Moscow was built on seven hills, as Rome was, is an exaggeration, though there are a few small hills in and around the city centre. Only in the southwest of the city is there an upland area—on Cretaceous rocks, covered by glacial morainic material. This is the Teplostanskaya Upland, which rises more than 400 feet (120 metres) above the Moscow River and which includes the highest elevation within Moscow’s limits, 830 feet (250 metres) above sea level. One of the sweeping bends of the river has cut into the edge of the Teplostanskaya Upland a steep cliff, the Vorobyëvy Hills (also known as the Sparrow Hills or the Lenin Hills), from the top of which there are panoramic views of the city.
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Long periods of occupation have extensively altered the natural setting of Moscow. The “cultural layer,” consisting of debris of buildings demolished long ago and of other materials deposited by humans, is up to 50 feet (15 metres) deep in some parts of central Moscow. Almost all the small rivers and streams that once flowed into the Moscow River through the city area have now been put into underground conduits or have been filled in. There are still visible tributaries, however—i.e., the Yauza and two of its appendages on the left (northern) bank and the Setun. The Yauza and the Moscow are controlled by stone embankments for most of their winding courses through the city. The Moscow River has been diverted in places, with cuts made through the necks of its loops, and it has also been both widened and deepened; in certain places it is 800 feet (245 metres) wide. In the past the river was icebound from November to April, but a channel is now kept open throughout the winter. The Yauza receives additional water from the Volga, by way of the Moscow Canal and its branch, the Likhobory Canal. Two dams on its lower course have raised the level of the Yauza and have made the lower reaches navigable.
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Part of Moscow’s water supply comes from some 1,000 deep bores in the city that tap the artesian water of the underlying Carboniferous beds. Overuse has greatly lowered the levels of these underground waters, however, and most water needs are now met by surface sources—i.e., the reservoirs north of the city built in connection with the Moscow Canal, in particular the Ucha Reservoir. Water is also drawn from the Moscow River and pumped into underground storage reservoirs. The discharge of untreated sewage and industrial effluents polluted the Moscow River and adjacent groundwater until the mid-1960s, when antipollution and water-purification measures were enforced.
Climate
The climate of Moscow is dominated by westerly winds from the Atlantic. Precipitation is moderate, about 23 inches (580 mm) a year. Snow is common, beginning usually about mid-November and lasting generally until mid-March; the city is well-equipped to keep the streets clear. Winters are long, yet they are significantly milder than in similar climatic regions of North America . Southerly airstreams occasionally bring days with temperatures above freezing. Conversely, northerly winds from the Arctic bring very sharp drops in temperature, often accompanied by clear, brisk weather with low relative humidity . Thus, although the January average temperature is 14 °F (−10 °C), there can be considerable variation; temperatures have dropped to near −45 °F (−43 °C). Spring is relatively brief, and the temperature rises rapidly during late April. Summers are warm, and July, the warmest month, has an average temperature in the mid-60s F (about 18 °C); temperatures nearing 100 °F (38 °C) have been reached in August . Rainy days are not uncommon, but the summer rainfall often comes in brief, heavy downpours and thunderstorms . Autumn, like spring, is short, with rapidly falling temperatures.
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Until the late 1950s there was increasing air pollution in Moscow. Smog was common, often with heavy concentrations of sulfur dioxide . A major campaign to control noxious emissions was launched, assisted greatly by a changeover from coal to natural gas as the principal fuel. Some factories that had contributed to pollution were moved out of the city. Slight improvement in Moscow’s air had been marked, but since the 1980s the growing number of motor vehicles and the increase in the number of power generators have once again bolstered the concentrations of such exhaust pollutants as carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide in Moscow.
City layout
A map of Moscow presents a pattern of concentric rings that circle the rough triangle of the Kremlin and its rectangular extension, the Kitay-gorod , with outwardly radiating spokes connecting the rings; the whole pattern is modified by the twisting, northwest–southeast-trending Moscow River. These rings and radials mark the historical stages of the city’s growth: successive epochs of development are traced by the Boulevard Ring and the Garden Ring (both following the line of former fortifications), the Moscow Little Ring Railway (built in part along the line of the former Kamer-Kollezhsky customs barrier), and the Moscow Ring Road.
Moscow.
May Day parade in Red Square, Moscow, 1966.
Stock footage courtesy The WPA Film Library
Many old churches survive in the Kitay-gorod. Of particular note is the Church of the Trinity of Nikitniki (1628–34), built for the merchant Grigory Nikitnikov. Other notable churches in this quarter are the 15th-century Church of St. Anne of the Conception and the Epiphany Cathedral (1693–96). The Kitay-gorod was for centuries the commercial centre of Moscow, and its narrow, crowded streets still contain former banks, the stock-exchange building, and warehouses. Many of the old buildings near the river, however, were demolished in the 1960s to make room for the massive Rossiya Hotel (completed in 1967; torn down in 2006); nevertheless, a row of buildings, including the 16th-century house of the Romanov boyars and Old English Embassy and the 17th-century Monastery of the Sign, remain.
