World War One Woodrow Wilson
 
World War One, WOODROW        WILSON
The president who led the nation through the hard years        of World War I was Woodrow Wilson. He was probably the        only president who was a brilliant student and teacher        as well as a statesman. He had been a college professor,        president of Princeton University, and the author of        books on American government. He had also been governor        of New Jersey. Woodrow Wilson worked out his political        beliefs in the classroom. Then he entered politics to        put his theories of government into practice.
Appearance and Personality
Wilson was a slender man, about five feet eleven inches        tall. He had a high forehead, high cheekbones, long,        thin nose, and long jaw, thrust forward in a stubborn        line. His blue-gray eyes, behind rimless nose glasses,        had a way of narrowing when he talked, giving him a        stern, almost grim expression. He could be cold and        disagreeable with men he felt were not sympathetic to        him. In fact his greatest fault was his inability to        work with those who were not willing to follow his lead        completely. He had absolute confidence in his own        judgment.
His family and his many close friends knew him as a        totally different kind of man--affectionate, charming,        generous, and full of fun. He might have been a        successful vaudeville actor. He could dance a jig and        the cakewalk. He told delightful stories in black,        Scottish, and Irish dialects and wrote nonsense jingles.        His friends went into gales of laughter over his        imitations of mutual acquaintances. He sang well and he        had a beautiful speaking voice.
Above all, he loved good conversation. Clever, well-bred        people who understood him brought out the best qualities        of his brilliant and witty mind. His friends made up a        very important part of his life. Once a friendship with        him was broken, however, he could never again resume it.
A Family of Ministers and Educators
Woodrow Wilson was born into a family of Presbyterian        ministers and teachers. His grandfather, James Wilson,        migrated to the United States from Ulster, Ireland, in        1807. He married an Irish girl, Anne Adams, who came on        the same ship. James Wilson became a newspaper publisher        in Steubenville, Ohio. One of his sons, Joseph Ruggles        Wilson, was Woodrow Wilson's father. He became a        Presbyterian minister.
Wilson's mother was Janet (Jessie) Woodrow. She was born        in Carlisle, England, just across the border from        Scotland. Her father, Thomas Woodrow, was a Scottish        Presbyterian minister. In 1836 he brought his family to        the United States. In time he settled in Ohio, and there        his daughter and Joseph Ruggles Wilson were married.
Childhood and Schooling
Thomas Woodrow Wilson was born Christmas week, Dec. 28,        1856, in Staunton, Va., where his father was minister of        the First Presbyterian Church. He had two older sisters,        Marion and Anne. A brother, Joseph Ruggles Wilson, Jr.,        was ten years younger.
Tommy, as he was called in his childhood, was a year old        when the family moved to Augusta, Ga. He remembered as a        child of four standing beside the garden gate and        hearing a man say in great excitement that Mr. Lincoln        was elected and there was to be war. He ran into the        house to ask his father what it meant. He was to see a        great deal of the destruction and waste of war in the        South and to learn to hate it.
The Wilson family was happy and affectionate. Tommy and        his father were unusually close. The boy did not go to        school until he was 13. Until then his father had been        his only teacher. Dr. Wilson took the boy on visits to        the neighboring cotton gin, corn mill, iron foundry, and        ammunition plant and explained how they operated. He        taught him to look up unfamiliar words in the dictionary        and to repeat them until he could use them easily. He        taught him how to write simply and express his meaning        exactly. This skill with words helped make Wilson        famous.
Tommy's interest in parliamentary law began when he was        a boy. He organized and made himself president of a        club, the Lightfoots, which played baseball and engaged        in various secret and adventurous activities. They met        in the hayloft of Dr. Wilson's barn. Tommy wrote a        constitution for the club and conducted its meetings        according to 'Robert's Rules of Order'. The boys were        impressed with their leader. They would have been more        impressed if they could have known that this tall, thin        boy with spectacles, big ears, and a pale face would one        day write the constitution for the League of Nations.
In 1870, when the boy was 14, the family moved to        Columbia, S.C. It was a lonely period, and he amused        himself by studying nautical terms and writing a        fanciful yarn of the sea. He imagined himself to be        Admiral Wilson of the United States Navy, whose fleet        destroyed a nest of pirates in the South Pacific. The        story took the form of daily reports, directed to the        Navy Department at Washington, D.C.
He began to read books on the science of government. A        picture of William Gladstone hung over his desk. He        explained to his cousin: "That is Gladstone, the        greatest statesman that ever lived. I intend to be a        statesman too."
