Russia
Russia
Area: 17,075,200 square kilometers (6,592,771 square miles)
Highest point on mainland: Mount El'brus (5,633 meters/18,481 feet)
Lowest point on land: Caspian Sea (28 meters/92 feet below sea level)
Hemispheres: Northern, Eastern, and Western
Time zones: 3
A.M.
Anadyr = noon GMT
Longest distances: 4,000 kilometers (2,400 miles) from north to south; 10,000 kilometers       (6,200 miles) from east to west
Coastline: 37,653 kilometers (23,396 miles)
Land boundaries: 19,961 kilometers (12,403 miles) total boundary length; Azerbaijan 284       kilometers (176 miles); Belarus 959 kilometers (596 miles); China 3,605       kilometers (2,265 miles); Estonia 294 kilometers (183 miles); Finland       1,313 kilometers (816 miles); Georgia 723 kilometers (449 miles);       Kazakhstan 6,846 kilometers (4,254 miles); Latvia 217 kilometers (135       miles); Lithuania 227 kilometers (141 miles); Mongolia 3,485 kilometers       (2,165 miles); North Korea 19 kilometers (12 miles); Norway 167 kilometers       (104 miles); Poland 206 kilometers (128 miles); and Ukraine 1,576       kilometers (979 miles)
Territorial sea limits: 22 kilometers (12 nautical miles)
1 LOCATION AND SIZE
Russia is the largest country in the world, spreading from northeastern         Europe across the entire northern width of the Asian continent. It         shares borders with fourteen other countries and has coastlines on the         Arctic and Pacific Oceans. With a total area of about 17,075,200 square         kilometers (6,592,771 square miles), it is nearly twice the size of the         United States. Russia is administratively divided into forty-nine         oblasts, twenty-one republics, ten autonomous okrugs, six krays, two         federal cities, and one autonomous oblast.
2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES
A small portion of Russia, the Kaliningrad Oblast, is located in Eastern         Europe between Poland and Lithuania. There are no overseas dependencies         of Russia.
3 CLIMATE
It is said that Russia has only two seasons: summer and winter. Though         this is a slight exaggeration, the statement accurately characterizes         the country's harsh climate with its long, cold winters and         short, cool summers. These conditions are owing to Russia's         location in the high northerly latitudes. More than half the country         lies above 60° north latitude, with only relatively small areas         below 50° north. Furthermore, the high mountains that form         Russia's southern border effectively block out warm air masses.         The predominant movement of the country's weather systems from         east to west essentially nullifies any moderating influence the warm           waters of the Pacific Ocean might have on the climate. In winter,         Siberia lies under a vast high-pressure cell centered in Mongolia, which         keeps the region enveloped in frigid air. The magnitude of this cold is         not easy to grasp. Soil in the far northern permafrost can be frozen         several hundred meters deep. Even into southern Siberia, the land is         covered by snow for more than six months. The annual average temperature         for most of Siberia is below freezing. For the majority of European         Russia, the average is only somewhat higher.
In summer, warm, moist air from the Atlantic Ocean is able to push east         to central Siberia, under the influence of a prevailing low-pressure         system. That area thus receives moisture-bearing air that delivers         fairly high amounts of precipitation. Russia's short growing         season relies heavily upon this rainfall to water its crops;         unfortunately, distribution of the moisture in many areas is often         irregular and unpredictable. Droughts are not uncommon, especially in         early summer. On the other hand, heavy rains in middle and late summer         may compromise harvesting. In the east, late-summer Pacific air can         bring monsoon-like rainfall, with disastrous effects.
Overall, lack of sunshine characterizes the Russian climate. Overcast         skies are the rule, especially in winter. In December, for example,         Moscow typically experiences twenty-three days of cloud cover. Sunless         winter days are the rule throughout the nation.
