A Concise Encyclopedia of the European Union --R--
R
Rapporteur
Literally a reporter, the rapporteur is the speaker of a committee or presenter of a committee's report.            Rapporteurs play a significant part in the European            Parliament 's deliberations, where the cut and thrust of debate is            rare.
Ratification
The Treaty of Rome set a precedent            for later EU Treaties by stipulating            that it would not enter into force until all the signatory states had            ratified it according to their 'respective constitutional requirements'.            This would normally entail parliamentary approval (and in the UK 's            case royal assent ), but some countries also            require a referendum , while in other            instances a referendum has been voluntarily            undertaken. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty ,            for example, was submitted for political reasons to a referendum in France , but its ratification necessitated a referendum in Ireland ,            because it involved a change in the constitution, and in Denmark ,            because the Folketing passed it by an insufficient majority. The unanimity rule for ratifying Treaties meant that the Danish rejection which followed            would have prevented Maastricht from entering into force, had not the            country been persuaded to hold a second referendum ,            this time voting in favour.
The best-known cases of non- ratification by plebiscite were those of Norway , which            twice rejected a Treaty of Accession in 1972 and 1994, and Switzerland ,            which in 1992 voted against the EEA agreement negotiated by its government. In theory, the law courts may            also block a treaty if they consider that it breaches a national constitution,            especially a written constitution. The German ratification of Maastricht was in the end dependent on the ruling of the Constitutional            Court in Karlsruhe ,            following a private action by objectors. As a result of that ruling,            any significant change in the powers of the EU now requires ratification by a two-thirds            majority in both German houses of parliament. A similar legal challenge            by individuals was mounted in Denmark ;            and more than one European court was called upon to rule on the constitutionality both of ratifying the            1997 Treaty of Amsterdam and            of abolishing national currencies. In France ,            the Amsterdam Treaty , like the Maastricht Treaty , was submitted            to the Constitutional Council and held not to conform to the French            constitution, the remedy being to amend the constitution.
'Reasoned Opinion'
A paper in which the Commission sets out why it considers that a member state is in violation of an EU obligation, as a preliminary            to an action before the Court of Justice .
Referendum
Referendums are widely used in Europe to ratify constitutional change. Ratification by referendum has been sought for various            European Treaties (with varying degrees of success) by Denmark , France , Ireland and Switzerland ; and Sweden , Norway , Finland and Austria held votes in 1994 to determine            whether to enter the EU . In 1982 Greenland voted to leave the            Community . The British referendum of June 1975 - the first national plebiscite in the country's history            - was intended to terminate uncertainty over the UK 's            continuing membership of the Community .            At the time the concept was thought alien to the spirit of parliamentary            democracy. As the years went by, however, parliamentary opposition began            to weaken as it became apparent that the EU raised fundamental issues that cut across party lines. In 1997 both            the UK 's main parties agreed to            call a referendum if the government            of the day decided to apply to join the single            currency .
Referendum Party
Uniquely in British electoral history, Sir James Goldsmith 's Referendum Party ran in the 1997            general election on the platform that if elected it would hold a referendum on the UK 's relationship with the EU and then disband itself. Backed            by �20 million from its leader, and fielding some candidates who were            markedly more colourful than the conventional domestic politician, it            did not come near to winning a seat but polled over 800,000 votes, a            fair level of support in a country not given to personality cult politics.            More importantly, it raised public awareness of the European question            and so alarmed the main parties that they undertook not to adopt the single currency without themselves            calling a referendum - a promise that            was to have momentous repercussions in the years that followed, deterring Prime Minister Tony Blair from abandoning            the pound and sharpening differences over the desirability of integration.
Regional development policy
See structural funds .