The College Student
In 1873 he entered Davidson College in North Carolina.        He was badly prepared for college. By the end of the        term his health broke down from overwork. After 15        months of studying by himself he entered Princeton, then        known as the College of New Jersey. Here he discovered        the fine qualities of his mind and gained a confidence        in himself which he never lost. He studied the art of        public speaking and was active in the college debating        society. In his senior year he wrote a brilliant essay        on "Cabinet Government in the United States." He dropped        the name Thomas and signed himself "Woodrow Wilson."
After his graduation from Princeton in 1879 he entered        the University of Virginia to study law. He took his law        degree in 1882 and entered into a partnership, Renick        and Wilson, in Atlanta, Ga. A brief struggle to build up        a practice convinced him that he would never make a        successful lawyer. He returned to the "advantages and        delights of study" in 1883.
This time he spent two years at Johns Hopkins University        studying history and political science. For all his        brilliance, Wilson never stood at the top of his class.        He refused to study subjects that bored him, and he had        great contempt for the pursuit of high marks and        academic degrees. He took his degree of doctor of        philosophy from Johns Hopkins only at the insistence of        friends who pointed out that it meant a higher salary as        a teacher. He submitted as his dissertation a book on        'Congressional Government', which was published in 1885,        a year after he left the university. In this penetrating        study he made the point that congressional government,        as practiced in the United States, divides        responsibility and thus lends itself to inefficiency and        corruption.
The College Professor
When he was 29 years old he started on his career as an        educator. He was associate professor of history at Bryn        Mawr College (for women) (1885-88) and then professor of        history and political economy at Wesleyan University,        Middletown, Conn. (1888-90). In 1890 he returned as        professor of jurisprudence and political economy to the        College of New Jersey. In the next 20 years he was to        see it grow into the great Princeton University. For        eight years (1902-10) he was president of the university.
Year after year the Princeton students elected him their        most popular professor. He was an inspiring teacher. He        had small respect for the kind of mind that accumulates        facts and dates. He believed in the importance of "developing the mind by using it rather than stuffing        it." "The essence of the cultured mind is its capacity        for relating knowledge," he declared.
They were busy years. In addition to teaching he had        published 'Congressional Government' (1885), 'The State'        (1889), 'Division and Reunion' (1893), 'George        Washington' (1896), 'A History of the American People'        (1902), and 'Constitutional Government in the United        States' (1908). He wrote many essays and book reviews        and was in great demand as a lecturer.
He was always overworked and suffered repeated sick        spells which required long periods of rest. Historians        have suspected that he suffered perhaps as many as three        strokes--two minor and one more serious--during the        1890s. In 1906 he was told that he must retire and lead        a very quiet life, but he kept on going. Without the        help and sympathy of his wife, he could never have        accomplished all that he did.
Marriage and Family Life
He had married Ellen Axson of Rome, Ga., in 1885. They        had three daughters--Margaret (born in 1886), Jessie        (1887), and Eleanor (1889). His wife saw that he had        quiet for his working hours, freedom from money worries,        and the frequent association of intellectual friends. On        the small salary of a teacher they managed to help their        younger relatives get a college education by opening        their home to them.
A friend of later years wrote, "The more I am with the        Wilsons the more I am struck by their unrivaled home        life. I have never dreamed such sweetness and love could        be."
President of Princeton University
As president of Princeton, Wilson launched his first        reform crusade--to build a university that would produce        leaders and statesmen. The first problem was to get rid        of the upper-class eating clubs. "The side-shows are        swallowing up the circus," he remarked. The second was        to establish a stronger graduate college. He proposed a        plan in which graduates and undergraduates should live        together in small colleges presided over by teachers and        tutors. Students and professors would benefit by the        mutual stimulation of cultured, scholarly ideals.
He succeeded in reorganizing the courses of study and in        adding to the faculty 47 young scholars, called        preceptors. Their duty was individual supervision of the        students and the development of small discussion groups.        But on the major issues he failed.
Students and alumni opposed elimination of social clubs.        A group in the faculty was determined to place the        graduate college under a separate administration and to        house its students in a quadrangle far removed from the        undergraduate campus, libraries, and laboratories.        Wilson was convinced that such plans reduced the        graduate college to little more than an expensive hall        of residence. When two alumni willed several million        dollars to the graduate college on condition that the        opposition's plans be carried out, Wilson was defeated.        He felt that the issue was between democracy and the        power of money and special privilege.