Russia's climate zones lie in easily distinguishable belts that         run from east to west across the whole country. In the far north, Novaya         Zemlya, Severnaya Zemlya, and numerous smaller Arctic islands experience         a polar desert climate. Below this, a tundra climate predominates for at         least 100 kilometers (60 miles) south, extending up into the steep         mountain slopes far to the east. Next, a broad subarctic zone passes         southward as far as St. Petersburg in the west, crosses the Urals, and         takes in nearly all the rest of Siberia. Last is a wide belt of cold,         dry steppe climate starting at the Black Sea, crossing the North         Caucasian Plain, moving through the lower Volga Valley and the southern         Urals into Siberia.
REGIONAL TEMPERATURE RANGES
-16°C to -9°C (3°F to 16°F)
13°C to 23°C (55°F to 73°F)
Vladivostok
-18°C to -11°C (0°F to 13°F)
16°C to 22°C (60°F to 71°F)
Verkhoyansk
-32°C (-26°F)
13°C to 37°C (56°F to 98°F)
Most of Russia experiences only modest precipitation, but the averages         vary by region. On the Great European Plain, averages decrease from more         than 80 centimeters (30 inches) in the west to less than 40 centimeters         (16 inches) on the Caspian Sea shoreline. Siberia uniformly sees annual         precipitation ranging from 50 to 80 centimeters (20 to 32 inches),         although amounts are generally less than 30 centimeters (12 inches) in         extreme northeastern Siberia. At high elevations, precipitation totals         may reach 100 centimeters (40 inches) or more, but in the valleys they         average less than 30 centimeters (12 inches).
4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS
Russia can be categorized into several large regions. From west to east,         they are the Great European Plain; the Ural Mountains; the mountain         systems and ranges along much of Russia's southern border; and         Siberia, which includes the West Siberian Plain, the Central Siberian         Plateau, and the mountain ranges of northeastern Siberia and the         Kamchatka Peninsula.
Most of Russia is located on the Eurasian Tectonic Plate, but eastern         Russia is on the North American Plate. The exact boundary between the         two plates is uncertain. The Pacific Plate is located off of         Russia's eastern coastline. The movement of these three plates         against each other is a cause of significant earthquakes and volcanoes         in this region, especially on Kamchatka. Seismic activity is also common         in the Caucasus Mountains in the southwest.
5 OCEANS AND SEAS
Seacoast and Undersea Features
The majority of Russia's coastline is on the Arctic Ocean and its         seas, including the White Sea, Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East         Siberian Sea, and the Chukchi Sea. Located almost entirely north of the         Arctic Circle, much of the water here remains frozen for the better part         of the year. One exception is the area in                    the far west, where the Gulf Stream current warms the waters of the         Barents Sea near the Kola Peninsula, allowing the port of Murmansk to         function year-round. The eastern coastline of Russia lies on the Pacific         Ocean and its seas, including the Bering Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk, and a         portion of the Sea of Japan. Western Russia has short coastlines along         the Baltic Sea (in northern Europe) and the Black Sea (an inland sea         between southeastern Europe and Asia), both of which are seas of the         Atlantic Ocean.
Sea Inlets and Straits
The Gulf of Ob' and the estuary of the Yenisey River are inlets         of the coastline of the Kara Sea. A channel called the Proliv Dmitrya         Lapteva connects the Laptev Sea to the East Siberian Sea. Long Strait         near the northeast coast connects the East Siberian Sea to the Chukchi         Sea and separates the mainland from Wrangel Island. The Bering Strait         separates Siberia and Alaska by a mere 86 kilometers (53 miles) and         connects the Chukchi Sea to the Bering Sea. Shelikhova Bay is a deep         inlet of the Sea of Okhotsk. The Gulf of Anadyr, near the northeastern         tip of Russia, is an inlet of the Bering Sea. Russia's principal         Pacific Ocean port, Vladivostok, is found on Peter the Great Bay, within         the Sea of Japan. The Tatar Strait connects the Sea of Okhotsk to the         Sea of Japan. The Gulf of Finland in the west is an inlet of the Baltic         Sea. St. Petersburg is located at its apex. The Sea of Azov is an inlet         of the Black Sea, located at the southwestern Russian border.