The inner city
Inner Moscow functions like a typical central business district. In this area are concentrated most of the government offices and administrative headquarters of state bodies, most of the hotels and larger shops, and the principal theatres, museums, and art galleries. The inner city’s function as a residential area has not been completely lost, however; although many large prerevolution and Soviet-style apartment buildings were transformed into offices in the 1990s, some quiet residential neighbourhoods linger within the Garden Ring, mostly consisting of luxury apartments for Russia’s new elite.
In the remainder of the central part of Moscow, within the Garden Ring, are buildings representative of every period of Moscow’s development from the 15th century to the present day. Scattered through the inner city are several fine examples of 17th-century church architecture, notably the Church of All Saints of Kulishki, built in the 1670s and ’80s to commemorate those killed in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380), and the Church of the Nativity of Putniki (1649–52). This was the period of development of the Moscow Baroque style; one of its best examples, located outside the city centre on the site of the former village of Fili, is the Church of the Intercession (1693). Buildings of the Classical period—beginning about the latter half of the 18th century and covering the rebuilding of Moscow after the fire of 1812—abound within the Garden Ring and the Boulevard Ring (the latter forming a rough horseshoe north of the Moscow River around the Kremlin and Kitay-gorod) and in Zamoskvoreche, a largely residential district south of the river. Notable examples are the old university and the former meeting place of the assembly of nobles with its Hall of Columns (now the House of Trade Unions), both built by Matvei Kazakov in the 1780s; the elegant Pashkov House (1785–86), now part of the Russian State Library but still commonly referred to as the V.I. Lenin Library; the Lunin House (1818–23), now the Museum of Oriental Art; the Manezh (Riding School; 1817), which is now used as an exhibition hall; and the magnificent Bolshoi Theatre (1821–24), rebuilt in 1856 after a fire. Toward the end of the 19th century and continuing into the early 20th, buildings in the revivalist Old Russian style were built, including the Tretyakov Gallery (1906) and—just outside the Garden Ring—the Yaroslavl railway station (1902–04).
Side by side with the old appeared new buildings in the modern, functional style of the 1920s, in the ponderous, often overly ornate style of the later period of Joseph Stalin ’s rule (1945–53), and in the high-rise concrete and glass predominant since the 1960s. Among more imaginative examples of later architecture are the Taganka Theatre (1983) and the Gazprom and Lukoil office buildings (1990s).
In the Soviet period much more open space was created, especially by constructing large squares such as Manezhnaya. Many streets were widened—in particular, Tverskaya Prospekt (called Gorky Prospekt, for Russian novelist Maksim Gorky , from 1932 to 1992), one of Moscow’s principal radial roads, which is lined with large shops, hotels, and offices. The Garden Ring itself has been widened to form a broad highway with multiple lanes in each direction and with overpasses where it is intersected by the main radial routes. In the 1960s a new radial street, Kalinina, was built through an area of older housing westward from the Kremlin to the Moscow River; it is lined by high-rise office and apartment buildings, linked at street and second-floor levels by a shopping mall. At its outer end rises a lofty three-winged building overlooking the river, which for many years housed offices of Comecon (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance; disbanded in 1991) and now serves as the headquarters for the Moscow city government. Yet just next to this bustling thoroughfare is Arbat Prospekt (also called Old Arbat), one of the most picturesque streets of Moscow and now closed to vehicular traffic.
Most of the historic buildings of central Moscow have been preserved—since the 1960s, much careful restoration and repair work has been undertaken—but some architectural monuments disappeared in the early Soviet period. In 1931 Stalin demolished the 19th-century Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, and, beginning in 1958, a vast open-air swimming pool occupied its foundation, in accordance with Khrushchev’s orders. The cathedral, however, was restored to its original design and reopened in 1997. Its massive gilded cupola overlooking the Kremlin is one of the major focal points of the downtown skyline.
The middle zone
Beyond the Garden Ring and approximately as far as the Moscow Little Ring Railway lies a zone mostly of late 18th- and 19th-century development. Within it are many factories and the principal railway stations and freight yards. The Likhachyov Automobile Works and its associated housing occupy some of the southeastern sector. Enveloped within this zone are further examples of the best of Classical Moscow, such as the 18th-century palace that houses the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences on Leninsky Prospekt. Also to the southwest, on the banks of the Moscow River, are the most important of the fortified monasteries, the 16th-century Novodevichy Convent, with its beautiful Smolensk Cathedral, whose tall bell tower (1690) dominates the churches and buildings within the crenellated walls and towers of the convent. The cathedral now houses the Novodevichy Convent Museum, and the complex includes a cemetery where Khrushchev and other prominent figures from Soviet history are buried. Just south of Novodevichy, within the large loop of the river and facing the Vorobyëvy Hills, is the sports complex known as Luzhniki Park, dominated by the huge football (soccer) stadium formerly known as Central Lenin Stadium (built 1955–56).