Reform Governor of New Jersey
The Princeton battle attracted wide publicity and led to        his election as governor of New Jersey in 1910. He        showed his independence and his capacity for getting        things done. Again, as at Princeton, he plunged into        battle with forces he was convinced opposed the public        good. New Jersey was run by a group of political bosses        who thought they could use Wilson as a respectable        front. He side-stepped the Democratic party machine and        appealed directly to the voters for support of his        program. In a little over a year he put through a public        utility control act, a corrupt political practices act,        a workmen's compensation act, and a direct primary act.
These bold reforms attracted national attention to the        college president turned politician. In 1912 he won the        Democratic party's nomination for president of the        United States. Theodore Roosevelt split the Republican        party and Wilson won the election. The electoral vote        was 435 for Wilson, 88 for Roosevelt, and 8 for Taft.        But Wilson won only 42 percent of the popular vote. The        combined vote for Roosevelt and Taft exceeded Wilson's        by more than 1,300,000.
Life in the White House
The Wilson family was far from happy about the prospect        of going to the White House. The outgoing president,        William Howard Taft, said to them, "I'm glad to be        going--this is the lonesomest place in the world." Eleanor Wilson wrote in her memoirs that the day before        her father's inauguration she wept until she was        exhausted, crying, "It will kill them--it will kill them        both."
Yet the Wilson family adapted themselves very quickly to        life in the White House. Mrs. Wilson made a simple and        democratic home, as she had done wherever they went. Two        weddings took place in the White House in the first two        years. Jessie married Francis B. Sayre on Nov. 26, 1913,        and Eleanor married William Gibbs McAdoo on May 7, 1914.
Mrs. Wilson's health began to fail early in 1914. Her        ability to endear herself to everyone was indicated by        an action of Congress. Informed that she was sinking,        they hastily passed a bill for slum clearance in        Washington, which she had very much at heart, so that        she might be told of it before she died, in August of        that year.
Dependent as he had always been on his wife's        companionship, the president became lonely and        depressed. Through his personal physician, Col. Cary        Grayson, he met a beautiful and gracious widow, Mrs.        Edith Bolling Galt. Wilson and Mrs. Galt were married in        December 1915.
A Political Reformer in the White House
Wilson called his philosophy of government the "new        freedom." "What I am interested in is having the        government of the United States more concerned about        human rights than about property rights," he declared.        Convinced that strong executive leadership was necessary        for progress, he went further than any other president        in forcing his wishes on Congress. He called Congress in        extra session early in April 1913 and addressed the two        houses in person. This broke a precedent of long        standing. From time to time after that he went before        Congress with parts of his program. The result was a        mass of progressive legislation unequaled in any        administration up to that time.
Tariff reform. The Underwood-Simmons tariff lowered        duties on more than a hundred items. A tariff commission        was established in 1916 to study tariffs and make        recommendations.
Income tax. To offset the loss in revenue from tariff        reductions, a graduated income tax law was enacted as        authorized by the newly adopted 16th Amendment to the        Constitution. It was levied according to wealth.
Currency and credit reform. The Federal Reserve banking        system was established, and a board of control was set        up to administer the system. For the first time in        American history, finance and credits were placed under        government direction. The Federal Farm Loan Act created        12 farm loan-banks to give cheap and easy credit to        farmers and tenants.
Regulation of business. The Federal Trade Commission was        created, with power to forbid unfair business practices.        The Clayton Act, designed to strengthen the Sherman        Anti-Trust Act, defined the methods of competition that        the Commission was empowered to forbid. It made officers        of corporations liable for illegal acts of those        corporations, exempted labor unions from antitrust acts,        and forbade the use of labor injunctions except where        necessary to protect property.
Other social legislation. The La Follette Seamen's bill        required better living and working conditions for ocean        and lake sailors. The Adamson Act set an eight-hour        working day for railroad workers.
Diplomacy in Latin America
Congress in 1912 had enacted a Panama tolls law that        violated the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901 with Great        Britain, guaranteeing equal treatment in the use of the        canal. Wilson persuaded Congress to repeal the act.
American businessmen were investing heavily in the        mines, railroads, and other resources of Latin America.        Wilson announced soon after his inauguration that he        would abandon "dollar diplomacy." This meant that        investors could no longer expect the United States        government to protect their interests. Nevertheless,        Wilson permitted United States intervention to restore        order in Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.