Islands and Archipelagos
Many islands lie within the Arctic and Pacific Oceans off the shores of         Russia. Franz Josef Land is comprised of about one hundred small islands         in the Arctic Ocean; it is the northern-most           part of Russia and is among the north-ernmost lands on Earth. Other         large Arctic islands are Novaya Zemlya, Vaygach Island, Wrangel Island, and the Severnaya Zemlya and New Siberian Islands groups. Many small         islands and island chains are scattered among these larger groups.
In the Pacific, the Kuril Islands curve southwest from the Kamchatka         Peninsula to Japan. Although the Kuril Islands are under Russian         administration, Japan and Russia dispute ownership of the four         southernmost islands. Also lying in the Pacific is Sakhalin, a large         island that separates the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan.
Coastal Features
No country in the world can surpass Russia's 37,653 kilometers         (23,396 miles) of coastline. Yet most of this coastline is so far north         that it is frozen for much of the year. Despite the fact that frozen         harbors mean Russia has very few outlets to the ocean that remain open         all year, Russian shipping and fishing thrives on all its seas.
The coastlines contain many peninsulas and capes. Gydan Peninsula lies         between the Gulf of Ob' and the estuary of the Yenisey River.         Continuing to the east, the Taymyr Peninsula extends north, reaching         mainland Russia's northernmost point at Cape Chelyuskin.
The Chukchi Peninsula stretches out to become Russia's         easternmost point, with the Chukchi Sea of the Arctic Ocean to the north         and the Bering Sea of the Pacific Ocean to the south. Further south is         the large Kamchatka Peninsula. Kamchatka encloses the Sea of Okhotsk to         the west.
DID YOU KNOW?
Russia was even larger in the past than it is today. Russia controlled           Finland, Alaska, and parts of modern-day Poland at various times in           history. After World War I (1914–18), Russia technically ceased           to be an independent country, instead becoming part of the Union of           Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R., or the Soviet Union). Russia was           by far the largest of the republics that made up the Soviet Union,           however, and was considered to be the ruling power of that nation. The           Soviet Union started to dissolve in 1991. Eventually, many nations           within the Soviet Union became independent of Russia.
6 INLAND LAKES
The Caspian Sea, on Russia's southern border between Europe and         Asia, is not a true sea; it is actually a saltwater lake and the largest         inland body of water in the world. The Caspian is held in a vast land         depression with no outlet to any ocean. Although many rivers drain into         it, water escapes only through evaporation. The Caspian's         salinity results from accumulated salts. The sea extends approximately         1,210 kilometers (750 miles) from north to south and 210 to 436         kilometers (130 to 271 miles) from east to west. Its area is 371,000         square kilometers (143,000 square miles). Its mean depth is about 170         meters (550 feet), with the deepest areas in the south.
Most other Russian lakes were formed by glaciation. The largest such         lakes in European Russia are Ladoga (17,703 square kilometers/ 6,835         square miles) and Onega (9,609 square kilometers/3,701 square miles),         northeast of St. Petersburg. They are also the two largest lakes in all         of Europe (since the Caspian Sea is generally not counted as a lake).         Other large lakes in western Russia include Lake Peipus on the Estonian         border and the reservoirs of the Volga River.
Lake Baikal in southern Siberia is the largest lake in Russia and the         largest lake in Asia (excluding the Caspian Sea). It is 632 kilometers         (392 miles) long and 59 kilometers (32 miles) wide, with a surface area         of 30,510 square kilometers (11,870 square miles). It has a maximum         depth of 1,742 meters (5,715 feet), making it the deepest body of         freshwater on Earth. Due to its great depth, Lake Baikal also has the         greatest volume of any freshwater lake. It is said to contain one-fifth         of Earth's fresh surface water. Other large Siberian lakes         include Lakes Taymyr, Chany, and Khanka and the Novosibirsk, Bratsk, and         Zeya Reservoirs. There also are many smaller lakes.