The middle zone underwent the most urban renewal in Soviet times. Among the features of the present Moscow skyline are the ornate vysotkas (“sky houses”), imposing buildings of about 20 to 30 stories along the Garden Ring that were built in the late 1940s and early 1950s under Stalin. In the same Stalin-period style are the Ukraina Hotel across the river and the gigantic building in the Moscow State University complex on the Vorobyëvy Hills. Most of the renewal that has taken place since 1960 consists of extensive neighbourhoods of wide streets lined with rows of apartment buildings. A number of areas still have narrow streets of 19th-century housing and smaller factories.
Moscow State University.
Georg Dembowski
Major post-Soviet developments in the middle zone included the erection of a large Catholic church on Bolshaya Gruzinskaya, a third highway circling the periphery of the middle zone, and large-scale upgrading of housing stock; indeed, the term yevroremont (“European-style repair”) was coined in the 1990s to describe this Muscovite refurbishment, generally referring to the updating of utilities and amenities to Western standards.
Outer Moscow
Beyond Moscow’s third ring are an industrial zone and extensive housing construction sites. Closer to the centre are microrayony, or clusters of large apartment blocks, typically five- to nine-story apartment buildings constructed predominantly of yellowish brick. The early five-story versions of these structures were referred to as khrushchovkas, named for Khrushchev, who initiated their construction in the 1950s. Farther out, the neighbourhoods are characterized by high-rise buildings made of standardized, prefabricated concrete sections. Commonly, the street levels of the buildings are occupied by shops. Streets are broad and tree-lined. Between the densely populated microrayony are wedge-shaped areas of open land, notably the extensive Izmaylovsky Park to the east, Sokolniki Park and large forest tracts to the northeast, and the grounds of the permanent Exhibition of National Economic Achievements to the north. Nearby, in Dzerzhinsky Park at Ostankino, is the 1,758-foot (536-metre) television tower, which sustained a fire in 2000.
Monuments of the past, such as the 17th-century Church of the Intercession in the Medvedkovo district of Moscow, survive in the sea of new buildings. Moscow’s growth has engulfed a number of former country estates, the mansions of which date mostly from the period of Classical architecture . On the east side of the city is Kuskovo, once the estate of the Sheremetyev family, one of the wealthiest and most powerful families in Russia; its palace, built in the 1770s, houses a church, hermitage, and Baroque grotto. To the south is the Uzkoe mansion, formerly belonging to the Trubetskoy family ; to the north are the Petrovsky Palace (built by Kazakov in 1775–82) and, best known of all, the Ostankino Palace (1790–98). In the southeastern suburbs is the former village of Kolomenskoye , once a summer residence of the princes of Moscow. Its most remarkable architectural ensemble of buildings is dominated by the tower of the Church of the Ascension (1532). The Kazan Church and the gatehouse both date from the later 17th century. The surrounding park has a collection of early Russian wooden architecture, brought from various parts of the country. In the nearby village of Dyakovo is the ornate Church of St. John the Baptist, built in 1557.
Outlying areas
Remaining areas of open land and forest lie within the Ring Road, together with the satellite industrial towns and prigorods (suburbs) that were incorporated into the city in 1960. The principal satellite towns are Krasnogorsk and Odintsovo to the west, Khimki and Zelenograd to the northwest, Mytishchi and Koroliov to the north, Balashikha and Dzierzhynsk to the east, Liubertsy to the southeast, and Solntsevo to the south.
Newer outer suburbs include extensive open areas, and parts of the periphery are designated as greenbelt. Alongside the city’s satellite towns, large-scale commercial agriculture and “agro-recreational” plots owned by residents of Moscow (e.g., dachas, collective orchards, and vegetable gardens) extend 12 to 50 miles (20 to 80 km) from the city centre. The dachas and their adjacent or surrounding plots are usually owned by the elite and tend to be the most luxurious of the residences; they are mainly summer villas but in many instances are upgraded to year-round homes. The collective orchards are smaller than the dachas but many also serve as seasonal or year-round residences. Vegetable gardens are smaller still and are normally devoid of a housing unit. There are also Muscovites who own rural village homes that are remote from Moscow, some located in adjacent oblasti (provinces).
Numerous mansions owned by the Muscovite elite emerged around Moscow in the 1990s, becoming a signature of Russian-style suburbia. The earliest mansions, built in 1992–95, have the appearance of stylized castles; those built later resemble North American single-family homes. Some are freestanding structures within a traditional dacha, but many are fenced in. Many owners of these mansions retain their Moscow apartments as well, though the number of year-round suburbanites among them is growing. There has also been a surge in the construction of multistory residences just outside Moscow beginning in the late 1990s. The Moscow suburban real estate market has generally been laissez-faire, and land is sold, bought, and exchanged with ease. The most prestigious plots lie to the west of Moscow.
Agricultural land available for commercial use began to decrease in the immediate suburbs in the 1990s; by the early 21st century most of it had been claimed by developers. Just outside the Ring Road, many international companies opened offices in business parks, some of which include hotels, conference and entertainment venues , and even residential housing. Foreign-owned automotive assembly plants and giant retail facilities also began to multiply on the outskirts of the city.
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