Regionalism
Regionalism is a significant element            in Belgian, German, Italian and Spanish political administration; in            the UK it relates specifically to            the Celtic fringe; and it is of lesser importance in the more unitary            states of France , Greece , Ireland , Portugal and Scandinavia. These differences stem from ethnic, religious or political            features of the past, with consequences varying in extremity from the            terrorism of ETA in Spain and the IRA in            Northern Ireland to the virtual partition            of Belgium and the ordered federalism of Germany . At its mildest, regionalism is merely folkloric, or an occasion to attract structural            funds from the EU . At its strongest            it represents an alternative to the nation state. The Basque country,            Catalonia, Scotland, Flanders, Ulster, Bavaria and Italy 's            Northern League all present different aspects of the regional phenomenon.
The influence of Germany in European affairs            has led to a presumption in favour of the German style of government            as a constitutional model for the EU ,            with a multiplicity of regional governments and bureaucracies taking            responsibility for administration in such areas as education ,            health, 'spatial planning' (that is, land use, transport and the environment )            and much of the rest of the spending budget .            Justice, monetary policy, defence and foreign policy are left to the            federal centre. This model is well suited to the Commission 's            ambition to transfer power from national            parliaments upwards to the supranational bodies of the EU and downwards to 111 regional bodies, many of which are artificial constructs            with little, if any, grounding in traditional loyalties. (It has, for            example, been remarked that the Commission 's            regional map nowhere contains the name 'England'.)
European regionalism finds its main            institutional outlets in the Committee            of the Regions , a consultative quango established by the Maastricht            Treaty , and the European            Regional Development Fund , set up on a small scale in 1975 but subsequently            boosted. There are also various bodies attached to the EU which occupy themselves with regional, municipal or local government            agendas oriented either to the solicitation of subsidies or to propaganda .            For instance, town twinning is arranged            by the Council of Europe an Municipalities            and Regions; and the promotion of regionalism and federalism is the mission of the            Assembly of European Regions.
Regulation
Regulations rank with Decisions and the better known Directives as            the key legal instruments of the EU . The difference between them            is that Directives have force only when passed into law by each member            state, whereas Regulations and Decisions have direct            effect , that is, they become law throughout the Union as soon as            they have been issued. Historically, Regulations have been the means            of implementing the Common Agricultural and Common Fisheries Policies.            The Commission intends in future to use Regulations more widely instead of Directives,            since it can do so with the easily obtained assent of the Council of Ministers (and, within limits, on its own authority), avoiding the delays and            closer scrutiny associated with national parliamentary legislation.            (For the volume of Community legislation see Directive and for a general description see Community            law .)
Religion
Of the EU 's most populous nations, France , Italy , Spain , Belgium and Portugal are Catholic, as is Poland ,            which is due to join the Union early in the next century. Greece is Orthodox and The Netherlands is somewhat more Catholic than Protestant. South Germany and Austria are Catholic, but North Germany is Protestant. The UK is predominantly            Protestant, though with a significant Catholic minority (as well as            a sizeable Muslim minority), and Scandinavia as a bloc is Lutheran Protestant. Europe is thus divided into a Nordic, Germanic,            Anglo-Saxon Protestant vein, accounting for approximately one-third            of the population, and a Latin and Central European Catholic vein, accounting            for approximately twice as many. Some detect a deeper cultural significance            in these historical divisions, going beyond theological beliefs to reflect            ethical, social and even political attitudes, such as the independent-mindedness            of the UK , Norway and Denmark . There is perhaps, for example,            less resistance in Southern Europe to the            collectivism of the EU , and less            tolerance in Northern Europe for wayward            attitudes towards compliance . On a minor            scale, support for this type of analysis is to be found also in the            mutual hostility and incomprehension of Catholic republicans and Protestant            loyalists in Northern Ireland . There are,            however, too many exceptions for any generalisation along these lines            to yield reliable inferences.