7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS
Most of Russia's urban population lives along the banks of the         nation's many rivers. The most important commercial river in         Russia is the Volga, which is also the longest river in Europe. The         Volga begins in the hills west of Moscow and flows southeastward for         3,689 kilometers (2,293 miles) to the Caspian Sea. Four of Russia's largest cities are located on its banks: Nizhniy         Novgorod, Samara, Kazan', and Volgograd. The Kama River flows         west out of the southern Urals and into the Volga. This also is a major         waterway for both Russia and Europe.
Also located in European Russia are the Dnieper and the Don Rivers.         Although the Dnieper flows mainly through Belarus and                    Ukraine, it has headwaters in the hills west of Moscow. The Don flows         from its origins in the Central Russian Upland south of Moscow for 1,860         kilometers (1,153 miles) before emptying into the Sea of Azov at         Rostov-na-Donu.
Further east is the Ural River, which flows south from the Ural         Mountains into Kazakhstan before reaching the Caspian Sea. The Ural         River is traditionally considered part of the boundary between Europe         and Asia.
A number of major rivers drain into the Pacific and Arctic Oceans from         the Siberian plateau and mountain areas in the east. The           Irtysh-Ob' river system flows through the West Siberian Plain,         emptying into the Arctic at the Gulf of Ob'. The Irtysh is the         longer of the two rivers, but is a tributary to the Ob'. Together         they have a length of 5,380 kilometers (3,335 miles), making them the         longest river system in Russia.
On the far side of the Central Siberian Plateau is the Lena, the longest         individual river in Russia at 4,400 kilometers (2,700 miles). It too         empties into the Arctic, and it has many large tributaries including the         Aldan, Vitim, and Vilyui. The third great Arctic river, the Yenisey         (4,000 kilometers/2,480 miles), flows across the Central Siberian         Plateau. Its largest tributary, the Lower Tunguska, is itself roughly         3,226 kilometers (2,000 miles) long. Other major tributaries include the         Stony Tunguska and Angara.
The same river systems that account for such an enormous flow of water         into the Arctic Ocean are also responsible for creating vast swamps in         the West Siberian Plain. Snow and ice in the warmer regions, where the         rivers have their sources, thaw well before the northern regions,         causing great flooding to the north. The Vasyugan'ye Swamp in the         center of the West Siberian Plain, for example, covers 48,000 square         kilometers (18,500 square feet). The same effect can be observed with         other Siberian river systems.
The Amur River (2,874 kilometers/1,768 miles) is the most important         Siberian river flowing into the Pacific Ocean. Its major tributaries are         the Argun, Ussuri, and Shilka. The Amur River, with its primary         tributary the Ussuri River, comprises a significant section of the         boundary between Russia and China.
8 DESERTS
There are no desert regions in Russia.
9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN
In all nearly 10 percent of Russian territory can be classified as         swampland. Much of this is concentrated in the West Siberian Plain,         which lies between the Ural Mountains and the Yenisey River. This plain         is a vast area of lowlands, probably the largest expanse of flat land         anywhere in the world. It stretches from the steppes of Central Asia in         the south to the Arctic Ocean in the north, covering a region nearly         1,800 kilometers (1,100 miles) wide. Flat and poorly drained, these         lowlands feature many swamps, marshes, and peat bogs, with significant         oil and natural gas deposits in their central and northern regions.
DID YOU KNOW?
The areas now known as Siberia and Alaska were once connected by a           stretch of land that surfaced during the Ice Ages, an area that           researchers have called the Bering Land Bridge or Beringia.           Archaeologists believe that the first ancestors of the Native           Americans crossed this bridge from Asia into North America more than           thirteen thousand years ago. Over time, as the Bering and Chukchi Seas           rose, they covered Beringia. Remnants of the region can still be seen           at the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve on Seward Peninsula in           Alaska.