In 1914 the Marines seized the port of Veracruz, Mexico,        when Mexican police arrested several American sailors.        Mediation by the "A B C powers" (Argentina, Brazil, and        Chile) averted war. In March 1916 a Mexican rebel,        Francisco (Pancho) Villa, raided Columbus, N. M.,        killing 17 Americans. With the permission of President        Carranza of Mexico, the United States sent an expedition        into Mexico under Gen. John J. Pershing. They failed to        catch Villa and were withdrawn in January 1917.
Wilson and World War I
In the summer of 1914 all Europe was plunged into war.        Wilson called upon the United States to be neutral "even        in spirit," but few Americans were able to remain        impartial. For two years the president made every effort        to avoid war. Even after the unarmed British liner        Lusitania was sunk by a German submarine with a loss of        almost 1,200 lives including 124 Americans, he argued: "There is such a thing as a man being too proud to        fight."
In 1916 he was reelected. He defeated the Republican        candidate Charles Evans Hughes by an electoral vote of        277 to 254. The campaign slogan "He kept us out of war" probably won him more popular votes than any other        factor. After the election Wilson tried to end the war        by active mediation. The Germans, however, resumed        unrestricted submarine warfare. On April 2, 1917, the        president asked Congress for a declaration of war.        Before a joint session of the two houses he read the        solemn words, "The present German submarine warfare        against commerce is a warfare against mankind. It is a        war against all nations. . . . We are accepting this        challenge. . . . The world must be made safe for        democracy." On April 6, Congress declared war.
In the next 18 months the United States built an army of        4 million men by conscription, sent 2 million men        overseas to France, and united the entire population        behind the war effort. A vast propaganda machine was        created under the title of the Committee on Public        Information. The words of Wilson reached the German        people by radio for the first time in history. Leaflets        were scattered from airplanes, shot from guns and        rockets, and smuggled behind the enemy lines. Wilson        said that this was a "war to end war." He spoke of "peace without victory" and without revenge.
On Jan. 8, 1918, he announced his Fourteen Points as the        basis for a peace settlement. They were more than peace        terms; they were terms for a better world. He followed        this speech with his famous "self-determination" speech        on February 11 in which he said: "National aspirations        must be respected; people may now be dominated and        governed only by their own consent. 'Self determination'        is not a mere phrase; it is an imperative principle of        action. . . . "
The Battle for the Peace Treaty
The war came to an end on Nov. 11, 1918. The German        proposals for peace came in the midst of the        Congressional elections. Wilson appealed to the people        to support his policies by returning a Democratic        majority to both houses. The party was defeated,        however, and with a Republican majority in control he        was no longer able to lead the Congress.
Against the advice of those close to him, the president        decided to attend the peace conference in Paris and        fight for his policies in person. He took with him few        advisers, and none from the Republican party. On        December 13 he arrived in Europe. Probably no man has        ever been given such an ovation. Wherever he went        enormous crowds gathered, sobbing, cheering, shouting        his name.
The peace conference dragged on week after weary week.        David Lloyd George of England, Vittorio Orlando of        Italy, Georges Clemenceau of France, all were        experienced and shrewd diplomats and each was determined        to have his own way. The endless arguing and the        official receptions and banquets frayed Wilson's nerves.        He suffered a brief but severe illness. Thereafter he        was more tense, nervous, and irritable.
The peace as agreed upon in June 1919 did contain many        of his ideas. His greatest success was in writing into        the Versailles Treaty the Covenant (constitution) of a        League of Nations. On July 10, 1919, he laid it before a        hostile Senate, led by Henry Cabot Lodge and a "little        group of willful men," as Wilson called them. They were        especially opposed to the League of Nations, but Wilson        refused to compromise his dream. In search of popular        support that would overwhelm the Senate, he toured the        country in defense of the League. Exhausted, he        collapsed in Pueblo, Colo., late in September. A stroke        left him paralyzed.
For a month only his wife and his doctor were allowed to        see him. Then, with his wife guiding his hand, he placed        a wobbly signature on major bills. Only a strong will        kept him alive. When Secretary of State Robert Lansing        presumed to call Cabinet meetings, Wilson promptly        dismissed him. He refused to let his vice-president,        Thomas R. Marshall, take charge. In her memoirs Edith        Wilson said that the president remained the active head        of state, making decisions on the basis of digests that        she had prepared.
Wilson was unable to participate in the 1920        presidential campaign, and the Democratic candidate,        James M. Cox, was overwhelmingly defeated by the        Republican Warren G. Harding. Wilson died on Feb. 3,        1924. He was buried in the National Cathedral of St.        Peter and St. Paul in Washington, D.C.