Christian Democracy , the largest            centre-right political movement in Europe ,            is a relic of a more religious age, owing its origins - at least in Germany - to the late 19th century Kulturkampf,            or struggle between beliefs, when Prussia's Bismarck tried to drive            the Catholic Church out of politics. After World War II the descendants            of the old Church party found a unifying cause in moderate Christian            conservatism, in opposition to the more secular social democracy of            the centre left and the atheistic Marxism of the extreme left. In Bavaria            the movement remained Catholic and is embodied in the Christian Social            Union party; elsewhere in Germany it is            represented by the CDU, or Christian Democratic Union. In Italy ,            until the party's demise in corruption scandals in the early 1990s,            Democrazia Cristiana was its personification. The other major affiliated            parties in Europe are the Christian Democrats            in The Netherlands and the two Christian            parties in Belgium .
With the passing of time, increasing secularisation, together with            the inevitable compromises and shifting alliances of politics, have            substantially drained Christian            Democracy of its religious content, and when Turkey ,            stung by the blocking of its accession to the EU , accused Europe in 1997 of being an exclusive Christian society, it was anachronistically            wide of the mark. There is indeed bias against Muslims (including Turkish,            Pakistani and North African immigrants) in several European countries,            but this is as much racial, or inspired by fear of competition for scarce            jobs, as religious; and although the defining EU Treaties ban such discrimination ,            they cannot prevent it.
Renegotiation
In 1974, the British Labour Party won power committed to renegotiate            the 'Tory terms' of membership of the EC. After some trifling concessions,            a referendum was held in 1975 which            confirmed British membership, without, however, permanently settling            the debate, for the misleading assurances of the 'Yes' campaign caused            an enduring sense of injustice.
In recent years, certain British politicians have again taken to citing            as their aim the renegotiation of            one or more unwanted aspects of EU legislation, or even the wholesale renegotiation of the UK 's relationship with the            Community . Such declarations often skate over real difficulties. Renegotiation of significant Treaty            obligations would require unanimity among            the member states and would not be possible without the use of the veto            to block other EU business in return            for concessions to the UK . Across-the-board renegotiation could not be achieved            without a credible threat of withdrawal from the            Community or a constitutional convention which reshaped the EU 's Treaties            and permitted a far greater degree of flexibility than exists today. Thus ' renegotiation '            has come to be regarded by Europeanists as a code word, masking a wish            to leave the EU .
Research
The Treaty of Rome reflects the Commission 's            belief in a Community policy to make European industry more competitive            in high technology by subsidising basic research .            There was no greater enthusiast for spending public money on such activity            than Commission president Jacques Delors , and            no greater sceptic than Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher .            The current 1998-2002 programme, amounting to some 614 billion over            four years, focuses mainly on information technology, the environment and 'the            promotion of growth'. (See also CERN , European Space Agency and JET .)
Residui passivi
Residui passivi , or residual liabilities,            are Italian state funds voted by parliament for government departments            but withheld by the Treasury under its programme to meet the convergence            criteria for the single currency .            It is not clear to what extent these obligations will eventually have            to be met. By the end of 1997 they amounted to some 15% of Italy 's            GDP, and were causing concern abroad about the sustainability of the            country's new-found financial rectitude.
Resolution
A decision by the Council            of Ministers or the European Council ,            having no status in law, but expressing a political agreement to take            some common action. In the context of the European            Parliament , a Resolution is a statement            of views, akin to an Opinion , which may            or may not be taken seriously by higher authority.
Restitution
An agricultural export subsidy, allowing high-cost EU farmers to sell their produce at world prices.
Rhine model
The consensus-based German-style economic structure, often known as            the ' social market economy ' and contrasted with the more free-wheeling British and American system.            (For a fuller comparison, see Anglo-American            model .)
Right of initiative
The exclusive right to initiate legislation is the closely guarded            privilege of the Commission ,            setting it apart from conventional bureaucracies and paralleling the            power of its commissioners to intervene in European political affairs.            This prerogative stems from the ambition of the EU 's Founding Fathers that the Commission should in time become the government of Europe .
Rights