The Ural Mountains separate two vast plains: the Great European Plain         and the even larger West Siberian Plain. Both of these so-called plains         contain a wide variety of terrain, including vast forests, swamps, and         stretches           of tundra. The plains also contain many areas of grassland and         farmland, however, especially the Great European Plain.
The central portion of the Great European Plain between St. Petersburg         and the Ukrainian border features a mixed forest of both conifers and         deciduous trees. Oak, beech, maple, and hornbeam are the primary         broad-leaf tree species. Moving south, the mixed forest passes through a         narrow zone of forest steppe, which is 150 kilometers (95 miles) wide,         on average, before giving way to a zone of true steppe.
The steppe is a broad band of nearly treeless, grassy plains that         extends across Hungary, Ukraine, southern Russia, and Kazakhstan before         ending in Manchuria. Although historically presented as the typical         Russian landscape, the steppe in Russia proper is in fact quite small,         located mainly northwest of the Greater Caucasus Mountains and         stretching across the southern Volga Valley, the southern Urals, and         parts of western Siberia.
Isolated pockets of steppe can also be found in the mountain valleys of         southeastern Siberia. Moderate temperatures and normally adequate levels         of sunshine and moisture give the steppe zone relatively favorable         conditions for agriculture, although precipitation here can be         unpredictable, sometimes even catastrophically dry.
Tundra makes up about 10 percent of Russian land, a treeless and marshy         plain that lies along Russia's northernmost zone. The tundra         stretches from the Finnish border to the Bering Strait, then extends         south along the Pacific coast to the Kamchatka Peninsula. The North         Siberian and Kolyma lowlands are entirely made up of tundra. Only         mosses, lichens, dwarf willows and shrubs can grow on the permafrost and         survive the long, harsh, sunless winters. In summer, dusk comes at         midnight and dawn follows within minutes. The powerful Siberian rivers         that cut across the tundra toward the Arctic Ocean do a poor job of         draining the region, due to partial and intermittent thawing. The most         important physical process at work in the tundra is frost weathering, a         vestige of the glaciation that shaped it during the last Ice Age.
DID YOU KNOW?
The areas now known as Siberia and Alaska were once connected by a           stretch of land that surfaced during the Ice Ages, an area that           researchers have called the Bering Land Bridge or Beringia.           Archaeologists believe that the first ancestors of the Native           Americans crossed this bridge from Asia into North America more than           thirteen thousand years ago. Over time, as the Bering and Chukchi Seas           rose, they covered Beringia. Remnants of the region can still be seen           at the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve on Seward Peninsula in           Alaska.
There are many regions of hills and uplands in Russia. The Valdai Hills         are the most noteworthy. Although not particularly tall (from 182 to 304         meters/600 to 1000 feet in elevation), they are among the highest         summits located in the Great European Plain of western Russia. Many         important rivers have their source there, including the Volga.
10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES
With nine major mountain ranges, Russia can be considered among the most         mountainous countries in the world. Eastern Russia is by far more         mountainous than the west, while the center section of the country is         primarily low plains.
The Urals are perhaps the best known of Russia's mountain ranges,         as they define the boundary between Asia to the east and Europe to the         west. A lengthy range, the Urals extend 2,100 kilometers (1,300 miles)         from the northern border of Kazakhstan all the way to the Arctic Ocean.         The highest peak, Mount Narodnaya, is only 1,894 meters (6,212 feet) in         elevation, however. The Urals have never offered any significant barrier         to travel.
Located between the Black and Caspian Seas, the Caucasus Mountains         consist of two major chains separated by lowlands. The northern Greater         Caucasus range forms most of the border between Russia, Azerbaijan, and         Georgia, as well as marking the boundary between Asia to the south and         Europe to the north. These mountain systems are made up of granite,         other crystalline rocks, and some volcanic formations. Elevations in the         Greater Caucasus reach a maximum of 5,633 meters (18,481 feet) at the         extinct volcano Mount El'brus, the highest peak both in Russia         and on the continent of Europe.
Russia's other mountains are far to the east. The Altay Shan and         Sayan Mountains are found in the area north of Mongolia, west of Lake         Baikal. Further east are the Yablonovyy Range and Stanovoy Mountains.         They follow much of the southern border of central and eastern Siberia         on toward the Pacific Ocean, where they join the other eastern ranges.         The Altay Shan are the tallest of these; they include Mount Pelukha         (4,619 meters/15,157 feet). The other ranges average less than 3,048         meters (10,000 feet) in height.
The topography east of the Lena River is predominantly mountainous, with         the elevations becoming higher and more rugged farther to the east.         Major ranges in this region are Verkhoyanskiy, Cherskiy, Kolyma, Koryak,         and Sredinnyy. The easternmost ranges feature live volcanoes. As many as         120 volcanoes dot the Kamchatka Peninsula, and no fewer than 23 are         active. Klyuchevskaya Sopka, the highest of these, reaches 4,750 meters         (15,584 feet).
Moving offshore, these same mountains form the Kuril Islands, where         thirty of one hundred volcanoes are active. Across the Sea of Okhotsk,         in Russia's southeasternmost area, there are several low mountain         ranges, including the Sikhote-Alin' Mountains and the mountains         of Sakhalin Island.
11 CANYONS AND CAVES
Though there are many caves throughout the country of Russia, geological         information or maps concerning them are not easy to obtain. One of the         most famous of the many caves is Kapova Cave, which is known for its         Paleolithic paintings of mammoths, rhinos, horses, and bison.         Excavations from the two-level cavern uncovered human remains as well as         animal bones and charcoal, indicating that people once lived there.
DID YOU KNOW?
In an area known as the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly, near Ukraine, vast           iron-ore deposits affect Earth's magnetic field.
Another famous site is the Kungur Ice Cave, located near the town of         Kungur, southeast of Perm. It contains over 6,000 meters (19,685 feet)         of passageways. The entire depth of the cavern, however, has not been         completely explored. The cave features many large columns of stalagmites         and huge icicle stalactites.
12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS
The Central Siberian Plateau is an enormous stretch of rolling land         between the Yenisey and the Lena Rivers. Heights of this vast plateau         range from 500 to 700 meters (1,600 to 2,300 feet) on average. Its         surface is eroded by the many rivers, some forming deep canyons. Layers         of sedimentary rock, subsequently intruded by volcanic lava, were         deposited long ago on top of igneous and metamorphic rock. Within the         layers of sedimentary rock are rich deposits of coal.
13 MAN-MADE FEATURES
Several canals connect most of European Russia's rivers. These         rivers provide a vital transportation system, carrying fully two-thirds         of the nation's inland water traffic. Because of one series of         canals, it is possible to travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow entirely         by boat.
Russia's many rivers give the nation a great potential for         hydroelectric power. In fact, Russia already has four of the ten largest         hydroelectric plants in the world. The SayanoShushensk Dam on the         Yenisey River is part of the fourth-largest plant and is also the         twelfth-highest dam in the world, with a height of 242 meters (794         feet). The Krasnoyarsk Dam belongs to the fifth-largest hydroelectric         plant in the world, while the Bratsk Dam and the Ust-Ilim Dam are eighth         and tenth, respectively. The Saratov Dam on the Volga River is also         listed as one of the world's largest dams.
14 FURTHER READING
Clark, Miles. "A Russian Voyage." National Geographic , June 1994, 114-138.
Edwards, Mike. "Siberia: In from the Cold." National Geographic , March 1990, 2-39.
Jacobsen, Karen. The Russian Federation . Chicago: Children's Press, 1994.
Lydolph, Paul E. Geography of the U.S.S.R. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1964.
Torchinsky, Oleg. Russia . New York: Marshall Cavendish, 1994
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